Suchergebnisse

I. Objetivos 1) Analizar el cambio del papel social que ha sufrido el periodismo en las últimas décadas. 2) Describir la crisis del sector en sus principales dimensiones (de rentabilidad de las empresas periodísticas, de pérdida de audiencias, de reducción del volumen publicitario y su efectividad, de calidad de la información y de prestigio social) y comprobar su relación con el cambio del papel social del periodismo, para verificar que la crisis del periodismo actual y del negocio de la comunicación tiene su origen en las prácticas empresariales poco éticas, en la visión del periodismo como un negocio, en lugar de un servicio público. 3) Evaluar el papel que han desempeñado las nuevas tecnologías en esta crisis. 4) Prever las tendencias de la nueva realidad comunicativa. 5) Determinar el rol y responsabilidad de los periodistas en el proceso de cambio del periodismo, su pérdida de autonomía y de influencia en las informaciones publicadas. 6) Evaluar la alienación informativa de la audiencia, así como su capacidad de autodeterminación frente a los mensajes informativos y el protagonismo que la reacción de las audiencias (su fraccionamiento o el periodismo 3.0) puede haber tenido en la crisis estructural del negocio informativo. 7) Investigar qué nuevos problemas éticos ha generado el proceso de transformación del periodismo y la crisis informativa. 8) Establecer qué propuestas en el campo de la ética pueden permitir una recuperación de la dimensión político-social de la información para contribuir a la democracia en la nueva realidad comunicativa. II. Metodología Partiendo del estudio de una amplia selección publicaciones, se han incorporado análisis de comunicólogos, testimonios profesionales, estudios de normas jurídicas, referencias históricas sobre periodismo, entrevistas, análisis de datos, reflexiones de periodistas veteranos y empresarios de la comunicación, referencias económicas del sector y propuestas desde numerosos ámbitos. III. Conclusiones 1. La gestión empresarial del periodismo como un gran negocio ha conllevado un cambio sustancial en el papel social que los ciudadanos, los sistemas políticos democráticos y sus leyes fundamentales le asignaron, empequeñeciendo su labor social y agigantando el beneficio privado. 2. La explotación comercial de los medios de comunicación, productos y tecnología de la comunicación de masas generó, a partir de los años ochenta del siglo pasado, una expansión económica en este sector empresarial impulsada por el éxito comercial en la televisión. 3. El productivismo y la rentabilidad económica guían hoy la gestión de los medios de comunicación, dirigiendo la inversión empresarial a las aplicaciones tecnológicas en detrimento de la calidad de los contenidos y de la estabilidad de las plantillas periodísticas, todo ello supeditado ahora a la agenda informativa y a los intereses de las fuentes estables. 4. La salida a la crisis del periodismo supondrá una importante transformación de las formas de explotación, emisión y consumo. El futuro estará más marcado por la tecnología, una rentabilidad más compleja y un comportamiento de las audiencias más activo y menos masivo: separación del producto respecto del soporte; la prensa escrita ahondará en su crisis pero no desaparecerá; puede haber fórmulas de convergencia digital, como la hubo audiovisual; el periodismo social o 3.0 seguirá adelante, aunque no está clara su relación con las formas actuales de periodismo comercial ni con las futuras; surgirán nuevos modelos de negocio que hoy no se vislumbran; habrá buen periodismo, pero posiblemente no estará en los medios y productos actuales; el futuro del periodismo lo decidirá la rentabilidad, aunque al margen o paralelamente pueden tener un gran éxito formas no rentables de periodismo, aunque no sea de grandes audiencias. 5. Los periodistas han perdido en las redacciones gran parte de su autonomía profesional y de su capacidad de influencia en la elaboración y presentación final de las informaciones. Los profesionales se enfrentan a las presiones internas de sus jefes para no dañar los intereses económicos aliados con la empresa informativa, y a las limitaciones que impone el productivismo, la autocensura y unas condiciones laborales pésimas. 6. La audiencia en conjunto sufre un proceso de alienación informativa que contrasta con el aumento de la autodeterminación de los individuos, que se expresa en reacciones como el periodismo 3.0 o periodismo ciudadano. 7. El cambio del papel social del periodismo, el hiperdesarrollo comunicativo, la concepción de la información como negocio, la crisis del sector y las nuevas tecnologías han agravado los problemas éticos clásicos y han surgido otros problemas éticos de segunda generación. 8. La ética periodística y la calidad de los contenidos constituyen dos aspectos esenciales para la construcción de un nuevo sistema informativo que recupere el equilibrio entre la función social y el beneficio empresarial. Palabras clave Ética / periodismo / ética periodística / periodistas / contrapoder / periodismo 3.0 / autorregulación / deontología / cuarto poder / objetividad I. Objectives 1) To analyse the change that journalism has undergone over recent decades in terms of its social role. 2) To describe the main aspects of the crisis suffered by the sector (the profitability of newspaper corporations, the loss of audience, the reduction in the volume of advertising and its effectiveness, the quality of information and social prestige) and to examine its relation with the change in the social role played by journalism in order to demonstrate that the current crisis in journalism and the communication business is a result of business practices which are unethical and a perspective that sees journalism as a business instead of a public service. 3) To evaluate the role played by new technologies in this crisis. 4) To anticipate the future trends of the new reality of communications. 5) To determine the role and responsibility of journalists in the process of change being experienced by journalism and their loss of autonomy and influence in terms of the information published. 6) To evaluate the informational alienation experienced by the audience, as well as their capacity for forming their own views on the information received, and the key role that audience responses (audience attrition or journalism 3.0) may have played in the structural crisis of the information sector. 7) To investigate the new ethical problems that have emerged from the transformation of journalism and the media crisis. 8) To establish which proposals in the field of ethics may enable a recovery of the politico-social dimension of information, thus contributing towards democracy in the new reality of communications. II. Methodology Drawing on a wide selection of publications, this study incorporates analyses carried out by communication theorists, testimonials from professionals, studies of legal standards, historical references to journalism, interviews, data analysis, reflections provided by veteran journalists and communication enterprises, economic references from the sector and proposals from numerous fields. III Conclusions 1. The fact that journalism has been managed in the same way as a large-scale business has resulted in a significant change in the social role assigned to it by citizens, democratic political systems and their fundamental laws, with its social function being played down while the private gain derived from it is increased. 2. From the 1980s onwards, the commercial exploitation of the media, as well as mass media products and technologies, has led to the economic expansion of this business sector driven by the commercial success of television. 3. Today, the media is managed in a way that is driven by productivity and economic profitability, directing business investment into technological applications to the detriment of the quality of contents and the stability of the journalism industry workforce, which are now subordinated to the news agenda and the vested interests of the stable sources. 4. In order to overcome this crisis, journalism will need to undergo a significant transformation in terms of its exploitation, broadcasting/publication and consumption. The future will be increasingly marked by technology, more complex profitability, and with audience behaviour which is less massive and more active. Other factors will include the following: the separation of the product from its support; the written press will fall into a deeper crisis but will not disappear entirely; possible new formulas for digital convergence as there were with audiovisual forms; social journalism or journalism 3.0 will continue to move forward, although its relation with current and future forms of commercial journalism is unclear; new business models will emerge which have not been contemplated up to now; good journalism will be available, but it is possible that this may not take the same form as the means and products currently available; the future of journalism will be decided by profitability, although non-profit-making forms of journalism may be successful in parallel with or on the fringes of traditional forms, even if these new forms do not attract large audiences. 5. Journalists have lost a significant amount of professional autonomy when writing up their reports, as well as their capacity to influence the end result and the presentation of their work. Professionals are faced with the internal pressures applied by their bosses so as not to damage the economic interests allied to the news corporation, and with the limitations imposed by the emphasis on productivity, self-censorship and poor working conditions. 6. The entire audience suffers from informational alienation that contrasts with the increase in the self-determination of individuals which is expressed in responses such as journalism 3.0 or citizen journalism. 7. The changing social role of journalism, the hyper-development of communications, the conception of information as business, the crisis in the sector, as well as new technologies, have aggravated traditional ethical problems and other second-generation ethical problems have emerged. 8. Journalism ethics and the quality of contents constitute two crucial elements in the construction of a different kind of information system capable of restoring the balance between its social function and business profit. Key words Ethics / journalism / journalism ethics / journalists / countervailing / journalism 3.0 / self-regulation / deontology / fourth estate / objectivity

This thesis seeks to add to the development of the Social Life Cycle Assessment (SLCA), which can be defined as an assessment method for assessing the social impacts connected to the life cycle of a product, service or system. In such development it is important to realise that the SLCA is only appealing to the extent that it does what it is supposed to do. In this thesis, this goal of SLCA is defined as to support improvements of the social conditions for the stakeholders throughout the life cycle of the assessed product, system or service. This effect should arise through decision makers following the 'advise' of the assessment. In order for a positive effect to arise from following a decision, the preferred alternative has to be associated with more favourable social impacts than the other assessed alternatives, indicating that the assessment has to validly represent the consequences of each alternative. But to create an effect, validity is not enough; the SLCA furthermore has to be usable in a decision making context. It has been the aim of this thesis to identify the issues which may hinder the validity and usability of the SLCA and to propose procedures to incorporate in the SLCA alleviating the problems. With regards to the usability of SLCA, a study was conducted addressing 8 Danish companies' interest and possibility in using SLCA. Here it was shown that the interest in SLCA was limited to external purposes, most notably comparative assertions for marketing purposes. However, it was also shown that the companies' ability to obtain data throughout their products' life cycles was very limited, for example because suppliers were unwilling to hand over this information to the companies or because the goods were bought on open markets furnished by a large number of unidentified suppliers. These issues were found to potentially limit the use of SLCA in companies to applications with very limited life cycle perspective. Mitigation of this data availability problem may show to be very difficult for companies, since the only way seem to be to lower the demand for the validity of the data included in the SLCA. If the SLCA is then used for external purposes, the company would run the risk of taking credit for the results given by a potential untrue assessment, which, if being the case and later discovered, may be highly incriminating for the company. It is furthermore discussed that other user groups, such as governments and intergovernmental organisations, may have other demands for SLCA and therefore also other possibilities. The usability of SLCA is only addressed in this study, whereas the three consecutive studies focus on the validity of SLCA. The reason for this overemphasis on validity is that the usability inevitably will be addressed in the development of SLCA, whereas this in not the case with regards to validity. The first of these studies addresses the validity of impact pathways in SLCA, which denotes the cause effect relationship between indicator and the 'Area of Protection' (AoP), representing the underlying issue of importance assessed in the SLCA. The study is based on two examples from the existing work on SLCA: One considers whether the type of indicators included in SLCA approaches can validly assess impacts on the one of the two definitions of AoPs in SLCA, being the well-being of the stakeholder, and the other example addresses whether the 'incidence of child labour' is a valid indicator to assess impacts on the AoPs. Both examples show a poor validity of the impact pathways. The first example shows that depending on the definition of 'well-being' the assessment of impacts on the well-being of the considered stakeholder can not be performed exclusively with the objective indicators which are presently used in SLCA approaches. Objective indicators are indicators designed to measure impacts which can, at least potentially, be measured without the involvement of the impacted stakeholder. If well-being is understood as something pertaining to the experience of the individual, subjective indicators are needed, which are indicators that focus on the experiences or feelings of the impacted stakeholder. The second example shows that the mere fact that a child is working tells little about how this may damage or benefit the AoPs, implying that the normally used indicator; 'incidence of child labour' lacks validity in relation to predicting damage or benefit on the AoPs of SLCA. More valid indicators should rather focus on, among others, the health impacts of child labour and its impacts on schooling outcomes. However, even though the indicators proposed in both examples may improve the validity of the assessment, a problem is that in both cases, the indicators demand more detailed data, which may limit their usability. The second study begins by considering that the SLCA as presented here should assess the consequences of a decision. This can be expressed as the difference between how the world is or will be because of the decision and how the world would look like had it not been for this decision. At this point it is important to realise that social impacts on individuals do not only happen in product life cycles, but in all aspects of their life. Thus, if a decision implies that a worker participates in a product life cycle, the worker will, if the decision is not taken, have to do something else, which will equally impose some impacts on him or her. When assessing the consequence of a decision for the worker it is thus this difference between these two situations, the 'implemented' vs. the 'non-implemented' decision which should be considered. More or less same argument goes for the product user. The study attempts to model the impacts of the 'non-implemented' decision in relation to the worker and the product user and finds that when the non-implemented decision situation means that the product is not produced at all, it is often associated with increased levels of unemployment. Literature on unemployment suggests that unemployment causes decreased health levels, increased poverty, family tension and violence and crime, but that the impacts may vary with context of the unemployed. If the non-implemented decision implies that a product user will no longer use a product the non-implemented decision may lead the user to choose another products associated with another life cycle and thereby other social impacts or choose to spend his or her time on something not related to product life cycles, which will equally impose social impacts on the user. The assessment of the impacts of the non-implemented decision is discussed and found to be difficult due to the complexity of identifying what this non-implemented situation amounts to. However, it is argued that some relatively simple assessments may be performed which may still improve the validity of the assessment in comparison to simply ignoring the impacts of the non-implemented decision, however inaccurate they may be. The third and unfinished study addresses the possible influence of the context on the validity of SLCA. Here two examples are analysed. One relating to the context variability of proposed endpoint categories in SLCA where it is shown on the basis of literature that what influences the well-being of the individual (one of the suggested AoPs in SLCA) differs across respondents and geographical groups, implying that the importance of the various suggested endpoint categories varies with context. The second example addresses the data collection procedures through social audits. Through an interview with a social auditor it is suggested that the auditor varies the procedures for carrying out the audit in order to get the most valid result. For example, the auditor has to take into account the various tricks a company in a given context normally uses to cheat the auditor. However, this conclusion is based on only one interview and must therefore be considered as uncertain. Both cases thus points to that context plays a role for how the methodology in relation to endpoint categories and data collection procedures needs to take account of the context in order to get a valid assessment and it is therefore argued that not only may data be site-specific in SLCA, so may methodology if the context variation should be accounted for. The results of the studies addressing the problems of validity in SLCA all suggest measures of improvement which entail more laborious, and thereby probably also less usable, assessments, whereas the study addressing usability concludes that from a company perspective a less laborious approach is needed. It thus seems that there is a trade-off between validity and usability and it is therefore discussed to what extent compromises can be made. Here it is argued that different users may be imagined who may have different possibilities and demands in terms of requirements to work and validity of the assessment and that several different SLCA approaches should be available fitting these different possibilities and demands to increase the overall use of SLCA. However for all of these different approaches it is argued that the assessment should as a minimum be more accurate than no assessment at all. If this is not the case, SLCA can hardly be regarded as decision support. This minimum requirement is discussed in more detail and it is found that while inclusion of other measures proposed for increasing the validity of SLCA is for the user of the SLCA to decide, the assessment of the impacts of both the implemented and non-implemented life cycle situations, addressed in the second validity related study, must always be included. However, since this validity demand only establishes very few requirements to the user, this methodological 'openness' may potentially be used to consciously select indicators or data in favour of one alternative. To mitigate this possibility for manipulation, a more comprehensive demand is considered which is to always include an assessment of the completeness and uncertainties in SLCAs accessible to the public. This, however, requires knowledge about how certainty and completeness is established in SLCA, calling for further studies into the validity of SLCA procedures. Several studies addressing this issue are proposed. A final discussion summarises the findings and concludes that due to raised difficulties in SLCA about data availability and issues like the assessment of the non-implemented decision, SLCA may never gain the same popularity as ELCA.

Issue 46.3 of the Review for Religious, May/June 1987. ; REVIEW FO, RELIGIOUS (ISSN 0034-639X), published every two months, is edited in collaboration with the faculty members of the Department of Theological Studies of St. Louis University. The editorial offices are located at Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO. 63108-3393. REWEW FOg RELiGiOUS is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute of the Society of Jesus, St. Louis, MO. ©1987 by REVIEW FOg RELiGiOUS. Single copies $2.50. Subscriptions: U.S.A. $11.00 a year; $20.00 for two years. Other countries: add $4.00 per year (surface mail); airmail (Book Rate): $18.00 per year. For subscription orders or change of address, write: Rv.vlv.w FOR REI.I(;IOUS: P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, MN 55806. Daniel F.X. Meenan, S.J. Dolores Greeley, R.S.M. Iris Ann Ledden, S.S.N.D. Richard A. Hill, S.J. Jean Read M. Anne Maskey, O.S.F. Editor Associate Editor Review Editor Contributing Editor Assistant Editors May/June, 1987 Volume 46 Number 3 Manuscripts, books for review and correspondence with the editor should be sent to REVIEW FOIl REI.I~;IOtlS; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the department "Canonical Counsel" should be addressed to Richard A. Hill, S.J.; J.S.T.B.; 1735 LeRoy Ave., Berkeley, CA 94709. Back issues and reprints should be ordered from REVIEW fOR REI.I~:IOUS; Room 428; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. "Out of print" issues and articles not published as reprints are available from University Microfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.; Ann Arbor, MI 48106. A major portion of each issue is also available on cassgtte recordings as a service for the visu-ally impaired. Write to the Xavier Society for the Blind; 154 East 23rd Street; New York, NY 10010. Mary and Our Reconciliation in Christ Donald Macdonald, S.M.M. Father Macdonald has written yet another thoughtful and fruitful article on Mary our Mother. His last article on Mary was "Our Lady of Wisdom" (May/June, 1986). His last article in our pages was "Invisibly Companioned" (January/February, 1987). Father Macdonald still resides at: St. Joseph's; Wellington Road; Todmorden, Lanc.: 0LI4 5HP England. It is puzzling to read from time to time that,- seemingly, the appeal of Our Lady is chiefly psychological rather than personal. So, for example, "Mary .has been a very popular image for both women and men . Men still Often seem to derive a great deal from the image of Mary, perhaps cel-ibate men. in particular, since Mary as mother provides a safe, that is, sex-ually taboo womanly image.''~ Is her appeal then in what she represents rather than who she is? Is she a popular image or a popular person? Every individual suggests more than herself, of course, but in the living of the everyday Catholic this emphasis on "the image of Mary" seems sadly unreal. There is a world of difference between admiring her icon at an exhibition and taking her into our home in faith and love. Insofar as she is seen primarily as a psychological refuge she is no longer the mother of Jesus as the Gospel reflects her. It was no image but someone authentically human who "gave birth to her firstborn son and wrapped him in swad-dling clothes, and laid him in a manger because there was no room for them in the inn" (Lk 2:7). A male religious might be forgiven instinctive irritation as he feels him-self being patronized. More to the point, being particularly singled out as finding Our Lady a safety valve seems to contradictexperience. Is it true? The experience of an adult lifetime spent in pastoral ministry at the grass roots could more plausibly make a case for the attraction Our Lady has for the married woman or the professional man. In thinking of those with an 321 322 / Review for Religious, Ma.y--June, 1987 enviably marked and integrated devotion to Our Lady, the male celibate, while there, is by no means primary. Mary means so much to so many, far beyond the few who, it is suggested, see in her particularly a safe, sex-ually taboo womanly image. A lifetime could be spent in a Catholic com-munity without ever meeting many of that particular group, though one would certainly find genuine devotion to Our Lady. Too, contemporary novelists and journalists notwithstanding, genuine devotion to her from the male celibate has surely stronger ties than sexual security. It is a Catholic thing, not a psychological need. It is of the faith. Again, does everyday devotion to Our Lady really express itself like that? Is it mainly a popular image useful for meeting a psychological need? Whether it be the assembly line, down-market product of "repository art,'" or-the faith-aesthetic creation of a Giotto, the Christian can distinguish between the person and the product. The picture or image can focus atten, tion, and there are psychological overtones in every glimpse of Our Lady, since every individual carries more meaning than he or she knows. Mary may transform whomever and whatever she is introduced to in the context of Christian devotion. She creates her own climate in the generations con-sidering her ,blessed among women. Yet traditionally and individually within the Church, the person of Mary is known and loved beyond all that art, theory and culture might suggest. Faith and the feminine are lovely, life-enhancing qualities. To speculate about them may have some point, but cannot be compared to seeing them in a particular woman. Here lies Our Lady's appeal. Her union with her Son as the Gospel reveals this, and her oneness with us in our humanity and faith are definitive. Many talented peop!e can perhaps paint an icon, but only the specially prepared, it is said, may paint its eyes. Insight is a gift. The scientist and man of contemporary culture who considers the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris exclusively in terms of its construction has literally not seen it. In ignoring God and her whose name it was given, he has lost the key which would unlock its meaning. This is much more than simply discarding a relative culture. The contemporary Catholic, attracted by the appeal of Our Lady, might say of her what the medieval mystic said of being gripped by the desire for contemplation: "You would run a thousand miles to talk about it with someone you know has really experienced it, and yet when you get there you can find nothing to say. ''-~ One need not be able to articulate what one knows. The common tongue of Lourdes~ Fatima, Banneux and "down-town anywhere," as far as Our Lady is concerned, is faith working through Mary and Our Reconciliation / 393 love. With the mother of the Word made flesh dwelling among us, we are in touch with someone rooted in humanity and faith. ,.- This, then, is why devotion to Our Lady in Catholic tradition is not something subjective, as a liking for sugar, but an objective reality whether we advert to it or not. It is not an arcane secret given to some esoteric group inhabiting an ethereal heaven. It cannot be when so many Christians' first real introduction to Mary is often in the world of the Christmas carol, where "earth stood hard as iron, water like a stone . " She is known by the company she keeps--like her Son, easily going to the houses of sinners to be with them. The consequent allegiance she has won in the Christian world is far from the preserve of a Gnostic group. She is real to so many. "~ray for us sinners now and at the hour of our death," is possibly the most common prayer of invocation in the Catholic world. We can, perhaps, understand something of her appeal if we consider the best which can be said of Christian life, and glimpse how genuinely she reflects it. The anonymous medieval author mentioned earlier suggests that the human spirit can safely work with God once it "has been checked by the three witnesses, Scripture, direction, and common sense.-3 We can usefully consider how Our Lady reflects authentic Christian living in the light of that rubric. A New Creation Although not to everyone's taste, our faith is incarnational and so, "God'was in Christ reconciling the world to himself" (2 Co 5: 19), says St. Paul. He goes on to explain that, as an apostle and preacher, he shares in the same office of reconciliation, since God "gave us the ministry of reconciliation . . . entrusting to us the message of reconciliation" (2 Co 5: 18-19). It follows, therefore, that "we are ambassadors for Christ, God making his appeal through us" (2 Co 5:20). Paul's mediatorial role is thus heavily emphasized in line after line. Such a mandate implies that who-ever is so commissioned as God's ambassador to help reconcile people to God must have received the enabling power of God to help him do it. He is, then, attuned to both God and man. His very person helps in binding people to God. "All this is from God" (2 Co 5:18). How is it done? It all depends on what is seen. Paul begins where the New Testament begins, with God first loving us in Christ. "For the love of Christ overwhelms us when we reflect." (2 Co 5: 14), he says, quite bowled over as he comes to an ever-wondering realization of what God has done for us in Christ. Christ, as one of us, lived, died and rose from a grave so that, in him, we might break out of our congenitally self-centered exis-tence which can even challenge the will of God, and so be able to "live 3~.4 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 no longer for themselves but for him [Christ] who for their sake died and was raised" (2 Co 5:15). Insofar as I am at one with the selfless Christ I can do the same. This vision of God in Christ can,provide the dynamic to draw me out of myself towards the will of God. Paul, a man among men, shackled, too, in the same self-centered world, and so wanting to be free of it, but seemingly powerless to change, now knows that this is possible in Christ. Paint the picture in the most somber colors, as bleak as can be, in a world where personal sin and selfishness can wreak havoc in epidemic proportions, and in it all Paul sees Christ. "For our sake, he [the Father] made him to be sin who knew no sin, so that in him we might become the righteousness of God" (2 Co 5:21). Whatever depths of evil can be reached individually or collectively, God in Christ is there empowering those who would accept him to break free of its infernal power: "All this is from God, who through Christ reconciled us to himself" (2 Co 5:18). This Paul sees and is part of as Christ's ambassador, engaged in reconciling his world to God. So deep is this view of reality that Paul sees it as something wholly new, not just a change or adaptation. "If anyone is in Christ he is a new creation; the old has passed away, behold the new has come" (2 Co 5:17). His center of reference now is God giving himself in Christ. The selfless Christ replaces the selfish Paul, as he breathes the invigorating air of one now free to live for God.He is still an imperfect man with partial vis~ion, but insofar as his lifeqs a response to God in Christ, he can only describe what is happening to him as a new creation. Ideally, he describes Chris-tian reality. His world has been recreated. Glorifying God If such a grasp of reality is true of Paul and the best of Christians, and true of us :all to a degree, it is, self-evidently, descriptive, too, of Our Lad~,. That vision is flawlessly realized in her. Sinless from her conception and now assumed into heaven, she is a new creation from the mind of God. So alive to God is she that she is alert to the implications of her being way beyond any experience of ours. She hungered for the will of God, so it became her food (see Lk 1:53). "Behold, I am the handmaid of the Lord; let it be to me according to your Word" (Lk 1:38) is the total response of the new creation. She is blessed, the Gospel maintains, because she believed and there-fore gave herself wholly to the Word of God. She is particularly blessed "among women, and blessed is the fruit of [her] womb" (Lk 1:42) as in her God in Christ was reconciling the world to himself. Her Son Jesus "will save his people from their sins" (Mt i:21). As the Word became Mary and Our Reconciliation / 325 flesh in her womb and in her life, having been welcomed in faith and love into her heart, her maternal being from first to last becomes part of the gift of her Son: "And going into the house they saw the child with Mary his mother"; "But standing by the cross of Jesus were his mother, and his mother's sister" (Mt 2:1 I, Jn 19:25). Only a mother, perhaps, could under-stand the give and take of that exchange over a lifetime. Mary, one with her Son at so many levels as the years went by, learned so much of life as he lived in and for his Father's will, and yet "he went down with them and came to Nazareth and was obedient to them; and his mother kept all these things in her heart" (Lk 2:51). The reflective Chris-tian, too, has assimilated much of the perplexity of life in oneness with the heart of Mary. When she stood with her crucified Son as his life ended in ag6ny, "Jesus saw his mother, and the disciple whom he loved standing near" (Jn 19:26), and gave them to each other. Far from seeing this as a son tying up loose ends as best he could--his use of the word woman sug-gests more than a domestic arrangement--generations have felt the weight of those words from the Cross, and have gladly accepted the relationship, taking ourLady into their own homes. She is not then seen as just a type or evocative image of yesterday. Her appeal is of today and tomorrow, as her reconciling presence helps Christians to welcome and live the appeal of the Gospel in the Church. Admittedly these Gospel glimpses of Mary are or~ly straws in the wind, but many in the Church have loved the way the wind was blowing. The Pauline sketch of reconciliation in Second Corinthians outlined earlier, can become real in her person. This is especially true of those who could never read St. Paul, nor perhaps even pronounce the word "reconciliation." She radiates Christ, invariably generating the wonder and pleasur6 of Elizabeth's welcome as Mary hurried to her door: "And why is this granted me, that the mother of my Lord should come to me?" (Lk 1:43). "Mother of my Lord" is, in the context, a new creation in Christ, ideally and providentially there to help reconcile us to God. Her heaven, too, is being spent doing good upon earth. DirectionmWhat Do the Saintlike Advise? Given that Our Lady, because of who she is in the providence of God, mediates God in Christ to us through her feminine, reconciling presence, we can reinforce that insight by continuing to take the advice of an English mystic and seek direction. What did those with the clearest Christian insight advise? What did the saints andsaintlike do? Perhaps we can glance at Julian of Norwich who, in her fourteenth-century hermitage, has distilled 396 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 sufficient insight to be found today on contemporary bookshelves as a best-selling paperback. Julian tlad asked for a bodily vision of Our Lady. She was never given one, but "when Jesus said: 'Do you wish to see her?" it seemed to me that I had the greatest delight that he could have given me in this spiritual vision of her which he gave me.-4 Delight, of course, is characteristic of Julian's understanding of the Faith, and she finds Our Lady delightful. She is enthralled by this God-given insight, and clear as to its implications: "And so he [Jesus] wishes it to be known that all who take delight in him should take delight in her and in the delight that he has in her and she in him." There is no suggestion here of tension, division or embarrassment. It is all so perfectly natural. Julian's understanding of the Faith, like St. Paul's, centers on Godwin Christ reconciling the world to himself through the cross. So suffused is it by the love of God--Julian really had grasped Paul's insight--that she can only delight in what God is doing. Responding as she does to Our Lady, she believes that she is sharing in Christ's delight in his mother and in hers in him. "For after myself [Jesus] she is the greatest ~joy that I could show you, and the greatest delight and honor to me." Far from seeing any contradiction or distraction in so honoring Our Lady, Julian sees it as the express will of Christ. One might reasonably expect this, as the relationship echoes the best in human nature as well as suggesting the hundredfold of all who are at one with God. Whenever delight is experienced, the whole person is marked, together with a~wish that everyone could see it, coupled with sad-ness and incomprehension if the delight cannot be shared. Julian, a new creation in Christ, savoring with an immediacy given to few his reconciling presence, sees Mary as part of the treasure to be found in Christ. Mary, for her, is not tacked on in a moment of misguided devotion, but rather soldered on by the love and will of God, intrinsically, if subordinately, part of the reconciliation found in Christ. In Mary she sees herself and all of us, "as if he [Jesus] said, do you wish to see in her how you are loved? It is for love of you that I have made her so exalted, so noble, so honorable; and this delights me. And I wish it' to°delight you." Maryqs no shadow across the face of Christ, but a further means of shar-ing delight in what God is doing in Christ. As one in Christ we may savor this, too, and insofar as we can see just how much we are loved in her, enjoy a comforting glimpse of our present and future status. It is not without interest that in the shorter text of Julian's "Revela-tions," believed to have been written some twenty years before the longer Mary and Our Reconciliation /327 text we have been using, she adds, after seeing Christ more gloriously than she had yet realized, "In this I was taught that every contemplative soul to whom it is given to look and seek, will see Mary and pass on to God through contemplation.-5 As always, in Julian the tone is uniform and the perspective unforced, and her faith is so alive in her belief that attachment to Our Lady will inevitably bring us to its source in God. Mary herself effects the transition, reconciling to God whoever is open to h~r influence. ~ It is said that, increasingly, women find less and less in Our Lady "as women discover themselves as less passive than Mary is made to appear in the gospels.",° They therefore look for other models. Women can, of course, speak for themselves, but as regards passivity in the gospels, it is useful to remember that the biblical "divine passive" is often just a passive tense serving to emphasize the wholly present activity of God. So, for exam-ple, Paul speaks of Christ, "who for their sake, died and was raised" (2 Co 5:15). God in Christ is not molding plasticine. The death and resurrection of Christ is not the behavior of a mechanic using an inert tool, but God's response to a life actively given to his will, even to accepting death in his name. The passive tense implies an active God and willing human Cooperation, and so as Paul said of the process of reconciliation, "All this is from God" (2 Co 5:18). So, too, when Julian speaks of those "to whom it is given to look and to seek," far from indicating lack of initiative in a passive recipient, she is speaking of someone alert and alive, empowered by the driving Spirit of God:. Motherhood strikes one as possibly the least passive of all vocations, especially as glimpsed in Mary's life in the gospels. She is so attractive and influential today simply because whatever God said she did in'faith. Does anyone really believe that banner headlines in a newspaper or a pic-ture on the cover of Time magazine are the measure of lasting influence? With so much left unsaid in the gosPels, it may well be'that the feminine, creative, nourishing and responsive qualities of Mary are what God has valued in her. Without these, people wither and personal relations are bleak. The old advice is still sound: "Do not teach [God] his business. Let him be. He has enough might, skill and goodwill to do the best for you and for all who love him.''7 Julian is always concerned for her "fellow-Christians," and her delight in the Faith is tangible, though she, too, lived in a socially horrific age. Calm self-possession is her keynote, never raising her voice. There is none of the stress that takes so many women today to the bottle or drugs, the counselor or the hospital. So many are living lives of quiet desperation, while others are teetering on the edge of despair. She writes out of con- Review for Religious, ~May--June, 1987 cern, with the simplicity of wisdom reflecting what she sees in faith. Her teaching of the natural delight of mother and son, and Christ's desire that we share in it, since we see just how much we are loved by God .in her, is surely, "simple, courteous, joyful.''8 Her guidance is at one with so much that is good in the Church. Common Sense God was in Christ recon~ciiing the world to himself. Those closest to him are effective mediators of his presen.ce. Clearly, "Paul, an apostle-- not from men or through man, but through Jesus Christ and God the Father" (Ga l:l), is superbly placed, but the origin of that call is valid, too, for Our Lady: Immaculately~conceived, bringing Christ into the world, raising him, beside him as he died, praying in the Church then, and now within the Church gloriously assumed into heaven, common sense would suggest that such a woman cannot but help in reconciling us to God. "This is only what sanctified common sense would expect: that God should keep safe all who for love of him forsake themselves, indifferent to their Own welfare.-9 The safety that is now hers she wants to be ours, and almost instinctively the Catholic faithful have felt this. In view of who she ~is in the providence of God, generations have opened themselves to her influ-ence in an often very unsafe world. G.K. Chesterton emphasized this when he told of the reaction of two eminent nineteenth.century Victorians to news of the proclamation of Our Lady's Immaculate Conception. Prince Albert was the husband of the leg-endary Queen Victoria who gave her name to an era, .and W.E. Gladstone was one of the outstaffding political figures of the age. If Chesterton is to be believed, the proposed declaration by the pope of Our Lady's Immac-ulate Conception was greeted with indecent hilarity by the former and with grief by the latter, as each in his own way saw in it the sign of the immi-nent downfall of Catholic. Christianity. Both were agreed that it would be unpopular. Albert and Gladstone, who both worked conscientiously for the poor, "understood so little of what that crown and image really meant to millions of ordinary people . Yet the applewoman did not dash madly out of church; seamstresses in garrets did not dash their little images ,of Mary to the ground, on learning that she was named Immaculate."~° Chesterton then speak~ of the first appearance of Our Lady at Lourdes some four years later. While the influential and educated still puzzled, "little knots of poor peasants began to gather round a strange, starved child before a crack in the rocks from whence was to spring a strange stream and almost a new city; the rocks she had heard resound with a voice crying, 'I am the Immaculate Conception.' " Did Albert and Gladstone~ men of Mary and Our Reconciliation / 329 integrity, even remotely approach the influence for good with ordinary people that is associated with the name Bernadette Soubirous? Shrines such. as Lourdes and private revelations such as Julian's are not to be considered as though from St. Paul and the gospels. Yet as a fact of life within the Church and with the approval of the Church, such places and similar insights undeniably have helped reconcile so many from every walk of life to God. In the light of Mary's Immaculate Conception each one of us is handicapped and in need, and she has particular appeal for those who are aware of their need. Here, especially, her faith and her fem-ininity are found so attractive, as she is known to be present now in imag-inative sympathy. In the circumstances, common sense would direct us to her company. Jimmy Durante used to celebrate that he was "the guy who found the lost chord." Unhappily, in the same breath, he had to admit that he had lost it again! It is given to few to be truly original. Life, genes, language, skills, food--virtually everything of consequence that has made us what we are have been mediated to us by others. It is the human condition, and it is the supernatural condition. Even the insights of a St. Paul are, under God, largely the result of an interchange, often troubled, between himself and his people. "The fathers have eaten sour grapes and the children's teeth are set on edge," may not be valid in terms of personal guilt, but it is true in terms of personal influence. Human beings transmit life and superb medical care, as well as AIDS and drug-dependent babies. Often the fruits of the Spirit are mediated through others as are the sins of the flesh. We all have reason to thank God for some of the people we have met as well as to regret the influence of others. As mediated experience is a fact of life for good or ill, common sense; would suggest that nothing but good can come from opening ourselves to Our Lady's influence. Her selfless, perceptive being, one person in Christ with ourselves, radiates God as she delights in the Lord her Savior. What-ever life did to her, "Mary kept all these things, pondering them in her heart" (Lk 2:19). Open to her reconciling influence, we too can assimilate experience, responding to God's presence in a sacramental world. Finally, common sense would especially commend that religious, who "ought to be poor in both fact and spirit" (Perfectae Caritatis 13), con-sider Our Lady's guidance in the search to be truly reconciled to God. She sees further and more clearly than any other guide in the Church, and her encouraging presence is always here. With increasing affluence, or possi-bly insensitivity, numbers of religious travel far looking for enlightenment. It is not wrong of course, but there does seem to be an innate contradic- 330 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 tion in the context of poverty when, for example, the search may take a religious to an a~hram in India, the deserts of Israel or California, or to the monasteries of Japan, Whatever insight is gained may be at the cost of a threadbare vow of poverty. Our Lady once appeared so nondescript as not to merit a first glance when she came with the offering of .the poor. Yet to the one truly enlight-ened by the Holy Spirit she was seen to be carrying in her arms "a light for revelation to the Gentiles" (Lk 2:32). She still reflects that same light now wherever we are in Christ. NOTES ~ M. Furlong, "The Power of,Images," The Way, October 1986, p. 299. 2 The Epistle of Privy Counsel, Chapter II, in The Cloud of Unknowing and Other Works, Penguin Books, 1978. 3 The Epistle of Privy Counsel, Chapter 10. 4 Julian of Norwich, Showings, Chapter 215, tr. E. C011edg~ and J. Walsh, Paulist Press, New York, 1978. All quotations are from Chapter 25 of this edition. 5 Julian of Norwich, op. cit., short text, Chapter 13. 6 M o Furlong, op. cit., p. 299. 7 The Epistle of Privy Counsel, Chapter 10. 8 Julian of Norwich, op. cit., short text, Chapter 13. 9 The Epistle of Privy Counsel, Chapter 6. ~0GoK. Chesterton, The Strange Talk of Two Victorians, and The Common Man, Sheed and Ward, 1950. Each quotation is from this essay. Brothers in the Church: A Vocational Reflection William Mann, F.S.C. Brother Mann is in his eighth year as a Formation Counselor for the Brothers of the Christian Schools. He had also served as Assistant Provincial for Formation (1979- 1984) and Director of Novices up to the present. He may be, addressed at: Christian Brothers; 83 West Lake Street: Skaneateles, New York 13152. ,~ few years ago, I volunteered to work at a Soup kitchen in Rhode Island. As my first experience of working with the street poor, it was both diffi-cult and challenging. Most of the time, I was afraid; and my fear kept me washing dishes and away from the people. I was attempting to make my contribution and avoid contact at the same time. On more courageous days, I would visit the dining room to sit and talk with the guests. Occasionally, I ventured, into the lounge to socialize after a meal. On one particularly hot day, a six-year-old child walked over to me, climbed into my lap, and using a shredded and badly soiled napkin wiped the perspiration from my forehead. He kissed my cheek, hugged me, and moved my heart. So para-lyzed by my own fears that I found it difficult to offer hospitality, this poor child reached out and offered me love. The story of my encounter with this young boy in a soup kitchen high-lights four key aspects of the vocation of Brother: I) ours is primarily a ministry of example; 2) our ministry on behalf of the Gospel and on behalf of the sanctification of others r~quires our own radical transformation; 3) those to whom we minister will be the instruments of our own conversion; and 4) 9urs is, therefore, primarily a ministry of reciprocity and mutuality. At the time that this incident occurred, I was teaching English and reli-gion in a coed secondary school. "Example makes a much greater 331 339 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 impression on the mind and heart than words."~ If I wanted my students to take seriously the admonition of Jesus to feed the hungry and clothe the naked and visit the imprisoned, then I knew that I was going to have to put those words into action myself. In twenty-two years as a Brother of the Christian Schools, I can hon-estly say that I have attempted to put my life at the service of the Gospel. As teacher, activity moderator, dormitory supervisor, school administrator, retreat director, and now formation counselor, I have worked consistently at proclaiming the Gospel by word and by example. Often this has been a humbling experience. "We are only the earthenware jars that hold this treasure, to make it clear that such an overwhelming power comes from God and not from us" (2 Co 4:7). My entire life as a vowed religious brother is a sincere, and yet sometimes inadequate, attempt to put the Gospel into practice. Accompanying those students each Wednesday to the soup kitchen was just one concrete instance of living out this commitment. "Your zeal for the children under your guidance would be very imperfect, if you expressed it only in teaching them; it will only become perfect if you practice yourself what you are teaching them. ''~- The example of Chris-tianity lived is what "brother-ing" is all about. Although religious brothers have traditionally been identified by the work we do (teacher, health practitioner, parish assistant, or manual laborer), I contend that our particular ministry, while significant in terms of individual congregations, is not of the essence of our vocation in the Church. It is the choice to be called "brother" which has always pinpointed our key contribution. Our very existence as brothers announces the new world order ushered in by Christ. We understand ourselves to be among those chosen by God "long ago and intended to become true ima.ges of his Son, so that his Son might be the eldest of many brothers [and sisters]" (Rm 8:29). The Scriptures tirge us to "love our neighbor as ourself" (Mt 22:39). That child reached out to me in love; and I believe that, in his person, Jesus Christ reached out to me and reminded me that, since God is my Father, all of us are'brothers and sisters. That young child reminded me that I was his brother, and challenged me to accept the people around me and not to get caught up in the differences of age, class, or color. He reminded me that God intends that we should love one another and that we should let go of the prejudices, defenses, fears, and barriers that hold us back from truly being his children, brothers and sisters of one another. This very ministry in which I was engaged on behalf of others was requiring that I °Brothers in the Church / 333 change. I was being challenged to live more fully the message that I preached. I was at the soup kitchen on this particular day precisely because I was trying to educate my students to share the gifts and the blessings of their own lives with those less fortunate. However, Jesus used the opportunity to challenge me to see him among the poor. This is the second key aspect of the vocation of brother; our consecration as brothers commits us to a life of transformation. Loving Jesus always means being changed. I wanted to help my students; Jesus chose to help me be more open to receiving the blessing the poor could be in my life. I went to the soup kitchen hoping to embody the loving presence of Jesus in the world; I returned home having encountered Jesus' loving presence in another. Initially, it seemed ironic that I was challenged to live the Gospel more wholeheartedly by the very people for whom I was attempting to be its proclamation. This was, however, the very heart of the teaching of St~ John Baptist DeLaSalle on what it means to be a brother. Furthermore, this was not only DeLaSalle's teaching; it was his own experience. We minister to others, but they call us to holiness. St. John Baptist DeLaSalle founded the Brothers of-the Christian Schools in France in 1679 to give a Christian education to the children of the working class and the poor. By 1682, however, the Society of the Chris-tian Schools was threatened with collapse. DeLaSalle urged his first di~cj-. pies to trust in Providence. As with the birds of the air and the lilies of the field, God would provide (Mt 6:25-30). The brothers challenged .DeLaSalle's right to say these things. He still had great family weal~l~ and a prestigious position as Canon of the Cathedral of Reims. What did he know of trusting in Divine Providence? If the schools collapsed, he would be safe. In his attempt to minister to the brothers, DeLaSalle hims61f was called' to holiness. He attempted to announce the Gospel to them; they challenged tiimto a fuller living of the Gospel. The first biographers report that so complete was his devotion tO the brothers and to the foundation of the Christian Schools that he heard in their challerlge the invitation of Jesus to take the Gospel more seriously, resign his Canonry, and distribute his wealth among the poor.3 Christ continues to speak to the brother through his disciples. If" we open our eyes and our hearts, we will continue to hear in them the invita-tion to draw closer to God. I believe that~this is what DeLaSalle meant when he wrote: "You can be assured that if you act this way [with an ardent zeal] for their salvation, God himself will take responsibility for yours."4 He was not speaking here of some kind of mysterious and passive 334 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 transformation. He was articulating his own experience. In proclaiming the Gospel to others, the Gospel lays claim on our own hearts. God uses the people and the situations of our lives to evangelize us. Through them and for the sake of the Gospel, God gradually refashions us into the image of his Son. Over and over again, the people and the situations of my life have pro-vided the opportunity to draw closer to Christ. There have been many times in my life when Jesus has asked me to recognize him and to love him in another person. Sometimes that person has been someone for whom I cared deeply; at times, that person has been a complete stranger. What has so often struck me in the Gospel has been the ability of Jesus to be open to all kinds of people in so many different situations. He saw in every person he met a reflection of his Father, a new and unique and beautiful side of God that could be seen in no other person or in no other place on this earth. I believe that Jesus calls us to open our eyes and our hearts to him as he continues to show himself to us in one another. Hence, ours is a ministry marked by reciprocity and mutuality. "They are a letter which Christ dictates to you, which you write each day in their hearts, not with ink, but by the Spiri! of the living God.-5 In inviting others to holiness, our own lives are opened to holiness. Those to whom we min-ister facilitate the capturing by the Gospel of our own hearts. I more and more suspect that this is the key aspect of the vocation of brother. In our openness to the evangelical dimension of everyday life, we provide our clearest witness on behalf of the Gospel. What greater example can be given than that I allow another to become the instrument of my own con-version to a fuller living of Gospel values? Jesus Christ is the "pearl of great price" (Mt 13: 44-46), and I ardently .desire to "share Jesus with those who have been entrusted to my care. We brothers desire to share "the treasure we have found hidden in the field of our own lives. ,,6 Our world is already bombarded with empty and meaningless words. What is needed are people who not only speak of Jesus but who act as followers of Jesus. What is needed are people who follow him so wholeheartedly that they become new incarnations of God's loving presence in the world. This is what I believe the vocation of brother is all about; this is what I am trying to do with my life---do this because I.believe this is what God Wants me to do. Furthermore, I do it because I believe that there are millions of people on our planet today~some Chris-tians, some Jews and Moslems, som6 far away, but very many are young Americans who look,to see if anyone any longer takes Jesus Christ seri- Brothers" in the Church / 335 ously. What hangs in the balance is the very credibility of the Gospel itself: 7 St. Paul assures us that the wisdom of this world is not the wisdom of God (I Co 3~!9); and I do not doubt that, in the face of a modern' Amer-ican society that encourages and fosters a pursuit of pleasure, possessions, and self-interest,8 it is perceived by many as foolhardy to be willing to want God to be more important than anything else in this world, and courageous enough to take the vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience. Yet we broth-ers are bold enough to believe that our own radical, personal conversion to Gospel values really has the potential to make a difference in the lives of those around us. We believe that this is the gift which Jesus Christ intends us to be for his Church. As DeLaSalle writes: "Be convinced of what St. Paul says, that you plant and water the seed, but it is God through Jesus Christ who makes it grow, that he is the one who brings your work to fulfillment?. ~ Earnestly ask him to make his Spirit come alive in you, since he has chosen you to do his work.-9 NOTES ~ John Baptist DeLaSalle, Meditations for the Time of Retreat, trans. Augustine Loes (Winona, Minnesota: St. Mary's College Press, 1975), p. 94] 2 DeLaSalle, p. 80~ 3 John Baptist Blain, The Life. of John Baptist DeLaSalle, trans. Richard Arnandez (Winona, Minnesota: St. Mary's College Press, 1982), Vol. I, Book I, pp. 81-84; Eli Maillefer, The Life of John Baptist DeLaSalle, trans. William Quinn (Winona, Minnesota: St. Mary's College Press, 1963), pp. 27-28. 4 DeLaSalle, p. 91. 5 DeLaSalle, p. 54. 6 Jose Pablo Basterrechea, "Address of the Superior General to the Regional Convoca-tion of the Brothers of the Christian Schools" (Mgraga, California: Regional Convoca-tion, 1984). 7 James Wallis, The Call to Conversion (S~in Francisco! Harper and Row, 1981); Pedro Arrupe, "What Is the Greatest Service Which Religious Can Give Today to Human-ity and to the Church?" Donum Dei No. 24 (1978). 8 John Kavanaugh, Following Christ in a Consumer Society (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, ~981). 9 DeLaSalle, p. 56. ' Appropriate Formation Martin O'Reilly, C.F.C. Brother O'Reilly, Director:of Formation for his community in Liberia, previously wrote "Current Conceptions of Religious Formation: An Analysis"r (November/Dece,mbe.r issue, 1985). His address is: Christian Brothers; P.O. Box 297; Monrovia, Liberia; West Africa. When Captain Smith of the Titanic uttered the words, "The only ice around here, Sparks, is in my drink," he was displaying a characteristic common to most of us--skepticism. When many American and European religious hear of the great vocation boom within the develoPing churches and look at their own decreasing numbers and formation houses being turned into retreat centers and homes for the aged, they skeptically wonder: "How it is that so many young Africans and others are being attracted to living a life of community, prayer and service as religious?" When I returned to Liberia in 1982 after an absence of eight years, we still had no local brothers in our West African communities~espite erect-ing a novitiate building in 1975 and having made it clear toall and sundry that we were keen to welcome local candidates into our communities. As I write this article in 1987 we have, to date, eighteen Wes~ African mem-bers and a thriving candidacy.program. We have just missioned our first West African brothers to set up a new community to work among leprosy sufferers, and fully expect to open another community elsewhere in either Liberia or Sierra Leone during the coming year. It seems fantastic to many in our congregation that in the space of five years we have more novices and junior professed religious in West Africa than in many of our other pro-vinces combined together. When people ask me how it is, I usually tell 336 Appropridte Formation / 337 them that it is the Holy Spirit's work--and something called "Appropri-ate Formation." This article will be concerned with defining the meaning of a religious formation that is~rooted within a developing-church situation. I will be using categories and concepts normally associated with the development of appropriate technology in developing economic and social orders, and .'using them to map out a theory of religious formation that is ,appropri-ate" to this new wave of young religious that congregations throughout the developing world are beginning to welcome into their ranks. In the second part of the article I will outline some of the important issues that our own young West Africah members felt should be on the agenda for an appro-priate formation. Appropriate Formation: A Definition Appropriate formation involves the application of the principles of reli-gious life to concrete local situations. This means developing ways or "technologies" which can be defined as "replicable methods for solving community problems and developing the capacities of communities to achieve their own goals" (S.B. Fawcett, R.M. Mathews and R.K. Fletcher, "Some Promising Dimensions for Behavioral Community Tech-nology," Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 13, 1980). These authors propose that seven dimensions of a technology must be considered to ensure the appropriateness of the technology: - Effectiveness - Expense - Decentralization - Flexibility -Sustainability - Simplicity - Compatibility A new technology means anew way of.doing things for the people who use the technology or who are affected by its use. For any significant change in behavior or attitudes to persist and the technology to be effective, the rewards, satisfactions and achievements obtained have to clearly outweigh the efforts and difficulties involved. For this to happen in the area of religious formation, formators need to have a firm understanding of what are to be the intended outcomes, methods t6 be used, content to be consid-ered and evaluation procedures which will° make up their formation pro-gram. This will, of necessity, demand that'~i formator sit down with both professed members of the group a~d neophytes, and work out what real- 338 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 istic goals a formation community can set itself, what practical wfiys they can be realized, and their appropriateness evaluated at different stages of the formation program. Inexpensiveness is of'considerable importance in a context such as West Africa since cash incomes are generally low. If we expect r~ligious from such regions ,!o earn their own keep and to be credible followers of the "chaste, poor and obedient Christ" for their people, then their formation experience should~prepare them f6r this reality. The end values of religious life shouid"not be obscured by the trappings of a partiCular lifestyle that is alien to the majority of Candidates prior tO entering a religious com-munity. Decentralization means the application of technology at a local level rather than from a remote center. Local religious will need to assume full responsibility .for the living out of their commitment, and not look to over-seas generalates and provincialates for direction on every facet of their lives. They are "the people on the spot," and they need both the compe-tence and the confideqce to discern in what direction the Spirit is calling them. As far as possible, ~those in initial formation need to be shown that responsibility and accountability are intrinsic to religious life. If candidates are not willing to grow in these areas, then there is no place for them 4n a religious community. If formation technologies are not flexible there is. little chance that people will be prepared to handle the gigantic social and pastora, I devel-opments that are taking place in so many parts of the world. There has to be a clear distinction made during religious formation between the end values and the means values of religious life. The end values are not negotiable, but the means ones can be redefined in the light of new insights among the members and the needs of the Church and of society. A flex-ible dimension in religious formation will concern itself with presenting a range of options to cope with specific concerns, and will include guide-lines for Change according to the felt needs of the group in formation. A frequent concern of formation personnel is that many young reli-gious, after having passed through the novitiate, experience a painful regression to the state they were in prior to entering the community. It is as though no significant personal or spiritual development had taken place. Often the cause~of this is because the technology, or way of being a reli-gious, is not sustainable: at the local community level. They leave the novitiate with either unreal expectations of what religious life will be,, and are disillusioned with what they find to be t.he reality~ or they flounder with- 6ut ihe strong guiding hand of a r~ligious specifically missioned to help Appropriate Formation / 339 them overcome every hurdle they may encounter. A gradualist strategy is needed during formation wherein "stretch-outs" are provided so as to allow young religious to know what it means to live, pray and work in a typical community of the congregation. Here they can focus on the con-crete problems of religious life rather than on the long range goal-setting which makes up so much of the agenda of religious formation. A new technology must be simple and comprehensible enough to be understood by its potential users. Religious formators will need to acknowl-edge the "multi-path" approach when dealing with candidates coming from differing social, economic and educational and faith backgrounds. There. have to be features of a formation program that provide for acceler-ation when goals are realized and values interiorized, and a locking-in system that prevents regression from gains obtained. Finally, any new technology must fit into the community or society at large. To be compatible with the surroundings from which the candidates are comirig and in which their religious formation is taking place, the new technology must be seen to work. It must be seen to provide religious men and women whose lifestyle is clearly valued and appreciated by the immedi-ate society. If religious life is seen as wholly meaningless by those around, it is difficult to see how an individual can commit himself or herself unreservedly to such a vocation. Appropriate Formation: An Agenda I want to turn now to a consideration of what are some of the problems facing young local religious. I shall outline these issues within the frame-work of the three end values of religious life---community, prayer and ser-vice. To identify what are the problems our young religious will have to confront is the necessary first step towards devising a formation program appropriate to the people and situation in which religious life will find a new beginning. Community. ~ The issue of where a person's primary loyalties lie---either with one's extended family or with the community--is a source of tension for most local religious at one stage.or another of their lives. Appropriate formation must tackle this area sensitively but una.mbiguously: "No, a community cannot take on the responsibility of supporting and educating younger mem-bers of a local religious' family; but yes, a community will help in a crisis or an emergency as best as it can." Formal membership in a religious.con-gregation must broaden a person's "in" group to .those past and living mem-bers of the congregation around the world. If the extended family holds 340 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 the central loyalties of the young religious, then eventually a clash will come and he or she will be the casualty. It is hard to be a citizen of two worlds! Unless serious efforts are made to tackle the issue where a person's identity and sense of belonging lie, feelings of inauthenticity may arise within the young religious, and eventually may lead to their departure from the community. Likewise, with the question of tribal or national bonds, while encour-aging people to be proud of their heritage, those distinctions which blur the call of a person to see everyone as his or her brother or sister in Christ, must be faced up to during the period of initial formation. Tribalism, mean-ing the preference for one's own tribe over national interests, is a growing political concern in post-colonial Africa. Local religious can easily fall into a tribal mentality with disastrous consequences for community living. Going against tribalism is no easy thing and young religious need to be under no illusion that to have respect for each person's tribal identity is one of the primary signs that they can give to their people of the inclusive nature of the kingdom of God. Many of those who apply for membership in religious communities in developing countries carry with them stories of how they had to struggle against all odds to complete their schooling and perhaps to start in a career. This experience of being a "survivor," when so many of their friends gave up along the road, can lead some to evaluate any or every facet of religious life in terms of what they can get materially from the community--instead of what they can give to the community. Every formation community fairly exudes the idea that there are those already in the community (i,e., they own the house, the bedsheets and the marmalade), and those who wish to join the community. This is a classic "donor-receiver" situation. Usually it takes years for a religious to believe that the house and community pos-sessions are not "theirs" but "ours." In a developing-country situation this "donor-receiver" mentality can persist far longer when the professed religious are white and those joining the community are black. Obviously, religious life means old and young, black and white--or ~,hatever other contrasts a person cares to make between people--all attempting to live in harmony together. This is our" witness of the kingdom and the means by which we build up the Church. For that to happen, there has to be a basic leveling among the members of the community. Formators need to devise ways in which local religious can "own," not only the community goods, but the core values at the heart of the community. Prayer Appropriate Formation / 341 . Much of religious formation, in the spiritual domain, is concerned with deepening a person's,capacity for, and appreciation of, a "grace-full" rela-tionship with Jesus. This is a task for religious formators worldwide, but in my experience, .those working in countries with a strong animist tradi-tion have added challenges. The first one is helping young religious see that prayer, to be real; must be a constant part 6f a person's life. Just praying when the community decides to pray in common is not enough. When prayer is simply a duty expected of one by others, then the shallowness of a person's prayer~life will be revealed when serious vocational problems arise and a ~oung~reli-gious doesn't really believe that there is a God who is ready to love, under~ stand and forgive. In my experience of countries with a strong animist tra-dition, God is more than likely to be feared rather than loved, .and for-giveness is at a price. Coupled to the above challenge is that of helping local candidates real-ize that the form and structure of prayer are not ends in themselves. They are only aids to developing an'awareness of God in ~ne's life and in encour-aging prayerful living. The tendency in the animist tradition to overstress the ma,.gical nature of prayer can lead to a marked separation ~of the sacred and the secular, andah inability to make the "stuff Of daily living" the quarry for one's own prayer. A third challenge I believe formators can have is helping young reli-gious recognize that their own people's spiritual heritage can provide them with stepping stones to discover and value the face of God in Jesus. They will need a strong, personal faith to be able to discern authentically the pres- 6nee of God in their people's faith history, and a vision of the Church as embracing all peoples and cultures, as acknowledging and respecting the I,ocal character of each people. Service In many countries where the Church is newly rooted, much is made of a person's final profession or ordination--I suppose because local reli-gious and priests are still a rarity in many places. Sadly, perhaps, not a few young men and women leave the altar as newly professed or ordained with a very exalted view of themselves. They go on mission with a mentality, more suited to starting a career than a vocation. We need a model of the "servant" Church as never before in devel-oping countries. Otherwise the cr6"dibility and respect which the first mis-sionaries earned from the people will vanish. If there are not local men and women prepared to minister with total conviction and compassion to the marginalized of their society,, then things do not look well for the future. 349 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 I believe that there are people amongst those seeking to follow "the chaste, poor and obedient Christ" who have the dynamism and selflessness of those first missionaries. But they will need every encouragement and incen-tive to rise above merely identifying with the better educated and affluent members of their society. Appropriate format.ion will need to stress the distinction between a career and a vocation, and to present clearly and simpl~, the model of Jesus who had "nowhere to lay his head," who could welcome all and who was wholly caught up in doing the will of his Father. Conclusion Thi~ article has concerned itself with indicating dimensions of a for-mation program that must be appropriate to the persons it serves and to the so(iety in which such people will minister. I have pointgd out some of the priorities I feel that formators involved in develpping-church situations need to take note of and to put.on their formation agenda. To those who are skep-tical concerning the future of religious life in the. world today, let me end wiih a quote from Samuel Beckett: "He sat with me in the dark room of my doubt and lit a candle." During my five years of close involvement with religious forma_tion in West Africa, I have seen that candle glowing, and my hope is that religious throughout the world will, like me, grow in certainty by its light. From Tablet to Heart: Internalizing New Constitutions land II by Patricia Spillane, M.S.C. Price: $1.25 per copy, plus postage. Address: Review for Religious Rm 428 3601 Lindell Blvd. Growth Producing Tensions in Pre-Novitiate Formation Donna Marie Wilhelm, S.N.D. Since writing this article, Sister Donna Marie has been transferred to Sarasota's Cardi-nal Mooney High School where she now teaches and is local superior. She may be addressed at 4004 Fruitville Road; Sarasota, Florida 33582. Liberal, conservative; masculine, feminine; introvert, extrovert; Ignatian, Franciscan; adjectives--"labels" that describe experience, that are valu-able as long as they do not become restrictive in their attempt to'describe, as long as they do not bind rather than free us for growth and understand-ing. These labels are set up in tension as opposites, or perhaps better as complements. Their value is not so much in setting persons in opposition to one another, but in directing them to wholeness of vision. They provide for an expression of tension that can lead to healthy growth and a more com-plete outlook on life and experience. I believe that formation, too, is about tension--healthy tension--that is inherent in the process itself. Tensions exist throughout the period of initial formation with varying emphases and with differing intensities. This is particularly true in the pre-novitiate period. One of the dangers in the beginning of the formation process is that some individuals, once they begin to live in a community setting, may live out of a sense of finality that says, "I have made my decision. This is where God wants me. Just tell me what to do in order to be a good Sister of Notre Dame (or Franciscan or whatever) and I will do it." A stance like this needs to be explored gently, and then laid to rest as a false and harmful presupposi-tion. 343 344 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 I believe that it is more accurate to define vocation as a verb rather than a noun, as E.F. O'Doherty has suggested in The Psychology of Vocation. A vocation is not something that I "have"; it is a possibility for me to "become." Implied in this kind of definition is the reality that following a particular vocation involves a repeated act of choosing. In the initial stages it involves decision-making that then becomes the raw material for an ongoing discernment process. For the remainder of this article I want to describe three of the tensions that I think are common to those who are new to the religious process: those in pre-novitiate. Since formation does not happen in a vacuum but in the context of community, community members and attitudes among members are very important in helping the individuals in formation to negotiate these tensions successfully. Child/Adult. Jean Vanier has said, "When people come into a community they are usually in a state where you can ask anything at all of them . People coming into community have a child's grace.''1 This stateof becoming "like a child" again i~ a result of a variety of factors: the initial joy and enthusiasm of any beginner; the "rush" that comes with "finally arriv-ing"; but perhaps most importantly there is a tremendous loss of the famil-iar for the newcomer. o Ray B(adbury in his book Dandelion Wine tells a story that points to the importance of the familiar, of the everyday. It is a story of two y, oung boys and their summer discoveries through everydayness. Doug, the older boy, decides to keep a record bf the summer's adventures in a yellow nickel tablet. In explaining his plan to his brother Tom, Doug begins: I'm going to divide the su.mmer up in two parts. First part of this tablet is titled: Rites and Ceremonies. The first root beer pop of the year. The first time of the year running barefoot in the grass. First time of the year almOst drowning in the lake. First watermelon. First mosquito. First har-vest of dandelions. Those are the things we do over and over and over and never think. Now here in the back, like I said, is Discoveries and Revelations or maybe Illuminations, that's a swell word, or Intuitions, okay? 'in other words you do an o!d familiar thing, like bottling dandelion wine and" you put that under Rites and Ceremonies. And then you think about it, and what you thinkr crazy or not, you put under Discoveries and Revelatiohs. Here's wha~ I got on the wine: Every time you bottle it, yo~u got .a whole chunk of 1928 put away, safe.2 Wh~t Bradbury recounts is in many ways similar t~ the dynamic of the familiar in our lives, the movement from the experience of the world.,gs Tensions in Pre-Novitiate Formation / 345 alien, through a sense of well-being, to an awakening to "otherness." Our first experience as children, or later in life as beginners in a religious for-mation process, is one of awe, dread, an overwhelming helplessness and powerlessness. As children, this sense of, anxiety is usually answered by our parents who provide a caring atmosphere in which we can experience some security. We need this sense of security and familiarity with persons, things and event~ in order to function in this world. This movement from helplessness'and powerlessness to security and familiarity is a "child to adult" movement. Being "at home" in our world is also essential to our spirituality. We need to be grounded in the familiar and the ordinary, since it is that grounding that gi'ves us a feeling of belonging, at homeness, security. And these experiences point to a deeper ground, ou~ groundedness in God in faith, hrpe and love. Our faith in God must be incarnated in our experience, and this happens as we reflect 6n the everyday occurrences where God touches our lives. If what is familiar and "everyday" in our lives is so important to our adulthood, to our functioning and to our grounding in God, then losing our"' sense of "at homeness" in our day-to-day living is a significant loss. It is this loss that brings us back to being like a child again, a child in an alien world. What takes place at the onset of the pre-novitiate is e~actly that: the loss of the familiar. "Familiar" in this context may mean different things for different individuals but for most it includes job, apartment, car, friends and family and a certain degree of indepepdence ih action and in decision-making. Loss of the familiar is often accompanied by a feeling that "I'm out of control," a feeling of helplessness in my new environment. In many candidates this is expressed by a loss of ability to do something as simple as balancing time, and that results in lost hours of sleep, cutting down on leisure and exercise to make up, loss of efficienqy on the job, in ministry or at school. Moving into a new place with new people requires a tremendous adjust-ment. It involves~a period of trying to determine what "the rules" are in this group .with whom I have chosen to live. It is a time of grieving for many losses. And it is a time that is often ac~companied by regression, the return to patterns of behavior that helped us to cope with an alien world when we were children. One of the problems in c?mmunity is that this regressive behavior can be very disconcerting to the "old-timers" unless they are aware of what is happening. It is a crucial period when the com-munity must offer support and understanding, but must carefully guard against giving a formula for a new identity too soon. As in any loss, the loss of what is familiar can break the newcomer open to another necessary 346 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 element of life,- the transcendent. The pain of this experience can be an invitation to the candidate to begin the process of lived discernment, of choosing his or her vocation in day-to-day life. A further difficulty.in community can occur if the purpose of this time of formation is not well understood. The heart of the pre-novitiate is built on the call to holiness that all Christians share. That call must be explored and deepened through gradual growth in self-awareness and developing nat~ ural gifts, in dealing with past losses and hurts, in deepening prayer and in learning the dynamics of community living. "Our candidates are older women," some community members say, "women with education, with work and life experience. Why do they need to spend a year or two in a pre-noyitiate process?" It is a very common mistake to look at a person's age, work experience, social skills and make a statement like "Why can't she just begin as a novice?" It is so important not to equate age absolutely with any given level of human maturity, of experience, of spiritual or pro-fessional development. Accompanying women, especially older ones has ¯ only confirmed my belief that each individual is composed of many com-plex variables, and the time spent at the beginning of the formation pro-cess is not "lost" but is essential to provide a confirmation of gifts, an accurate assessment of needs and limitations, and then time to allow the individual to begin to build a foundation for continuing discernment for the future. This is the purpose of the pre-novitiate as it is described in Essen-tial Eletnents. It is the period "in which the genuineness of the call is iden-tified as far as possible . -3 It is a time of growth, not stagnation. Being In/Being Out Another significant area of tension for those in the pre-novitiate pro-cess is the tension that is created by not being a "real" member of the congregation, by hot even, strictly speaking, being a "religious," while living in a house of the congregation with its real members, more or less according to their manner of life. One of the major emphases in the doc-uments dealing with formation that have been published since Vatican Coun-cil II is that of the concept of gradual transition, that is, the idea that the mok, ement from the previous lifestyle to the life of religious consecration should be a gradual, not an abrupt one, and that it involve a time of transi-tion rather than of drastic or dramatic change. Congregations have made many and varied efforts in this diri~ction. They have developed vocation-awareness activities that reach into the elementary schools, retreats and overnight experiences for high school stu-dents, and live-in programs for those who hre seriously considering the option of religious life.-'Many congregations have begun nonresident affil- Tensions in Pre-Novitiate Formation 347 iate programs to give interested men or women an even closer experience of their life. These efforts are all for the sake of gradual acquaintance and transi-tion, find they are invaluable. They need to be carried into the period of pre-novitiate as well. One way to accomPlish this is to establish the pre-novitiate community as an "in-between" community as Vanier cails it in his book Community and Growth. IdeallY this community will be com-posed of the candidates, the director ahd several oth,er professed members who represent different mir~istries. I am not speaking here of simply moving the candidates and director into an established local community-- even though in fact this is what may happen. The difference is that the pri-mary purpose for the existence of the "in-between" community is to pro-vide a formative environment for the candidates. Such a community pro-vides an environment which facilitates the transition of the individual from being an independent lay man or woman to being incorporated as a com-munity member, and finally to becoming a committed member of this specific community and congregation~. It must, be an environment that encourages reflective living, where acceptance is~not based on conformity. What is of primary significance at this stage is to foster human growth and a sense of responsibility towards the life, not to provide a cozy escape from decision-making or a neat set of dos and don'ts. Such a community will provide a rhythm of life that is the "bare bones" for continued discernment; a rhythm of reflection, silence and prayer. It must give the time for candidates to participate in courses or group direction that con-tinue, to develop knowledge of the faith and of the spiritual life. Finally it will provide opportunities for some type of initial exposure to the ministries of the congregation and for some connectedness with the local Church. The individual who +omes to a pre-novitiate experience has made a definite decision and commitment, and so has the congregation ~vhich he or she has joined. Being "in-b~tween" does not water down that commit-ment or mitigate the decision. Rather it gives the space f~)r the candidate" to do two very important things: t~) learn hoW to live in community arid to adjust significant relationships to his or her new lifestyle. These issues are important ones in becoming a member of any community, not just a religious congregation. Outlining the elements in "learning" community is simple. Living them is a tremendous challenge. At the very beginning, a knowledge of the stages in the growth Of a community is essential, as is an awareness of some basic dynamics that can occur. I have found the material provided 3till / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 by Hammet and Soefield in their book Inside Christian Community extremely helpful in these areas. Communication and dealingwith conflict are two other key issues. I believe that the most difficult of any of these is conflict management. This is true not only for the newcomer, but for most of us who have lived in religious communities for years. Each time I am involved in a workshop on this topic with our candidates I am aware of how much more I must learn. It is so iinportant to be patient, firm, and to provide supportive gui.d:~ ance in this area. Above all, experienced community members must not fall into the trap of becoming the rescuer between two candidates or a can-didate and another community member who may have taken on the roles of victim ancl persecutor in regard to each other. Being willing to sit down and role-play situations or conversations is a valuable tool here. In sum, the skills of conflict management must be practiced, our limitations and weakness shared, if growth is to occur. ~ The "in-between" climate of the pre-novitiate community also pro-vides the space necessary for the candidates to adjust significant relation-ships in their lives. This is particularly important for candidates who come with a broad base of family, friends and work-related contacts. It takes time and the freedom to move in and out of community to make the decisions necessary to maintain some relationships, to let go of others', and to invest in new ones within the community or in a ministerial setting. This is no small task because it involves community members who can allow for free-dom but also who, through modeling and guidance, can gradually intro-duce the candidates into the obligations and time commitments that com-munity life can and must of its very nature demand. Providing opportunities for the community to get to know the family and friends of the candidate can be extremely helpful and enrichi.n.g for both. Visiting, inviting family members to share in celebrations, and other casual contacts are,just a few ways to do this. Again, grow,th must be suppprted by u,nderstanding, hon-esty, openness in dialogue, and willingness to search together for the best decisions. In these areas, too, we are dealing with choosing a lifestyle, with making decisions that are more and more--or less and less-~consonant with one particular life direction rather than another. Fitting In/Impacting For Change A newcomer to any group can be expected to ask the question, "What d6,.I have to do to fit in here, to be one of you?" He or she may also say "I have talents, gifts, a vision to offer that may call for some changes in our group. Will they be acce.pted?" The tension between the desire to "fit in" and the need to influence toward change is born in these questions. Tensions in Pre-Novitiate Formation / 349 There is, I believe, a very real sense in which a candidate in any religious congregation must "fit" if not "fit in." In an attempt to be "liberated" and "open" to everything, I think we sometimes try to deny the truth of that. Our congregations do .have living traditions, a heritage that must be experienced and to some extent learned. We each have a unique identity; whether we have articulated that or not, that is our founding gift, and it is that which mediates the Gospel to the members of our institute. The for-mation process takes place according to this founding gift.4 The community at large is very important in this aspect of the process. The Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults in number four states: "The initia-tion of catechumens takes place, step by step, in the midst of the com-munity of the faithful. Together with the catechumens, the faithful reflect upon the value of the Paschal Mystery, renew their own conversion, and by their example lead the catechumens to obey the Holy Spirit more gener-ously." Since the call to religious consecration is a call to the deepening of one's baptismal consecration, an analogy can be drawn between the pre-novitiate and the catechumenate, between the involvement of the faithful and the indispensable involvement of the religious community in which the candidates seek membership. Members of religious communities see in their initiates not only a renewal of their individual covenant relationship with the Lord, but also the hopeof the continued life of the congregation. Rejoicing in and affirming new members in their call is essential. It draws the candidates into a large~',.sense of belonging, gives them a sense of his-tory and furnishes them with many more individual touchstones of unique charism, as well as an experience of charism in the corporate sense. For those who are already part of the community at large there is not only the opportunity but the responsibility to participate in "handing on" the congregation's traditions, and of being a "welcoming presence." "Welcoming presence" says, "this is how we are." At times of celebra-tion, community prayer and working together, it is a presence that says, "This is the diversity of ways in which we express our common charism. For us, Sisters of Notre Dame, our charism includes a simplicity of life and an experience of the Father's provident care in our lives that is expressed in the phrase 'How good is the good God!'. These elements of our shared vision are concretized in a special family spirit, and in our efforts to min-ister to the poor, to bring hope to them through evangelization and catechesis. You are welcome to be with us and to bring your uniqueness to our vision." 350 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 Once again it is absolutely necessary, though, that the "welcoming" not become a welcome that demands immediate conformity. The com-munity must understand the "in-between" nature of pre-novitiate and the primacy during this time of confirming the choice of this particular lifestyle within the basic call to holiness. "Welcoming" also includes welcoming gifts and initiative. When I enter into a relationship with hnother, I invite the possibility of being changed by that encounter. I trust that the new vision that we come to share together is good and growth producing. This is true of the new members in community. "Candidate" is not necessarily equal to "'young" and "inexperienced." We need to remind ourselves of that at times, and let our welcome include the invitation to enter into our life in a meaningful and effective way. 'Practically, this means including our candidates in tl~6 significant events of our community: meetings, renewals, ;'futuring" ses-sions, preparations for chapter and the like. It means valuing their gifts and expertise, and accepting these when they are offered in service of the com-munity and of the Church. These men and women of today can help us in our struggle to find ways to incarnate our charism into our life and ministry and to meet the needs of our times in a realistic way~ There is a very healthy discomfort that we experience when we feel pulled in two directions, a discomfort that moves us to action, to choice. The tensions experienced by newcomers to religious life are opportunities for self-awareness, for growth and for authentic discernment of a lifetime commitment. Being aware that they exist, dealing with them in realistic ways and' soliciting the understanding and support of community members in helping candidates to live and grow with them can only be an invalu-able asset to any formation process. .~ . NOTES ~ Jean Vanier, Community and Growth: Our Pilgrimage Together (New York: Paulist Press, 1979), p. 5 I. 2 Ray Bradbury, Dandelion Wine (New York: Bantam Books, 1976), p. 27. 3 Essential Elements in the Church's Teaching on Religious Ltfe, n. 48. 4 lbid, n. 44. Beyond Frontiers: The Supranational Challenge of the Gospel Gerald A. Arbuckle, S.M. Well known to our readers, Father Arbuckle is the prime mover and designer of the summer workshop, sponsored Dy R~viEw Eon R~L~¢~OUS and St. Louis University's Department of Theological Studies, entitled: "Refounding Religious Life from Within: Strategies for Leadership." His previous article, "Mythology, Revitalization and the Refounding of Religious Life," appeared in the issue of January/February, 1987. Father Arbuckle's.permanent mailing address is: East Asian Pastoral Institute; P.O. Box 1815; Manila 2800; Philippines. Supra-nationalism is the ability and the willingness of individuals or groups to strive to id.entify with cultures and needs beyond the frontiers of their own country in ways that are both critical and non-exclusive. (Multiculturalism, on the other hand, is the same ability and willingness, but directed to other cultures within the boundaries of one's own country.) This identification with cultures, be it noted, is not blind or uncritical. The weaknesses, as well as the strengths, of cultures are recognized. Moreover, this identification is not exclusive. That is, supranationalists are open to still other cultures beyond those with which they are immediately con-cerned. Christ calls his followers to a basic supranationalism, They are them-selves to be reconciled with the Father through love, and they are to express this reconciliation in their relations with other peoples and cultures. With-out, this love of the Father, a gift of the Holy Spirit, the reconciling rela-tionship with those around us cannot be sustained. Selfishness and the desire for power over others will overcome us. Ultimately we are encour-aged in this struggle to be reconciled wi(h the Father and with one another 351 352 / Review for Religious, May~June, 1987 by the hope of the "new heavens arid a new earth" in the fullness of God's kingdom yet to come, "where; accordihg t6 his promise, the justice of God will reside" (2 P 3:13). " The world is fractured by ideological conflicts, pathoio~ical forms of nationalism and intercultural tensions. It is a world "groaning in travail" (Rm 8:22), desperately in need of reconciliation across and within national frontiers. ~ Inasmuch as many religious orders are stamped with an interna-tional character, the Church rightly expects of them bold evangelical initiatives in response to today's critical need for supranationalism.2 But are religious orders responding to this challenge to provide lead-ership not just to the Church but also to the world itself?. Or have some congregations settled into a comfortable, introverted type of "ecclesiastical nationalism"? What conditions are necessary for religious congregations to express in spirit and action a much-needed supranationalism? This article is an attempt to respond to such questions. I will - show how prejudice obstructs sup.ranationalism; - explain the New Testament call to supranationalism; - reflect on how religious orders have in the past responded to the challenge of supranationalism; - construct two models which religious institutes can use to mea-sure their own response to the challenge of supranationalism; - reflect on the role of ongoing conversion as an essential require-ment for supranationalism. Excessive Nationalism: the Obstacle to Supranationalism Nationalism is a complex word to define. It expresses a form of group consciousness, that is, consciousness of membership in a nation. In this lim-ited sense, nationalism is good. It gives people a sense of meaning and iden-tity, a respect for their past, the energy to work together for the common good. When, however, people begin to believe that they are superior to other peoples and cultures, then nationalism becomes excessive. People become unable to look beyond (supra) their national borders to learn from the values and experiences of other cultures. At the heart of excessive nationalism is cultural prejudice. Prejudice is an "attitude towards a person who belongs to a group simply because he belongs to that group and is therefore presumed to have the qualities ascribed to that group." 3 In brief, prejudice involves a predisposition toward a group of people that is not derived from adequate information. There are two aspects to cultural prejudice to be noted. Firstly, there is the meaning aspect or stereotype. A stereotype is ,a preformed image or picture or judgment about people, whether favorable or unfavorable: "The Beyond Frontiers / 353 Irish are prone to excessive use of alcohol." "All Italians sing beau-tifully." The second aspect is the feeling dimension. The prejudiced person sees only what he or she wants to see, even to the point of seeing things that are not there at all. The causes of prejudice are complex and many: fear of people who are different, a desire to exploit, a need to bolster one's personal and cultural self-esteem .4 Culturally prejudiced people can show excessive nationalism in one of two major ways. Firstly, they can seek to impose on "decadent and imper-fect cultures" their own "perfect" values and customs, coming to treat subject people like children---or worse. Secondly, a particularly insidious form of cultural prejudice is cultural romanticism. The foreign culture with which the individual wishes to identify is considered "perfect," and his or her culture-of-origin is thought to be thoroughly decadent. Often the romantic will seek to freeze the new culture in time, thinking any change will undermine its "perfection." This type of romanticism is alive and well, especially among foreigners working in Third World countries. Romanticism is also apt to show itself in overidentifying with nation-alist movements in those cultures or nations. Here, would-be agenis for change sometimes lose all sense of objectivity; they fail to see the violence and tragic effects of their overinvolvement in nationalist movements. Some-times more nationalistic than the locals themselves, they become severely condemnatory of the values and customs of their own cultures-of-origin.5 It is not easy for a person to become truly supranationalist. Supranationalism can only result from the ongoing personal struggle for truth and for the desire to respond to this truth. First one must face the truth about oneself: we are all prejudiced in one way or another. Self-knowledge is always extremely difficult. It also happens to be highly inconvenient, because as a result of a better knowledge of myself and my prejudices, I may have to do something about it. Human beings are highly skilled in avoiding truths about themselves; we are accomplished fugitives from our-selves. If I have the courage to discover my cultural prejudices, I then need a strong motivation to put them aside. It is much easier and simpler to ignore my prejudices! Supranationalism and the New Testament The heart of the Christian .message is that God "has reconciled us to himself through Christ" (2 Co 5:18) and his peace, a peace that can never come from mere human action (Jn 15:27), that we struggle to share with our brothers and sisters no matter what culture or nation they belong to (Rm :354 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 12:18). This peace, the fruit of love in the Spirit, motivates us to respect cultural differences and the just aspirations of people; it shows itself in "patience, generosity., mildness" (Ga 5:22f). It includes an openness to learn how God has worked in the lives and cultures of other peoples. There will be no jealousy for their achievements nor will there be a boast-ing over the accomplishments of one's own nation or culture (ibid v. 26). There will be ~he courage to challenge people of different cultures to face obstacles, for example, personal and social sin, that hinder or prevent them from achieving reconciliation with God and with each other. Followers of Christ know that they can avoid excessive nationalism in its various forms only if they remain truly open to the .Transcendent, allowing it to influence their lives in each one's particular cultural situation, even as they await the fullness of justice and peace ~n the world to come. Not surprisingly, Jesus directly confronted the excessive nationalism of his day, urging his followers to be supranationalists. At the time of Christ, Jews looked on Samaritans as uncouth, stupid, heretical. And Samaritans had similar views of their Jewish neighbors. As Scripture com-mentator, J. McKenzie, points out: "There was no deeper break 6f human relations in the contemporary world than the feud of Jews and Samaritans, and the breadth and depth of J~sus' doctrine of love could demand no greater act of a Jew than to accept a Samaritan as a brother."6 Those who heard Jesus speak would have been left in no doubt about the meaning of what we now call the Good Samaritan incident. The Samaritan is manifestly a supranationalist! Jesus' listeners are stunned to heai- him say "Go, do likewise!" (Lk 10:37). In a second story, this time a personal event in Christ's life, Jesus is an "international traveler" and exemplifies his own supranationalism in his relations with the Samaritan woman at the well (Jn 4). Not only does the woman experience Christian politeness for the first time, but she is told that eternal salvation is open to her through the love of the Father. Of all the early followers of Christ, Paul stands out as the model of supranationalism in evangelization. He had been a thoroughly fanatical sup-porter of Jewish culture, a rabid nationa~list, but underwent a dramatic theological and attitudinal transformation once he began to preach the Gospel in Gentile cultures. In Paul's epistles we see depicted the attitudes that must govern the evangelizeras he or she relates to different cultures. Firstly, the evangelizer must identi.fy as far as possible with the cultures of people to be e.vangelized: "I became like a Jew to the Jews in order to win the Jews. To those bound by the law I became like one who is bound (although in Beyond Frontiers / 355 fact Iam not bound by it), that I might win those bound by the law . I have made myself all things to all men in order to save at least some of them" (1 Co 9:20, 22). Secondly, identification with the aspirations of peo-pies of different cultures should be critical (Ga 5:1-6). Thirdly, the Gospel message is to be preached in its fullness; our struggles for justice and peace in this world are but the seed and the beginning of the kingdom of God here below; it will find its completion at the end of time with the resurrection of the dead and the renewal of the whole of creation (Rm 8:1 1- 21).7 Religious Life: Internationalism and Supranationalism .~ On one occasion, while doing research in a Third World village, I over-heard villagers speaking about the "Backhome Man." Each time they used the expression there would be hoots of laughter. I discovered the man who delighted them was an evangelizer from another coun.try who began sentences with the expression "Back home . . ." so often that the people nicknamed him the "Backhome Man." The evangelizer had the gift of internationalism, that is, he was prepared to live in someone else's coun-try, b.ut apparently he was slow to learn anything from the host culture. He lacked the gift of supranationalism; he was willing to give (on his terms), but not to receive. Our "Backhome Man" sadly lived a stunted religious life as well. For the true religious dedicates himself or herself totally to God, the Supreme Love. In a new and special way the religious makes himself or herself entirely over to God, to serve and honor him in and through the Church.8 The religious should seek to be an exemplary disciple of the Lord, to be one with him in his mission to the world.,The object of his. mission is the person "whole and entire, body and soul,',9 involving what we call today integral salvation. Supranationalism (and mu!ticuituralism) opens the way to this concern, for it relates to the well-being of both body and soul of the peoples of this world in their concrete reality. For this reason, because of their radical commitment to the Lord and to his Church, religious must be in the forefront in fosteringthe virtues of human solidarity and interdependence. Two questions are~to be asked: have religious congregations in the past fostered supranationalism? How are they responding to this challenge today? I will take each question in turn. Religious Life and Supranationalism before Vatican II There is no doubt about the involvement of religious congregations in internationalism over the three hundred years prior to Vatican II. Religious, 356 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 very often from newly formed congregations, moved into recently discov-ered countries, frequently braving, atrocious physical conditions, in order to spread the faith.~ While many individual religious aspired to identify with the cultures of the people they were evangelizing, rarely was the work of religious congregations themselves marked by the spirit of supranationalism within those countries which we now call the Third World. At the risk of grave oversimplification I will explain briefly why it was difficult for religious to express supranationalism, in evangelization. ~0 From the fifteenth century onwards, a marked inflexibility in the Church's rela-tionship with cultures, especially beyond Europe, developed. This inflexibility affected the missionary policies of religious Congregations. Prior to this period, most especially in the early centuries,o.the Church often related to cultures in remarkably flexible ways. Pope Gregory the Great's directive to Augustine of Canterbury 'in the year 601 about not destroying the temples of the gods, and,the need to place the relics of the saints in those same temples is rather symbolic of the flexibility of the period. ~ This openness, however, was not to continue; The Church became more and more culturally "Euro-centric" in its expression of the faith. In more modern times, as European colonial expansion developed, it was this Euro-centric Church that was to accompany it. As one commentator put it: "The missionaries--true children of their times--shared the intolerant and prejudiced views of the conquistadores on the native cultures and religions.''~2 The European Ch~'ch was to be planted in the new lands with-out change. The cultures of the people being evangelized were seen as unim-portant; priority was given to the conversion and salvation of individual souls: Rarely did missionaries see the need to understand local cultures-- or even at times to learn the local languages.13 There were vigorous, but eventually unsuccessful, reactions against this arrogant ecclesiastical/colonial European nationalism. From the Con-gregation of the Propagation of the Faith in 1622 there came a very force-ful condemnation of cultural prejudice: What could be more absurd than to carry France, Spain, or lt~l~,, or any other part of Europe into China? It is not this sort of thing you are to bring but rather the Faith, which does not reject or damage any people's rites and customs provided' they are not depraved . Let customs that prove to be depraved be uprooted more by hints and by silence., gradually without jolting. 14 People like the Capuchin Father Jerom Meroila in the Congo in the sev-enteenth century ~eriously endeavored to follow this advice. ~5 Jesuits in par-ticular, notably de Nobili and Ricci, led the movement for accommoda- Beyond Frontiers / 357 tion and adaptation with a flexibility characteristic of the early Church. 16 Tragically, these efforts to revitalize supranationalism within the Church were crushed with the rejection of the work of Ricci and his companions in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In the late nineteenth century the revival of Thomistic Aristotelianism, which encouraged people to look for what is good and of God within cul-tures, sparked off a new movement that would many decades later lead to the return of the Churcl~'s early pastoral flexibility. Euro-centric prejudice in evangelizers was condemned. 17 At the same time there developed within the Church a vigorous support for the rights of all people in regard to their culture and national identity. ~8 But it would take a long time before the pas-toral implications of these emphases would be worked out. Many evangelizers yearned to revive the apostolic approach of people like Ricci, but multiple factors made it difficult for these dreams to be realized. Thus, for instance, as long as the theQlogy of the local church remained under-developed, it would be difficult to explore fully the pastoral implications of the relationship of evangelization to culture. Terms like "accommoda-tion" or "adaptation" became common in missiology. But theologically and pastorally they connoted not an exchange between the Gospel and cul-tures, but rather a process of.choosing what local value or custom could be used to express better the meaning of the faith. The local faithful, how-ever, were not to be involved in t.his process of choice. So, while the rhetoric favored flexibility, in practice the Church remained fundamentally Euro-centric in its evangelizing aims and methods. Understandably, religious life mirrored this ongoing European empha-sis. 19 This was evident in the rigidity with which Europ.ean forms and struc-tures of religious life were uncritically exposed and planted in other cul-tures. At times local vocations were not encouraged because it was thought the people were "just not ready and mature enough" to undertake the responsibilities of religious life. Moreover, the fact that Europe and America had what was thought to be an endless supply of missionary vocations removed.a good ideal of the urgency to discover what were the practical implications of the phrase "accommodating the faith to local cul-tures~" Religious congregations continued to become dramatically international, but rarely did they become supra-national. At times the internal structuring or method of governing missionary ven~ tures further reinforced the spirit and practice of the European colonialism. For example, some congregations favored the system of attaching mission-ary endeavors directly to particular provinces in Europe and America. Invari-ably, this meant that French missionaries were isolated in one part of a Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 "mission" land, Americans in another, and so on. Hence, a "little France" or a "little America" could exist in Third World countries, with no outside challenge to such assumptions of cultural superiority. In view of all these forces, therefore, it is not surprising that indigenous forms of religious life have rarely developed in the Third World; the mode.Is remain overwhelmingly First World in design.2° Reiigious Life and Supranationalism after Vatican II With Vatican II, and with subsequent reflection, religious life has been challenged to'its very roots by a revitalized theology of evangelization and of the local church. The relationship that should e~ist between the Gospel and cultures has been clarified. Evangelization is to be a "living exchange between the Church and the diverse cultures of people:''2t The Church, which ~s itself a culture, must be prepared, to chahge and develop new insights into how the Gospel is to be preached through a process of exchange and dialogue with the people being evangelized. This exchange process is what is now called inculturation. The expressions accommodation and adaptation do not quite convey this emphasis on exchange. Rather they imply that the Church gives to cul-tures, but does not receive. As historical expressions they were found to be dated; hence, the new word inculturation was developed in order to high-light the importance of exchange.2z Evangelization is not to be directed to the soul alone, but to the person--"whole and entire, body and soul.''23 "What mhtters," declares Paul VI, "is to evangelize man's culture and cultures [not in a purely decorative way, as it were, by applying a thin veneer, but in a vital way, in depth and right to their very roots].''z4 The search for justice in this world is not something secondary to evangelization, but it is a constituent part of the mission of the Church.25 However, as was pointed out above, the Gospel, and therefore evangelization, can never be exclusively identified with this or that culture, or with the pursuit of justice in this world alone. Evangelization must include the "prophetic proclamation of a hereafter, man's profound and definitive calling, in both continuity and discontinuity with the present sit-uation: beyond time and history, beyond the transient reality of this world ¯ . . beyond man himself, whose true destiny is not restricted to his tem-poral aspect but will be revealed in the future life.''26 In brief, evangelization must call people to a life of evangelical supranationalism. These emphases have serious ramifications for the religious who is an evangelizer. The evangelizer's task is to facilitate the dialogue between cul-ture and the Gospel. The religious must prophetically call people to this dialogue first, by the witness of his or her evangelical example, and then, Beyond Frontiers / 359 by the preaching of the Word of God. The dialogue to be aimed at is not merely intellectual. Rather it must be a faith interaction in which people are invited to interior conversion. To quote Paul VI again: "The Church evangelizes when she seeks to convert, solely through ttie divine power of the Message she proclaims, both the personal and collective consciences of people, the activities in which they engage, and the lives and concrete milieus which are theirs."zv Conversion is not brought about through author-itarian dictation, nor is it achieved through various forms of cultural romanticism. The religious, who in his orher zeal for :social justice overidentifies with nationalism or the protest movements of people against oppression cannot prophetically proclaim that "man's profound and definitive calling . . . [is] beyond time and history, beyond the transient reality of this world." Such a religious falls victim to the insidious power of cultural romanticism. Especially in parts of the Third World in which there is so much oppres-sion by the rich over the poor, massive injustices and corruption, the con-cerned religious is severely tempted to fall into a form of romanticism. Paulo Freire, the brilliant South American educator., has warned people to avoid the trap of romanticism. In order to remain objective and helpful to the oppressed, those who would be change-agents must, he says, undergo a profound rebirth. They must rise above the desire to overcome oppressors through the use of the same force that they used to subjugate the poor.28 The evangelizer, too, must at all times maintain the objectivity that is necessary to proclaim the fullness of the Gospel message with its power for salvation. St. Paul reminds us: "It was for liberty that Christ freed us. So stand firm, and do not take on.yourselves the yoke of slavery a second time" (Ga. 5:1). If the temptation in the past was for evangelizers to fall into the trap of Euro-centric cultural evangelization, then today's special temptation is to become slaves for "a second time" through cultural romanticism. Both forms of slavery obstruct our prophetic freedom. Religious specially should commit themselves to fulfill St. Paul's call for Christians to be ambassadors of reconciliation (2 Co 5:20). If religious overidentify with political parties, pressure groups or nationalist move-ments in the name for social justice, they jeopardize their prophetic role as reconcilers in Christ of all peoples--the oppressed and the oppressors. The chance to witness to the transcendent love of the Father for all is in danger. For example, if I as a religious join a political party, I become inevitably cut off in various ways from other sectors of society I seek to evangelize. I cease to be free to act credibly as an ambassador of reconcil-iation between all groups within that society. This fact helps to explain 360 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 John Paul II's insistence that politics should normally be left to lay people. In his address to priests in San Salvador (March 6, 1983) he said: "Remem-ber, my dear brothers, that--as I said to the priests and religious in Mexico~you~are hOtsocial directors, political leaders, or officials of a tem-poral power . " Religious are rather to foster among the laity a com-mitment to witness to the Gospel in the secular world as directors, leaders and officials. Though excessive nationalism is much less a temptation to evangelizers in the First World than in the Third, nonetheless these can still easily fall into other forms of cultural romanticism. For example, religious may become so involved in maintenance work in dioceses that they forget their prophetic and innovative role. Or, in their zeal to solve social problems, religious may turn to secular methods and values alone, ignoring or downgrading the supernational importance. We come to the second question: Are religious congregations respond-ing to the challenge given them by the Church today? Only through a process of discernment and reflection can each congre-gation. respond to this question. However, in order to aid this process I will offer two extreme polar models of religious congregations. These models can help religious to measure their own behavior and that of their institutes. It would be rare indeed if any particular congregation perfectly fitte~l either of ,the models described. Models in anthropological analysis are simple, abstract representations of human~' experience and interactions which are often highly complex in real life. Models are constructed~ to he!p under-standing, and to do so they emphasize major themes or characteristics and overlook details. It is up to the reader or researcher to modify, refine-~or even reject--models in light of his or her experience. Model 1: Internationalism/Faint Supranationalism ~ Anthropologists have discovered a type of society that is organized on the basis of segmentation.29 The society is divided up into segments for a variety of reasons, but these segments are not permanently divided, since they are united at other levels to form new and more inclusive segments when certain common needs require this. Total unity is very fragile and, like all levels of unity at any stage in the society, it disintegrates once the reason for the unity disappears. In brief, there are factors within the soci-ety that encourage people to form opposing groups, but there are counterbalancing factors that draw people in these groups together at other levels. Suspicion or potential/actual conflict or feuds divide the segments Beyond Frontiers / 361 Figure 1 Model I. Internationalism/Faint Supranationalism Factors Conducive to Internationalism/Supranationalism Constitutions/Mission Statements: -rhetoric favors supranationalism Commitment to supranationalism: -Weak in congregation Factors Conducive to Provincialism/Segmentation Commitment to provincial boundaries strong: Central Government: General Chapter: -symbol of unity; -rhetoric favors supranationalism General Government: -symbol of unity/internationalism -supplies bureaucratic needs, for example, dispensation --charism research Interprovincial-Regional Cooperation: -weak: last resort Apostolates: -in Third World for vocations/sur-vival. Formation: -international/interprovincial only in extreme need -inward looking vision -prophetic figures marginalized Provincial Government: -commitment to survival of prov-ince as the priority -suspicious of outside "interference," for example, General Government Apostolates: -Identification with diocesan main-tenance works -prophetic role weak -if clerical-religious, clericalism strong -weak involvement in multiculturalism Formation: -poor screening; concern for numbers -no training for multiculturalism/ supranationalism and are put aside only when common needs demand unity for survival. A feud can be defined as relations of mutual animosity among intimate groups in which a resort to violence is anticipated on both sides.3° The violence does not have to be physical; it can be verbal. Past injustices or misunderstandings are recalled to remind all concerned that the "out- 362 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 group" simply cannot be trusted to work with the "in-group." There may be an official leader in such a society, but the real power rests in the various segments, the lowest segment having the most power over its members. Oft-repeated rhetoric supportive of total unity is apt to so confuse the observer that it is thought that real unity exists, when, in fact, such is far from being the case. In Model ! of religious congregations that I am proposing the empha-sis is on internationalism, with a faint acceptance of supranationalism. A congregation of this type has the characteristics of the segmentary society or culture just described. In Figure 1, the major qualities of a segmentary congregation have been summarized. The official rhetoric is often power-fully supranationalist, as in general chapter documents or mission state-ments, but the ~-eality just as strongly contradicts this rhetoric. Internationalism exists inasmuch as some members live and work in for-eign lands, such as missionaries and general administrators. There may be a growing interest in the Third World countries inspired by the congrega-tion's rhetoric about the call to be at the service of the poor, but the really operative force would be the desire for vocations to keep the provinces and the congregation alive. The emphasis of recruitment is on numbers, not on the quality of the screening methods or the formation given. The formation remains culturally Euro-centric and paternal; the local cultures and their needs are ignored. Inculturation simply does not exist. Loyalty in the congregation imagined in this model is first and fore-most to the province to which one belongs, not to the congregation or its spirit.Whoever encourages congregational supranationalism would be thought a "traitor" to the province.3~ Cooperation exists between the prov-inces and with the general administration only when it is absolutely nec-essary- and even then fo~: the advantage primarily of the province. The gen-eral administration, for example, would be able to staff congregation-wide projects only through a process of bargaining, not dialogue. A province is prepared to release difficult personnel for such work, but not talented mem-bers, for the province's first obligation is to its own survival. "Talented people simply should not be released for work outside the province" is the overriding assumption. At international meetings of the congregation, pro-vinces look first to their own rights and their interests, not to those of the congregation. Suspicion and feud-like behavior colors the province's rela. tions with the general administration and with other provinces. Stories of past interference and misunderstandings on the part of general officers are gleefully recounted in order to maintain in the province a distrust of "out. siders." Beyond Frontiers" Apostolically, provinces in this model are strong supporters of main-tenance rather than of mission within the dioceses in which they work. A province takes its bearings all too exclusively from the internal ecclesiastical and socioeconomic structure of the countries where its apostolates are situated.32 There is little or no prophetic challenging of dioceses or diocesan administrations. Consequently, there is little room for other issues such as justice or multiculturalism/supranationalism. Individ-uals wh0do show interest are thought to be "somewhat odd," or follow-ing a "hobby," or just "wasting time." On the other hand, where involve-ment in the social apostolate is encouraged, its relationship with the Transcendent may be deliberately played down "lest one's identification with the Gospel hinder one's identification with those who struggle for social justice." In this model clericalism would be a dominant force in clerical insti-tutes. (Clericalism connotes "an authoritarian style of ministerial leader-ship, a rigidly hierarchical world view, and a virtual identification of the holiness and grace of the Church with the clerical state and, thereby, with the cleric himself.''33) Consequently, within community there would be little fraternity with lay members of the congregation who would be looked down upon as inferior and as "servants of the priests." Lay involvement in apostolic works of the congregation would be poorly encouraged. On the other hand, religious who might act against clericalism would overidentify with worldly values and with the customs of the ambient cul-ture on the pretext that this will "bring us closer to the people we are evangelizing." As regards the screening and formation of candidates, the approach in such a congregation would be colored by all the above characteristics. Can-didates would be encouraged to join the province if they are seen to have the qualities that would "fit them in" to the overriding inward-looking, weakly prophetic ethos of the province. Candidates would be jealously iso-lated from contact with those from other provinces lest they develop "dan-gerous ideas," supranationalism, or the feeling of belonging to a "con-gregation wider than the province." Formators of other provinces could not be trusted to direct the formation of candidates because they might decide that the latter have "no vocation to religious life." Hence, interprovincial and international formation programs would be severely discouraged. Model 2. Internationalism/Strong Supranationalism In Figure 2, I set out emphases that are seen in congregations which approximate the second model, Internationalism/Strong Supranationalism. 364 / Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 The members of such a religious congregation commit themselves primar-ily to the mission of Christ and the Church according to the insights of the founding figure. Administrative structures such as provinces exist to facil-itate the response of the congregation itself to the mission of Christ. The spiritual and human welfare of members of the congregation is considered of paramount imporiance. The congregation's administrators are alive to the ctiallenge given them by Paul VI that they take up the "double task of inspiring and innovating in order to make structures evolve, so as to adapt them to the real needs" of mission and personnel.34'Provinces relate to one another and to the general administration on the basis of their common mission and according to subsidiar{ty, dialogue and discernment. Apostolates are selected according to definite objective criteria: the pri-ority of needs in the universal Church and local churches, the mission of the Church, the charism of the congregation and the resources available. The congregation hesitates to accept parishes unless there is scope for mis-sionary and creative pastoral action. No matter what apostolate is selected, members of~ the congregation will attitudinally be influenced in all they do by the need to call the People of God to multiculturalism/supranationalism. Given the priority of needs internationally today, congregations may strive, where possib!e, to witness to supranationalism by establishing international teams. For these teams to be effective they need to fulfill various require-ments. Firstly, those selected must be capable of living internationally according to the principles of supranationalism. Not everyone has the abil-ity to live and work on an international team; there can be heavy d6mands on the psychological and spiritual resources of individuals as they are called to face up to the requirements of constant adaptation to new cultural con-ditions. Secondly, members of teams must be given the chance for adequate preparation spiritually and humanly in order that they can fit into challeng-ing international and intercultural situations. This means not only the acquisi-tion of linguistic skills, but also an awareness of key anthropological insights into the nature and power of culture, culture change, the role of catalysts in culture change, and so forth. In their training programs mem-bers will need to have adequate periods of living in cultures very different from their own. They will need to experience the shock of being "at sea" in a culture that is unfamiliar to them; they will need to discover for them-selves the richness of being humble and dependent on other people whose culture they do not know or understand. Their own cultural biases and preju-dices must be challenged, otherwise an insidious ethnocentrism will govern their relations with other team members and the peoplethey hope to serve Beyond Frontiers / 365 Figure 2 Model 2. Internationalism/Strong Supranationalism Loyalty: primarily to the Congregation which is at the service of the mission of Christ and Church. Apostolates: based on -priority of needs in universal Church (internationalism/supranationalism) and local churches (multiculturalism). -charism of congregation -available resources Administration: -at service of mission -provinces and general administration relate on basis of common mission/subsidiarity/ dialogue-discernment Formation: Initial: On _going. -based on mission/charism -emphasis on union with Christ for cre-ative response to demands of change. -training for internationalism/ multiculturalism/supr-anationalism -revitalization of commitment to: -Christ -Congregation -creativity/adapability in change pastorally. Thirdly, in the structuring of an international team, as far as is possi-ble no one culture should predominate. If one cultural group does predom-inate, it is likely to over-influence attitudes and policies of the group.35 If a culturally balanced team is not possible, the predominant cultural group must be especially sensitive to avoid obstructing the emergence of 366 / Review for Religious, May-~June, 1987 supranationalism in the team. From history, such international teams as I have described are apt to foster vigorous creativity pastorally and in religious life. As Raymond Hostie notes: Basic to all institutions that became remarkable for their explosive expan-sion is an initial heterogeneous core. Cistercians, Norbertines, Dominicans, Carmelites, Jesuits and Piarists, all emerged from groups whose members belonged to three nationalities, or even four or five. The initial group of Franciscans, CamillianS, Brothers of the Christian Schools and the Salesians was composed of men of very disparate social rank and cultural level. Heterogeneity is a necessary condition for activating effective fermentation.36 Initial formation in Model 2 is dictated by the demands of mission and the charism of the congregation. Hence, the programs are structured to foster in candidates a spirit of adaptability to constant change.37 Spiritual formation will be aimed at uncovering within candidates their own inner poverty and their ongoing need of strength from Christ: "He who loves his life loses it, and he who hates his life in this world will keep it for eter-nal life" (Jn 12:25). The process of initial formation is a delicate one requir-ing skilled people to accompany candidates through the journey of self-discovery. Though the formation program is spread over several years and may well involve experiences in different cultural situations, there will be formators to whom candidates are clearly accountabl~. In Model 2, forma-tion is not a haphazard arrangement. As with initial formation, the ongoing formation programs are structured on the basis of the needs of mission. Religious need oppor-tunities to revitalize their commitment to Christ and to their congregational charism. They need space to reflect on whether or not their commitment to multiculturalism/supranationalism is rhetoric or reality. Over time, reli-gious may have uncritically absorbed negative values from the culture in which they work; little by little their supranationalism and pastoral creativ-ity may have been undermined. In this model it is assumed that adminis-trative structures are so flexible that superiors are able to spot quickly the individual needs of evangelizers and offer appropriate assistance. This ser-vice to evangelizers is part of a much wider task of administrations, namely, the ongoing need to foster evaluation of the apostolic relevance and effectiveness of the teams. In this model apostolates aie hot permitted~ to drift without goals and without effective evaluations. Conversion to Supranationalism In J.R. Toikien's The Hobbit: Or There and Back Again, Bilbo Beyond Frontiers / 367 Baggins initially turns down an invitation to go on a journey. He is too com-f0rtable in his way of life to be bothered with the trials of an adventure. He finally accepts the challenge and even begins to enjoy it. The cultures and the people he meets both disturb and intrigue him. But he soon tires of the constant need to adapt to new challenges, so he turns for home and retreats from the world of adventure singing:."Feet that wandering have gone, Turn at last'to home afar. Eyes . . . Look at last on meadows green.-38 Most of us can identify with Bilbo. We commit ourselves to multiculturalism/supranationalism, that is to the preaching of God's love across the frontiers of cultures. Yet we are tempted at times to weaken our efforts, to seek the security of our own cultures and our prejudices. Inevitably we will give way to these temptations, thus losing our apostolic effectiveness, if we seek to rely on merely human motivation. There is needed that inner, ongoing conversion that comes~from being a new creation in Christ (2 Co 5:17). Only in the ongo.ing response.to this new life will we have the inner resources to become "all things to all men" (1 Co 9:22). The divine love within us gives us the evangelical muscle to keep struggling to be open to other p~oples "~nd their cultures: "Love is patient; love is kind. Love is not jealous, it does not l~ut on airs, it is not snobbish . There is no limit to love's forbearance, to its trust, its hope, its power to endure" (! Co 13:4,6). St. Paul uses the analogy of a runner when he explains the process of ongoing conversion. To stop runn.ing for the Lord is to fall back into purely human insights and comforts (1 Co 9:24-27). Constant discipline 6f the whole person is required: "Athletes deny themselves all sorts of things: . . . What I do is discipline my own body and master it; for fear that after having preached to others I myself ~.hould be rejected" (ibid). The discipline of conversion also involves the Struggle .to identify one's own cultural prejudices, and the battle to remove them. It is a never-ending struggle and battle! I recall a fine evangelizer working outside his culture-of-origin commenting: '~I th6.ught for years I was not prejudiced. I believedI deeply loved these people. One day ! discovered that I was highly prejudiced and this shocked me intense]y. I could get no good ser-vice in the local shops, the car was slow to be fixed, letters were not reach-ing me fast enough, the food tasted horrible! I found myself complaining aloud about the people, and I used all the stereotypes about them that I had thought I had long rejected: 'These silly people--they are lazy, deceitful. If only I was back home where things are really done rightly!' " This evangelizer is an honest person. He courageously recognized' his prejudices as grave obstacles to his supranational work of evangelization, and courageously struggled to remove them. He understands that self- 361~ /Review for Religious, May--June, 1987 discipline must be ongoing. When Yahweh called Abraham, he summoned him to leave the warmth of his familiar surroundings to begin a life's journey: "Go forth from the land of your kinsfolk and from your father's house to a land that I will show you" (Gn 12:1). R(ligious are to live out the same kind of call in a' spirit of faith. Bilbo, when he started out on his journey, sang "The world is ahead and home behind," but finally rejoiced when he could sing "The world is behind and home ahead." For we religious, unlike Bilbo, the ~hailenges of the world ahead are always with us; we can never say that we run out6f apostoli.c challenges or adventures. And our home is also ahead of u~. We await in hope for the ne, w Jerusalerrl (Ga 4:26). We can resist making this world our substitute Jerusalem only if we have Abraham's spirit of detachment and faith. Detachment comes from discov-ering in oneself one's own chaotic powerlessness to be supranationalist with-oiat the love and power of Christ. If we recognize our own inner helplessness, then we can say with'St. Paul: "And' so I willingly boast of my weaknesses instead, that the power of Christ may rest upon me . . . for when I am powerless, it is then that I am strong" (2 Co 12:9f.). Summary With St. Paul we say: "I do not run like a man who loses sight of the finish line" (1 Co 9:26). The ultimate finish line, in which there will be perfect justice and love, is to.be found when "the new heavens and the new earth" emerge at the end of time (2 P 3: I'3). In this waiting time we strive in faith to express this justice and love towards different peoples and cultures: "There does not exist among you Jew or Greek, slave or freeman, male or female. All, are one in Christ Jesus" (Ga 3:28). Religious esl~ecially commit themselves to this vision and its realiza-tion. In their lives and preachiflg they call people to look beyond this or that pressure group, political party, cultural group, tO the needs and insights of other people and cultures.39 At the same time they challenge people to avoid an unrealistic and ~i'~ous search for ~ perfect world here below, "for the world as we know it° is passing away" (I Co 7:31). Religious,. when confronted by the enormity of evil around them will be tempted to discouragement, skepticism or even the recklessness of despair. They will bc tempted to retreat into the security of their cultural prejudices and feel-ings of superiority. Recourse to merely human power, even violence, in order to achieve human justice may look very attractive. However, the moment a religious gives way to these temptations, he or she ceases to be apostolically supranationalist --indeed, apostolically effective. Beyond Frontiers I 369 NOTES ~ See John Paul II, Redemptor Hominis, 1979, par. 8. z See On Mutual Relations between Bishops and Religious, Congregations for Religious and Bishops, Rome, 1978, par. 12. 3 G. AIIport, The Nature of Prejudice (New York: Doubleday, 1958), p. 8. 4 See also D.L. Shields, Growing Beyond Prejudices (Mystic, Conn.: Twenty-Third Publications, 1986), pp. 149-176. 5 At times anthropologists, too, are guilty of romanticism. See G.E. Marcus and M.M. Fischer, Anthropology as Cultural Critique: An Experimental Moment in the Human Sciences (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1986), passim. 6 Dictionary of the Bible (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1986), p. 766. 7 See Congregation for Doctrine of the Faith, "Instruction on Christian Freedom and Liberation" in L'Osservatore Romano, 14 April, 1986, p. 5, par. 58. 8 See Lumen Gentium, par. 3. 9 Gaudium et Spes, par. 3. ~0 See G.A. Arbuckle, "lnculturation and Evangelization: Realism or Romanticism" in D.L. Whiteman (ed.), Missionaries, Anthropologists and Cultural Change (Williamsburg: Studies in Third World Societies, 1985), pp. 171-207. ~ See "Gregory's Counsel to Mellitus with Regard to the Heathen Temples in England" in A.J. Mason (ed.), The Mission of St. Augustine to England (Cambridge: CUP, 1879), pp. 89ff. t2 G. Voss, "Missionary Accommodation" in Missionary Academic Study No. 2 (New York: P. Faith, 1946), p. 17. ~3 See P. Duignan, "Early Jesuit Missionaries: A Suggestion for Further Study," in American Anthropologist, Vol. 6, pp. 725ff. 14 See S. Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith, "Instructio ad Vicariorum Apostolicorum ad Regna Synarum Tonchini et Cocinnae Proficiscentium," in Collectanea Sacrae Congregationis de P. Fide (Rome, 1907), Vol. I, p. 42. ~5 See M.D. Jeffreys, "Some Rules of Directed Culture Change under Roman Catho-licism" in American Anthropologist, Vol. 58, 1956, pp. 723f. ~6 See C.W. Allan, Jesuits at the Court of Peking (Arlington: University Publications of America, 1975), passim; and P. Duignan, op. cit., pp; 726ff. t7 See Pius XII, "Princeps Pastorum" in (ed.)R. Hickey, Modern Missionary Doc-uments and Africa (Dublin: Dominican Publications, 1982), p. 143. ~8 See Pius XII, AIIocution 6 Dec. 1953, in Acta

The pandemic of COVID-19 has afflicted every individual and has initiated a cascade of directly or indirectly involved events in precipitating mental health issues. The human species is a wanderer and hunter-gatherer by nature, and physical social distancing and nationwide lockdown have confined an individual to physical isolation. The present review article was conceived to address psychosocial and other issues and their aetiology related to the current pandemic of COVID-19. The elderly age group has most suffered the wrath of SARS-CoV-2, and social isolation as a preventive measure may further induce mental health issues. Animal model studies have demonstrated an inappropriate interacting endogenous neurotransmitter milieu of dopamine, serotonin, glutamate, and opioids, induced by social isolation that could probably lead to observable phenomena of deviant psychosocial behavior. Conflicting and manipulated information related to COVID-19 on social media has also been recognized as a global threat. Psychological stress during the current pandemic in frontline health care workers, migrant workers, children, and adolescents is also a serious concern. Mental health issues in the current situation could also be induced by being quarantined, uncertainty in business, jobs, economy, hampered academic activities, increased screen time on social media, and domestic violence incidences. The gravity of mental health issues associated with the pandemic of COVID-19 should be identified at the earliest. Mental health organization dedicated to current and future pandemics should be established along with Government policies addressing psychological issues to prevent and treat mental health issues need to be developed. References World Health Organization (WHO) Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Dashboard. 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Pitanje mogućnosti formiranja ekološkog pokreta u Srbiji u kontekstu postsocijalistiĉke transformacije društva i procesa evrointegracija, predstavlja predmet bavljenja ove doktorske disertacije. Rad se sastoji iz tri veće celine i poglavlja u kome su izneta zakljuĉna razmatranja. U prvom delu rada, razvijeni su uporedno-istorijski, kontekstualni, konceptualni i metodološki okvir istraţivanja, kao polazne osnove za dalje analize. Kako bi mogle biti obuhvaćene sve relevantne dimenzije kompleksnog fenomena ekološkog pokreta i sloţena mreţa ĉinilaca koji utiĉu na njegov nastanak i razvoj, u istraţivanju su kombinovano korišćene razliĉite metodološke tehnike: anketno ispitivanje stavova i praksi na reprezentativnom uzorku graĊana Srbije (N=1952) i predstavnika lokalnih samouprava (N=232), polustrukturisani intervjui sa predstavnicima nevladinih organizacija (N=44), kao i dve studije sluĉaja zajednica sa izraţenim ekološkim problemima - Panĉeva i Bora. Drugi deo rada je posvećen opisu i analizi pojedinaĉnih elemenata ekološkog pokreta: ekoloških aktivista, ekoloških grupa / organizacija, ekoloških mreţa, kolektivnog identiteta i ekoloških konflikata. Na osnovu detaljne analize karakteristika osnovnih elemenata pokreta, u zakljuĉnom poglavlju drugog dela rada daje se odgovor na pitanje: da li u Srbiji postoji ekološki pokret? Osnovni istraţivaĉki nalaz je da u Srbiji nije došlo do formiranja klasiĉnog participativnog tipa ekološkog pokreta, kakav je prisutan u zemljama Zapada. TakoĊe, nema ni naznaka znaĉajnijeg prisustva elemenata transakcionog ekološkog aktivizma (pokreta), ĉiji je prisustvo zabeleţeno u zemljama Centralne Evrope. Umesto toga, svedoci smo razvoja specifiĉnog modela ekološkog kolektivnog delanja koji smo nazvali "ekološkim trećim sektorom". Naime, za razliku od participativnog i transakcionog delanja, koji imaju naglašeno politiĉku dimenziju, aktivnosti organizacija u okviru trećeg sektora su preteţno "apolitiĉne" po karakteru, usmerene na pruţanje usluga u oblastima iz kojih se, u sklopu neoliberalnih reformi, drţava povukla. Pored nerazvijenosti konfliktne (politiĉke) dimenzije, ekološki treći sektor odlikuje i atomizovano delanje profesionalnih ekoloških organizacija, koje samo izuzetno (pod spoljnim pritiscima ili podsticajima) uspostavljaju fiziĉke veze (mreţe) meĊu sobom, dok se na planu kolektivnog identiteta razvija samo kognitivna dimenzija (formalno prihvatanje odreĊenih ekoloških vrednosti i naĉela koja ĉine sastavni deo ekološkog diskursa dominantnog na Zapadu). GraĊani, po pravilu, nisu ukljuĉeni u rad ovih organizacija, izuzev kao korisnici usluga. U trećem delu rada se razmatraju razlozi usled kojih ne dolazi do razvoja participativnog i/ili transakcionog ekološkog pokreta (aktivizma). Za potrebe objašnjenja nastanka specifiĉne hibridne forme ekološkog trećeg sektora, kreiran je sintetiĉki eksplanatorni model koji kombinuje elemente razvijene u okviru razliĉitih teorijskih pristupa fenomenu društvenih pokreta. Eksplanatorna shema je formulisana na sledeći naĉin: za pokretanje kolektivnog delanja i nastanak ekološkog pokreta neophodno da prethodno budu ispunjeni sledeći uslovi: potrebno je da postoji izvesno socijalno-konstruisano nezadovoljstvo (problem) kod većeg broja pojedinaca / profesionalnih zastupniĉkih organizacija (socijalno-konstruktivistiĉka reinterpretacija klasiĉnih pristupa); zatim, grupa pojedinaca koja oseća dati problem / zalaţe se za njegovo rešavanje, mora posedovati odreĊene resurse za pokretanje i odrţavanje 5 kolektivne akcije (pristup teorije mobilizacije resursa); šire okruţenje treba da bude relativno povoljno kako bi nagovestilo mogućnost pozitivnog ishoda aktivnosti koja se ţeli realizovati (pristup strukture politiĉkih mogućnosti), a vrednosni okvir na takav naĉin podešen da usmerava na delanje predstavnike profesionalnih ekoloških organizacija i / ili neposredno ugroţenu populaciju (nezadovoljne) i (eventualno) širi krug podrţavalaca (pristup Novih društvenih pokreta). Na proces formiranja ekološkog pokreta, kroz ĉetiri neposredna faktora (socijalna-konstrukcija ekoloških rizika, dostupnost i karakteristike resursa, struktura politiĉkih mogućnosti, vrednosni sistem),indirektno deluju širi društveni procesi - postsocijalistiĉka transformacija i evropeizacija srpskog društva, kao i ĉinioci duţeg trajanja ((pred)socijalistiĉko nasleĊe). Testiranje postavljenih eksplikativnih hipoteza je pokazalo da ni jedan od uslova neophodnih za formiranje ekološkog pokreta, nije delimiĉno ili u potpunosti zadovoljen. Postojeći ekološki problemi su dominantno odreĊeni u kategorijama niskog rizika i male vaţnosti u odnosu na druga društvena pitanja, usled ĉega je i njihov podsticajni kapacitet za kolektivnu (re)akciju bitno sniţen. Pored toga, vladajuće shvatanje prema kome u ekološkoj modernizaciji leţi rešenje za gotovo sve ekološke probleme, pokazuje se kao ĉinilac koji nepovoljno utiĉe na graĊanski aktivizam, jer upućuje na pasivno išĉekivanje uvoĊenja obećanih mehanizama odrţivog razvoja. Većini graĊana na raspolaganju stoji vrlo ograniĉena koliĉina resursa, usled ĉega, u velikom broju sluĉajeva, oni odustaju od uĉešća u ekološkim akcijama. Ekološke organizacije, takoĊe, imaju poteškoća da obezbede neophodne resurse za rad, a dodatni problem predstavlja i naĉin njihove mobilizacije, usled kojeg gube samostalnost postajući zavisne od stranih izvora finansiranja. Kao posledica, ekološko delanje je atomizovano, a rivalitet i konflikti unutar ekološkog civilnog sektora, naglašeni; ekološke mreţe se teško formiraju i odrţavaju, kolektivni identitet je slab (nad njim prevagu odnose partikularni interesi), a kritiĉko delovanje ekoloških organizacija, nerazvijeno. Struktura politiĉkih mogućnosti se, uprkos postojanju relativno povoljnog zakonskog okvira, pokazuje zatvorenom prema uĉešću graĊana u donošenju odluka. GraĊani percipiraju predstavnike vlasti kao neprijemĉive za njihove potrebe, što se nepovoljno odraţava na njihovu spremnost da se organizuju i pokušaju da nametnu svoje zahteve. S druge strane, ekološke organizacije su iskljuĉene iz procesa odluĉivanja i svedene na ulogu asistenata u podizanju kapaciteta drţave za sprovoĊenje programa u oblasti zaštite ţivotne sredine. Konfliktno delanje organizacija je ograniĉeno, s jedne strane, time što ne dobijaju podršku moćnih aktera (meĊunarodne ekološke organizacije, strani donatori), a sa druge, finansijskim uslovljavanjem od strane drţavnih struktura. Karakteristike kulturološkog konteksta se, takoĊe, pokazuju nepovoljnim za razvoj ekološkog pokreta u Srbiji. Dominacija materijalistiĉkog sistema vrednosti i s njim povezano visoko vrednovanje ekonomskog razvoja, koje u senci ostavlja ekološke probleme, negativno utiĉe na ekološko aktiviranje graĊana. Ipak, uprkos preteţno materijalistiĉkoj vrednosnoj orijentaciji, graĊanima su vrlo bliske vrednosti Nove ekološke paradigme. MeĊutim, od naĉelnog prihvatanja vrednosti karakteristiĉnih za ovu paradigmu do aktivnog delanja, u kontekstu materijalne oskudice, put je dug i vrlo neizvestan. Zakljuĉno poglavlje je posvećeno rezimiranju i diskusiji empirijskih nalaza, kao i razmatranju širih implikacija nerazvijenosti ekološkog pokreta na zaštitu ţivotne sredine u Srbiji. ; he environmental movement in Serbia, in the context of post-socialist transformation and the EU integration process. The paper consists of three major parts and the concluding chapter. In the first part a comparative - historical, contextual, conceptual and methodological framework of the research is developed, as a starting point for the further analyses. In order to capture all relevant dimensions of the complex phenomenon of environmental movement and the composite set of factors that influence its emergence and development, the study is using a combination of different methodological techniques: a survey of attitudes and practices based on a representative sample of Serbian citizens (N = 1952) and local government representatives (N = 232), in parallel with the semi-structured interviews with representatives of non-governmental organizations (N = 44), and the two case studies of communities with serious environmental problems – the municipalities of Pancevo and Bor. The second part contains the description and analysis of individual elements of the environmental movement: environmental activists, environmental groups / organizations, environmental networks, collective identity and environmental conflicts. Based on a detailed analysis of the characteristics of the key elements of environmental movement, the concluding chapter of this part of the paper offers an answer to the question - is there an environmental movement in Serbia? The main research finding is that participatory type of environmental movement that is typical for the Western countries has not been formed in Serbia. There are even no indications of the existence of significant elements of transactional environmental activism (movement), that is present in the countries of Central Europe. Instead, we are witnessing the development of a distinct model of collective environmental action that we have named "the third environmental sector". Different from the participative and transactional activism which have an emphasized political dimension, the nature of the activities of the third sector organizations is mostly "non-political", aimed at providing services in those areas that the state has withdrew from, in the context of neo-liberal reforms. In addition to the underdeveloped conflict/political dimension, the environmental third sector is characterized by atomized actions of professional environmental organizations, which establish physical connections (networks) among themselves only as an exception (under external pressures or incentives), while at the level of collective identity only the cognitive dimension is being developed (the formal acceptance of the environmental values and principles which form an integral part of the environmental discourse dominant in the West). Citizens, as a rule, are not included in the work of these organizations, except as users of services. In the third part, the reasons for the absence of the participatory and / or transactional environmental movement (activism) are discussed. In order to explain the emergence of the specific hybrid form of the environmental third sector, a synthetic explanatory model was established, combining elements developed within different social movement theories. The explanatory scheme has been formulated as follows: for the launch of collective action and the emergence of the environmental movement certain conditions are necessary to be met - a certain level of socially-constructed 8 dissatisfaction (problem) needs to be generated in large numbers of individuals / professional advocacy organizations (social constructivist reinterpretation of classical approaches); then, a group of individuals who perceive the problem / advocates for its solution must possess appropriate resources to initiate and sustain a collective action (the Resource Mobilization Theory approach); the wider context should be relatively favorable as to suggest the possibility of a positive outcome of the action (the Political Opportunities Structure approach); the value framework should be set up in such a way to initiate the action of professional environmental organizations and / or the directly affected population, and possibly also of a wider circle of supporters (the New Social Movements approach). Through the four direct factors (social – construction of environmental risks, the availability and characteristics of resources, the structure of political opportunities, the value system), the process of development of the environmental movement is indirectly affected by wider-scale social processes – the post-socialist transformation and Europeanization of Serbian society, as well as by the factors of longer duration ((pre-) socialist heritage).The testing of the set of explicative hypotheses showed that the necessary pre-conditions for the formation of the environmental movement in Serbia have neither been fully, nor even partially met. In comparison with other issues, the existing environmental problems are dominantly defined in the terms of low-risk and low-importance, due to which their capacities to induce collective (re)action are significantly reduced. In addition, the prevailing concept of environmental modernization, presented as a solution to almost all environmental problems, proves to be a factor that adversely affects civic activism, as it leads to passive anticipation of the promised introduction of mechanisms for sustainable development. Since the majority of citizens have access only to very limited resources, they, in many cases, tend to give up their participation in environmental actions. Environmental organizations also face difficulties in obtaining necessary resources for their operation. An additional problem lies in the way resources are being mobilized: becoming increasingly dependent on foreign funding, organizations tend to lose their autonomy. As a result, the environmental action is atomized and rivalries and conflicts within the environmental civil society accentuated; environmental networks are difficult to establish and maintain and the collective identity is weak (due to domination of particular interests); the conflictual dimension of environmental organizations remains undeveloped. Despite the relatively favorable legal framework, the structure of political opportunities seems closed to the participation of citizens in the decision-making process. Citizens perceive government representatives as unresponsive to their needs, which negatively affects their readiness to act in an organized way and to attempt to impose their demands. On the other hand, environmental organizations are excluded from the decision-making process and reduced to the assisting role in the capacity building of the state bodies for the implementation of programs in the field of environmental protection. Conflicting action of such organizations is limited, on the one hand by the lack of support from powerful actors (international environmental organizations, international donors), and on the other - by the financial preconditions imposed by the state authorities. The characteristics of the cultural context also appear to be unfavorable for the development of the environmental movement in Serbia. The dominance of the materialistic value system and the related high priority attributed to the economic 9 growth, leaves the environmental problems on the margins, thus negatively affecting the environmental activation of citizens. However, despite the predominantly materialistic value orientation, the values of the New environmental paradigm are very familiar to the citizens. Still, in the context of material insecurity, the road from the general acceptance of such values to active action towards reaching them, is long and very uncertain. The concluding chapter is devoted to summarizing and discussing the empirical findings, as well as to considerations of implications of the under-developed environmental movement to the overall state of environmental protection in Serbia.

1. General observations Africa south of the Sahara is probably the most vulnerable region when it comes to the impact and consequences of climate changes. Yet the African continent runs a serious risk of being marginalized in the global dialogue on climate issues. Africa contributes little to the global emissions of CO2, and other greenhouse gases. The major focus of the Framework Convention on Climate Change is on abatement and mitigation of emissions rather than adaptation to the consequences of climate change, and African states have therefore been slow to ratify the treaty and not as active in the international negotiation process as states from other parts of the world. Curbing emissions if justifiably not a central African concern. Yet Africa's potential vulnerability should demand attention from both African policy makers and other decision makers. Africa's natural resource base is seriously threatened. The two central guiding principles of African climate policy both on the part of governments and of international institutions should be reducing vulnerability on the one hand and increasing resilience on the other. Decision makers should not use the remaining scientific uncertainty and the acknowledged dearth of detailed information on African resource management as an excuse for inaction. Not taking climate change into account could be a serious source of mismanagement and fallacious planning. Both increase in temperature and increasing variability of climate are serious dangers in the future. Land degradation policies as well as future energy development should be central concerns. Any strategy for Africa should seek to minimize the potential conflicts among the concerns and priorities for development, adaptation and abatement. Africa's vulnerability to climatic changes relates to a number of factors, including 1) the dependency on bio-fuel, 2) the importance of agriculture, 3) immobility, 4) poor health services, 5) population growth, and 6) low material standards. In the case of Africa, it is difficult to make clear distinctions between abatement and adaptation measures. Social and economic development are necessary in order to prepare the continent for adaptation. 2. African obligations and opportunities under the Climate Convention Forty-nine African states have signed the Climate Convention, but only 33 have ratified so far (23.06.95). Ratification is important because- 1) it signifies the acceptance of the principles of the convention and 2) ratification will be required for financial support under the FCCC. The substantive obligation of all African Parties is a commitment to formulate a climate policy and how it could be implemented. Developing countries shall report on their inventories of GHG emissions, along with their plans and measures to meet the convention's objective within three years after the entry into force of the convention. Least-developed countries may report at their own discretion. Multilateral financing institutions should invest in data gathering on all levels to enhance awareness and improve the possibility for responsible governance in respect to natural resource management and environmental protection. Joint Implementation (JI) can allow for cost effective implementation of the Climate Convention, and provide funding for climate related projects for countries where financial resources are scarce or lacking. 3. Modeling of climate change in Africa There are still substantial limitations in the ability to provide accurate predictions of future climate in Africa. Confidence in regional model predictions is low and there are substantial differences between the models. One can distinguish between three regions when it comes to climatic changes in Africa: 1) Sahel region, 2) corresponding dry regions south of the Equator in Zimbabwe, Botswana, Malawi, etc., and 3) the tropical region centered around the Equator. Major findings from IPCC -90 and -92 of relevance for Africa Temperature. Expected increases in annual average surface temperature at the time of C02 doubling: Northern subtropical region (including Sahel): 2 degrees Celsisus (0.5-3.0 degrees Celsisus), Tropical region: 1.5 degrees Celsisus (0.5-2.5 degrees Celsisus), and Southern subtropical region: 2 degrees Celsisus (0.5-3.0 degrees Celsisus). Precipitation: Increase in surface temperature and increased radiative cooling of the atmosphere due to doubling of CO2, concentrations lead to increased evaporation at the surface and increased intensity of convective precipitation (e.g. thunderstorms from large cumulus towers). Sea level rise: Thermal expansion is regarded as the most important process. Predictions are a 20±10cm increase in sea level at the time of CO2, doubling. IPCC-90 estimates up to a 65cm increase in sea level in year 2100, but this number is likely to be decreased to 40~45cm in the new IPCC-95 report. Observed trends. Since 1895, annual average temperatures has increased by 0.53'C over continental Africa. The recent 25 year dry period in Sahel is the most substantial change in observed precipitation in the global record. Explanations have been sought in 1) land use changes, and 2) circulation changes caused by changing patterns of sea surface temperatures (SST). If the drought represents the first sign of a global warming remains however uncertain. Current anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGS) in Africa. 1) Carbon dioxide (CO2): The major source is land use change (~70); the rest originates mainly from industry and transportation. The African contribution of CO2, was in 1990 estimated to be about 7 0f the world's total. 2) Methane (CH4,): Emissions in Africa are about 7 0f the world's total, with livestock being the main source. Industrial sources are oil and gas production and coal mining. 3) Nitrous oxide (N2O) sources are mainly of natural origin. 3) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC): Africa's share of global CFC emissions is estimated at 3. 4. Natural resource management The uncertainties in predicting climate change impacts in Africa must be underlined, and other human or natural influences may mitigate or exacerbate the effects. Natural variability in Africa is also substantial, and people are to a large extent adapted to changes. Still, predicted human-induced climatic changes are expected to occur very rapidly, and little is known about the capability of the ecosystems - which forms the basis for human existence - to adapt to such changes. It is also clear that impacts of climate change will be unevenly distributed: groups with the highest present vulnerability, such as poor people and people living in marginal areas, will most likely suffer most. Generally, changes in the frequency of extreme weather events would probably have greater impact than changes in average conditions. Agricultural Resources. The fertilizing effect of enhanced CO2 level on plant growth is well documented in laboratory studies, but disputed when it comes to complex "real-world" systems. Other factors concerning climate change impacts on agriculture include 1) Warmer climate and changes in rainfall may reduce the appropriability of present crops. Already being a major problem today, loss of crop and livestock genetic resources may threaten sustainable agricultural development and adaptations to future changes. 2) Increased intensity of rainfall may increase soil erosion, nutrient leaching and crop damage, 3) Changes in timing and length of growing seasons may lead to planning problems, 4) Loss of rainfall in marginal and vulnerable areas would exacerbate drought and desiccation problems, increase risks for bushfire and put forests at their dry margins at risk, and increase problems in animal husbandry, 5) Some models predict a noticeable loss of food production in Africa, but regional variations would probably be large, and local differences (such as in cropping systems) will to a large extent determine how significant the climate change impacts will be. 6) Sea level rise will put low lying agricultural areas at risk, and may render major rivers unsuitable for irrigation. Fish resources. Fish make up a significant part of the food supply in Africa, with a total harvest potential estimated at 10.5 million tons. It is expected that global warming will, varying with species, relocate fish populations. Freshwater populations in small rivers and lakes are vulnerable due to restricted ability to move in response to changes. In areas becoming drier, loss of habitat would also represent a threat. Fish populations are generally very sensitive to even small changes in frequency of extreme events. For the more mobile marine fish populations, relocation does not necessarily mean that production and potential yields are lowered, but subsistence and small scale-fishermen may suffer if institutional arrangements do not enable them to move within regions and across boundaries. Biodiversity. Impacts on biological diversity should be of particular concern, as the welfare of human beings strongly depends on the existence of biological systems and processes. Biological diversity provides a wide range of goods and services, including a genetic basis for agricultural development, and represents a heritage of unique species and ecosystems. Species will probably respond differentially to climatic changes, leading to new aggregations and ecosystems. In ecological terms, the predicted changes will occur over a short period of time. Migration is expected to be the main adaptation strategy, and adaptation success will be determined by the species' ability to respond quickly enough, as well as the suitability of the migration routes: Migration may be blocked by natural or human imposed barriers, or the natural environment (e.g. soils) may be inappropriate. A large part of the natural bio-diversity in Africa is confined to isolated reserves surrounded by agricultural land. Small populations are particularly vulnerable, and endemic species will be at risk of extinction. The changes would on the other hand favor species with high dispersal rates, ability to colonize a wide range of habitats and a high tolerance towards stress. Water resources. Past droughts have shown that for marginal and vulnerable areas, even a small reduction in water supply is critical. Water scarcity has substantial health and ecological consequences. Even today, there is growing scarcity of water in many African regions, and several countries rely on water originating outside their borders. Sea level rises can be expected to lead to increased saltwater intrusion in the groundwater. Desalinization is too costly for most countries. Hydro power generation is also vulnerable to temperature increases and rainfall changes. Social, political and economic impacts. Many authors mention the risk of getting more "eco-refugees". In addition to the social and health problems they may create, major migrations would also increase political tensions. Economic impacts include costs of climate-caused damages and costs of adapting to climate changes. In low-lying areas, sea level rise may cause substantial losses of land for human habitation, which in river deltas and urban centers will be aggravated by subsidence caused by extraction of water and hydrocarbons. 5. African priorities African policy statements emphasize that contributions to Climate Change mitigation efforts should not adversely affect their development targets. Few African countries have national policies explicitly aimed at combating climate change impacts, as they are not required to develop such plans until 1997. African policies are expected to concentrate on combating vulnerability. More specifically, this involves capacity building in a number of areas, including formulation of national and regional inventories and programs, development of effective negotiation skills, developing research capabilities, conducting cost-benefit analyses, and capacity building in the area of technology assessment and transfer. Improvement in planning capacity and governance would improve Africa's resilience to eventual climate changes. Future energy scenarios. African countries should get support in taking advantage of new technology for alternative energy resources, where no-regret options should be given priority. It should be underlined that effective mitigation measures against global warming must reinforce national economic policies and enhance the welfare of households. Three different energy scenarios for Africa are discussed: 1) Stagnation, 2) Growth based on fossil fuels, and 3) Sustainable growth. Scenario 1 is characterized by slow economic development and rapid population growth. Scenarios 2 and 3 involve high social and economic development and falling fertility rates. Scenario 2 is a fossilfuels based development, while scenario 3 provides large scale use of alternative energy sources and sustainable economic development. Economic development and improved living standards, especially among women, are necessary to reduce population growth. Abatement measures. Abatement measures may be carried out as part of a development strategy. Such no-regret options may however need additional funding to be carried out, since market failures and national constraints to the economy may make such options too costly for African governments. One should focus on measures with limited impacts on activities "outside" the market economy. The concern for climate change could make the support of new technology in Africa more attractive, but one should be aware that this may bias the countries' preferences for projects.

The article reveals the results of the analysis of theoretical and methodological aspects of the formation of a modern management system for sources of financial resources of enterprises taking into account the features of the functioning of the domestic economy. It is noted that the creation of an effective system for managing the formation and use of financial resources of an enterprise requires the identification of both the financial resources themselves and the sources of their formation. It is disclosed that for identification and effective management it is important to classify sources of financing. The requirements for classification based on quantitative and qualitative characteristics are clarified. The main groups of classification of sources of formation of financial resources and the scope of their application are determined. The importance of estimating the cost of funding sources on the basis of the theory of structure and cost of capital is argued.It is open that the practical aspect of the theory of structure and cost of capital in the context of managing the sources of financial resources of enterprises is that its methodological and methodological apparatus is used to solve the problem of optimization (rationalization) of sources of financing and determining their prices, which is used in the models of compounding and discounting.The expediency of determining the price of sources of financial resources based on the cumulative method is substantiated.Established distinction feasibility planning and policy papers on financial budgets and operational plans, allowing you to clearly identify analytical tools for the financial planning capabilities, to establish the relationship between different types of documents, coordinate and harmonize the sequence of predictive calculations. Reveals the need to develop local regulations governing the budget process, determine the sequence of stages, time and resource constraints related to the implementation of budgetary procedures. Key words: financial resources, sources of financing, classification, cost (cost) of sources, estimation methods, structure optimization, cumulative method. REFERENCES1. Blank, I.A. (2011). Upravlenie finansovyimi resursami [Management of financial resources]. Moskva: «Omega-L»: OOO «Elga».2. Hudz, O.Ye. (2007) Finansovi resursy silskohospodarskykh pidpryiemstv [Financial resources of agricultural enterprises]. Kyiv: NNTs IAE.3. Demianenko, M.Ya., Zuieva, O.I. (2010). Finansovi resursy silskohospodarskykh pidpryiemstv Ukrainy: teoriia i praktyka [Financial Resources of Ukrainian Agricultural Enterprises: Theory and Practice]. Kyiv: NNTs IAE.4. Yefremova, N. (2013). Dzherela formuvannia finansovykh resursiv pidpryiemstva: yikh sklad ta optymizatsiia struktury. 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Kyiv: Absolyut-V, Elga. ; В статье раскрыто результаты проведенного анализа теоретических и методических аспектов формирования современной системы управления источниками формирования финансовых ресурсов предприятий с учетом особенностей функционирования отечественной экономики. Отмечено, что создание эффективной системы управления формированием и использованием финансовых ресурсов предприятия требует идентификации как самих финансовых ресурсов, так и источников их формирования. Установлено, что для идентификации и эффективного управления важно осуществить классификацию источников финансирования. Определены требования к классификации на основе количественных и качественных признаков. Определены основные группы классификации источников формирования финансовых ресурсов и область их применения. Аргументирована важность оценки стоимости источников финансирования на основе теория структуры и стоимости капитала. Раскрыта целесообразность определения цены источников финансовых ресурсов на основе кумулятивного метода. Ключевые слова: финансовые ресурсы, источники финансирования, классификация, стоимость (цена) источников, методы оценки, оптимизация структуры, кумулятивный метод. Список использованной литературы1. Бланк И.А. Управления финансовыми ресурсами / Под ред. И.А. Бланка. Москва: Издательство «Омега-Л»: ООО «Эльга», 2011.768 с.2. Гудзь О.Є. Фінансові ресурси сільськогосподарських підприємств: монографія. Київ: ННЦ ІАЕ, 2007. 578 с.3. Дем'яненко М.Я. Фінансові ресурси сільськогосподарських підприємств України: теорія і практика: монографія / Под ред. М.Я. Дем'яненко, О.І. Зуєва. Київ: ННЦ ІАЕ, 2010. 190 с.4. Єфремова Н. Джерела формування фінансових ресурсів підприємства: їх склад та оптимізація структури. Ефективна економіка. 2013. № 3. С. 53 –61.5. Зеліско І. М. Управління фінансовими ресурсами аграрно-промислових компаній: монографія. Київ: ЦП «КОМПРИНТ», 2014. 420 с.6. Лапа А. Є. Фінансові ресурси підприємства та їх оптимізація. Молодіжний науковий вісник УАБС НБУ. – Серія: Економічні науки. 2013. № 4. С. 289 –297.7. Малій О. Г. Фінансові ресурси підприємств та джерела їх формування: теоретичні аспекти.Актуальні проблеми інноваційної економіки. 2016. № 2. С.71 –74.8. Мельник. О. Особливості функціонування фінансових ресурсів в системі управління підприємством. Галицький економічний вісник. 2012. № 3 (36). С.108 –116.9. Великий тлумачний словник сучасної української мови (з дод. і допов.) / Уклад. і голов. ред. В.Т.Бусел. Київ; Ірпінь: ВТФ «Перун», 2005. 1728 с.10. Ресурсы. Глоссарий.ru. URL: http://www.glossary.ru/cgi- bin/gl_find.cgi?ph=%F0%E5%F1%F3%F0%F1%FB&action.x=0&action.y=011. Спицнадель В. Н. Основы системного анализа: учебное пособие. / Под ред. В. Н. Спицнадель. Санкт-Петербург: Бизнес-пресса, 2000. 326 с.12. Финансы, денежное обращение и кредит: учебник: краткий курс / Под ред. Н. Ф. Самсонова. Москва: ИНФРА-М, 2003. 302 с.13. Никонова И. А. Финансирование бизнеса. Москва: Альпина Паблишер, 2003. 197 с.14. Лукашов А. В. Поведенческие корпоративные финансы и дивидендная политика фирмы. Управление корпоративными финансами. 2004. № 3. URL:http://www.cfin.ru/investor/ ao/corporate_finance.shtml.15. Бланк И. А. Основы финансового менеджмента / И. А. Бланк. – Киев: Ника-Центр, 1999. Т. 2. 512 с.16. Колесникова В. М. Теоретические аспекты финансовых ресурсов предприятия Вісник ХДЕУ. 2001. № 4 (20). С. 69–71.17. Кох Р. Менеджмент и финансы от А до Я / Под ред. Р. Кох. – Санкт-Петербург: Питер, 1999. 496 с.18. Савчук В. П. Анализ и разработка инвестиционных проектов : учебное пособие / Под ред. Савчук В. П., Прилипко С. И., Величко Е. Г. Киев: Абсолют-В, Эльга, 1999. 304 с. ; У статті висвітлено результати проведеного аналізу теоретичних та методичних аспектів формування сучасної системи управління джерелами формування фінансових ресурсів підприємств з урахуванням особливостей функціонування вітчизняної економіки. Означено, що створення ефективної системи управління формуванням та використанням фінансових ресурсів підприємства потребує ідентифікації як самих фінансових ресурсів, так і джерел їх формування. Встановлено, що для ідентифікації та ефективного управління важливо здійснити класифікацію джерел фінансування. Визначено вимоги до класифікації на основі кількісних та якісних ознак. Визначено основні групи класифікації джерел формування фінансових ресурсів та сферу їх застосування. Аргументовано важливість оцінки вартості джерел фінансування на основі теорія структури та вартості капіталу. Розкрито доцільність визначення ціни джерел фінансових ресурсів на основі кумулятивного методу. Ключові слова: фінансові ресурси, джерела фінансування, класифікація, вартість (ціна) джерела методи оцінки, оптимізація структури, кумулятивний метод. Список використаної літератури1. Бланк И.А. Управления финансовыми ресурсами / Под ред. И.А. Бланка. Москва: Издательство «Омега-Л»: ООО «Эльга», 2011.768 с.2. Гудзь О.Є. Фінансові ресурси сільськогосподарських підприємств: монографія. Київ: ННЦ ІАЕ, 2007. 578 с.3. Дем'яненко М.Я. Фінансові ресурси сільськогосподарських підприємств України: теорія і практика: монографія / Под ред. М.Я. Дем'яненко, О.І. Зуєва. Київ: ННЦ ІАЕ, 2010. 190 с.4. Єфремова Н. Джерела формування фінансових ресурсів підприємства: їх склад та оптимізація структури. Ефективна економіка. 2013. № 3. С. 53 –61.5. Зеліско І. М. Управління фінансовими ресурсами аграрно-промислових компаній: монографія. Київ: ЦП «КОМПРИНТ», 2014. 420 с.6. Лапа А. Є. Фінансові ресурси підприємства та їх оптимізація. Молодіжний науковий вісник УАБС НБУ. – Серія: Економічні науки. 2013. № 4. С. 289 –297.7. Малій О. Г. Фінансові ресурси підприємств та джерела їх формування: теоретичні аспекти.Актуальні проблеми інноваційної економіки. 2016. № 2. С.71 –74.8. Мельник. О. Особливості функціонування фінансових ресурсів в системі управління підприємством. Галицький економічний вісник. 2012. № 3 (36). С.108 –116.9. Великий тлумачний словник сучасної української мови (з дод. і допов.) / Уклад. і голов. ред. В.Т.Бусел. Київ; Ірпінь: ВТФ «Перун», 2005. 1728 с.10. Ресурсы. Глоссарий.ru. URL: http://www.glossary.ru/cgi- bin/gl_find.cgi?ph=%F0%E5%F1%F3%F0%F1%FB&action.x=0&action.y=011. Спицнадель В. Н. Основы системного анализа: учебное пособие. / Под ред. В. Н. Спицнадель. Санкт-Петербург: Бизнес-пресса, 2000. 326 с.12. Финансы, денежное обращение и кредит: учебник: краткий курс / Под ред. Н. Ф. Самсонова. Москва: ИНФРА-М, 2003. 302 с.13. Никонова И. А. Финансирование бизнеса. Москва: Альпина Паблишер, 2003. 197 с.14. Лукашов А. В. Поведенческие корпоративные финансы и дивидендная политика фирмы. Управление корпоративными финансами. 2004. № 3. URL:http://www.cfin.ru/investor/ ao/corporate_finance.shtml.15. Бланк И. А. Основы финансового менеджмента / И. А. Бланк. – Киев: Ника-Центр, 1999. Т. 2. 512 с.16. Колесникова В. М. Теоретические аспекты финансовых ресурсов предприятия Вісник ХДЕУ. 2001. № 4 (20). С. 69–71.17. Кох Р. Менеджмент и финансы от А до Я / Под ред. Р. Кох. – Санкт-Петербург: Питер, 1999. 496 с.18. Савчук В. П. Анализ и разработка инвестиционных проектов : учебное пособие / Под ред. Савчук В. П., Прилипко С. И., Величко Е. Г. Киев: Абсолют-В, Эльга, 1999. 304 с.

Increasingly, eGovernment (the use of ICTs in order to achieve better government) is moving its focus from web presence and electronic service provision to striving for an interoperable public sector. Interoperability refers to the ability for information exchange across organizational borders, concerning technology as well as business aspects. Policy for such change has been formulated and implementation is currently taking place in many government sectors. In such programs there is a strong need for coordination with regard to the way in which interoperability is to be implemented. Interoperability work requires coordination, as it is a complex endeavour because of the interrelatedness of information systems, public services, departments and organizations, as well as policies, constraints and regulations. In order to achieve interoperability, architectural approaches are increasingly used in the public sector to try to coordinate interoperability work. One such approach, Enterprise Architecture (EA), is becoming increasingly influential. EA has been defined as an overview of the complete business processes and business systems, both in terms of how they overlap and their interrelatedness. However, previous research show that state-of-the-art EA is seldom fully applied in practice. Previous research has also proposed that information infrastructures and architectures should be seen as evolving dynamically during the implementation process through changing relationships between actors. The implementation of IS architecture for interoperability is thus seen as an evolving process of social production. As the research field is still immature further research on the evolution of public information infrastructures and architectures is needed, as well as how the strategic alignment of handling of goals, and ambiguities in implementation is done. This thesis hence addresses the challenges of implementing national public sector interoperability as an evolving process by addressing the research question: How is interoperability interpreted and enacted by different actors in public sector implementation? In order to approach the research question, an interpretive case study is performed. The case studied in this thesis is from the implementation of the Strategy for eHealth in Sweden, where healthcare is mainly publicly funded, and catered for by 20 county councils (who mainly focus on healthcare, and 290 municipalities (who also cater for a great deal of other public services). The case is an example of how interoperability is implemented, from the early stages of outlining a general picture of goals and requirements, to the formulation of a strategy and an architecture. This case is also an example of how EA influences an interoperability program through enterprise thinking. The research uses an interpretive case study approach influenced by Actor-Network Theory (ANT). ANT is used as a toolbox for telling stories about technology in practice, as emergent in socio-material relations. A number of complementary qualitative methods are used. These include semi-structured interviews, observations and document analysis, with the foremost part of the empirical material being first-hand. In order to understand interoperability implementation in the public sector I examine the background to eGovernment implementation, by contrasting conceptualizations of eGovernment evolution to contemporary theories of public policy implementation. It is shown that, during the last decade, stage models have been used as tools for describing, predicting and directing the evolution of eGovernment. The stage model approach has been criticized for presenting a linear development which has little empirical support and delimits the understanding of eGovernment development as a dynamic process. Newer stage models have started to take this criticism into consideration and alternative models on eGovernment have also been developed. Consequently, eGovernment implementation is in this thesis perceived as a process in which technologies, policies and organizations are in a process of mutual shaping, where policymaking and policy implementation are intermingled. Implementing interoperability is hence not a matter of disseminating a policy that is to be implemented in every setting exactly as stated on paper, but a process in which the goals and means of interoperability are constantly being negotiated. Also, EA has been proposed as an approach to treat technology and business in the public sector as interrelated. However, since previous research show that state-of-the-art EA is seldom fully applied in public sector practice, the concept of enterprise thinking is developed in this thesis. Enterprise thinking is intended to be a concept that describes EA as a contemporary zeitgeist which in practice is adopted in varying ways. The results of the thesis show how interoperability in eHealth was roughly outlined before implementation although still containing conflicts and ambiguities. Central to this thesis is the controversy of defining "the enterprise", as the health care sector was delimited as one enterprise, which became increasingly problematic during implementation. This to a large extent concerned municipalities, whose business area stretched much wider than just the health care sector, and hence the definition of the enterprise became problematic. Another central aspect was legal obstacles to cooperation, as there was a clash between the values of efficiency and patient privacy as a result of a new law that had been implemented in order to allow for information sharing. The legal grounds for sharing information proved to be problematic, which lead to that several involved actors perceived that a large portion of the patients in health care could not benefit from interoperability as their information could not be shared despite this law. The legal challenges also dampened the enthusiasm for the eHealth program as a whole. The program had also outlined a technology architecture before implementation. This architecture was however treated in conflicting ways, both as a blueprint (something to be implemented) and a tool for communication (as a way of discussing what was to be implemented). For instance, several municipalities perceived that the planned infrastructure was unsuitable to their business needs (as it did not meet the requirements of other actors in eGovernment), and thus questioned it, using it as a tool for communication rather than a blueprint. Meanwhile, other actors argued that the blueprint had already been decided, and thus needed to be implemented. The case also shed light on the use of informal networks, outside traditional bureaucracy, as a means to deal with interoperability. Such networks were used in order to align actions and perceptions of a large number of autonomous municipalities. This revealed issues concerning local decision as knowledge of, and resources for, ICT and architectural work was lacking in several municipalities. Also, as the networks lacked formal power no decisions could be taken jointly, but in the end had to be negotiated locally. This made coordinated decision making hard as the processes were lengthy and often lacked clear incentives. Furthermore, ambiguous feedback from national authorities, as well as an overall lack of understanding among local actors, concerning what was legal to do in terms of procurement and information sharing, complicated the situation further. These findings are summarized in four main conclusions; The process of defining which organizations are to be made interoperable, or what is to be considered as "the enterprise", is a political process which might be brought into question and require re-negotiations throughout implementation, as the drawing of boundaries of "the enterprise" can be filled with conflict. Different perspectives on an enterprise, from different architectural viewpoints, are often described as complementary, and it has previously been shown that different architectural metaphors can be used by different actors during implementation. However, in practice, different use of metaphors for architectures can open up for discussion and conflict. These may not only be different, but may also contradict other actors' use of metaphors, since different metaphors might clash. Interoperability work can be a novel task for some local governments. Therefore, there is a need for negotiation and to establish forms of formal decision making and informal dissemination because such structures might be lacking. It should be anticipated that implementation might be slow because of a lack of understanding about interoperability programs (particularly in terms of something other than ICT). In addition, there may be few forums for coordinated decision making, or there may be obstructions in the form of prior formal and legal arrangements. Enterprise thinking is interconnected with Enterprise Architecture as a zeitgeist for interoperability work. It draws upon EA as an ideal, whilst acknowledging that public organizations are influenced by this zeitgeist, although practical conditions might not allow for adoption of an EA approach. Enterprise thinking thus refers to the notion of EA as an ideal, not as a specific way of applying EA. Enterprise thinking has a process focus on interoperability. ICT, business goals, and work practices are perceived as interconnected, and hence need to be treated from a holistic perspective. How this is approached is, however, dependent upon the context in which it is implemented. Further research efforts could approach how enterprise thinking affects interoperability work in the long run with a longitudinal approach. Also, as this thesis has shown how the use of different architectural metaphors can clash, further research could focus on the positive and negative effects of negotiations being initiated by such conflict. From a project management perspective the risks and benefits of using smaller projects as "enrolment devices" for interoperability programs, where an architecture cannot be pushed but is voluntary, should be of interest. Furthermore the use of EA as an ideal which cannot be fully followed in several public settings, although might intentionally be used as a guiding light, is interesting for further research. For instance, it would be of interest to see how the rhetoric of EA may be applied in practice in order to legitimate programs. This is of interest as to examine to which extent the use of such concepts influence actual practice, or if they are only "empty words". The conceptualization of enterprise thinking proposed in the conclusions of this thesis can be used in further research. Indeed, they could be useful for investigating different approaches, influenced by EA, in different contexts. For instance, it may be of interest to countries that might not share the same institutional characteristics of Sweden, but are influenced by enterprise thinking in different ways. This would be of interest for outlining different practical approaches to enterprise thinking. Also, the further development in Sweden specifically could be of interest, as other sectors are at the time of writing preparing their own interoperability programs, and aim to benefit from the lessons learned in the healthcare sector. ; I ökande utsträckning har e-förvaltningens (användningen av IKT för att förbättra verksamheten i offentlig sektor) fokus förflyttats från webb-närvaro och elektroniska tjänster mot att sträva efter en interoperabel offentlig sektor. Interoperabilitet avser möjligheten för informationsutbyte över verksamheters olika gränser, vilket innefattar teknologiska såväl som organisatoriska aspekter. Policys för sådana förändring har utarbetats och implementeras för närvarande i flera offentliga organisationer. I sådana program finns det ett starkt behov av samordning gällande det sätt på vilket interoperabilitet skall genomföras. Interoperabilitetsarbete kräver således samordning, eftersom det är en komplex uppgift på grund sammanvävda informationssystem, offentliga tjänster, organisationer, policys, begränsningar och regler. För att uppnå interoperabilitet används arkitekturella tillvägagångssätt alltmer inom den offentliga sektorn, för att försöka samordna arbetet. Ett sådant tillvägagångssätt, Enterprise Architecture (EA), har fått ett ökande inflytande. EA har definierats som en översikt av hela affärsprocesser och affärssystem, både vad gäller hur de överlappar med varandra och hur de hänger samman. Dock visar tidigare forskning att EA i praktiken sällan tillämpas fullt ut. Tidigare forskning har också påvisat att informationsinfrastrukturer och arkitekturer bör ses som dynamiskt framväxande under implementeringsprocessen, genom förändrade relationer mellan aktörer. Implementering av informationssystemsarkitektur för interoperabilitet bör därmed ses som en framväxande och socialt producerad process. Då forskningsområdet fortfarande är omoget behövs ytterligare forskning om framväxten av offentliga informationsinfrastrukturer och arkitekturer, samt hur strategisk sammanjämkning av mål och oklarheter i implementeringen sker. Denna avhandling behandlar därför utmaningarna som finns i implementeringen av interoperabilitet i offentlig sektor, som en framväxande process, genom att behandla frågeställningen: Hur tolkas och sätts interoperabilitet i praktiken av olika aktörer under implementering i offentlig sektor? För att närma sig frågeställningen utförs en tolkande fallstudie. Fallet som studerats i denna avhandling är från implementeringen av strategin IT-strategin för vård och omsorg (eHälsostrategin) i Sverige, där vården i huvudsak är offentligt finansierad, och tillhandahålls av 20 landsting (som huvudsakligen fokuserar på sjukvård), och 290 kommuner (som också tillhandahåller en mängd andra offentliga tjänster). Fallet är ett exempel på hur interoperabilitet implementeras, från de tidiga skeden då en generell bild av mål och krav målas upp, till utformningen av en strategi och en arkitektur. Detta fall är också ett exempel på hur EA påverkar ett interoperabilitetsprogram via "enterprise thinking". En fallstudie genomförs med en tolkande ansats, influerad av Actor-Network Theory (ANT). ANT används som en verktygslåda för att berätta historier om teknik i praktiken, som framväxande genom sociomateriella relationer. Merparten av det empiriska materialet har samlats in i förstahand och ett antal kompletterande kvalitativa metoder används. Dessa metoder inkluderar semi-strukturerade intervjuer, observationer och dokumentanalys. För att förstå interoperabilitetsimplementering i offentlig sektor undersöker jag bakgrunden till implementation av e-förvaltning, genom att kontrastera begreppsbildningar av hur e-förvaltningen växer fram mot samtida teorier om implementation i offentlig sektor. Jag påvisar att under det senaste decenniet har stegmodeller använts som verktyg för att beskriva, förutsäga och styra utvecklingen av e-förvaltning. Denna typ av modeller har kritiserats då de framhåller en linjär utveckling som har bristande empiriskt stöd och begränsar förståelsen för e-förvaltningens framväxt som en dynamisk process. Nyare stegmodeller har börjat ta hänsyn till denna kritik och alternativa modeller på e-förvaltning har också utvecklats. Följaktligen ses i denna avhandling implementeringen av e-förvaltning som en process där teknik, policy och organisationer är i en ständig process av ömsesidig påverkan, där policyskapande och policyimplementering är sammanvävt. Att implementera interoperabilitet är därför inte en fråga om att sprida en policy som skall genomföras av varje aktör så som det står angivet på pappret, utan en process där mål och metoder för interoperabilitet ständigt omförhandlas. EA har föreslagits som ett tillvägagångssätt för att behandla teknik och verksamhet som integrerade. Dock, eftersom tidigare forskning visar att EA sällan tillämpas fullt ut i praktiken i offentlig sektor, så utvecklas begreppet enterprise thinking i denna avhandling. Enterprise thinking är avsett att vara ett koncept som beskriver EA som en samtida tidsandan som i praktiken närmas på olika sätt. Resultaten i avhandlingen visar hur interoperabilitet i e-hälsa skisserades ut grovt innan implementeringen, i en bild som innehöll konflikter och tvetydigheter. Centralt för denna avhandling är problematiken i att definiera verksamheten ("the enterprise"), då hälso- och sjukvårdssektorn var avgränsad som en verksamhet, vilket blev allt mer problematiskt under implementeringen. Detta berörde till stor del kommuner, vars verksamhetsområde sträcker sig mycket bredare än bara hälso- och sjukvården. Därmed blev definitionen av verksamheten problematisk. En annan central aspekt var juridiska hinder för samverkan, då det fanns en konflikt mellan värdena effektivitet och patientens integritet. Detta var delvis en följd av en ny lag som hade införts just i syfte att möjliggöra informationsutbyte. De rättsliga grunderna för att dela information visade sig vara problematiska, vilket ledde till att flera inblandade aktörer uppfattade att en stor del av patienterna i vården inte kunde dra nytta av interoperabilitet, eftersom deras information inte kunde delas trots denna lagändring. De rättsliga utmaningarna dämpade också entusiasmen för eHälsoprogrammet som helhet. Programmet hade också skisserat ut en teknikarkitektur innan implementeringen. Denna arkitektur behandlades dock på motstridiga sätt, både som en "ritning" (en klar bild av vad som skulle genomföras) och som ett verktyg för kommunikation (som ett sätt att diskutera vad som skulle genomförts). Till exempel uppfattade flera kommuner att den planerade infrastrukturen var olämpliga för deras verksamhetsbehov (då den inte uppfyllde kraven från andra aktörer inom e-förvaltning), och ifrågasatte därmed den genom att använda arkitekturen som ett verktyg för kommunikation snarare än en ritning. Samtidigt menade andra aktörer att man redan hade tagit beslut om denna ritning och att den därmed skulle följas. Fallstudien kastar också ljus på användningen av informella nätverk, utanför den traditionella byråkratin, som ett sätt för att arbeta med interoperabilitetsfrågor. Sådana nätverk användes i syfte att sammanjämka åtgärder och uppfattningar hos ett stort antal självstyrande aktörer. Detta visade på en problematik gällande lokalt beslutsfattande och resurser gällande IKT och arkitekturellt arbete, då kompetenser och erfarenheter för detta saknades hos flera kommuner. Relaterat till detta är att i de nätverk där diskussionerna fördes saknades även formell makt, och inga beslut kunde fattas gemensamt därigenom. I slutändan var man istället tvungna att diskutera de frågor som togs upp där lokalt. Detta gjorde samordnat beslutsfattande svårt eftersom processerna var långa och ofta saknade tydliga incitament. Dessutom fanns en problematik i att nationella aktörer ofta gav tvetydig respons på frågor, samt en allmän brist på förståelse bland lokala aktörer, gällande vad som var lagligt att göra beträffande upphandling och informationsutbyte. Detta komplicerade situationen ytterligare. Dessa resultat sammanfattas i fyra huvudsakliga slutsatser; 1. Processen med att definiera vilka organisationer som skall göras interoperabla, eller vad som ska betraktas som "verksamheten", är en politisk process som kan ifrågasättas och kräva omförhandlingar under implementeringen, eftersom hur man definierar gränserna kring "verksamheten" kan vara konfliktfyllt. 2. Olika perspektiv på en verksamhet, från olika arkitekturella perspektiv, beskrivs ofta som komplementära, och det har tidigare visats att olika arkitekturella metaforer kan användas av olika aktörer under implementeringen. I praktiken kan dock olika användning av arkitekturella metaforer öppna upp för diskussion och konflikt. Dessa är inte nödvändigtvis bara annorlunda och komplementära, utan kan också motsäga andra aktörers användning av metaforer, då olika metaforer kan kollidera. 3. Interoperabilitetsarbete kan vara en ny uppgift för lokala aktörer. Det finns därför ett behov av förhandlingar och att upprätta former för formellt beslutsfattande och informell "spridning" av information eftersom strukturer för detta kan saknas. Detta kan vara en långsam process på grund av bristande förståelse för interoperabilitetsprogram (särskilt i fråga om att de skulle handla om något annat än bara IKT). Dessutom finns ibland få (om ens några) forum för samordnat beslutsfattande, och det kan även finnas formella och legala hinder för detta. 4. Enterprise thinking ("verksamhetstänkande") är sammankopplat med Enterprise Architecture, som är en tidsanda för interoperabilitetsarbete. Det bygger på EA som ett ideal, då offentliga organisationerna påverkas av denna tidsanda, men att praktiska förutsättningar kanske inte möjliggör att man antar en EA-strategi. Enterprise thinking hänvisar således till EA-begreppet som ett ideal, och är alltså inte ett specifikt sätt att tillämpa EA. Enterprise thinking har ett processfokus på interoperabilitet. IKT, verksamhetens mål och arbetsrutiner ses som sammanlänkade och måste därför behandlas utifrån ett helhetsperspektiv. Hur man närmar sig detta i praktiken är dock beroende på i vilken kontext det implementeras. Vidare forskning skulle kunna behandla hur enterprise thinking påverkar interoperabilitetsarbete på lång sikt, med en longitudinell ansats. Då denna avhandling visar på hur användningen av olika arkitekturella metaforer kan kollidera föreslås ytterligare forskning som fokusera på de positiva och negativa effekterna av att förhandlingar initieras av sådana konflikter. Från ett projektledningsperspektiv kan riskerna och fördelarna med att använda mindre projekt som symboler för att få med flera aktörer i interoperabilitetsprogram fokuseras. Detta är i synnerhet intressant i arkitekturprogram där en arkitektur inte kan tvingas på aktörerna, men att implementation är frivillig. Användning av EA som ett ideal som ofta inte kan följas fullt ut i offentlig sektor, men avsiktligt användas som en ledstjärna, är intressant för vidare forskning. Till exempel skulle det vara intressant att se hur EA-retorik kan tillämpas i praktiken för att legitimera program. Det är av intresse att undersöka i vilken utsträckning användningen av dessa begrepp påverkar verksamheten, eller om de bara är tomma ord. Begreppet enterprise thinking föreslås som användbart för vidare forskning. Det kan vara användbart för att undersöka olika tillvägagångssätt, influerade av EA, i olika kontexter. Exempelvis kan det vara av intresse att se till länder som inte har samma institutionella egenskaper som Sverige, men påverkas av enterprise thinking på olika sätt. Detta skulle vara av intresse för att undersöka på vilka olika sätt enterprise thinking närmas i praktiken. Även den fortsatta utvecklingen i Sverige kan vara av särskilt intresse, då andra sektorer i skrivande stund förbereder egna interoperabilitetsprogram och ämnar dra nytta av lärdomar från arbetet inom vårdsektorn.

Enabling & Understanding Sustainability -- Ferrous & Non-ferrous Metals Processing. Recycling of Poly-Metallic Residues from Metal Industry -- Current Status and Future Developments / Jürgen Antrekowitsch -- Bauxite Residue for Phosphorus Removal from Waste Water / Gamini Mendis, Amanda Brock, Kai Gao, Indrajeet Chaubey, Ron Turco, John Howarter -- Modeling the Electromagnetic Processing of Recycled Silicon Dust / G Djambazov, K Pericleous, V Bojarevics, M Forzan, F Dughiero -- Potential Contribution to the Supply of Silver by the Recycling of Industrial Residues from Zn, Pb and Cu Plants / Stefan Steinlechner -- Thermodynamic Analysis of Zinc Status in the Upstream Eaf Offgas Cleaning Systems Associated with In-Process Separation of Zinc from Eaf Dust / Naiyang Ma -- Evaluation of Reactor Reov-01 with Ti Electrode for Electrochemical Recovery of Ag from Industrial Wastes / Pedro Alberto Ramirez Ortega, Victor Esteban Reyes Cruz, Maria Aurora Velóz Rodríguez, Laura Garcia Hernández, Diana Arenas Islas, Mizrraim Uriel Flores Guerrero, Luis Garcia L -- Mini Mill Solutions in the Recycling of Electic Arc Furnace Dust -- The 2Sdr Process / Gernot Rösler, Christoph Pichler, Stefan Steinlechner, Jürgen Antrekowitsch -- Understanding & Enabling Sustainability -- (Rechargeable) Batteries. Roadmap for the Lifecycle of Advanced Battery Chemistries / Timothy W Ellis, John A Howes -- Portland Cement with Battery Waste Contents / Henry A Colorado, Sergio A Colorado -- Automotive Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling: A Theoretical Evaluation / Reza Beheshti, Ragnhild E Aune -- Life Cycle Analysis Summary for Automotive Lithiumion Battery Production and Recycling / Jennifer B Dunn, Linda Gaines, Jarod C Kelly, Kevin G Gallagher -- Enabling & Understanding Sustainability -- Rare Earth Element Applications. Life Cycle Assessment of Rare Earth Production from Monazite / Callum Browning, Stephen Northey, Nawshad Haque, Warren Bruckard, Mark Cooksey -- Recovery of Rare Earth Elements from the Ferrous Fraction of Electronic Waste / Lars K Jakobsson, Mark W Kennedy, Ragnhild E Aune, Gabriella Tranell -- Fundamental Study of the Rare Earths Recycling Through the Pyrotetallurgical Route -- Phase Relations and Crystallization Behavior of the Cao-Sio-NdO System / Thu Hoai Le, Annelies Malfliet, Bart Blanpain, Muxing Guo -- Mitigating Supply Risk of Critical and Strategic Materials: The Role of Trade Policies / Vasken Xhaxhollari, Michele Bustamante, Gabrielle Gaustad -- Sustainable Processing of Phosphogypsum Waste Stream for the Recovery of Valuable Rare Earth Elements / Mugdha Walawalkar, Connie K Nichol, Gisele Azimi -- Life Cycle Analysis for Solvent Extraction of Rare Earth Elements from Aqueous Solutions / Ehsan Vahidi, Fu Zhao -- Characteristics of Light Rare Earths from Korean Coal Power Plants Ash / T Thriveni, Ahn Ji Whan -- Enabling & Understanding Sustainability -- Building Materials & Slag Valorization. Energy Generation From Waste Slags: Beyond Heat Recovery / Jinichiro Nakano, James Bennett, Anna Nakano -- Production of Lightweight Aggregate and Ceramic Balls Using Gold Tailings, Red Mud And Limestone / Hyunsik Park, Soo-kyung Kim, Doyun Shin, Jeong-soo Sohn -- Accounting for Variation in Life Cycle Inventories: The Case of Portland Cement Production in the U.S. / Xin Xu, Maggie Wildnauer, Jeremy Gregory, Randolph Kirchain -- Kinetics of Dephosphorization from Steelmaking Slag By Leaching With CHO-Noh-Hcl Solution / Yong Qiao, Jiang Diao, Xuan Liu, Xiaosa Li, Tao Zhang, Bing Xie -- Treatment Of Molten Steel Slag for Cement Application / João B Ferreira Neto, Catia Fredericci, João O G Faria, Fabiano F Chotoli, Tiago R Ribeiro, Antônio Malynowskyj, Andre N L Silva, Valdecir A Quarcioni, Andre A Lotto -- Incorporation of Sewage Sludge into Heavy Clay Ceramic Body / Carlos Mauricio Fontes Vieira, Isabela Oliveira Rangel Areias, Sergio Neves Monteiro -- Designing Materials and Systems for Sustainability. Industrial Symbiosis Among Small and Medium Scale Enterprises: Case of Muzaffarnagar, India / Shourjomoy Chattopadhyay, Nandini Kumar, Charlie Fine, Elsa Olivetti -- Life Cycle Assessment of Metallurgical Processes Based on Physical Flowsheet Models / Madeleine Scheidema, Markus Reuter, Antti Roine -- Total-Corrosion Effects of Anthocleista Djalonensis and NaCrO on Steel-Rebar in HSo: Sustainable Corrosion-Protection Prospects in Microbial/Industrial Environment / Joshua Olusegun Okeniyi, Cleophas Akintoye Loto, Abimbola Patricia Idowu Popoola -- Materials Research to Enable Clean Energy: Leverage Points for Risk Reduction in Critical Byproduct Material Supply Chains / Michele L Bustamante, Gabrielle Gaustad -- Heterogeneous Materials Design for Sustainable Nuclear Waste Storage Using Life Prediction by Conformal Finite Element Analysis / F Rabbi, K Brinkman, K Reifsnider -- Life-Cycle Costing Promotes Use of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys / John Grubb, James Rakowski -- System of State Regulation of Sustainable ORE Processing and Production Waste Treatment in the Russian Arctic / Vyacheslav Tsukerman, Ludmila Ivanova, Vladimir Selin -- Understanding & Enabling Sustainability -- Light Metals Recycling & Waste Valorization. Electrodynamic Sorting of Light Metals and Alloys / Raj Rajamani, James Nagel, Nakul Dholu -- Scrap Characterization to Optimize the Recycling Process / Sean Kelly, Diran Apelian -- The Value of Integrated Production Planning for Twostage Aluminum Recycling Operations / Jiyoun C Chang, Elsa A Olivetti, Randolph E Kirchain -- Solar Aluminum Recycling in A Directly Heated Rotary Kiln / Martina Neises-von Puttkamer, Martin Roeb, Stefania Tescari, Lamark de Oliveira, Stefan Breuer, Christian Sattler -- Metal Recovery from Dross Through Rotary Crushing and Separation Producing Products Instead of Waste / David J Roth -- A Laboratory Study of Electrochemical Removal of Noble Elements from Secondary Aluminium / Ole S Kjos, Sverre Rolseth, Henrik Gudbrandsen, Egil Skybakmoen, Asbjorn Solheim, Trond H Bergstrøm -- Production of Magnesium and Aluminum-Magnesium Alloys from Recycled Secondary Aluminum Scrap Melts / Adam JGesing, Subodh K Das, Raouf OLoutfy -- Recovery of Aluminum from the Aluminum Smelter Baghouse Dust / Myungwon Jung, Brajendra Mishra -- Understanding & Enabling Sustainability -- Education Research Innovation. The Material Life Cycle A Steering Wheel for Europe's Raw Materials Academy / Eric Pirard, Jenny Greberg -- Education Programs and Activities in China for the Sustainability of Metallurgical Industry and their Perspective / Guangqiang Li, Chengyi Zhu, Junying Zhang -- Understanding & Enabling Sustainability -- Education Research Innovation + Electronic Equipment. Sustainability: Opportunities for Teaching Old Concepts Via New Problems / Gabrielle Gaustad -- 3D Printed Abs and Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer Specimens for Engineering Education / Michael Golub, Xingye Guo, Mingyo Jung, Jing Zhang -- Waste Management of Printed Wiring Boards: A Life Cycle Assessment of the Metals Recycling Chain from Liberation Through Refining / Mianqiang Xue, Alissa Kendall, Zhenming Xu, Julie M Schoenung -- Utilizing Economic Value, Resource Availability, and Environmental Impact Metrics to Improve the Weee And Battery Directives and Promote Alignment With The European Commission Circular Economy Strategy / Patrick Ford, Eduardo Santos, Paulo Ferrão, Fernanda Margarido, Krystyn J Van Vliet, Elsa Olivetti -- Hightemperature Characterisation and Technoeconomics of E-Waste Processing / Michael A Somerville, Paul Kolton -- Enabling Energy Efficient Electronics Through Thermally Conductive Plastic Composites: Novel Surface Modification Techniques For Boron Nitride in Epoxy / Alex N Bruce, Holly Avins, Inez Hua, John A Howarter -- Environmental and Economic Evaluation of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)Funnel Glass Waste Management Options in the United States / Qingbo Xu, Mengjing Yu, Alissa Kendall, Wenzhi He, Guangming Li, Julie M Schoenung -- Poster Session. Recovering of Carbon Fiber Present in an Industrial Polymeric Composite Waste through Pyrolysis Method while Studying the Influence of Resin Impregnation Process: Prepreg / Thiago Ribeiro Abdou, Denise Crocce Romano Espinosa, Jorge Alberto Soares Tenório -- Evaluation Of Adding Grits in the Manufacture of Soilcement Bricks / Rita de Cássia S S Alvarenga, Délio Porto Fassoni, Larissa de Almeida Miranda, Márcia Lana Pinheiro -- The Experience in Development of Technique and Technology of Electric Pulse Disintegration of Rocks and Ores / Anatoly Usov, Vyacheslav Tsukerman, Alexander Potokin, Daniil Ilin -- Precipitation of Metals from Liquor Obtained in Nickel Mining / Mónica M Jiménez Correa, Paula Aliprandini, Jorge A Soares Tenório, Denise Crocce Romano Espinosa -- Green Structural Ceramic With Addition of Raw Clay Waste / Alessandra Savazzini Dos Reis, Viviana P Della-Sagrillo, Francisco RValenzuela-Diaz

Social acceptance is considered to be a decisive factor for the development of wind energy. Surveys repeatedly show that while people support wind energy in general, specific wind farm projects often cause local opposition. Local resistance against wind energy cannot be explained by singular issues such as simple cost-benefit calculations, the public support for renewable energy sources, the implementation strategy of the developer, the number of wind turbines installed, the intensity of the turbine noise, the protection of local birds and animals, or the "not-in-my-backyard"-effect (Stadlober and Hahn 1998; Warren et al. 2005; Wolsink 2000, 2007a), although a very dominant influence seems to be the specific value of the landscape, the familiar surroundings and the habitat (Wolsink 2007b). Hence, the acceptance of wind energy depends on a complex set of individual and societal indicators, perceptions and preferences rooted in institutional and socio-political arrangements.

The project's approach was based on the concept of social acceptance (Wüstenhagen et al. 2007), which is composed of socio-political, market and community acceptance. Wüstenhagen et al. investigated spatial planning and financial procurement systems to assess socio-political acceptance, market innovation, consumer and investors behaviour to explain market acceptance, procedural and distributional justice and trust to contribute to the understanding of community acceptance. The three levels of acceptance do interact, have main actors associated and are influenced by their interactions and contributing expectations.

We recur to this triangle model because it provides a broad holistic framework widely recognised not only in a scientific but also in a practical context. TransWind established a conceptual and methodological reliable participatory integrated assessment in order to test various factors of social acceptance. On a macro scale the integrated assessment was based on semi-structured interviews, participatory workshops and a group discussion (WorldCafé) with the experts from our stakeholder group, an estimation of the theoretical wind area potential in Austria and a participatory modelling approach to analyse the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE). On the community level focus groups, semi-structured interviews and presentations/tests of visualisation tools were conducted. Both the integration of results from the macro analyses to the community scale and the use of a mixed-method design ensured the inter- and transdisciplinary character of TransWind.

This approach is needed to gain new, practical and relevant insights, which could not have been obtained merely from scientific or interdisciplinary sources. The conceptual framework of TransWind therefore aimed at integrating in a systematic way the analytical perspectives of the scientists and their approaches with the preferences and perceptions of the persons concerned about the issue (stakeholders) through establishing a reference group, holding workshops and organising interviews and focus groups. The assessment was complemented by a GIS based modelling tool (Where the wind blows - WTWB), which allowed the participatory assessment of optimal locations for wind power, depending on the spatial distribution of wind resources. Inputs from the reference group were summarized in a criteria catalogue to define three scenarios (min, med and max) for potentially suitable wind turbine sites. These three scenarios were complemented by a fourth scenario that reflects the wind energy potential with suitability zones for wind energy already defined by Austrian federal states. For all potential locations we calculated the levelized cost of energy generation (LCOE) to derive wind energy supply curves for each scenario of potentially suitable wind turbine sites. Under the assumptions of the min scenario, only 3.5TWh of wind energy could be produced at relatively high costs of 96 to 243 € MWh-1. Thus, it would not be possible to meet the wind energy targets of 3GW installed capacity (equivalent to about 6.3TWh assuming current capacity factors) of the Austrian Eco-Electricity-Act 2012. The med and max scenario would allow for further expanding the wind energy share at reasonable cost of about 95 EUR MWh-1 even if electricity demand keeps steadily rising. The modelling results raised our understanding of the related costs and benefits and served as a basis for the case study selection.

In the case studies, TransWind worked with interactive 3D visualisation tools based on latest visualisation developments to provide real-time and realistic visualisations for discussing and assessing different planning strategies and siting processes related to the visual impact on the landscape. Our research on technologies for 3D modelling in the context of Wind turbine visualisations has shown that different concepts and methods exist. The simple image visualisations (static images) are state of the art in planning processes but they are increasingly criticised as there is no easy way to prove their reliability and the number of viewpoints is very limited. From a cost perspective it is still the most efficient technology and the images can be easily shared in reports, presentations or websites. Interactive 3D visualisations allow users to change their viewpoints interactively depending on personal motifs. Therefore, personal fears and expectations can be addressed which may lead to more objective discussions and exchange of opinions during planning processes. During the project, two very new technologies entered the stage: Augmented reality (AR) and Virtual reality (VR) applications. Both are driven by the fast spread of mobile phones and may provide some additional insights in the visual impact of wind turbines. Nevertheless there are still some technological barriers that leads to positioning errors or unrealistic views due to the missing masking of 3D objects by real world objects (in AR) or are lacking quality due to low screen resolutions of mobile phones (in VR).

Through the research in the case studies and the preferences expressed by the stakeholders of the reference group TransWind identified different and sometimes contrasting patterns of social acceptance, which enhanced our understanding about the economical, political, ecological and social feasibility of wind power plants. Our empirical results showed that all interview partners and focus group participants consider vertical and horizontal cooperation and coordination across different political levels and parties (stakeholders; experts; local to regional decision makers; citizens) to be important. The problem is that the process of interaction between these actors is often conflictual. Different factors could be highlighted explaining this divergence. Such factors can be seen in the conflict of interests, rationales and beliefs which strengthen the problems of coordination and cooperation. Furthermore, any wind energy project is characterised by the basic systemic conflict between nature conservation (protection of wildlife, habitat and landscape) and narratives of ecological modernisation (e.g. climate protection or energy transition). These moral concepts (core beliefs) and policy cores (general beliefs and perceptions in a specific policy field like wind energy) of the participants are unlikely to change. Only the so called secondary aspects, which relates to the implementation of a policy (e.g. instruments, concrete actions), are most likely to change and are subject to learning processes.

Solutions for local wind energy projects can only be found in coordinated processes of cooperation taking into account all patterns of social acceptance. In order to ensure acceptance, decision-making processes have to be reformed, justice sustained and thereby both input and output legitimacy enhanced. All of these factors were taken into account when TransWind finally established a guideline for various user audiences interested in handling the acceptance and non-acceptance of wind energy.

Out of several countries in the coup-stricken African Sahel slated to hold elections this year, Senegal looked like the only one that might escape the threat of voter suppression, rigging, or other corrupt practices.But this is no more the case as a sudden turn of events last week plunged the West African nation into an unprecedented constitutional crisis, which pundits argue could lead anywhere at this point, from an uneasy elite pact to a total state collapse. On February 3, the eve of the official presidential campaign, Senegal's President Macky Sall announced a postponement of the election, citing dispute over the candidate list. His decision to postpone came weeks after a controversy erupted over the exclusion of opposition candidates from the ballot. The opposition Senegalese Democratic Party (PDS), whose candidate Karim Wade was among those excluded by the Constitutional Council from running in the election for possessing a dual French-Senegalese citizenship, had earlier filed a formal request to postpone the vote. Also excluded is the opposition PASTEF's popular leader Ousmane Sonko, who opposed Sall in 2019 and has been behind bars since last year for immoral behavior and plotting an insurrection. His candidacy in the 2024 election was rejected last month by the Constitutional Council in a move critics say was targeted at eliminating the most potent obstacle to Sall's preferred candidate, Prime Minister Amadou Ba, running and winning the forthcoming elections. Bassirou Diomaye Faye, Sonko's substitute candidate, is also in jail on charges of contempt of court, defamation, and acts likely to compromise public peace.OutrageNever before has Senegal postponed a presidential election. Ordinary Senegalese are shocked by the strange turn of events in part due to the sense of security created by Sall's decision in July last year not to run for a third term."I feel sad for Senegal, a beautiful and peaceful country always considered as an example of democracy and for the Senegalese people who fought in 2011 in the name of democracy so that the current President Macky Sall could be elected," Awa Diouf, a Senegalese activist, told RS. Sall has repeated his stance not to run for a third term, but the opposition doesn't believe him, accusing Sall of premeditated plans to cling to power or to force his preferred candidate on the people. After the decision, protests resurfaced in the country's capital Dakar reminiscent of scenes of deadly clashes with police that were once a fixture of life from 2021 to 2023. One leading opposition politician was arrested in the renewed disturbance on Feb. 4, as police fired tear gas to disperse angry protesters amidst a growing crackdown which has seen a private television station, Walf TV, suspended for 'inciting violence' and internet cut. The crisis continued into last week at the country's parliament where a bill seeking to fix a new date for the elections and extend Sall's tenure led to a row with some opposition MPs forcibly removed by police clad in riot gear. At the end of proceedings, the parliament, which is dominated by the ruling coalition, Benno Bokk Yakaar (which includes President Sall's Alliance for the Republic party) voted for a 10-month extension of the election until December 15. Sall's term was originally meant to lapse in early April. In response, activists are once again mobilizing for new protests and many fear for more violent crackdowns.A diplomatic solutionThese developments, which occurred on the heels of U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken's tour of the region last month, have attracted widespread condemnation. The West African bloc, ECOWAS, whose credibility has taken a beating over its handling of a string of coups in the region, failed to condemn the postponement.In sharp contrast, a statement by the U.S. State Department was more decisive in describing the poll's postponement as a move that runs "contrary to Senegal's strong democratic tradition," while also calling the National Assembly's vote illegitimate, "given the conditions under which it took place." The U.S. also condemned the attacks on press freedom and the severing of internet communications in the country. "The U.S. is a strong all round partner with Senegal and is the leading provider of development assistance valued at $238 million per year," Dr. Joseph Siegle of the Africa Center for Strategic Studies noted to RS. Besides the significant economic ties and trade, it is in the area of regional security that Senegal is most important for the United States. As one of the most stable democracies in Africa and a model for religious and ethnic tolerance, Senegal has been a longtime partner of the U.S. in promoting peace and security in Africa. "[Senegal's] importance has become even more outsized in the wake of recent coups and military regimes in Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger and Guinea," Afolabi Adekaiyaoja, a research analyst with the Centre for Democracy and Development (CDD-West Africa) explained. Although an outlier in the region's anti-democratic trends, this does not mean Senegal's democracy has been free of turmoil. For instance, out of four Presidents that have governed Senegal since it gained independence from France in 1960, only two have taken office in peaceful transfers of power — the first of which occurred in 2000. In 2012, Sall was only elected following a period of widespread protests against his predecessor Abdoulaye Wade's attempt to undemocratically cling to power. After 12 years at the helm of the country, critics now accuse Sall of the same crimes as Wade's, which include eroding the country's democratic credentials through a pattern of jailing political opponents under spurious charges and bending Senegal's justice system to his will. What is most significant, however, is that even in the midst of chaos "the struggle of the Senegalese people always takes place within the framework of institutions as much as peaceful and unarmed resistance," activist Louise M. Faye told RS. The hope is that today's disagreements won't be litigated in a coup like Senegal's Sahelian neighbors.By and large, experts believe what is likely is an uneasy pact within the elite, which has been brought about as a result of rising opposition to conventional politics. "The US [needs to start] talking directly to all of the relevant Senegalese actors as well as ECOWAS to navigate a stable, constitutionally-based, democratic outcome," Siegle explained. The Biden administration's playbook for the continent, U.S. Strategy Toward Sub-Saharan Africa, mandates Washington to "stem the recent tide of authoritarianism and military takeovers by working with allies and partners in the region to respond to democratic backsliding and human rights abuses."While doing this, however, Washington needs to be mindful that recent anti-French sentiment has played into Russia's plans to expand its influence in the region. "While that does not necessarily mean direct anti-American perceptions, it will also need to ensure it can retain backchannels to the different factions if it wants to diplomatically intervene. Washington's important role will be to maintain pressure on Dakar to ensure a fair and transparent review process, or national dialogue as President Sall has put it, ahead of the elections," Adekaiyaoja added.

ABSTRAKPenelitian ini memiliki latarbelakang dari adanya perbedaan hasil penelitian mengenai variabel online customer review, online customer rating dan kepercayaan konsumen terhadap keputusan pembelian. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh Online Customer Review, Online Customer Rating dan Kepercayaan Konsumen terhadap Keputusan Pembelian Produk Scarlett Whitening di Shopee. Penelitian ini menggunakan data primer yang berasal dari kuesioner dan data sekunder berasal dari berbagai jurnal. Populasi yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah wanita yang pernah melakukan pembelian produk scarlett whitening di shopee. Teknik pengambilan sampel yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah nonprobability sampling. Penentuan Sampel menggunakan teknik purposive sampling dengan jumlah sampel sebanyak 75 orang wanita. Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian kuantitatif yang dibantu oleh SPSS 17 for windows serta analisis ststitik deskriptif sebagai penggambaran dari seluruh pernyataan dan analisis regresi linier berganda sebagai alat pengukuran yang mengukur pengaruh variabel bebas dan terikat baik secara parsial maupun simultan. Adapun hasil penelitian membuktikan bahwa online customer review secara parsial tidak berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap keputusan pembelian produk scarlett whitening di shopee, online customer rating secara parsial berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap keputusan pembelian produk scarlett whitening di shopee, kepercayaan konsumen secara parsial berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap keputusan pembelian produk scarlett whitening di shopee, serta online customer review, online customer rating dan kepercayaan konsumen secara simultan berpengaruh positif dan signifikan terhadap keputusan pembelian produk scarlett whitening di shopee. 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The study of the triplet of digital practices, skills and motivation, essential for an effective integration of ICTs in the classroom, is central to the subject programs, through the competency-based approach, which has been in place in Cameroon secondary schools for more than seven years ago. This pedagogical revolution is taking place more than ten years later after technological innovations in schools, and currently with the implementation of several initiatives for the use of digital tools for in-service training and professional development of teachers (Mian B. S., 2013) this includes the training of many civil servant teachers and those who audit, trained in ICT or in basic computing, in the seven higher teacher training colleges in Cameroon. However, gaps remain between the will of digital education policies and the actual use of digital tools in the classroom, as observed in the field. It therefore seemed necessary to us to conduct an investigation, in the Cameroonian context, multicultural and bilingual, which will allow us to come out with a more perfect overview of the factors that provoke the triplet of pedagogical practices, skills and motivation of digital tools. The research question is therefore to know what are the educational uses of digital tools that might influence ICT competence and academic motivation among students in secondary education in Cameroon. The objective is to identify the pedagogical uses of digital tools of students inspired by the models of (Touré, Mbangwana, & Sène, 2009; Mian B. A., 2010) the types of technological skills according to Desjardins (2005)the types and profiles of school motivation according to the self-determination theory of Deci and Ryan (2002) and then to analyse and better understand the similarities and differences that exist according to the institutional dimensions of the schools, the sociological and the ethno-cultural dimensions of the students. This analysis is carried out from the perspective of the students themselves and should by itself be a way of corroborating (or not) the findings of the teachers (Coen, Rey, Monnard, & Jauquier, 2013)This inductive research, which we can describe as a "learning by doing" approach, is a good example of a "learning by doing" approach. This inductive research, which we can describe as exploratory, involved three non-probability samples consisting of 18 secondary schools, 71 teachers and 1525 pupils for the two school years 2017 - 2018 and 2018 - 2019 respectively. The methodological choice is a multi-case study inspired by (Yin, 1994; in (Tchameni Ngamo, 2007, p. 78)). Data was collected for each of the populations concerned by means of three questionnaires, informal, semi-structured and group interviews, observations of field situations and analysis of various documents. This work seems to highlight three families of overlapping factors: the social background, the social origin of the students, and the studies followed or pedagogical factor. This has enabled us to develop some conclusive hypotheses. Firstly, students from a more affluent social background have a greater familiarity with ICT, a stronger sense of ICT competence, and also have a stronger self-determined motivation towards digital education at school. Secondly, the studies followed play a discriminating role between high school students, in the context of the three phenomena measured (educational uses of digital tools, technological skills and motivation). Thirdly, the social origin as well as the personal factors of the student play a discriminating role between the students, in the context of the three measured phenomena. ; L'étude du triplet, pratiques numériques, compétences et motivation, inhérente à une intégration efficace des TIC en classe, est centrale dans les programmes de discipline, via l'approche par compétence, mise en place au lycée au Cameroun depuis plus de 7 ans. Cette révolution pédagogique intervient plus de dix ans plus tard après des innovations technologiques, dans les établissements scolaires, et actuellement avec la mise en œuvre de plusieurs initiatives d'usage des outils numériques pour la formation continue et le développement professionnel des enseignants (Mian B. S., 2013), notamment la formation de nombreux enseignants fonctionnaires et auditeurs libres, formés en TIC ou en informatique fondamentale, dans les sept écoles normales supérieures , que compte le Cameroun. Cependant, des écarts demeurent entre les volontés des politiques numériques éducatives et la situation réelle d'utilisation des outils numériques en classe, observées sur le terrain. Cette étude, menée dans le contexte camerounais pluriculturel et bilingue, permet d'obtenir un éclairage plus parfait sur des facteurs qui stimulent le triplet pratiques pédagogiques, compétences et motivation des outils numériques. La question de recherche est donc de savoir quelles sont les usages éducatifs des outils numériques qui influenceraient la compétence en TIC et la motivation scolaire chez les élèves dans l'enseignement secondaire au Cameroun. L'objectif est d'identifier les usages pédagogiques des outils numériques des élèves inspirés des modèles de (Mian B. A., 2010; Touré, Mbangwana, & Sène, 2009), les types de compétences technologiques selon Desjardins (2005), les types et les profils de motivation scolaire selon la théorie d'auto-détermination de Deci et Ryan (2002) ; et ensuite analyser et mieux comprendre les similitudes et les différences qui existeraient entre les dimensions institutionnelles des établissements scolaires, les dimensions sociologiques ainsi que ethnoculturelles des élèves. Cette analyse est effectuée à partir du regard des élèves eux-mêmes et devrait constituer en soi un moyen de corroborer (ou non) les constats faits auprès des enseignants (Coen, Rey, Monnard, & Jauquier, 2013), d'une part, et des directions d'écoles, d'autre part. C'est une recherche inductive à caractère exploratoire, qui porte sur trois échantillons non probabilistes constitués respectivement de 18 écoles secondaires, 71 enseignants et 1525 élèves au titre des deux années scolaires, 2017 – 2018 et 2018 – 2019. Le choix méthodologique porte sur une étude multi-cas inspirée de (Yin, 1994 ; in (Tchameni Ngamo S. , 2007, p. 78)). La collecte des données s'est effectuée par le canal de trois questionnaires, des entretiens informels, semi-dirigés et de groupes, des observations des situations de terrain, et des analyses de documents divers. Les principaux résultats de cette présente étude, semblent mettre en valeur trois familles de facteurs qui se recoupent : le milieu social, l'origine sociale des élèves, et les études suivies ou facteur pédagogique. Ce qui nous a permis d'élaborer des hypothèses conclusives. Primo, les élèves de milieu social plus aisé, ont plus de familiarité avec les TICE en classe, un plus fort sentiment de compétence en TIC, et ont également une plus forte motivation autodéterminée à l'égard du numérique éducatif à l'école. Secundo, les études suivies jouent un rôle discriminant entre les lycéens, dans le contexte des trois phénomènes mesurés (usages éducatifs des outils numériques, compétences technologiques et motivation). Tertio, l'origine sociale telle que les facteurs personnels de l'élève jouent un rôle discriminant entre les lycéens, dans le contexte des trois phénomènes mesurés.

Abstract Background. In modern linguistics there is particular increasing of interest to historical research of language, especially in the field of professional vocabulary and its functioning. Such an analysis of linguistic means is relevant for all humanities and can be explained by the fact that language reflects the most important changes in the worldview and life of the Eastern Slavs, in particular in the form and content of the semantic class of words having general categorical meaning "tax". Problems of taxation and the organization of effective state tax control have interested mankind since ancient times, today they have become the subject of studies of economics and history mainly (R. Bobrynev, M. Boulenger, O. Vasilyk, B. Grekov, L. Larionov, N. Miller, N. Nechay, А. Tolkushkin). There are some researches on the history of the formation of the terminology of the Russian language in the historical aspect (V. Goncharov), however, as far as we know, the nominations that serve to denote taxes have not received comprehensive coverage in the linguistic literature yet. The purpose of our study is to analyze the nominations that form the semantic class of words meaning "tax, duty, levies". Studying the specifics of their semantics and functioning in the vocabulary context will solve a number of issues related to the history of the formation of tax terminology in general. Methods. The main research methods are descriptive and comparative-historical, with the help of which we trace changes in the specified group of lexical units, elements of quantitative analysis are also used. On the basis of 313 lexical items (nominations of taxes, processes and people related to the tax sphere), selected by the method of continuous sampling from dictionaries the historical changes that occurred to this vocabulary in the process of development were analyzed. Chronological boundaries cover the XIth-XVIIth centuries. Results. The study of the history of the tax terminology of the Russian language has both theoretical significance ‑ awareness of how the world and realities are reflected in society under the influence of various factors, as well as practical application, as this layer of vocabulary relates to various spheres of political, cultural, economic life but it is not described well enough by linguists. The nominations analyzed by us, denoting various taxes, levies, duties, units of the tax sphere, names of people and territories taxed and not taxed by tribute, make it possible to distinguish six functional-thematic groups of nominations of the tax terminology. The analysis of each of the groups allows us to conclude that the individual nominations had not one but several terminological meanings (for example, tribute). The names that reflect the genus and species nominations of fees, tributes, fines and others were very numerous. Often these nominations combine two meanings: levies and duties, duties and levies, taxes and fees, which indicates a lack of regulation in the field of tax terminology and the lexical system as a whole. We have represented productive and non-productive ways of word formation of nominations; we have found that the morphological way of creating these words is the most productive. The phenomenon of synonyms and antonyms is recorded in the system of tax terminology. Two-word (compound) names are replaced by one-word nouns. Discussion. Thus, numerous names of the tax terminology are not included in the vocabulary of modern Russian literary language. Only some of them can be found in literary works, which describe similar realities ("Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by A. Radishchev, "Dead Souls" by N. Gogol, "Who in Russia to live well" by N. Nekrasov etc); others generally lost the meaning of "tribute, tax". We see prospects in the study of the functional dynamics of the nominations of the tax terminology system, as well as in elucidating their role in the Russian linguistic world view. Keywords: history of language, nominations for tax designation, semantics, vocabulary, word-formation model. ; Резюме Постановка проблеми. У сучасному мовознавстві відчувається посилення інтересу до історичних досліджень мови, особливо в галузі функціонування термінологічної лексики. Подібний аналіз мовних одиниць є актуальним для всіх гуманітарних наук, його значущість можна пояснити тим, що саме в мові відбиваються найважливіші за своїми наслідками зміни, що відбулися у світогляді і житті східних слов'ян, зокрема у формі та змісті семантичного класу слів, об'єднаних загальнокатегоріальним значенням «податок». Проблеми оподаткування й організації ефективного державного податкового контролю цікавили людство з давніх часів, сьогодні вони стали предметом вивчення переважно економічної науки та історії (Р. Бобринев, М. Буланже, О. Василик, Б. Греков, Л. Ларионов, Н. Міллер, Н. Нечай, О. Толкушкін). Є окремі розвідки щодо історії формування терміносистеми російської мови в історичному аспекті (В. Гончаров), однак, наскільки нам відомо, номінації, що слугують на позначення податків, ще не отримали комплексного висвітлення в лінгвістичній літературі. Мета нашого дослідження – аналіз номінацій, що утворюють семантичний клас слів зі значенням «податок, мито, побори». Вивчення специфіки їхньої семантики й функціонування в словниковому контексті дозволить з'ясувати низку питань, пов'язаних з історією формування податкової термінології в цілому. Методологія дослідження. Основними методами дослідження – описовий та порівняльно-історичний, за допомогою яких ми прослідковуємо зміни в означеній групі лексичних одиниць, було застосовано також елементи кількісного аналізу. На матеріалі 313 лексичних одиниць (номінацій на позначення податків та пов'язаних з податковою сферою), відібраних методом суцільної вибірки зі словників проаналізовано історичні зміни, які відбулися із зазначеною лексикою в процесі розвитку. Хронологічні межі охоплюють XI-XVII століття. Основні результати дослідження. Дослідження історії розвитку податкової терміносистеми російської мови має як теоретичне значення – усвідомлення того, як віддзеркалюється навколишній світ і реалії у соціумі під впливом різноманітних факторів, а також і практичне застосування, оскільки цей прошарок лексики стосується різних сфер політичного, культурного, економічного життя й недостатньо описаний лінгвістами. Проаналізовані нами номінації, що позначають різні податки, побори, повинності, одиниці податкової сфери, найменування осіб і територій, оподатковуваних і не оподатковуваних даниною, уможливили виділити шість функціонально-тематичних груп номінацій податкової терміносистеми. Аналіз кожної з груп дозволяє зробити висновки, що окремі номінації мали не одне, а кілька термінологічних значень (наприклад, данина). Багаточисельними виявилися найменування, що відображають родо-видові номінації зборів, данини, пені тощо. Найчастіше ці номінації поєднують два значення: побору і повинності, мита та збору, податку і плати, що засвідчує неврегульованість у сфері податкової термінології і лексичної системи у цілому. Нами репрезентовано продуктивні і непродуктивні способи словотворення номінацій, виявлено, що морфологічний спосіб творення зазначених слів є найбільш продуктивним. В системі податкової термінології зафіксовано явище синонімії та антонімії. Двослівні (складені) назви замінюються однослівними субстантивами (возовое від «мито з воза»; носовоiе «мито з носа судна»). Висновки і перспективи. Отже, численні найменування податкової терміносфери не увійшли до словникового складу сучасної російської літературної мови. Лише деякі з них (дань, оброкъ) можна зустріти в літературних творах, в яких описано подібні реалії («Подорож із Петербурга до Москви» О. Радищева, «Мертві душі» М. Гоголя, «Кому на Русі жити добре» М. Некрасова та інші); інші (дача, даръ) взагалі втратили значення «данини, податку». Перспективи вбачаємо у дослідженні функціональної динаміки номінацій податкової терміносистеми, а також з'ясуванні їхньої ролі у російській мовній картині світу. Ключові слова: історія мови, лексика, номінації на позначення податків, семантика, словотворча модель.

Includes bibliography (p. 186-205). ; Number of sources in the bibliography: 292 ; Thesis (Ph. D.) -- University of Cyprus, Faculty of Social Sciences and Education, Department of Social and Political Sciences, 2021. ; The University of Cyprus Library holds the printed form of the thesis. ; Η διατριβή παρουσιάζει μια φεμινιστική ανάλυση σκοπιάς (standpoint) για την κατασκευή της πολιτικής συμμετοχής μέσω του blogging γυναικών. Το κύριο ερευνητικό ερώτημα ασχολείται με το ρόλο του φεμινιστικού blogging στην υπέρβαση των τοπικών/εθνικών ορίων/περιορισμών για πληροφόρηση του παγκόσμιου κοινού σχετικά με τις παραβιάσεις ανθρωπίνων δικαιωμάτων και για κινητοποίηση συλλογικής δράσης. Εντοπίζω και αναλύω τους πολλαπλούς τρόπους με τους οποίους το blogging ως φεμινιστική πρακτική (ανα)κατασκευάζει, (ανα)νοηματοδοτεί και διευρύνει την έννοια της πολιτικής συμμετοχής στην ψηφιακή εποχή. Διερευνώ τις διαφορετικές στρατηγικές του φεμινιστικού blogging στον αγώνα για πρόσβαση στη δημόσια σφαίρα. Η κριτική φεμινιστική μου ανάλυση λόγου επικεντρώνεται σε blogs δέκα γυναικών από την περιοχή της Μέσης Ανατολής και της Βόρειας Αφρικής (ΜΕΝΑ)-Αίγυπτο, Λίβανο, Συρία, Τυνησία και Υεμένη-στο πλαίσιο των Αραβικών εξεγέρσεων του 2011. Τα δεδομένα από 269 blog posts, αποκαλύπτουν πώς το φεμινιστικό blogging παράγει φεμινιστική γνώση, ταυτότητες και πρακτικές που αμφισβητούν και διαταράσσουν τον ηγεμονικό αυταρχικό, νεοφιλελεύθερο, νέο-αποικιακό και πατριαρχικό λόγο. Συνδυάζοντας τη θεωρία της φεμινιστικής σκοπιάς και την κριτική ανάλυση λόγου ως μέρος του θεωρητικού, αναλυτικού και μεθοδολογικού πλαισίου, προβάλω μια βαθιά κριτική φεμινιστική ανάλυση των δομικών και θεσμικών ανισοτήτων που ενυπάρχουν στα αυταρχικά και καταπιεστικά συστήματα. Αυτή η ανάλυση αποκαλύπτει τις κρίσιμες οπτικές των περιθωριοποιημένων ομάδων που φέρνουν στρατηγικά τα μίκρο-μεσο-και-μάκρο επίπεδα (φωνή, χώρος και ισχύς) σε διάλογο. Αυτά τα συνυφασμένα επίπεδα στο νοηματικό μου πλαίσιο αναδεικνύουν την εναλλακτική πολιτική δύναμη του blogging από το περιθώριο στο προσκήνιο και στην παγκόσμια κινητοποίηση. Η πρωτότυπη συνεισφορά αυτής της διατριβής έγκειται στην ανάπτυξη ενός Νέου Σχήματος Ανάλυσης των blogs για την πολιτική συμμετοχή. Το Σχήμα αναδεικνύει τη δυναμική και την στρατηγική διαδικασία στην οποία το φεμινιστικό blogging μπορεί να: οργανώνει την πολιτική δράση στο μίκρο-επίπεδο, υπερβαίνοντας τους δημόσιους χώρους και τα εθνικά σύνορα, συμμετέχει σε διαδικτυακές πλατφόρμες προάσπισης στο μέσο-επίπεδο και επηρεάζει τη δημιουργία διακρατικών φεμινιστικών συμμαχιών στο μάκρο-επίπεδο. Αυτό το Σχήμα βασίστηκε στην έννοια της Wendy Harcourt «glocality» την οποία επεκτείνω στη φεμινιστική μπλογκόσφαιρα, στο πώς, από την εξορία και το περιθώριο στην πρώτη γραμμή των αλληλένδετων γλωσσικών αντιπαραθέσεων, αναδεικνύεται ο αγώνας για κοινωνική αλλαγή. Αυτό το Σχήμα μπορεί να αποτελέσει εργαλείο μελλοντικής ανάλυσης των blogs που εστιάζονται στην πολιτική συμμετοχή. Η διατριβή συμβάλλει επίσης στη βιβλιογραφία για τη Φεμινιστική Θεωρία, τις Γυναικείες Σπουδές, τις Σπουδές των Μέσων Επικοινωνίας, καθώς και στην Πολιτική Κοινωνιολογία διερευνώντας νέους τρόπους αμφισβήτησης των δομών εξουσίας, ειδικά στο πλαίσιο ενός συνεχώς συρρικνωμένου περιβάλλοντος για τα ανθρώπινα δικαιώματα και αυταρχικών τάσεων που αναβιώνουν παγκοσμίως. Επιπλέον, η μελέτη συνεισφέρει στους κοινωνικοπολιτικούς και ιστορικούς αγώνες των γυναικών στην περιοχή MENA και αποδεικνύει το πώς οι δυτικοκεντρικές, ανδροκεντρικές αντιλήψεις για τη δημόσια σφαίρα αποκλείουν τις πραγματικότητες περιθωριοποιημένων κοινωνικών ομάδων. Παράγοντες όπως: ο δημόσιος λόγος και η αναγνώρισή του, η διεκδικητική ρητορική, η αφήγηση και οι γνώσεις που παράγονται από συγκεκριμένη κοινωνική θέση, επιτρέπουν την εκδήλωση εναλλακτικών μορφών πολιτικής δράσης που επεκτείνουν την έννοια της πολιτικής δημόσιας σφαίρας. Αυτές οι «glocal» κοινότητες φέρνουν στο προσκήνιο τις στρατηγικές συνδέσεις μεταξύ των φεμινιστριών bloggers και των εργαλείων αντίστασής τους, καθώς και τη μεταμορφωτική, ανατρεπτική και επαναστατική δύναμη που έχουν στην κινητοποίηση διεθνικών φεμινισμών. Η πολιτική σημασία του φεμινιστικού blogging που (ανα)κατασκευάζει την πολιτότητα και την πολιτική πρακτική, επιτρέπει στις γυναίκες να εκφράσουν τις γνώσεις τους και να κινητοποιήσουν συλλογική δράση για τα ανθρώπινα δικαιώματα και τη δημοκρατία. ; This thesis presents a feminist standpoint analysis of the construction of political participation through women's blogging. My primary research question deals with the role of feminist blogging in transcending local boundaries to inform global audiences about human rights violations and to mobilise for collective action. I identify and analyse the multiple discursive ways in which blogging as a feminist practice (re)constructs and (re)conceptualises political participation in the digital era. I explore the diverse strategies of feminist blogging in the struggle over the public sphere. My critical discourse analysis focuses on blogs of ten women in the MENA region–Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Tunisia and Yemen–in the context of the 2011 Arab uprisings. Data from 269 blog posts reveal how feminist blogging produces feminist knowledge, identities and practices that challenge and disrupt hegemonic authoritarian, neoliberal, neo-colonial, and patriarchal discourses. By bringing together feminist standpoint theory and critical discourse analysis, as part of an integrated theoretical, analytical and methodological framework, I offer a deep critical feminist analysis of the structural and institutional inequalities inherent in authoritarian and oppressive systems. This integrated analysis reveals the critical perspectives of marginalised groups strategically bringing the micro, meso and macro levels (voice, space and power) into dialogue. These levels in my conceptualisation and contextualisation interweave to show the alternative political power of blogging from margin to center and global mobilisation. The original contribution of this thesis lies in the development of a new Blog Analysis Schema for political participation. The Schema demonstrates a dynamic and strategic process in which feminist blogging can organise from grassroots political action (micro level), transcend public space(s) and national boundaries, engage in online advocacy platforms (meso level), and influence transnational coalition-building (macro level). This Schema builds upon Wendy Harcourt's concept of 'glocality' to apply to the feminist blogosphere that is, from exile and margin to the forefront of interwoven glocal counterpublics, thus driving the struggle for social change. This Schema may thus constitute a model for future analysis of blogs focusing on political participation. This thesis also contributes to the literature on feminist theory, media and women's studies, as well as political sociology by exploring new ways to challenge power structures, especially in the context of an ever-shrinking human rights environment and the current resurgence of authoritarianism across the globe. In addition, this study contributes to the socio-political and historical accounts of women's struggles in the MENA region and furthermore it demonstrates how Westernised, male-centred understandings of the public sphere exclude the realities of marginalised social groups. Factors such as: greeting and public address, affirmative rhetoric, narrative and situated knowledges, enable alternative forms of political action to expand the notion of political public sphere. These glocal communities bring to the forefront the strategic connections between feminist bloggers and their vehicles of resistance, as well as the transformative power they hold for mobilising transnational feminisms. The political importance of feminist blogging reconceptualising citizenship and political practice allows women to express their situated knowledges, and mobilise collective action for human rights and democracy.