Suchergebnisse

Sudan has the potential to become a dynamic economy and a bread basket for the Arab world and East-Central Africa. However, resource endowment is not sufficient to bring about sustainable growth and prosperity. Sudans macroeconomic conditions remain weak since the secession of South Sudan in 2011, despite some improvements. The repercussions of the secession of South Sudan present enormous challenges for Sudan with respect to managing the macro-fiscal adjustment and promoting a structural re-orientation of the economy. The signing in March 2013 of the implementation matrix of the agreement between Sudan and South Sudan provides some fresh financial relief to Sudan and creates a great opportunity for further policy reforms to address the post-secession challenges. Sudans growth strategy should involve policies aimed at improving the investment climate and broadening private sector-led growth, and diversifying the economy toward non-oil sectors such as agriculture, industry, export, and local trade.

International audience ; The present article aims to examine a set of creativity-related concepts, dimensions, patterns, different ways and techniques of generating ideas, developing talents, funding opportunities as well as protecting intellectual property rights, and, in particular, how all these factors affect the economy and sustainable business. To continue, there is the importance of intercultural dialogue analysed while opening cooperation and partnership opportunities in various regions, mobility opportunities among artists as well as developing skills, creativity, innovations, and entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurship emerges as an important factor in a rapidly changing world of business and transforming creative ideas into a value-added. There is a significant number of university studies, creative businesses and/ or entrepreneurship programs tackled via presenting programs at universities, while the symbiosis 'Business-Arts' brings new colours to the image of creativity: investments in human resources, trainings, researches, lifelong learning and entrepreneurship open up new opportunities of merging arts and business and concentrating a wide range of artistic and business talents in one area (incubators and/ or clusters of arts) where arts and business complement each other. Thus, the research question: how does the creativity affect a sustainable business performance in Lithuania? A solid Global Entrepreneurship Monitor methodology and data mainly for the year of 2011 (including some newest trends for 2012) were used in order to light up the main problems and trends of enhancing the creativity in Lithuanian companies while creating a higher value-added and competitive advantage.

Twenty million people in Central America cook with biomass using open fires or rudimentary stoves. The number of people using biomass for cooking in the region will remain significant for a long time due to high incidence of poverty, high Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) prices coupled with unsustainable LPG subsidies, as well as relatively easy access to fuel wood in the region. Providing these people with clean and efficient cooking solutions is not just an energy issue, but one related to poverty, gender inequality, public health, environmental sustainability, local employment, climate change, agriculture, and local employment. A new generation of improved biomass cook stoves (ICS) has recently become available in Central America. The economic benefits from improving public health, reducing deforestation, and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions well outweigh the costs of ICS dissemination. Efforts involving donor agencies, governments, non-governmental organizations, as well as local entrepreneurs have been made to disseminate ICS in the region in the last 10 years. The objective of this study is to better understand current developments in clean and efficient biomass cooking solutions, factors that have precluded a larger penetration of ICS within the region, and lessons learned from past programs-both in the region and in other countries-that may be relevant to Central America. The study recommends key actions that may help the region step up its current dissemination efforts and promote sustained use of ICS, a first step toward universal access to ICS by fuel wood users. Its intended audience includes different stakeholders, including government agencies, regional and international organizations, as well as various implementing entities who are thinking or rethinking appropriate technologies, policy interventions, financing, and delivery mechanisms for Central America to promote ICS.

This case study is part of an analytical effort aimed at advising World Bank staff and country clients on options for private sector participation (PSP) in transmission and distribution. The report is based on data collected on the Peruvian case, the review of literature, as well as on a set of interviews held with power sector agencies, including the regulator and system operator, power sector companies and experts in the field. The problems of the power sector were linked to its structure, a legal framework that guaranteed a public monopoly and the use on subsidies as a political tool to redistribute income and control inflation. The crisis justified measures in line with a thorough neoliberal economic reform that was underway. This reform included the reduction of an oversized public sector and the unbundling and privatization of the power sector. The privatization of transmission was justified on the grounds of attracting fresh capital and achieving greater efficiency. PSP in distribution was justified on the same grounds, plus another important factor, it was seen also as a way to prevent or minimize government interference on the day‐to‐day operations of utilities and, most important, to avoid the politicization of electricity tariffs.

Dzud is the Mongolian term for a winter weather disaster in which deep snow, severe cold, or other conditions render forage unavailable or inaccessible and lead to high livestock mortality. Dzud is a regular occurrence in Mongolia, and plays an important role in regulating livestock populations. However, dzud, especially when combined with other environmental or socio-economic stresses and changes, can have a significant impact on household well-being as well as local and national economies. This study aims to fill this gap in knowledge by conducting in-depth case studies of four communities responses to the 2009-2010 dzud to document both household-and community-level impacts and responses. The case studies use a mixed-methods approach employing qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis techniques including interviews, focus groups, household questionnaires, photovoice and document review, and were carried out in two soums (districts) located in the forest-steppe zone of Arkhangai Aimag (province), Ikhtamir and Undur Ulaan, and two soums in the Gobi desert-steppe zone of Bayankhongor Aimag, Jinst and Bayantsagaan. The specific objectives of this study are to assess herder household and community vulnerability, adaptive capacity, and medium-term recovery and resilience from the dzud of 2010.

Major changes are needed if Africans and their children are to claim the 21st century. With the rapidly growing population, 5 percent annual growth is needed simply to keep the number of poor from rising. Halving severe poverty by 2015 will require annual growth of more than 7 percent, along with a more equitable distribution of income. Trends in Africa will need to change radically for a catch-up process to materialize. This will require determined leadership within Africa. It will require better governance developing stable and representative constitutional arrangements, implementing the rule of law, managing resources transparently, and delivering services effectively to communities and firms. It will require greater investment in Africas people as well as measures that encourage private investment in infrastructure and production. And it will require better support and perhaps more support from the international development community. In facing these challenges, Africa has enormous potential including the potential of its women, who now provide more than half of the regions labor but lack equal access to education and factors of production. This report brings together the recent body of work particularly that emanating from Africa itself to show how some African countries are approaching common issues. African economies and sub-regions are diverse and each will have to find its way to address the challenges of the 21st century.

The purpose of an entrepreneurship is to build and scale a sustainable business model through an enterprise. The lack of tangible and intangible resources is often at this very early stage. According to previous studies, new ventures could overcome the lack of resources -key to their success- forming relationships with partners (networking) through open innovation (OI) processes. However, the structure of each network affects their own processes and outcomes; the innovation processes and the network structure mutually shape each other. Opening up the innovation process implies the involvement of startups in relationships with different typologies of actors: Incubators, Large corporations, Higher education institutions, among others. Understanding the role, relation, position and power of each actor in the ecosystem allow us identify its network position which is critical for resource access. In order to determine the level of ecosystem maturity and its interactions is necessarily to analyze the entrepreneurship context. According to the Ecuadorian Entrepreneurship Profile (GEM, 2019) Ecuador has a strong position related to physical infrastructure, cultural and social norms and entrepreneurial education at post-school stage comparing with the media of the World. However, indicators like entrepreneurial finances, taxes and bureaucracy, government support, R&D transfer and entrepreneurship programs are quite far from the global average. Utilizing the newly publish Ecuadorian Organic Law for Entrepreneurship and Innovation (Official Registry No. 151, 2020) which aims to provide a normative framework that encourages the entrepreneurship, innovation and technological development this article analyzes startup's network centrality elements focusing on: Main actors and the nature of these relations; Institutions which hold the central position in the network; Partnerships and networks to support innovation processes and outcomes;Financial mechanisms to support entrepreneurship and innovation; and, Education to carry out partnerships.As a consecuence, the main actor determined by law is CONEIN as a ruling body and the Entrepreneurship Advisory Council. The presence of individual entrepreneurs is scarce. Although, CONEIN holds the central position in the network, in that aspect is a vast opportunity for Entrepreneurship Advisory Council to boost participation among private sector members and be a higher influence in the public policy making. By law, partnerships and networks to support innovation processes and outcomes are not clear, but entrepreneurs acquire greater centrality in the ecosystem than before, which could privilege their access to resources and knowledge especially from Higher education institutions. Financial mechanisms to support entrepreneurship and innovation are established, but will be necessary to allocate budget for this instrument, as well as for the entrepreneurship national strategy. The private investment is mentioned, nevertheless deep legal reforms are demanded in order to incentive its presence. Education regulation is incorporated in the law to carry out entrepreneurship and innovation. In the hereafter, will be necessary to incorporate partnership and financial education programs.The conception of adequate articulated programs for entrepreneurship, management, research and development, transfer, R&D funding, networking and human capital strengthen could favor open innovation. However, other instruments are necessary in terms of information release, taxability, bureaucracy, labor and direct investment that allows open innovation appear. The purpose of the Government is key to ensure governance, rule of law, and accountability of itself and entrepreneurship actors to ensure stability and economic prosperity. KEY WORDS: Entrepreneurship, open innovation, networking, networking structures, performance, rule of law. JEL CODE: K, L25, L 26 ; ABSTRACTThe purpose of an entrepreneurship is to build and scale a sustainable business model through an enterprise. The lack of tangible and intangible resources is often at this very early stage. According to previous studies, new ventures could overcome the lack of resources -key to their success- forming relationships with partners (networking) through open innovation (OI) processes. However, the structure of each network affects their own processes and outcomes; the innovation processes and the network structure mutually shape each other. Opening up the innovation process implies the involvement of startups in relationships with different typologies of actors: Incubators, Large corporations, Higher education institutions, among others. Understanding the role, relation, position and power of each actor in the ecosystem allow us identify its network position which is critical for resource access. In order to determine the level of ecosystem maturity and its interactions is necessarily to analyze the entrepreneurship context. According to the Ecuadorian Entrepreneurship Profile (GEM, 2019) Ecuador has a strong position related to physical infrastructure, cultural and social norms and entrepreneurial education at post-school stage comparing with the media of the World. However, indicators like entrepreneurial finances, taxes and bureaucracy, government support, R&D transfer and entrepreneurship programs are quite far from the global average. Utilizing the newly publish Ecuadorian Organic Law for Entrepreneurship and Innovation (Official Registry No. 151, 2020) which aims to provide a normative framework that encourages the entrepreneurship, innovation and technological development this article analyzes startup's network centrality elements focusing on: Main actors and the nature of these relations; Institutions which hold the central position in the network; Partnerships and networks to support innovation processes and outcomes;Financial mechanisms to support entrepreneurship and innovation; and, Education to carry out partnerships.As a consecuence, the main actor determined by law is CONEIN as a ruling body and the Entrepreneurship Advisory Council. The presence of individual entrepreneurs is scarce. Although, CONEIN holds the central position in the network, in that aspect is a vast opportunity for Entrepreneurship Advisory Council to boost participation among private sector members and be a higher influence in the public policy making. By law, partnerships and networks to support innovation processes and outcomes are not clear, but entrepreneurs acquire greater centrality in the ecosystem than before, which could privilege their access to resources and knowledge especially from Higher education institutions. Financial mechanisms to support entrepreneurship and innovation are established, but will be necessary to allocate budget for this instrument, as well as for the entrepreneurship national strategy. The private investment is mentioned, nevertheless deep legal reforms are demanded in order to incentive its presence. Education regulation is incorporated in the law to carry out entrepreneurship and innovation. In the hereafter, will be necessary to incorporate partnership and financial education programs.The conception of adequate articulated programs for entrepreneurship, management, research and development, transfer, R&D funding, networking and human capital strengthen could favor open innovation. However, other instruments are necessary in terms of information release, taxability, bureaucracy, labor and direct investment that allows open innovation appear. The purpose of the Government is key to ensure governance, rule of law, and accountability of itself and entrepreneurship actors to ensure stability and economic prosperity. KEY WORDS: Entrepreneurship, open innovation, networking, networking structures, performance, rule of law. RESUMEN:El propósito de un espíritu empresarial es construir y escalar un modelo de negocio sostenible a través de una empresa. La falta de recursos tangibles e intangibles se encuentran a menudo en esta etapa muy temprana. Según estudios previos, los nuevos emprendimientos podrían superar la falta de recursos, clave para su éxito, formando relaciones con socios (networking) a través de procesos de innovación abierta (OI). Sin embargo, la estructura de cada red afecta sus propios procesos y resultados; los procesos de innovación y la estructura de la red se moldean mutuamente. Abrir el proceso de innovación implica involucrar a las startups en relaciones con diferentes tipologías de actores: Incubadoras, Grandes corporaciones, Instituciones de educación superior, entre otros. Comprender el papel, la relación, la posición y el poder de cada actor en el ecosistema nos permite identificar la posición de su red que es fundamental para el acceso a los recursos.Para determinar el nivel de madurez del ecosistema y sus interacciones es necesario analizar el contexto del emprendimiento. Según el Perfil de Emprendimiento Ecuatoriano (GEM, 2019) Ecuador tiene una posición fuerte relacionada con la infraestructura física, las normas culturales y sociales y la educación emprendedora en la etapa post-escolar en comparación con los medios del mundo. Sin embargo, indicadores como las finanzas empresariales, los impuestos y la burocracia, el apoyo gubernamental, la transferencia de I + D y los programas de iniciativa empresarial están bastante lejos del promedio mundial.Utilizando la recién publicada Ley Orgánica de Emprendimiento e Innovación (Registro Oficial No. 151, 2020) que tiene como objetivo proporcionar un marco normativo que fomente el emprendimiento, la innovación y el desarrollo tecnológico, este artículo analiza los elementos de centralidad de la red de startups enfocándose en:Principales actores y naturaleza de estas relaciones;Instituciones que ocupan una posición central en la red;Alianzas y redes para apoyar los procesos y resultados de innovación;Mecanismos financieros para apoyar el espíritu empresarial y la innovación; y, educación para realizar alianzasEn consecuencia, el actor principal que determina la ley es el CONEIN como órgano rector y el Consejo Asesor de Emprendimiento. La presencia de empresarios individuales es escasa. Si bien el CONEIN ocupa la posición central en la red, se presenta una gran oportunidad para que el Consejo Asesor de Emprendimiento impulse la participación de los miembros del sector privado y tenga una mayor influencia en la formulación de políticas públicas. Por ley, las alianzas y redes para apoyar procesos y resultados de innovación no son claras, pero los emprendedores adquieren una mayor centralidad en el ecosistema que antes, lo que podría privilegiar su acceso a recursos y conocimientos, especialmente de las instituciones de educación superior.Se establecen mecanismos financieros de apoyo al emprendimiento y la innovación, pero será necesario asignar presupuesto para este instrumento, así como para la estrategia nacional de emprendimiento. Se menciona la inversión privada; sin embargo, se demandan profundas reformas legales para incentivar su presencia. La regulación educativa está incorporada en la ley para llevar a cabo el emprendimiento y la innovación. En lo sucesivo, será necesario incorporar programas de asociación y educación financiera.La concepción de programas articulados adecuados de emprendimiento, gestión, investigación y desarrollo, transferencia, financiamiento de I+D, networking y fortalecimiento del capital humano podría favorecer la innovación abierta. Sin embargo, son necesarias otros instrumentos en términos de divulgación de información, tributación, burocracia, mano de obra e inversión directa que permitan que surja la innovación abierta. El propósito del Gobierno es clave para garantizar la gobernanza, el estado de derecho y la rendición de cuentas de sí mismo y de los actores empresariales para garantizar la estabilidad y la prosperidad económica. CÓDIGO JEL: K, L25, L26 ; Le but d'un entrepreneuriat est de construire et de faire évoluer un modèle commercial durable à travers une entreprise. Le manque de ressources matérielles et immatérielles est souvent à ce stade très précoce. Selon des études antérieures, les nouvelles entreprises pourraient surmonter le manque de ressources, clé de leur succès, en établissant des relations avec des partenaires (mise en réseau) grâce à des processus d'innovation ouverte (IO). Cependant, la structure de chaque réseau affecte leurs propres processus et résultats ; les processus d'innovation et la structure du réseau se forment mutuellement. L'ouverture du processus d'innovation implique l'implication des startups dans des relations avec différentes typologies d'acteurs : Incubateurs, Grandes entreprises, Établissements d'enseignement supérieur, entre autres. Comprendre le rôle, la relation, la position et le pouvoir de chaque acteur dans l'écosystème nous permet d'identifier sa position dans le réseau qui est critique pour l'accès aux ressources.Déterminer le niveau de maturité de l'écosystème et ses interactions passe nécessairement par l'analyse du contexte entrepreneurial. Selon le Profil de l'entrepreneuriat équatorien (GEM, 2019), l'Équateur a une position forte en ce qui concerne les infrastructures physiques, les normes culturelles et sociales et l'éducation entrepreneuriale au stade post-scolaire par rapport aux médias du monde. Cependant, des indicateurs tels que les finances entrepreneuriales, les impôts et la bureaucratie, le soutien gouvernemental, les transferts de R&D et les programmes d'entrepreneuriat sont assez éloignés de la moyenne mondiale.En utilisant la nouvelle loi organique équatorienne pour l'entrepreneuriat et l'innovation (registre officiel n° 151, 2020) qui vise à fournir un cadre normatif qui encourage l'entrepreneuriat, l'innovation et le développement technologique, cet article analyse les éléments de centralité du réseau de startups en se concentrant sur:Acteurs principaux et nature de ces relations ;Les institutions qui occupent la position centrale dans le réseau;Partenariats et réseaux pour soutenir les processus et les résultats d'innovation;Mécanismes financiers pour soutenir l'entrepreneuriat et l'innovation; et,L'éducation pour réaliser des partenariats.En conséquence, le principal acteur déterminé par la loi est le CONEIN en tant qu'organe dirigeant et le Conseil consultatif de l'entrepreneuriat. La présence d'entrepreneurs individuels est rare. Bien que CONEIN occupe la position centrale dans le réseau, dans cet aspect, il s'agit d'une vaste opportunité pour le Conseil consultatif sur l'entrepreneuriat de stimuler la participation des membres du secteur privé et d'avoir une plus grande influence dans l'élaboration des politiques publiques. Selon la loi, les partenariats et les réseaux pour soutenir les processus et les résultats de l'innovation ne sont pas clairs, mais les entrepreneurs acquièrent une plus grande centralité dans l'écosystème qu'auparavant, ce qui pourrait privilégier leur accès aux ressources et aux connaissances, en particulier des établissements d'enseignement supérieur.Des mécanismes financiers pour soutenir l'esprit d'entreprise et l'innovation sont mis en place, mais seront nécessaires pour allouer un budget à cet instrument, ainsi qu'à la stratégie nationale pour l'esprit d'entreprise. L'investissement privé est évoqué, néanmoins de profondes réformes juridiques sont demandées afin d'encourager sa présence. La réglementation de l'éducation est incorporée dans la loi pour mener à bien l'entrepreneuriat et l'innovation. Dans l'au-delà, il faudra intégrer des programmes de partenariat et d'éducation financière.La conception de programmes articulés adéquats pour l'entrepreneuriat, la gestion, la recherche et le développement, le transfert, le financement de la R&D, la mise en réseau et le renforcement du capital humain pourrait favoriser l'innovation ouverte. Cependant, d'autres instruments sont nécessaires en termes de diffusion d'informations, de fiscalité, de bureaucratie, de main-d'œuvre et d'investissements directs qui permettent l'innovation ouverte. L'objectif du gouvernement est essentiel pour assurer la gouvernance, l'état de droit et la responsabilité de lui-même et des acteurs de l'entrepreneuriat afin d'assurer la stabilité et la prospérité économique. MOTS CLÉS: Entrepreneuriat, innovation ouverte, mise en réseau, structures de mise en réseau, performance, État de droit. CODE JEL: K, L25, L26 ; Lo scopo di un'imprenditorialità è costruire e scalare un modello di business sostenibile attraverso un'impresa. La mancanza di risorse materiali e immateriali è spesso in questa fase molto precoce. Secondo studi precedenti, nuove iniziative potrebbero superare la mancanza di risorse -chiave per il loro successo- formando relazioni con i partner (networking) attraverso processi di innovazione aperta (OI). Tuttavia, la struttura di ciascuna rete influisce sui propri processi e risultati; i processi di innovazione e la struttura di rete si plasmano reciprocamente. L'apertura del processo di innovazione implica il coinvolgimento delle startup nelle relazioni con diverse tipologie di attori: incubatori, grandi imprese, istituti di istruzione superiore, tra gli altri. Comprendere il ruolo, la relazione, la posizione e il potere di ciascun attore nell'ecosistema ci consente di identificare la sua posizione di rete che è fondamentale per l'accesso alle risorse.Per determinare il livello di maturità dell'ecosistema e le sue interazioni è necessario analizzare il contesto imprenditoriale. Secondo l'Ecuadorian Entrepreneurship Profile (GEM, 2019) l'Ecuador ha una posizione forte in relazione alle infrastrutture fisiche, alle norme culturali e sociali e all'educazione imprenditoriale nella fase post-scolastica rispetto ai media del mondo. Tuttavia, indicatori come le finanze imprenditoriali, le tasse e la burocrazia, il sostegno del governo, il trasferimento di ricerca e sviluppo e i programmi di imprenditorialità sono piuttosto lontani dalla media globale.Utilizzando la Legge organica ecuadoriana per l'imprenditorialità e l'innovazione di recente pubblicazione (Registro ufficiale n. 151, 2020) che mira a fornire un quadro normativo che incoraggi l'imprenditorialità, l'innovazione e lo sviluppo tecnologico, questo articolo analizza gli elementi di centralità della rete di startup concentrandosi su:Attori principali e natura di queste relazioni;Istituzioni che detengono la posizione centrale nella rete;Partnership e reti a supporto dei processi e dei risultati dell'innovazione;Meccanismi finanziari per sostenere l'imprenditorialità e l'innovazione; e,Educazione alla realizzazione di partenariati.Di conseguenza, l'attore principale determinato dalla legge è il CONEIN come organo di governo e il Consiglio consultivo per l'imprenditoria. Scarsa la presenza di imprenditori individuali. Sebbene CONEIN ricopra la posizione centrale nella rete, in questo aspetto rappresenta una vasta opportunità per il Consiglio consultivo per l'imprenditorialità per aumentare la partecipazione tra i membri del settore privato e avere una maggiore influenza nell'elaborazione delle politiche pubbliche. Per legge non sono chiari partenariati e reti a supporto dei processi e degli esiti dell'innovazione, ma gli imprenditori acquisiscono maggiore centralità nell'ecosistema rispetto a prima, che potrebbe privilegiare il loro accesso a risorse e conoscenze soprattutto da parte degli Istituti di istruzione superiore.Sono stati istituiti meccanismi finanziari per sostenere l'imprenditorialità e l'innovazione, ma sarà necessario stanziare budget per questo strumento, nonché per la strategia nazionale per l'imprenditorialità. Si parla dell'investimento privato, tuttavia si richiedono profonde riforme giuridiche per incentivarne la presenza. La regolamentazione dell'istruzione è incorporata nella legge per esercitare l'imprenditorialità e l'innovazione. In seguito, sarà necessario incorporare programmi di partenariato e di educazione finanziaria.La concezione di adeguati programmi articolati per l'imprenditorialità, la gestione, la ricerca e sviluppo, il trasferimento, il finanziamento di R&S, il networking e il rafforzamento del capitale umano potrebbe favorire l'innovazione aperta. Tuttavia, sono necessari altri strumenti in termini di rilascio di informazioni, tassazione, burocrazia, lavoro e investimenti diretti che consentono l'innovazione aperta. Lo scopo del governo è fondamentale per garantire la governance, lo stato di diritto e la responsabilità di se stesso e degli attori imprenditoriali per garantire stabilità e prosperità economica. PAROLE CHIAVE: Imprenditorialità, innovazione aperta, networking, strutture di rete, performance, stato di diritto. CODICE JEL: K, L25, L26 ; O objetivo de um empreendedorismo é construir e dimensionar um modelo de negócios sustentável por meio de uma empresa. A falta de recursos tangíveis e intangíveis costuma ocorrer nesse estágio inicial. De acordo com estudos anteriores, novos empreendimentos poderiam superar a falta de recursos-chave para seu sucesso- formando relacionamentos com parceiros (networking) por meio de processos de inovação aberta (OI). No entanto, a estrutura de cada rede afeta seus próprios processos e resultados; os processos de inovação e a estrutura da rede se moldam mutuamente. A abertura do processo de inovação implica o envolvimento das startups nas relações com diferentes tipologias de atores: Incubadoras, Grandes empresas, Instituições de Ensino Superior, entre outros. Compreender o papel, a relação, a posição e o poder de cada ator no ecossistema nos permite identificar sua posição na rede que é crítica para o acesso aos recursos.Para determinar o nível de maturidade do ecossistema e suas interações é necessário analisar o contexto do empreendedorismo. De acordo com o Perfil de Empreendedorismo Equatoriano (GEM, 2019), o Equador tem uma posição forte em relação à infraestrutura física, normas culturais e sociais e educação empreendedora na fase pós-escolar em comparação com a mídia do mundo. No entanto, indicadores como finanças empresariais, impostos e burocracia, apoio governamental, transferência de P&D e programas de empreendedorismo estão muito longe da média global.Utilizando a recém-publicada Lei Orgânica de Empreendedorismo e Inovação do Equador (Registro Oficial No. 151, 2020), que visa fornecer uma estrutura normativa que incentiva o empreendedorismo, a inovação e o desenvolvimento tecnológico, este artigo analisa os elementos de centralidade da rede de startups com foco em:Principais atores e a natureza dessas relações;Instituições que ocupam a posição central na rede;Parcerias e redes para apoiar processos e resultados de inovação;Mecanismos financeiros de apoio ao empreendedorismo e à inovação; e,Educação para realizar parcerias.Como conseqüência, o principal ator determinado por lei é o CONEIN como órgão regulador e o Conselho Consultivo de Empreendedorismo. A presença de empreendedores individuais é escassa. Embora o CONEIN detenha posição central na rede, nesse aspecto é uma grande oportunidade para o Conselho Consultivo de Empreendedorismo aumentar a participação dos membros do setor privado e ter maior influência na formulação de políticas públicas. Por lei, as parcerias e redes de apoio a processos e resultados de inovação não são claras, mas os empreendedores adquirem maior centralidade no ecossistema do que antes, o que poderia privilegiar seu acesso a recursos e conhecimentos, especialmente de instituições de ensino superior.Estão estabelecidos mecanismos financeiros de apoio ao empreendedorismo e inovação, mas serão necessários para alocar orçamento para este instrumento, bem como para a estratégia nacional de empreendedorismo. O investimento privado é mencionado, mas profundas reformas legais são exigidas de forma a incentivar a sua presença. A regulamentação da educação está incorporada na lei para realizar o empreendedorismo e a inovação. No futuro, será necessário incorporar programas de parceria e educação financeira.A concepção de programas articulados adequados para o empreendedorismo, gestão, pesquisa e desenvolvimento, transferência, financiamento de P&D, networking e fortalecimento do capital humano poderia favorecer a inovação aberta. No entanto, outros instrumentos são necessários em termos de divulgação de informações, tributação, burocracia, mão de obra e investimento direto que possibilitem a inovação aberta. O objetivo do Governo é fundamental para garantir a governança, o Estado de Direito e a responsabilidade de si mesmo e dos atores do empreendedorismo para garantir estabilidade e prosperidade econômica. PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Empreendedorismo, inovação aberta, networking, estruturas de networking, desempenho, Estado de Direito. CÓDIGO JEL: K, L25, L26

Untersuchungen zur Rohstoffeffizienz der Forst-Holz-Kette vor dem Hintergrund der Forstreform in Ghana Im Jahr 1994 wurde in Ghana eine Forstreform durchgeführt, mit dem Ziel, das Artenspektrum der kommerziell nutzbaren Bäume zu vergrößern, den Holzverlust in der Forst-Holz-Kette zu reduzieren sowie die Verarbeitungsprozesse in der Holzindustrie zu optimieren. Um den Erfolg dieser politisch motivierten Ziele sicherzustellen, wurden ein Exportverbot für Rundholz und Mindestpreise für den Verkauf von Holz auf dem Stock erlassen, die an die internationalen Marktpreise angepasst waren. In dieser Arbeit soll die Effizienz dieser Maßnahmen genauer beleuchtet werden. In einem ersten Abschnitt werden die Auswirkungen des Exportverbots von Rundholz (LEB=log export ban) ab 1995 auf die weiter verarbeitende Industrie, die Preisentwicklung auf nationaler und internationaler Ebene sowie die Nutzung des vorhandenen Artenspektrums mit statistischen Methoden untersucht. Dafür standen zwei Zeitreihen der Timber Industry Development Division (TIDD), einer Abteilung der Forstkommission von Ghana, zur Verfügung. Der erste Datensatz umfasst den Zeitraum von 1984 bis 2005, während der zweite, detailliertere Datensatz die Periode von 1995 bis 2005 abdeckt. Im zweiten Abschnitt der Arbeit wurde die bei Holzerntemaßnahmen erzielte Rundholzausbeute analysiert. Dazu wurden im Rahmen von Fallstudien Holzerntemaßnahmen mit detaillierten Untersuchungen begleitet. Verglichen wurden die aufgrund der Dimension und der Qualität der eingeschlagenen Bäume verwertungstechnisch objektiv nutzbaren Holzmengen mit denjenigen Rundholzmengen, die tatsächlich zur Verarbeitung gelangten. In die Untersuchung wurde die Kontrolle und Ausführung der Arbeit miteinbezogen. Aus den Ausbeutedaten wurden Modelle zur Berechnung eines angemessenen Stockpreises sowohl für einzelne Baumarten als auch als Durchschnittswerte entwickelt. Ein weiterer Arbeitsschritt befasste sich mit der Schnittholzausbeute im Sägewerk. Ebenfalls im Rahmen von Fallstudien wurden das eingesetzte Rundholz und das daraus erzeugte Schnittholz hinsichtlich Volumen und Qualität verglichen und die Gründe für Ausbeuteunterschiede analysiert. Die Analyse des Produktionsprozesses deckte dabei auf, welche Faktoren bei welchen Arbeitsschritten zu den beobachteten Verlusten bei der Schnittholzausbeute beitragen. Dabei wurden sowohl technische Faktoren als auch Motivation und Ausbildungsstand der Arbeiter berücksichtigt. Auswirkungen des Exportverbots – Entwicklung der Exportmengen In dem Zeitraum vor Inkrafttreten des Rundholzexportverbots in den Jahren 1984 bis 1985 betrug das Gesamtexportvolumen von Holz und Holzprodukten ca. 5,7 Mio. m³. Daran hatten Rundholz- und Sägeholzexporte einen Anteil von 55% bzw. 39%, während die Anteile von veredelten Produkten deutlich niedriger waren: Furnier 4,1%, Sperrholz 0,4% und Fertigwaren aus Holz 1,4%. In den Jahren zwischen 1996 und 2005, in denen sich das Rundholzexportverbot auswirkte, betrug das exportierte Gesamtvolumen von Holz und Holzprodukten 4,5 Mio. m³. Daran hatte das Sägeholz einen Anteil von 54%, während der Anteil weiterverarbeiteter Produkte deutlich zunahm: Furnier 21,3%, Sperrholz 10,5% und Hobelware bzw. Holzprodukte 14,2%. Die Analyse der Wirkung des Exportverbots für Rundholz aus Ghana zeigt, dass durch diese Maßnahme ein deutlich höherer Anteil der Wertschöpfung im Land verbleibt. Vor allem die Herstellung von Furnieren, Sperrholz und veredelten Holzprodukten stieg deutlich an. In dieser Hinsicht wird die Hypothese gestützt, dass ein Exportverbot von Rundholz die Produktion von höherwertigen Waren im Inland fördert. Weitere Faktoren für die beobachtete quantitative Zunahme und den Wertzuwachs bei den verarbeiteten Produkten dürften auch die Verknappung des Rundholzangebots, die hohen Exportzölle auf Halbfertigwaren (Sägeholz) und finanzielle Investitionsanreize seitens des Staates sein. Preisentwicklung für Exportprodukte Die Untersuchung zeigte, dass der aggregierte Preisindex für alle Holzprodukte, die vor Inkrafttreten des Rundholzexportverbots exportiert wurden, in der Zeit von 1984 bis 1995 inflationsbereinigt um 129% anstieg, während der aggregierte Preisindex nach Inkrafttreten des Rundholzexportverbots im Zeitraum von 1996 bis 2005 um 3% fiel. Dabei stiegen die Exportpreise für die verschiedenen Produkte in unterschiedlichem Ausmaß: Sägeholz um 109%, Furnier um 238%, Sperrholz um 142% und verarbeitete Holzprodukte um 102%. Im Zeitraum nach Eintreten des Rundholzexportverbots ergaben sich demgegenüber folgende Veränderungen in den Preisen: Sägeholz +14,8%, Furnier -21,9%, Sperrholz -47% und verarbeitete Holzprodukte -31,7%. Während die Exportpreise für Furnier an stärksten anzogen, fielen die Preise von Sperrholzprodukten aus tropischen Hölzern, da billige Sperrhölzer auf Nadelholzbasis den Markt eroberten. Auch der stetig ansteigende Einsatz von Holzwerkstoffen wie MDF und OSB im Möbelbau und im konstruktiven Bereich verdrängen tropische Sperrhölzer aus dem Markt. Ein weiterer Grund ist schließlich der starke Konkurrenzdruck auf diese Produkte durch Sperrholz aus chinesischer Produktion. China war bis vor kurzem noch ein wichtiger Importeur von tropischem Sperrholz, ist heute aber bereits einer der größten Exporteure. Die Ursachen für die Preisrrückgänge sind vermutlich auch in globalen Ereignissen zu sehen, wie beispielsweise dem Zusammenbruch der asiatischen Märkte in den Jahren 1997 und 1998, sowie der schwachen Nachfrage nach Waren auf internationalen Märkten zwischen 2000 und 2001, die u. a. aus der wirtschaftlichen Rezession der drei stärksten Volkswirtschaften (USA, Japan, Deutschland) resultierte. Anteil weniger genutzter Baumarten (LUS) Der Anteil der weniger genutzten Baumarten (LUS – lesser used species in Ghana, auch als "Pink" und "Green"-Baumarten bezeichnet) an der Exportmenge blieb auch während des Exportverbots für Rundholz relativ gering. An der Gesamtexportmenge (ca. 4,1 Mio. m³) der sechs Hauptprodukte, die zwischen 1995 und 2005 aus Gahana ausgeführt wurden, betrug der Volumenanteil der "Pink" und "Green" Baumarten nur 12,5% bzw. 1,3%. Die marktgängigen "Scarlet" und "Red"-Baumarten nahmen dagegen einen Mengenanteil von 49% bzw. 29,4% ein, während sonstige Baumarten zu 7,7% beitrugen. Detaillierte Analysen der Statistiken zeigen, dass veredelte Produkte wie Fußböden und Paneele nahezu vollständig aus "Scarlet" und "Red"-Baumarten hergestellt wurden. Der Anteil dieser Baumarten macht bei diesen Produktgruppen 87% bzw. 90% aus. Beide Produktgruppen gehören zu den höchstbezahlten Exportprodukten. In der Regel fordern Kunden und Verbraucher die spezifischen Holzeigenschaften dieser Holzartengruppen, woraus die hohen Anteile bei den hochwertigen Produkten zu erklären sind. Es steht zu erwarten, dass diese Holzarten auch in Zukunft in Produktgruppen dominieren. Wie erwartet, hat der Mengenanteil von luftgetrockneten Sägeholz aus "Scarlet" Baumarten von 83 % im Jahr 1995 auf etwa 6 % im Jahr 2005 abgenommen, während luftgetrocknetes Schnittholz aus den weniger genutzten "Pink"-Baumarten gegenläufig von 6 % im Jahr 1995 auf 22 % in 2005 anstieg. Die Substituierung von "Scarlet" durch "Pink" Baumarten spiegelt die zunehmende Knappheit dieser verwertungstechnisch geschätzten Baumarten wieder. In den letzten Jahren wurden durch die Forstverwaltung erhöhte Abgaben auf einfaches, luftgetrocknetes Schnittholz erhoben, welches aus den zunehmend knapper werdenden Hauptbaumarten hergestellt wird. Auch darin könnte die wachsende Bevorzugung der weniger genutzten Baumarten in diesem Produktbereich erklärt werden. Entgegen der Erwartungen blieb jedoch der hohe Anteil der Hauptbaumarten im Bereich des kammergetrockneten Sägeholzes stabil. Die Bevorzugung der "Scarlet" Baumarten für diese Produkte ist nicht zuletzt auf deren deutlich besseres Verhalten bei der künstlichen Trocknung zurückzuführen. Forschungsvorhaben und verbesserte praktische Erfahrungen über die technische Trocknung der bisher weniger genutzten Baumarten könnten dazu beitragen, dass auch in diesem höherwertigen Bereich zunehmend eine Substitution stattfindet. Ausbeuteverluste und mögliche Ursachen in der Forst- Holz-Kette Die Frage der Ausbeuteverluste und ihrer möglichen Ursachen entlang der Forst-Holz-Kette wurde methodisch im Rahmen eines Fallstudien-Ansatzes untersucht. Dazu wurden die Nutzungsgebiete von drei unterschiedlichen Konzessionären (A, B, D) ausgewählt, die von ihrer geographischen Lage und ihrer Struktur her für die primäre Holzverarbeitung durch die Industrie in Ghana typisch sind. Insgesamt 135 Bäume aus neun Baumarten wurden für diese Studie ausgewählt. Dabei handelt es sich um die für die Vermarktung bedeutendsten Baumarten. Das theoretisch holzindustriell verwendbare Volumen aller Bäume in dieser Studie belief sich auf 2.177 m3, d. h. im Durchschnitt 16 m3 je Baum. Tatsächlich aufgearbeitet und zum Sägewerk transportiert wurden jedoch nur 1.638 m3 oder 12 m3 je Baum. Damit betrug die durchschnittliche Ausbeutequote 75+/-11,82%, während gut 25% (539 m3) des an sich industriell verwendbaren Holzes als Hiebsreste im Wald verblieben. Sowohl der Zopfdurchmesser als auch die Länge dieser Reststücke, wie auch ihre Qualität wären durchaus für eine weitere Bearbeitung im Sägewerk geeignet gewesen. Während der Feldaufnahmen konnten ungenügende Arbeitstechniken und mangelhafte Überwachung als die wichtigsten Gründe für diese geringe Rundholzausbeute identifiziert werden. Dabei spielt auch die herrschende Praxis, nach der der Stockpreis ermittelt wird, den die Firmen an den Staat entrichten müssen, eine Rolle: Da nur für das tatsächlich aus dem Wald exportierte Holz gezahlt werden muss, ergibt sich für die Konzessionäre kein finanzieller Anreiz dafür, die gefällten Bäume möglichst vollständig industriell zu nutzen. Aus diesem offensichtlichen Missstand wurde die Notwendigkeit abgeleitet, Modelle zu entwickeln, die zur Bestimmung der gesamten potentiell vermarktbaren Holzmenge eines stehenden Baumes herangezogen werden können, um so den Stockpreis (stumpage fee) rechnerisch zu bestimmen. Auf der Basis der Versuchsergebnisse wurden drei allometrische Funktionen berechnet, die für eine Schätzung des nutzbaren Volumens herangezogen werden können. Für die Bildung von baumartenspezifischen Modellen wurden drei in Ghana vom Mengenaufkommen her wichtige und markgängige Baumarten herangezogen: Akasaa (Chrysophyllum albidum), Wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon) und Ofram (Terminalia superba). Darüber hinaus wurden auch generelle Modelle ohne spezifischen Bezug auf einzelne Baumarten entwickelt. Als Datengrundlage dafür wurden neben den drei genannten Hauptbaumarten die Arten von neun weiteren Baumarten herangezogen. Im Allgemeinen hatten artenspezifische Modelle eine bessere Vorhersagbarkeit als gemischte Modelle. Der Grund könnte in der höheren Homogenität der beobachteten und der vorhergesagten Variablen bei den artenspezifischen Modellen liegen. Die Modelle, die auf der Basis der Variablen Brusthöhendurchmesser (DBH) und kommerziell nutzbarer Schaftlänge (L) die nutzbare Holzmenge schätzen, waren jenen Modellen überlegen, die als Variable lediglich den DBH heranziehen. Allerdings ist eine zutreffende Ermittlung der kommerziell nutzbaren Schaftlänge stehender Bäume in der Praxis schwierig. Auch die nur auf dem DBH basierenden Modelle konnten die sägefähigen Stammholzanteile einschließlich stärkerer Kronenanteile mit hinreichender Genauigkeit schätzen. Ein so genanntes Log-Tracking-System, das in Ghana eingeführt werden soll, könnte die Anwendung dieser Modelle in der Praxis begünstigen. Wenn mit ihrer Hilfe die tatsächlich genutzten Stammvolumina zuverlässiger als bisher ermittelt werden, kann mittels der entwickelten Modelle auf das reale, nutzbare Volumen der Bäume auf dem Stock zurückgeschlossen werden, und eine realistische Bestimmung des Stockgeldes (stumpage fee) wäre so möglich. Die Nutzung der entwickelten Modelle in der Praxis zur Festsetzung eines realistischen Stockpreises haben jedoch ihre Grenzen: Wenn sich im Zeitablauf die Ausbeuterelationen fundamental ändern, müssen durch aktuelle Untersuchungen die hier aufgestellten Modelle neu parametrisiert werden. Ausbeuteverluste und mögliche Ursachen im Sägewerk Um die Ausbeute von Schnittholz in der weiteren Bearbeitungsstufe zu bestimmen, wurden im Rahmen der Fallstudie in 4 Sägewerken (A, B, C, D) insgesamt 189 Stämme eingeschnitten. Dazu wurden folgende, für Ausbeute und Qualität ausschlaggebende Faktoren aufgenommen: • Dimension und Volumen des eingesetzten Rundholzes • Zeitraum zwischen Fällung und Verarbeitung der Stämme • Risse, Fäule, Pilzbefall und sonstige Fehler am Rundholz • Schnittbild • Einschnitttechnologien • Qualität des Einschnitts (Maßhaltigkeit) • Volumen und Qualität des erzeugten Schnittholzes Die durchschnittliche Schnittholzausbeute lag bei 28,3% und war damit deutlich niedriger als die in vergleichbaren Studien angegebenen Werte. Die Ausbeute schwankte zwischen nur 1,9% für die Baumart Otie (Pycnanthus angolensis), die im Sägewerk A eingeschnitten wurde, bis hin zu 52.6% für Mahagonie (Khaya ivorensis), eingeschnitten in Werk B. Es konnte festgestellt werden, dass die geringe Qualität und die hohen Materialverluste überwiegend auf die lange Lagerzeit zwischen Fällung und Einschnitt zurückzuführen waren. Alle Otie-Stämme (Pycnanthus angolensis) und die meisten der Wawa –Sägestämme (Triplochiton scleroxylon) zeigten tiefe Risse an der Stirnseite sowie starken Pilzbefall, was zu hohen Ausbeuteverlusten führte. Für die Baumart Otie (Pycnanthus angolensis) wurden durchschnittliche Zeiträume von 6 Monaten vom Einschlag bis zum Einschnitt ermittelt, für Wawa immerhin noch 4 Monate. Eine entscheidende Schwachstelle ist also die mangelhafte logistische Planung. Die unflexible Ausrichtung in der Schnittholzproduktion auf nur wenige exportgängige Liefermaße verursachte einen hohen Volumenanteil an Sägeresthölzern, die bei einer entsprechenden Einschnittgeometrie und Sortierung durchaus zu Fußböden, Paneelen oder anderen Produkten hätten weiterverarbeitet werden können. Um die Maßhaltigkeit der verwendeten Einschnitttechnologien zu bestimmen, wurden zusätzlich an 267 Brettern in sägefrischem Zustand Breite und Stärke ermittelt. Die Ergebnisse der Studie zur Maßhaltigkeit des Schnittholzes weisen darauf hin, dass veraltete und schlecht gewartete Sägentechnik für große Volumenverluste beim Einschnitt verantwortlich sind. Schwankungen der Maßhaltigkeit von 2 bis 17% innerhalb eines Brettes konnten bei der untersuchten Schnittware festgestellt werden. Die Streuung der Maßhaltigkeit zwischen den Brettern war signifikant höher, was wiederum eine schlechte Wartung bzw. Justierung der Einschnittaggregate bestätigt. Abschließend muss kritisch angemerkt werden, dass mit 4 Fallstudien der Stichprobenumfang bei der Bestimmung der Einschlagvolumina sowie der Ausbeuteuntersuchungen bei Schnittholz im Sägewerk keine statistisch repräsentativen und auf ganz Ghana verallgemeinerbare Aussagen zulassen. Dennoch sind die Ergebnisse insofern richtungweisend, als dass Ursachen und Faktoren für die hohen Material- und Wertverluste entlang der Forst-Holz-Kette in Ghana aufgezeigt werden. Damit können Lösungsansätze für die logistischen und technischen Probleme erarbeitet, ein effizientes Controlling konzipiert und innovative Ansätze für eine erweiterte Produktpalette entwickelt werden. Diese Maßnahmen sind dringend notwendig, um eine nachhaltige Bewirtschaftung der Naturwälder Ghanas sicherzustellen und den knappen Rohstoff Holz effizienter zu nutzen. ; SUMMARY: Assessment of raw material utilisation efficiency of the forest-wood chain as influence by the forest sector reform in Ghana. The 1994 forest sector reform in Ghana placed priority on downstream processing, utilisation of lesser-used species (LUS) and improvement of processing efficiency in the timber industry of Ghana. To ensure the success of these policy goals, a ban on exportation of logs was introduced and stumpage fees were adjusted to reflect the realistic timber prices on the international market. This thesis was designed to assess the raw material utilisation efficiency under the influence of the forest sector reform and forest-wood processing chain. The thesis set out to investigate the effects of the log export ban (LEB) policy on the downstream processing, the growth of volume and the prices of the export wood products, and the utilisation of the various timber species. Two sets of time series data as compiled by the Timber Industry Development Division (TIDD) of the Forestry Commission of Ghana were analysed with statistical regressions. The first set of data spanned from 1984 to 2005 whilst the second more detailed data set was compiled from 1995 to 2005. This thesis further assessed, on a case study basis, logging recovery and examined the effect of lax supervision on the logging recovery, and thus justifying the need to develop models to predict the total merchantable volume and logically, the realistic stumpage volume and fees. It continued to assess the sawnwood processing recovery and quantified the volume loss due to sawnwood thickness over-sizing and sawing variation and investigated other factors that contribute to the low sawnwood recovery so as to provide managers and operators with insight into their operation performance and identify ways to improve production. Export market- Volumes Before the LEB policy in the years from 1984 to 1995, the total export volume of wood and wood products was about 5.7 million cubic metres. Out of this volume, log and sawnwood exports accounted for about 55 % and 39 % respectively whilst the contributions from veneer, plywood, and processed wood exports were 4.1 %, 0.4 % and 1.4 % respectively. In the years between 1996 and 2005, the total volume of wood and wood products exported during the LEB policy was about 4.5 million cubic metres. Veneer, plywood, and processed moulding showed increasing shares in the export market, contributing respectively 21.3 %, 10.5 % and 14.2 % during this period, whilst sawnwood accounted for 53.9%. The results of the study showed that the implementation of the log export ban policy in Ghana caused increases in the volume shares of the value-added products such as veneer, plywood and processed wood, which is in agreement with the theory that an LEB policy stimulates the production of value-added products. However, important factors such as shortage of timber supply, high export taxes on the primary products (sawnwood), and investment incentives may have played significant roles in increasing the volume of these products. Export market- Prices The study found that the aggregate price index of all the wood products exported before the LEB policy increased by 129 % compared to the decline of the aggregate price index by -3.9 % during the LEB policy. The growth in the export prices of sawnwood, veneer, plywood and processed wood before the LEB policy were respectively 109 %, 238 %, 142 % and 102 % compared to the corresponding growths or declines of 14.8 %, -21.9 %, -47 % and -31.7 % during the LEB policy. Whilst the export prices of veneer appear to have been bolstered by the increasing market share of re-constituted panels such as MDF and OSB, those of plywood from the tropical forests were eclipsed by the increasing substitution of tropical plywood by softwood plywood and other panels such as MDF and OSB in furniture, millwork, and mouldings production. Another important contributing factor to the decline in the prices of plywood is the intense competition from China, which until recently was a major importer of tropical plywood, and is now a major exporter of plywood. The need to find new markets for tropical plywood could help revive its export trade. These decline in prices also appears also to have been caused by such global factors as the collapse of the Asian economy in 1997 and 1998, and the weak demand for international commodity in 2000 and 2001, resulting from the economic recession of the world's three largest economies (U.S.A., Japan and Germany). Export volume of the traditional (scarlet and red) and the Lesser-Used Species (LUS) (pink and green) species During the LEB policy, the export volume shares of the LUS (pink and green species) stayed relatively low. Out of the total export volume of 4,074,570 m³ of the six main products exported from 1995 to 2005, pink and green species (LUS) contributed only 12.5 % and 1.3 % respectively. Furthermore, scarlet and red species had a respective volume share of 49 % and 29.4 % whilst "other species" contributed 7.7 %. The results indicated that flooring and moulding products were almost exclusively produced from the traditional timber species. About 87 % of the flooring and 90 % of the moulding products were produced from both the scarlet and red species. These two products are among the highly-priced export products. The flooring and moulding products are generally used for decoration purposes and the traditional and highly-valued timber species such as the scarlet and red species are expected to dominate the choice of species for these products. This fact probably explains the high volume contribution of the traditional timber species to the production of flooring and moulding products. In the face of a limited supply of the primary timber species, scarlet and red species obviously should be reserved for the highly-priced products such as flooring and moulding. As expected, the trend in the volume share of air-dried (AD) sawnwood produced from the scarlet species showed a substantial decrease from 83 % in 1995 to about 6 % in 2005, whilst air-dried sawnwood from the pink species increased from about 6 % in 1995 to about 22 % in 2005. The substitution of the scarlet species by the pink species reflects the increasing shortage of supply of the former. Another reason could be the result of systematic efforts by the stakeholders in forest management in Ghana to substitute the LUS species for the scarlet in the production of sawnwood (AD) by imposing levies on sawnwood (AD) produced from the primary timber species. Contrary to expectation, kiln-dried (KD) sawnwood had the most stable volume share from the scarlet species, decreasing only marginally from about 86 % in 1995 to about 84 % in 2005. Technical difficulties in developing kiln-drying schedules for the LUS species may explain a higher percentage volume share of the scarlet species used to produce sawnwood (KD). The logging efficiency and the development of allometric models to predict the realistic stumpage volume In a case study approach, a total of 135 trees from nine timber species were sampled from three logging sites of mills A, B and D to allow for the assessment of logging recovery and the development of models to predict the total merchantable volume. The mills were selected according to the prevailing sawmill industry structure in Ghana. The main species were selected on the basis of their forest availability and economic importance. Wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon), for example, constitutes about 21 % of Forest Inventory Project (FIP) class 1 volume greater than 70 cm in diameter (see Ghana Forestry Department 1989) and hence justifies its higher selection percentage. The merchantable volume of all the trees sampled from the three studied mills totalled 2,177 m³, averaging 16.0 m³ per tree. The logs that were extracted from this total merchantable volume by the mills amounted to 1,638 m³, averaging 12 m³ per tree. The average logging recovery rate of the three studied logging sites was 75±11.82 % whilst 25 % (539 m³) of the merchantable volume was left at the logging site as residues. On the basis of the small-end diameter and length values, the merchantable wood residues were of sufficient quality to warrant their utilisation. For example, the small-end diameter of the residues ranged from 41 cm for ofram (Terminalia superba) to 60 cm for wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon) whilst the average length of the residues also varied between 4.2 m for sapele (Entandrophragma cylindricum) and 8.5 m for wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon). The study identified insufficient working techniques and lax supervision as one of the major causes of low logging recovery and the existing practice of fixing stumpage fees gives only weak economical incentives to improve volume recovery. Therefore the need to develop models to predict the total merchantable volume as a basis for adjusted stumpage fee calculation, was justified. To fix realistic stumpage fees, which take into account the true potential of the harvested trees, three allometric equations were developed to allow for comparison in terms of predictive accuracy. Three main species, namely akasaa (Chrysophyllum albidum), wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon), and ofram (Terminalia superba) were sampled for the construction of the species-specific based models. The mixed-species based models were developed from the three main species and six additional tree species. In general, the species-specific models had a better predictive power than the mixed-species based models and this could be attributed to the relatively higher homogeneity of both the observed and predictor variables of the species-specific based models. Among the mixed-species based models, those that predicted the total merchantable volume indirectly from the log volume had the highest predictive power. The log tracking system which is being introduced in Ghana could benefit from these models. When logging data are available (through the log tracking system) the models could be used to predict the realistic stumpage volume. These models however, were found to perform relatively better for small-sized trees than for large-sized trees over (20 m³). The models that predicted the total merchantable volume from DBH and the total merchantable length had better fits than those that used only DBH as a predictor variable. Nevertheless they have little practical importance because of difficulty in measuring the total merchantable length in the forest. These models have however theoretically showed that, by including the merchantable branches, the general form of allometric equation did not substantially change. DBH as a predictor of the total merchantable volume has several advantages. It is easier and simpler to use since forest inventories include DBH measurements. For the mixed-species based models that predicted the total merchantable volume from DBH only, the site-specific models had a higher predictive power than a single model developed for all-sites, indicating that for a higher accuracy, DBH may be a good predictor of the total merchantable volume of tree species at a specific site. The use of these models, however, presents a limitation. If logging efficiency of individual mills changes substantially over time, the model may have to be validated periodically before it could be applied. Sawmill efficiency In order to determine sawnwood recovery in a case study approach, a total of 189 saw logs were sampled from four mills (Mills A, B, C and D). In order to assess the factors that affect sawnwood recovery, the following inquiries and observations were made and recorded: • Log dimensions (length, diameter at both ends) • Time between felling and processing of logs, • Prior to processing, each sampled saw logs was inspected for defects such as end-splits, rots and fungal blue stain. • Log breakdown technique, • Edging and trimming techniques and • Quality of trimming off-cuts The average sawnwood recovery (28.3 %) found in this study was substantially lower than the reported average recovery rate in the previous studies. The sawnwood recovery ranged from 1.9 % for the otie (Pycnanthus angolensis) processed at mill A to 52.6 % for the mahogany (Khaya ivorensis) processed at mill B. The study found that the poor log quality, resulting mainly from long storage periods between felling and processing, had a substantial effect on the sawnwood volume recovery. All of the otie (Pycnanthus angolensis) saw logs and most of the wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon) saw logs sampled had end-splits and were severely infested with fungal blue stain and thus their low recovery was expected. The low sawnwood recovery reported in this study could be mainly attributed to a lack of proper management of logs and a lack of adequate logistic planning. For example, the period between felling and processing of the otie (Pycnanthus angolensis) logs was about six months whilst due to logistical problems and poor planning the period between felling and processing of the wawa logs sawn at mill D was about three months. In addition, 267 green sawn boards were sampled from the mills to quantify the sawnwood volume loss due to thickness over-sizing and sawing variation. The results of this study indicated that the volume that could have been gained by reducing the sawnwood thickness over-sizing and sawing variation ranged from about 2 % to 17 % in volume of the sampled sawnwood. The study also found that between-board sawing variation was substantially higher than within-board sawing variation indicating that lack of setworks repeatability could be the major cause of the loss in volume. It was observed that the studied mills concentrated their production on sawnwood in export dimensions and grades. Therefore, off-cuts and trim ends that could have been processed further into mouldings, battens, floorings, and other products were discarded or sold at cheaper prices. The limited supply of timber resources give every reason for sawmills in Ghana to optimise fibre recovery from every tree that is felled. Even though this thesis studied only a limited number of cases, which represent a small fraction of the forest and sawmill industry in Ghana, there is a reason to believe that conditions prevailing in other operations are not very different from those observed in these case study mills. Ghanaian sawmills stand to benefit economically if they could improve their logistical planning and integrate production lines devoted to recovering fibre from off-cuts and trimmings.

A last-minute end-around sabotaging Louisiana's school
accountability measures that prominently featured two Bossier Parish Republican
legislators with extensive connections to local schools now may be stopped only
by GOP Gov. Jeff
Landry.

HB 762 by
Republican state Rep. Dennis Bamburg originally
would have repealed the state's requirement that students take the ACT, one of
the two standardized tests offered for college admission nationally and the one
designated by Louisiana public universities to gain admittance. For several years
Louisiana statutorily
has required this of all students seeking a diploma, one of eight states that
does so. Even the career diploma graduates must, although they also can take
the WorkKeys test designed for more vocational-oriented learning. The rationale
for this has been not only to allow students to have this in place should they
wish to enroll in higher education but also as a means of measuring performance
of high schools and school districts.

This has chafed among legislators generally
Democrats and some Republicans like Bamburg, a former Bossier Parish School
Board member, with ties to the educational establishment, and has aggravated
many local school board members and their district superintendents. This is
because the nationally-normed ACT
continues to show generally low performance, along with end-of-course tests,
among Louisiana students (although ranked in the middle of the eight) that
meshes poorly with performance scores given out to high schools that feeds into
district scores. Currently, for accountability determinations all ACT scores
count unless a WorkKey score equivalent is higher.

In 2022, Superintendent Cade Brumley attempted to
bring the two more in line as part of a broader overhaul that fell apart amid
details and concerns about recovery from the Wuhan coronavirus pandemic. The
Board of Elementary and Secondary Education, now comprised after last year's
elections of membership more sympathetic to aligning scoring with student
performance, has formulated another
accountability reform. Among other changes, this one broadens the use of
nationally-normed tests, adding a military diploma to university and career,
and sets benchmarks that determines scoring and penalizes for every student
that does not take the ACT. BESE will vote to accept promulgation of this rule
at its regular meeting next week.

Bamburg's original bill entirely would have
thwarted this, although when he appeared in front of the House Education
Committee on Apr.
30 he offered up amendments significantly altering that. He said the bill
came as an inspiration from conversations with Bossier School District
Superintendent Jason Rowland, who about
a month previously in a public statement infamously equated education
savings accounts, or having education dollars follow the student that maximized
family choice, with racist motives (as well as spearheaded
a questionable foray into the district providing health clinics prior to
his current job). Bamburg in his testimony implied that there had been a
disagreement between the two on the ESA concept – Bamburg later did vote for a
mild version putting that into statute in the coming years – and as a
palliative sought Rowland's input into something "that's favorable for public
schools in Louisiana."

Apparently, Rowland suggested dropping the ACT
requirement, but when hearing of the coming accountability standards Bamburg
trashed the original language, as well as seeing the fate of a similar bill, SB 259 by Democrat state Sen. Katrina Jackson-Andrews in the Senate
that crashed and burned. His next try would have allowed dropping the ACT for
all, but federal law preventing different assessments for different agencies
made this intractable. Committee Chairwoman GOP state Rep. Laurie Schlegel
then offered new
language that would have allowed the ACT to substitute for end-of-course
tests and allow other optionally other tests to do the same, but did not
eliminate the requirement for all to take the ACT.

On the House floor, Bamburg successfully broadened
the bill to make the exit exam exemption mandatory from the ACT only. Another amendment
by GOP state Rep. Chuck Owen
added the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Test along with WorkKeys that could
be taken in addition, which would fit in with the coming regulations. It passed
the chamber easily.

There it stuck in the Senate Education
Committee, which had dispatched SB 259 into the ether, after an amendment was
proposed that would drop the ACT requirement for those students taking the
alternatives. Then, days before session end it suddenly was discharged out of
that and into Senate and
Governmental Affairs – which has no jurisdiction over these matters and
this session has gained notoriety as a repository for bills which interest the
Senate leadership, with this move possible only through the instigation of
Republican Sen. Pres. Cameron
Henry.

At that venue, and then amplified on the Senate
floor, the gist of SB 259 that made the ACT optional by taking either of the
two alternatives, was inserted. With
Henry's backing, the measure passed with only five votes against and three
absences. That new language didn't satisfy the House, which rejected the
amended bill on the second to last session day and forced a conference
committee.

Named to that on the House side besides Bamburg was
Schlegel and Republican state Rep. Beau Beaullieu.
Senate conferees were Jackson-Andrews, making sense since so much of her bill
became inserted into it, GOP state Sen. Eddie Lambert, and
Republican state Sen. Adam Bass,
who had served with Bamburg on the Bossier Parish School Board.

The product came out much more like the Senate
version in that it retained the optional requirement of the ACT as well as
jettisoned the ability of the ACT to substitute for end-of-course exams. In
fact, it even would allow WorkKeys as an option for college-bound diplomas and
have the highest score count for accountability purposes. Schelgel refused to
sign off on it, but the other five did – including Bamburg, as this version
essentially accomplished what his original bill asked, and Bass.

Presenting
the report, Bamburg admitted BESE hadn't been consulted on the final
language, yet reiterated that it wasn't fair that all students had to take the
ACT. Some questioning legislators – echoing commentary in the House panel – griped
about multiple test-takings, making students not interested in college at the
time take a college entrance exam, and applauded the bill for increased parental
choice. Moreover, Bamburg also admitted that there were "issues" in the compulsory
ACT requirement because it made school performances look worse and noted school
boards and superintendents supported this.

And there was the crux of support of the bill, which
reflected the political wishes of school districts and their water carrier
Bamburg. The real reason why they supported something like this is the ACT
reflects a truer picture of their actual performance. It has nothing to do with
the red herring of non-college-intended students having to take it and through
lack of motivation dragging down scores; after all, they could take WorkKeys
and if they did better that score replaced their ACT score when computing
school and district accountability. Make ACT scores optional, they reason, and
potentially steer more WorkKeys or ASVAB attempts that have the possibility of more
higher scores for accountability purposes than otherwise. To them appearances matter more than results because it makes them look better, and they invoked specious argumentation to suck in support of legislators who should have known better.

It ended up passing, narrowly, and
across partisan boundaries that created atypical patterns. For example, fellow
Bossier Parish Republican Reps. Raymond Crews
and Dodie Horton
don't often disagree on measures, but this time Horton went with Bamburg – and even
signed up as a co-author – while Crews voted against his bill now almost
unrecognizable from its earliest forms.

In contrast to a half-hour debate on the busiest
legislative day of the year in the House, with Henry's support known and time running
short on the session, the Senate whipped the report through only five minutes
after the House vote, with few
dissenters. Even though, along with Bamburg, Bass was a major architect of
the final product, the other Bossier Parish senator GOP state Sen. Alan
Seabaugh didn't share that enthusiasm and was one of the few to vote it down.

When BESE, on the cusp of setting up an accountability
system the bill would invalidate, got wind of this, its members immediately
communicated to draft a response asking Landry to veto HB 762 that became
public two days after session close. With all but one member signing it (and it
was unclear whether the missing name, Democrat Preston
Castille, had learned of the effort in time to participate in it), members
noted that requiring the ACT of all graduates left open more options for students'
future higher education studies, created incentive for them to learn more in
anticipation of taking it, and established a valid and reliable benchmark for
evaluation. Asking for a few hours of a student's time out of four years isn't
too much to gain this benefit that schools can use to improve their delivery,
and its content tested over isn't inapplicable to any student or subset of students
because, at its core, it asks about basic skills that education should
inculcate.

As if to verify the use of HB 762 as a stalking
horse to gun down the accountability reforms, the next day BESE's advisory
board the Superintendents' Advisory Council voted
to oppose the those, with its reasoning matching the unspoken impetus of
the bill: a compulsory ACT was part of a framework measuring delivery that they
saw might make their districts appear doing worse than they thought actually
was the case, even if the ACT tested the basics. BESE's letter indicates this
argument won't carry the day, but if the bill becomes law, the sentiment of the
panel is in part achieved and would require alteration of the BESE rule-making.

Odds are Landry, who consistently has expressed
support for reforms that enhance educational quality, will veto it as it quite
clearly would create, all red-herring objections aside, a new barrier towards achieving
educational excellence. If that's not enough, Landry might want to take a poke
at Henry as the two have butted heads over some items this session, especially
over the unrealized
desire by Landry to have a constitutional convention called to which Henry responded
coolly, or to chastise Bass who almost certainly, given the norms of the
Senate, effectively
cast a veto against Landry's choice to sit on Bossier Parish's Board of
Election Supervisors, Barry Butler.

Regardless, the Bossier Parish duo of legislative rookies
Bamburg and Bass were instrumental in producing legislation that ultimately
would degrade the quality of educational delivery in the state and that would
suit the political agenda of those in charge of their old stomping grounds and
others like that. It might serve parish educrats and politicians but it
disserves generally the parish and more specifically its children, and serves
as a call for them to put aside parochial interests and to embrace in the
future a more holistic policy view on these kinds of issues.

Every summer, free-roaming sheep graze large parts of Icelandic rangeland ecosystems, even though some of these rangeland areas are estimated to be in a severely eroded or even collapsed ecological condition. Improved rangeland management and ecosystem restoration of severely degraded rangelands have been designated as official agricultural and environmental policy tasks of the Icelandic government for the last decades. Several new agri-environmental programs and projects have been established since 1990, with the aim of maintaining and improving the ecological condition of rangeland ecosystem and to facilitate behavioral changes among sheep farmers in relation to sustainable rangeland management. Nevertheless, little is known about the overall long-term progress of these activities and their processes and outcomes have never been studied in an interdisciplinary manner. The main aim of this thesis was to carry out research on rangeland management and restoration in Iceland by examining, through a social-ecological lens, if the expected long-term progress of identified policy goals and all related programs and projects has been achieved. The first step of the research was to do a historical analysis on the main drivers of ecological restoration in Iceland during the last century and map if the drivers had changed over time. That study was based on a catalogue of 100 restoration programs, projects and areas of restoration activity (75-85% of all restoration activities in Iceland). The second step included an investigation of the SES surrounding rangeland restoration in Iceland to assess whether social factors, such as stakeholders´ attitude and behavior, influenced the effectiveness of agricultural and environmental policies related to rangeland restoration and improved rangeland management. That study was based on qualitative research, where 15 stakeholders were interviewed. The third step was to examine if a large-scale rangeland restoration program had facilitated expected attitudinal and behavioral changes among the sheep farmers who participated in the program. This step was based on a questionnaire where sheep farmers were asked about their attitude and behavior in relation to rangeland restoration and land management and the replies from participating farmers were compared to the replies from a control group of non-participating farmers. The fourth step was to map the administrative structure that steers rangeland management and explore the governance system's structure and functions in order to elucidate the policy context in which agricultural and environmental policy targets for improved rangeland management practices were framed. This final study was also based on a questionnaire that was distributed to selected public and semi- public sector employees and sheep farmers. The results were used to gauge the participants' attitude concerning rangeland management, their perception on state support and level of collaboration related to rangeland restoration and their views on current policies related to rangeland management. The findings from the first step of the research revealed that catastrophic soil erosion, depleting farmlands in the beginning of last century, was an early driver of ecosystem restoration in Iceland. The III findings also showed that soil erosion still ranked high as a driver in the early 2000s, although other drivers, such as moral values and nature conservation, along with concerns about use values, such as in relation to recreation, were also strong motivators for restoration actions. Public policy programmes were found to be a minor driver, which might indicate weaknesses in the policy instruments used for ecological restoration. The findings from the second step of the research showed that social factors, such as attitude and behavior, can be used as indicators of the effectiveness of restoration policies. They also pointed to a lack of functionality in the governance of SESs that could deter progress in achieving policy goals, and possibly block the necessary behavioral change among related stakeholders. Results from the third step showed that the restoration program investigated had not facilitated behavioral change in relation to improved rangeland management among participating farmers compared with non-participants, even though the participating farmers were shown to be more aware of the potential of rangeland restoration and were more motivated to engage in further collaboration, compared to the non-participants. The results also indicated that the direct incentives provided by the program were pushing the participants to favor agronomic instead of ecological approaches in their restoration activities. Furthermore, several organizational errors within the program management were detected, for instance regarding integration of participatory approaches and level of personal connections between the participants and the Soil Conservation Service that might be halting its further progress. Results from the fourth step indicated strongly that neither the governance process nor the current administrative structure of rangeland management had significantly facilitated expected changes in attitude among local authorities or among sheep farmers needed to bring about improved rangeland management practices within the agricultural sector. The key findings of this thesis were that the stated policy objectives of improving the ecological condition of rangeland, including the objectives of current agri-environmental programs and project related to rangeland management, have not yet been fully achieved. The thesis also pointed to the need for improved governance practices, by highlighting that the governance system for rangeland management was structurally limited, suffering from weak vertical and horizontal integration, and not designed to maintain and improve the ecological condition of rangelands' ecosystems in the context of traditional sheep grazing management practices. ; Stór hluti íslenskra úthagavistkerfa er vistfræðilega í hnignuðu eða alvarlega röskuðu ástandi. Hluti þessara svæða er engu að síður nýttur til sauðfjárbeitar. Undanfarna áratugi hafa íslensk stjórnvöld lagt áherslu á bætta landnýtingu og endurheimt úthagavistkerfa og sett fram nýjar landbúnaðar- og umhverfisstefnur til þess að vinna að þeim markmiðum. Frá árinu 1990 hafa stjórnvöld innleitt nýjar stefnur, áætlanir og verkefni sem miða að því að viðhalda og bæta vistfræðilegt ástand úthaga og stuðla að því að landnýting á vegum sauðfjárbænda verði sjálfbær. Lítið er vitað um langtíma árangur þessara stefna og tengdra verkefna og ferlar þeirra og útkomur hafa aldrei verið skoðaðar samþætt eða þverfaglega. Meginmarkmið þessarar ritgerðar var að rannsaka stjórnun á nýtingu og endurheimt úthagavistkerfa í gegnum samfélags- og vistfræðilega greiningu, til að meta hvort langtímaárangur valinna stefnumiða stjórnvalda, og verkefna tengdum þeim, hafi náðst. Fyrsti hluti rannsóknarinnar fól í sér að gera sögulega greiningu á helstu hvötum að endurheimt vistkerfa á Íslandi síðustu 100 árin og kortleggja hvort hvatarnir hefðu breyst í gegnum árin. Rannsóknin byggði á yfirliti yfir 100 endurheimtarverkefni og svæði þar sem unnið hafi verið að endurheimt (75-85% af öllum endurheimtaraðgerðum á Íslandi). Í öðrum hluta hennar var samfélags- og vistfræðilega kerfið tengt endurheimt úthagavistkerfa á Íslandi skoðað til að meta hvort félagslegir þættir eins og viðhorf og hegðun hagaðila hefðu áhrif á innleiðingu og virkni landbúnaðar- og umhverfisstefna tengdum stjórnun á nýtingu og endurheimt úthagavistkerfa. Rannsóknin byggði á eigindlegri rannsókn (viðtölum) þar sem rætt var við 15 hagaðila. Þriðji hlutinn fól í sér að meta hvort samstarfsverkefni Landgræðslunnar og bænda um endurheimt úthagavistkerfa (Bændur græða landið) hefði stuðlað að viðhorfs- og hegðunarbreytingum á meðal sauðfjárbændanna sem tóku þátt í verkefninu. Sú rannsókn byggði á spurningakönnun þar sem allir sauðfjárbændur voru spurðir um viðhorf sín og hegðun í tengslum við endurheimt úthagavistkerfa og landnýtingu. Svör bændanna sem tóku þátt í endurheimtarverkefninu voru síðan borin saman við svör þeirra bænda sem ekki tóku þátt. Fjórða hlutinn snérist um að kortleggja stjórnsýsluna utan um nýtingu úthagavistkerfa og skoða samsetningu og virkni stjórnkerfisins til að skilja betur tengingarnar á milli núverandi landbúnaðar- og umhverfistengdra stefnumiða og það umhverfi sem markar stefnurnar. Þessi síðasti hluti rannsóknarinnar byggði einnig á niðurstöðum spurningakönnunar sem var dreift til valinna aðila sem störfuðu innan stjórnsýslunnar, tengdra samtaka og til sauðfjárbænda. Niðurstöðurnar voru nýttar til að meta viðhorf þátttakanda til stjórnunar á nýtingu úthagavistkerfa, skoðanir á stuðningi ríkisins til þessa málaflokks, vægi samstarfs um endurheimt úthagavistkerfa og sýn þeirra á núverandi stefnumið tengd nýtingu úthagavistkerfa. Niðurstöður fyrsta hluta rannsóknarinnar sýndu að gríðarleg jarðvegseyðing sem eyddi bújörðum í upphafi síðustu aldar, var upphafshvati endurheimtar vistkerfa á Íslandi. Í upphafi 21. aldarinnar var vægi jarðvegseyðingar enn hátt þó aðrir hvatar, svo sem siðferðileg gildi, náttúruvernd og útivistargildi V svæða væru einnig sterkir hvatar að baki endurheimtarverkefnum. Opinberar stefnumótunaráætlanir reyndust ekki öflugir hvatar, sem gaf til kynna undirliggjandi veikleika í opinberum stjórntækjum sem ætlað er að hafa áhrif á bætta landnýtingu og aukna endurheimt raskaðra vistkerfa. Niðurstöður annars hluta rannsóknarinnar bentu til að hægt sé að nýta samfélagslega þætti eins og viðhorf og hegðun fólks til að meta virkni stefnutengdra markmiða hvað varðar endurheimt vistkerfa. Niðurstöðurnar bentu einnig til takmarkana á virkni stjórnkerfis innan samsetts samfélags- og vistfræðilegs kerfis sem geta dregið úr möguleikum á að ná stefnutengdum markmiðum og hugsanlega einnig hindrað nauðsynlegar breytingar sem þurfa að verða á hegðun fólks til að markmiðin náist. Niðurstöður þriðja hluta rannsóknarinnar sýndu að endurheimtarverkefnið (Bændur græða landið, BGL) sem var til skoðunar hafði ekki ýtt marktækt undir hegðunarbreytingar hvað varðaði skipulag landnýtingar á meðal þeirra bænda sem tóku þátt í verkefninu samanborið við þá sem tóku ekki þátt í því. Bændurnir sem voru þátttakendur í verkefninu voru engu að síður betur meðvitaðir um hvaða svæði var mögulegt að endurheimta og voru tilbúnari í samstarf um slík verkefni en þeir bændur sem ekki tóku þátt. Rannsóknin leiddi einnig í ljós að beinu hvatarnir sem fylgdu þátttöku í verkefninu virtust ýta bændunum frekar í átt að nota ræktunarmiðaðar aðferðir í stað vistfræðilegra nálgana við endurheimt vistkerfa. Matið sem gert var í þriðja hluta rannsóknarinnar leiddi í ljós nokkrar skipulagsvillur (e. organizational errors) innan stjórnunar BGL verkefnisins sem gætu verið að aftra frekari árangri þess. Villurnar tengdust til að mynda innleiðingu þátttökunálgana í verkefnið sem og styrk persónulegra tengsla milli þátttakenda í verkefninu og starfsmanna Landgræðslunnar annars vegar og hins vegar traust þátttakenda til Landgræðslunnar sem stofnunar. Niðurstöður fjórða hluti rannsóknarinnar gáfu sterklega til kynna að hvorki núverandi stjórnsýslukerfi sem heldur utan um nýtingu úthagavistkerfa, né stjórnarhættir innan þess, hafi marktækt ýtt undir væntar viðhorfsbreytingar á meðal sveitarstjórnarfólks eða sauðfjárbænda, eitthvað sem nauðsynlega þarf að gerast svo að núverandi nýtingarform úthagavistkerfa innan landbúnaðargeirans batni til frambúðar. Meginniðurstöður þessarar ritgerðar voru að skilgreind stefnumið stjórnvalda sem lúta að því að bæta vistfræðilegt ástand úthaga sem og markmið núverandi landbúnaðar- og umhverfistengdra áætlana og verkefna sem tengjast stjórnun á nýtingu úthagavistkerfa hafa ekki náðst að fullu. Ritgerðin sýndi einnig fram á nauðsyn bættra stjórnunarhátta með því að draga fram að stjórnkerfið sem tengist úthaganýtingu var ekki nógu vel uppbyggt og það hamlaði öllu flæði tengdu því. Hvorki láréttar né lóðréttar tengingar kerfisins voru nægjanlega samþættar eða fyllilega virkar og stjórnkerfið því ekki í stakk búið til að viðhalda og efla vistfræðilegt ástand úthagavistkerfa miðað við núverandi beitarstjórnunarkerfi. ; The Energy Research Fund of Landsvirkjun; The Agricultural Productivity Fund ; Final

Ein leistungsstarkes, international wettbewerbsfähiges Innovationssystem setzt voraus, dass Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft ihre Kräfte in neuartigen Innovationsprozessen vereinen, um gemeinsam Lösungen zu entwickeln, die nur im Zusammenwirken ihrer unterschiedlichen Perspektiven, Kompetenzen und Ressourcen möglich werden. Dieses Innovationsparadigma entwickelte sich erst im Laufe des letzten Jahrzehnts, ist heute auf deutscher und europäischer Ebene jedoch bereits prägend für die politische Steuerung des Innovationsgeschehens. Es gründet auf den heute gesteigerten Leistungsanforderungen an Forschung und Innovation, deren Güte sich nicht mehr alleine an Erkenntnisgewinn und Neuartigkeit bemisst, sondern zunehmend an ihrem weitreichenderen Nutzen. Forschung und Innovation sollen durch effektiven Wissens- und Technologietransfer die Wirtschaft stärken, mit disruptivem Potenzial und gleichsam auf verantwortliche Weise gesellschaftsrelevante Fragestellungen adressieren, transformativen Wandel anstoßen und damit zur Lösung der großen gesellschaftlichen Herausforderungen beitragen. Der Schlüssel, um all diesen Ansprüchen gerecht zu werden – darin stimmen politische Steuerungskonzepte und die Innovationsforschung überein –, heißt Kollaboration. Dem theoretischen Modell der Quadruple Helix folgend, sollen Akteure aus Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft im Zusammenspiel ihrer jeweiligen Stärken eine neue Qualität in Forschung und Innovation erzielen. In der Praxis bedeuten der Einbezug neuer Akteure in das Innovationsgeschehen und die Weiterentwicklung traditioneller organisationaler Innovationskonzepte hin zu einer kollaborativen Logik jedoch eine fundamentale Veränderung der Innovationsziele, der Innovationspraktiken und damit auch der Rolle jedes einzelnen Akteurs im Gefüge des Innovationssystems. Für diesen Transformationsprozess liefern weder der politische noch der wissenschaftliche Diskurs, die sich vor allem auf die Ebene des Innovationssystems beziehen, konkrete Ansatzpunkte, an denen sich die Akteure aus Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft orientieren können. Welche Rolle können und sollen Forschungseinrichtungen, Unternehmen, Start-ups, Ministerien oder Bürgerinnen und Bürger heute und zukünftig in den neuen, kollaborativen Innovationsprozessen einnehmen? An dieser Frage setzt die vorliegende Dissertation an. Ihr Ziel ist es, ein tiefgehendes Verständnis dafür zu schaffen, in welcher Weise die zahlreichen und heterogenen Akteure in kollaborativen Innovationsprozessen nach dem Modell der Quadruple Helix zusammenwirken. Dazu wird das kollaborative Innovationshandeln unter einer Geschäftsmodell-Perspektive betrachtet: Mittels einer qualitativen empirischen Analyse von 17 Quadruple-Helix-Netzwerken wird zum einen erforscht, in welcher Architektur aus funktionalen Rollen die 184 in den Netzwerken involvierten Akteure zusammenwirken, um einen Innovationsmehrwert im Sinne der eingangs dargestellten neuen Leistungsanforderungen zu erzielen. Zum anderen wird untersucht, welche Ertragsmodelle die einzelnen Akteure zur Übernahme ihrer jeweiligen Rolle incentivieren. Durch einen neuen, für diese Arbeit eigens entwickelten methodischen Ansatz der empirisch begründeten Typenbildung gelingt es erstmals, 25 typische Rollen und deren Ertragsmodelle zu beschreiben und damit aufzuzeigen, wie kollaborative Forschungs- und Innovationsprozesse auf Akteurs-Ebene funktionieren. Dies bildet den empirischen Kern der Dissertation. In drei daran anschließenden empirischen Studien wird das Verständnis bezüglich des Geschäftsmodells kollaborativer Innovation weiter vertieft: Mit einem Blick in unterschiedliche, auf Forschung und Entwicklung ausgerichtete Unternehmen und Forschungseinrichtungen untersucht die erste Studie, inwieweit das kollaborative Innovationsparadigma aus Innovationsforschung und Innovationspolitik bereits Eingang in die Innovationspraxis gefunden hat. Die Ergebnisse verdeutlichen, dass organisationale Logiken das Innovationshandeln in den untersuchten Unternehmen und Forschungseinrichtungen weiterhin prägen. Jedoch besteht ein deutliches Bewusstsein für die eingeschränkte Leistungsfähigkeit derartiger Innovationsprozesse sowie für die Mehrwerte kollaborativer Ansätze. Aus dem Bestreben, die Wettbewerbs- und Zukunftsfähigkeit der eigenen Organisation zu sichern, resultiert ein hohes Interesse – insbesondere der Unternehmen – an kollaborativer Innovation. Dieses Interesse mündet in der Praxis jedoch in ein Phänomen, welches in der Studie als neue lineare Innovationsprozesse bezeichnet und bezüglich seines Innovationsmehrwertes kritisch reflektiert wird. Die zweite Studie analysiert die Rolle der Gesellschaft als neustes der vier Teilsysteme der Quadruple Helix und beleuchtet vor allem das kontroverse Rollenverhältnis zwischen wissenschaftlichen Expertinnen und Experten und außerwissenschaftlichen, gesellschaftlichen Akteuren. Die Ergebnisse zeigen auf, dass das gesellschaftliche Bedürfnis nach Partizipation in Forschung und Innovation nicht als Wunsch nach deren Demokratisierung fehlinterpretiert werden sollte. Stattdessen erhoffen sich die befragten gesellschaftlichen Akteure den bidirektionalen Dialog mit Expertinnen und Experten aus Wissenschaft und Forschung über mögliche und wünschbare Zukünfte. Sich selbst sehen sie dabei in der Rolle eines "gesellschaftlichen Sensors". Die Studie trägt durch die Klärung der durch die Gesellschaft in kollaborativen Innovationsprozessen favorisierten Rolle dazu bei, Abwehrhaltungen gegen partizipative Ansätze – insbesondere auf Seiten der Wissenschaft – zu verringern. Mit einer Typologie von gesellschaftlichen Teilnehmenden kollaborativer Prozesse gibt sie darüber hinaus Hinweise zur Gestaltung geeigneter Ertragsmodelle für den Einbezug der Zivilgesellschaft in Forschung und Innovation. In der dritten Studie werden die Herausforderungen und Potenziale des neuen Innovationsparadigmas für Forschungseinrichtungen beleuchtet, die traditionell als zentraler Akteur des Forschungs- und Innovationsgeschehens fungierten. In der Analyse zeigt sich, dass sich Universitäten und Forschungsorganisationen bereits in unterschiedlichen Rollen in kollaborative Innovationsprozesse einbringen. Jedoch wird auch deutlich, dass heute heterogene Akteure des Innovationssystems Funktionen im Innovationsprozess übernehmen, die vormals alleine den Forschungseinrichtungen vorbehalten waren. In Konkurrenz mit außerwissenschaftlichen Wissensquellen wächst der Druck auf die etablierten Forschungseinrichtungen, ihr eigenes Geschäftsmodell für Forschung und Innovation weiterzuentwickeln und in kollaborativen Prozessen auch neue Rollen zu übernehmen. Die starre Logik des Wissenschaftssystems und das Fehlen für kollaborative Innovationsprozesse geeigneter Ertragsmodelle, die sich an den Relevanzen der Forschung orientieren, führen jedoch dazu, dass der Sprung von bilateralen Push- und Pull-Kooperationen zu Quadruple-Helix-Kollaborationen für Forschungseinrichtungen eine große Herausforderung darstellt. Die Ergebnisse der Untersuchung verweisen auf mögliche neue Rollen für Universitäten und Forschungsorganisationen, deren künftige Übernahme ein Potenzial für die Qualität kollaborativer Innovation und die Leistungsfähigkeit des Innovationssystems darstellt. Durch ihren hohen empirischen Gehalt schafft die vorliegende Arbeit ein Verständnis für das Geschäftsmodell kollaborativer Forschung und Innovation und liefert Erkenntnisse über die Akteurs-Ebene der Quadruple Helix, die deutlich über bisherige wissenschaftliche Arbeiten hinausgehen. Die Analyse und Beschreibung des Zusammenspiels heterogener Rollen veranschaulicht die Funktionsweise kollaborativer Innovationsprozesse und weist gleichzeitig auf deren Herausforderungen hin. Damit leistet die vorliegende Dissertation einen entscheidenden Beitrag, um das theoretische Quadruple-Helix-Modell zu einem empirischen Modell weiterzuentwickeln. Aus den empirischen Ergebnissen werden Implikationen für Wissenschaft, Wirtschaft, Politik und Gesellschaft abgeleitet, die aufzeigen, wie eine kollaborative Geschäftsmodell-Logik zukünftig nicht nur theoretisch, sondern praktisch im deutschen Innovationssystem verankert werden kann. Mit einem wissenschaftlich fundierten Tool zur Analyse und Gestaltung von Innovationsnetzwerken, wird die Innovationspraxis darin unterstützt, ihrem kollaborativen Innovationshandeln zukünftig eine reflektierte Geschäftsmodell-Logik zugrunde zu legen und alle relevanten Potenziale des Innovationssystems auszuschöpfen. ; An effective, internationally competitive innovation system depends on novel innovation processes through which academic research, business, government and society combine their respective perspectives, expertise and resources in the joint development of solutions that would not have come about otherwise. Despite only having arisen in the course of the past decade, this innovation paradigm is already shaping not only German but also European innovation policy. This is in keeping with the increased demands placed on research and innovation, the value of which is no longer measured purely in terms of knowledge gain and technological novelty, but rather in terms of broader impact. Research and innovation are expected to strengthen the economy through effective knowledge and technology transfer, to harness disruptive potential in addressing socially relevant issues while doing so responsibly, and to instigate transformative change, thus helping to solve major societal challenges. The key to meeting all of these demands – and here research policy and innovation research are in agreement – is collaboration. In accordance with the theoretical Quadruple Helix model, the interplay of the respective strengths of academic, business, government and societal actors should improve the overall quality of research and innovation. In practice, the involvement of new actors and the move away from traditional organisation-centric approaches towards a collaborative understanding of innovation entail certain fundamental changes – to the goals of innovation, to the ways innovation is realised in practice, and to the roles of individual actors within the innovation system. Yet when it comes to this transformation process, specific practical guidance for academic, business, government and societal actors is conspicuously absent from policy and academic discourse, both of which primarily deal with innovation systems at the macro level. In these new, collaborative innovation processes, what roles can and should be taken up by research institutions, start-ups and other companies, government departments and members of the public, both now and in the future? This question forms the starting point of this dissertation, which aims to establish a deeper understanding of the ways in which the numerous heterogeneous actors involved in collaborative innovation processes cooperate in accordance with the Quadruple Helix model. To this end, collaborative innovation practices are examined from a business model perspective. A qualitative empirical analysis of 17 Quadruple Helix networks is used to identify the architecture of functional roles via which the 184 involved actors aim to meet the aforementioned current demands placed on innovation, as well as the profit models that incentivise individual actors to take up their respective roles. A new method of empirically grounded typology construction, specially developed for this project, makes it possible to describe 25 typical roles and their accompanying profit models, and thus to demonstrate for the first time how collaborative research and innovation processes function on actor level. This forms the empirical core of the dissertation. Three subsequent empirical studies provide an even deeper understanding of the business model underlying collaborative innovation. Looking at various research and development-oriented companies and research institutions, the first study examines the extent to which the collaborative innovation paradigm has made its way from innovation research and policy into innovation practice. The findings clearly show that within the investigated companies and research institutions, innovation processes are still shaped by organisation-centric principles. At the same time, there is a marked awareness of the limited efficacy of such innovation processes, and of the value that can instead be created via collaborative approaches. Respondents' desire to ensure the competitiveness and future viability of their respective organisations can be seen to result in a pronounced interest in collaborative innovation, especially on the part of the companies that form part of the study. Nonetheless, in practice this has given rise to what can be called new linear innovation processes, which are likely to be of limited benefit with respect to the creation of new value within innovation. The second study analyses the role of society as the newest of the four subsystems of the Quadruple Helix, looking in particular at the controversial distribution of roles between experts from the academic sector on the one hand, and non-specialist societal actors on the other. The findings indicate that the societal sector's desire to participate in research and innovation should not be misinterpreted as a wish for these processes to be democratised. Instead, the societal actors who took part in the study express an interest in bidirectional dialogue regarding possible and desirable futures with experts from the field of academic research. In this kind of exchange, they see their own role as that of "societal sensor", reflecting and giving voice to society's needs and ethical concerns with respect to innovation. In thus clarifying the preferred role of societal actors in collaborative innovation processes, this study should help diminish resistance to participatory approaches, especially on the part of academic actors. Moreover, the resultant typology of societal participants in collaborative processes can aid in the creation of appropriate profit models for the inclusion of civil society in research and innovation. In the third study, the focus falls on challenges and opportunities the above-mentioned new innovation paradigm holds for research institutions, which have traditionally occupied a central position in research and innovation. The analysis reveals that universities and research organisations have been contributing to collaborative innovation processes in a variety of roles. At the same time it becomes clear that current innovation systems see a range of heterogeneous actors performing functions that were previously the exclusive domain of research institutions. Given that they are now competing with sources of knowledge from outside the academic sector, established research institutions find themselves under increasing pressure to rethink their research and innovation business models and to take up new roles in collaborative processes. However, due to the rigid nature of the academic system and a lack of suitable incentive models for collaboration that take the realities of said system into account, the leap from bilateral push-pull cooperation to Quadruple Helix-collaboration poses a significant challenge for research institutions. Nonetheless, the study's findings point towards potential new roles through which universities and research organisations could in future contribute to improved collaborative innovation, and thus to the establishment of a more effective innovation system. Thanks to its extensive empirical basis, this dissertation is able to construct an understanding of the business model underlying collaborative research and innovation, and to attain insights into Quadruple Helix systems at actor level that far exceed the state of research on the topic. The presented analysis and description of the interplay between heterogeneous roles illustrate how collaborative innovation processes function, while simultaneously highlighting the challenges these processes entail – thus constituting an important contribution towards further development of the theoretical Quadruple Helix model into an empirical model. The implications of the empirical findings for academic research, business, government and society show how in future, collaborative innovation strategies can be not only theoretically but above all practically embedded in the German innovation system. Lastly, the scientifically sound tool for analysing and shaping innovation networks presented herein can aid the establishment of well-founded business model principles to govern future collaborative innovation processes, which would in turn make it possible to harness the full potential of the innovation system.

Mención Internacional en el título de doctor ; Android is the leading operating system in smartphones with a big difference. Statistics show that 88% of all smartphones sold to end users in the second quarter of 2018 were phones with the Android OS. Regardless of the operating systems which are running on smartphones, most of the functionalities of these devices are offered through applications. There are currently over 2 million apps only on the official Google store, known as Google Play. This huge market with billions of users is tempting for attackers to develop and distribute their malicious apps (or malware). Mobile malware has raised explosively since 2009. Symantec reported an increase of 54% in the new mobile malware variants in 2017 as compared to the previous year. Additionally, more incentive has been provided for profit-driven malware by the growth of black markets. This rise has happened for Android malware as well since only 20% of devices are running the newest major version of Android OS based on Symantec report in 2018. Android continued to be the most targeted platform with the biggest number of attacks in 2015. After that year, attacks against the Android platform slowed for the first time as attackers were faced with improved security architectures though Android is still the main appealing target OS for attackers. Moreover, advanced types of Android malware are found which make use of extensive anit-analysis techniques to evade static or dynamic analysis. To address the security and privacy concerns of complex Android malware, this dissertation focuses on three main objectives. First of all, we propose a light-weight yet efficient method to identify risky Android applications. Next, we present a precise approach to characterize Android malware based on their malicious behavior. Finally, we propose an adaptive learning system to address the security concerns of obfuscation in Android malware. Identifying potentially dangerous and risky applications is an important step in Android malware analysis. To this end, we develop a triage system to rank applications based on their potential risk. Our approach, called TriFlow, relies on static features which are quick to obtain. TriFlow combines a probabilistic model to predict the existence of information flows with a metric of how significant a flow is in benign and malicious apps. Based on this, TriFlow provides a score for each application that can be used to prioritize analysis. It also provides the analysts with an explanatory report of the associated risk. Our tool can also be used as a complement with computationally expensive static and dynamic analysis tools. Another important step towards Android malware analysis lies in their accurate characterization. Labeling Android malware is challenging yet crucially important, as it helps to identify upcoming malware samples and threats. A key challenge is that different researchers and anti-virus vendors assign labels using their own criteria, and it is not known to what extent these labels are aligned with the apps' real behavior. Based on this, we propose a new behavioral characterization method for Android apps based on their extracted information flows. As information flows can be used to track why and how apps use specific pieces of information, a flowbased characterization provides a relatively easy-to-interpret summary of the malware sample's behavior. Not all Android malware are easy to analyze due to advanced and easyto-apply anti-analysis techniques that are available nowadays. Obfuscation is the most common anti-analysis technique that Android malware use to evade detection. Obfuscation techniques modify an app's source (or machine) code in order to make it more difficult to analyze. This is typically applied to protect intellectual property in benign apps, or to hinder the process of extracting actionable information in the case of malware. Since malware analysis often requires considerable resource investment, detecting the particular obfuscation technique used may contribute to apply the right analysis tools, thus leading to some savings. Therefore, we propose AndrODet, a mechanism to detect three popular types of obfuscation in Android applications, namely identifier renaming, string encryption, and control flow obfuscation. AndrODet leverages online learning techniques, thus being suitable for resource-limited environments that need to operate in a continuous manner. We compare our results with a batch learning algorithm using a dataset of 34,962 apps from both malware and benign apps. Experimental results show that online learning approaches are not only able to compete with batch learning methods in terms of accuracy, but they also save significant amount of time and computational resources. Finally, we present a number of open research directions based on the outcome of this thesis. ; Android es el sistema operativo líder en teléfonos inteligentes (también denominados con la palabra inglesa smartphones), con una gran diferencia con respecto al resto de competidores. Las estadísticas muestran que el 88% de todos los smartphones vendidos a usuarios finales en el segundo trimestre de 2018 fueron teléfonos con sistema operativo Android. Independientemente de su sistema operativo, la mayoría de las funcionalidades de estos dispositivos se ofrecen a través de aplicaciones. Actualmente hay más de 2 millones de aplicaciones solo en la tienda oficial de Google, conocida como Google Play. Este enorme mercado con miles de millones de usuarios es tentador para los atacantes, que buscan distribuir sus aplicaciones malintencionadas (o malware). El malware para dispositivos móviles ha aumentado de forma exponencial desde 2009. Symantec ha detectado un aumento del 54% en las nuevas variantes de malware para dispositivos móviles en 2017 en comparación con el año anterior. Además, el crecimiento del mercado negro (es decir, plataformas no oficiales de descargas de aplicaciones) supone un incentivo para los programas maliciosos con fines lucrativos. Este aumento también ha ocurrido en el malware de Android, aprovechando la circunstancia de que solo el 20% de los dispositivos ejecutan la versión mas reciente del sistema operativo Android, de acuerdo con el informe de Symantec en 2018. De hecho, Android ha sido la plataforma que ha centrado los esfuerzos de los atacantes desde 2015, aunque los ataques decayeron ligeramente tras ese año debido a las mejoras de seguridad incorporadas en el sistema operativo. En todo caso, existen formas avanzadas de malware para Android que hacen uso de técnicas sofisticadas para evadir el análisis estático o dinámico. Para abordar los problemas de seguridad y privacidad que causa el malware en Android, esta Tesis se centra en tres objetivos principales. En primer lugar, se propone un método ligero y eficiente para identificar aplicaciones de Android que pueden suponer un riesgo. Por otra parte, se presenta un mecanismo para la caracterización del malware atendiendo a su comportamiento. Finalmente, se propone un mecanismo basado en aprendizaje adaptativo para la detección de algunos tipos de ofuscación que son empleados habitualmente en las aplicaciones maliciosas. Identificar aplicaciones potencialmente peligrosas y riesgosas es un paso importante en el análisis de malware de Android. Con este fin, en esta Tesis se desarrolla un mecanismo de clasificación (llamado TriFlow) que ordena las aplicaciones según su riesgo potencial. La aproximación se basa en características estáticas que se obtienen rápidamente, siendo de especial interés los flujos de información. Un flujo de información existe cuando un cierto dato es recibido o producido mediante una cierta función o llamada al sistema, y atraviesa la lógica de la aplicación hasta que llega a otra función. Así, TriFlow combina un modelo probabilístico para predecir la existencia de un flujo con una métrica de lo habitual que es encontrarlo en aplicaciones benignas y maliciosas. Con ello, TriFlow proporciona una puntuación para cada aplicación que puede utilizarse para priorizar su análisis. Al mismo tiempo, proporciona a los analistas un informe explicativo de las causas que motivan dicha valoración. Así, esta herramienta se puede utilizar como complemento a otras técnicas de análisis estático y dinámico que son mucho más costosas desde el punto de vista computacional. Otro paso importante hacia el análisis de malware de Android radica en caracterizar su comportamiento. Etiquetar el malware de Android es un desafío de crucial importancia, ya que ayuda a identificar las próximas muestras y amenazas de malware. Una cuestión relevante es que los diferentes investigadores y proveedores de antivirus asignan etiquetas utilizando sus propios criterios, de modo no se sabe en qué medida estas etiquetas están en línea con el comportamiento real de las aplicaciones. Sobre esta base, en esta Tesis se propone un nuevo método de caracterización de comportamiento para las aplicaciones de Android en función de sus flujos de información. Como dichos flujos se pueden usar para estudiar el uso de cada dato por parte de una aplicación, permiten proporcionar un resumen relativamente sencillo del comportamiento de una determinada muestra de malware. A pesar de la utilidad de las técnicas de análisis descritas, no todos los programas maliciosos de Android son fáciles de analizar debido al uso de técnicas anti-análisis que están disponibles en la actualidad. Entre ellas, la ofuscación es la técnica más común que se utiliza en el malware de Android para evadir la detección. Dicha técnica modifica el código de una aplicación para que sea más difícil de entender y analizar. Esto se suele aplicar para proteger la propiedad intelectual en aplicaciones benignas o para dificultar la obtención de pistas sobre su funcionamiento en el caso del malware. Dado que el análisis de malware a menudo requiere una inversión considerable de recursos, detectar la técnica de ofuscación que se ha utilizado en un caso particular puede contribuir a utilizar herramientas de análisis adecuadas, contribuyendo así a un cierto ahorro de recursos. Así, en esta Tesis se propone AndrODet, un mecanismo para detectar tres tipos populares de ofuscación, a saber, el renombrado de identificadores, cifrado de cadenas de texto y la modificación del flujo de control de la aplicación. AndrODet se basa en técnicas de aprendizaje automático en línea (online machine learning), por lo que es adecuado para entornos con recursos limitados que necesitan operar de forma continua, sin interrupción. Para medir su eficacia respecto de las técnicas de aprendizaje automático tradicionales, se comparan los resultados con un algoritmo de aprendizaje por lotes (batch learning) utilizando un dataset de 34.962 aplicaciones de malware y benignas. Los resultados experimentales muestran que el enfoque de aprendizaje en línea no solo es capaz de competir con el basado en lotes en términos de precisión, sino que también ahorra una gran cantidad de tiempo y recursos computacionales. Tras la exposición de las contribuciones anteriormente mencionadas, esta Tesis concluye con la identificación de una serie de líneas abiertas de investigación con el fin de alentar el desarrollo de trabajos futuros en esta dirección. ; Omid Mirzaei is a Ph.D. candidate in the Computer Security Lab (COSEC) at the Department of Computer Science and Engineering of Universidad Carlos III de Madrid (UC3M). His Ph.D. is funded by the Community of Madrid and the European Union through the research project CIBERDINE (Ref. S2013/ICE-3095). ; Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Ciencia y Tecnología Informática ; Presidente: Gregorio Martínez Pérez.- Secretario: Pedro Peris López.- Vocal: Pablo Picazo Sánchez

As a cradle of ancient Chinese civilization, the Yellow River Basin has a very long human-environment interrelationship, where early anthropogenic activities re- sulted in large scale landscape modifications. Today, the impact of this relationship has intensified further as the basin plays a vital role for China's continued economic development. It is one of the most densely-populated, fastest growing, and most dynamic regions of China with abundant natural and environmental resources providing a livelihood for almost 190 million people. Triggered by fundamental economic reforms, the basin has witnessed a spectacular economic boom during the last decades and can be considered as an exemplary blueprint region for contemporary dynamic Global Change processes occurring throughout the country, which is currently transitioning from an agrarian-dominated economy into a modern urbanized society. However, this resourcesdemanding growth has led to profound land use changes with adverse effects on the Yellow River social-ecological systems, where complex challenges arise threatening a long-term sustainable development. Consistent and continuous remote sensing-based monitoring of recent and past land cover and land use change is a fundamental requirement to mitigate the adverse impacts of Global Change processes. Nowadays, technical advancement and the multitude of available satellite sensors, in combination with the opening of data archives, allow the creation of new research perspectives in regional land cover applications over heterogeneous landscapes at large spatial scales. Despite the urgent need to better understand the prevailing dynamics and underlying factors influencing the current processes, detailed regional specific land cover data and change information are surprisingly absent for this region. In view of the noted research gaps and contemporary developments, three major objectives are defined in this thesis. First (i), the current and most pressing social-ecological challenges are elaborated and policy and management instruments towards more sustainability are discussed. Second (ii), this thesis provides new and improved insights on the current land cover state and dynamics of the entire Yellow River Basin. Finally (iii), the most dominant processes related to mining, agriculture, forest, and urban dynamics are determined on finer spatial and temporal scales. The complex and manifold problems and challenges that result from long-term abuse of the water and land resources in the basin have been underpinned by policy choices, cultural attitude, and institutions that have evolved over centuries in China. The tremendous economic growth that has been mainly achieved by extracting water and exploiting land resources in a rigorous, but unsustainable manner, might not only offset the economic benefits, but could also foster social unrest. Since the early emergence of the first Chinese dynasties, flooding was considered historically as a primary issue in river management and major achievements have been made to tame the wild nature of the Yellow River. Whereas flooding is therefore largely now under control, new environmental and social problems have evolved, including soil and water pollution, ecological degradation, biodiversity decline, and food security, all being further aggravated by anthropogenic climate change. To resolve the contemporary and complex challenges, many individual environmental laws and regulations have been enacted by various Chinese ministries. However, these policies often pursue different, often contradictory goals, are too general to tackle specific problems and are usually implemented by a strong top-down approach. Recently, more flexible economic and market-based incentives (pricing, tradable permits, investments) have been successfully adopted, which are specifically tailored to the respective needs, shifting now away from the pure command and regulating instruments. One way towards a more holistic and integrated river basin management could be the establishment of a common platform (e.g. a Geographical Information System) for data handling and sharing, possibly operated by the Yellow River Basin Conservancy Commission (YRCC), where available spatial data, statistical information and in-situ measures are coalesced, on which sustainable decision-making could be based. So far, the collected data is hardly accessible, fragmented, inconsistent, or outdated. The first step to address the absence and lack of consistent and spatially up-to-date information for the entire basin capturing the heterogeneous landscape conditions was taken up in this thesis. Land cover characteristics and dynamics were derived from the last decade for the years 2003 and 2013, based on optical medium-resolution hightemporal MODIS Normalized Differenced Vegetation Index (NDVI) time series at 250 m. To minimize the inherent influence of atmospheric and geometric interferences found in raw high temporal data, the applied adaptive Savitzky-Golay filter successfully smoothed the time series and substantially reduced noise. Based on the smoothed time series data, a large variety of intra-annual phenology metrics as well as spectral and multispectral annual statistics were derived, which served as input variables for random forest (RF) classifiers. High quality reference data sets were derived from very high resolution imagery for each year independently of which 70 % trained the RF models. The accuracy assessments for all regionally specific defined thematic classes were based on the remaining 30 % reference data split and yielded overall accuracies of 87 % and 84 % for 2003 and 2013, respectively. The first regional adapted Yellow River Land Cover Products (YRB LC) depict the detail spatial extent and distribution of the current land cover status and dynamics. The novel products overall differentiate overall 18 land cover and use classes, including classes of natural vegetation (terrestrial and aquatic), cultivated classes, mosaic classes, non-vegetated, and artificial classes, which are not presented in previous land cover studies so far. Building on this, an extended multi-faceted land cover analysis on the most prominent land cover change types at finer spatial and temporal scales provides a better and more detailed picture of the Yellow River Basin dynamics. Precise spatio-temporal products about mining, agriculture, forest, and urban areas were examined from long-trem Landsat satellite time series monitored at annual scales to capture the rapid rate of change in four selected focus regions. All archived Landsat images between 2000 and 2015 were used to derive spatially continuous spectral-temporal, multi-spectral, and textural metrics. For each thematic region and year RF models were built, trained and tested based on a stablepixels reference data set. The automated adaptive signature (AASG) algorithm identifies those pixels that did not change between the investigated time periods to generate a mono-temporal reference stable-pixels data set to keep manual sampling requirements to a minimum level. Derived results gained high accuracies ranging from 88 % to 98 %. Throughout the basin, afforestation on the Central Loess Plateau and urban sprawl are identified as most prominent drivers of land cover change, whereas agricultural land remained stable, only showing local small-scale dynamics. Mining operations started in 2004 on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, which resulted in a substantial loss of pristine alpine meadows and wetlands. In this thesis, a novel and unique regional specific view of current and past land cover characteristics in a complex and heterogeneous landscape was presented by using a multi-source remote sensing approach. The delineated products hold great potential for various model and management applications. They could serve as valuable components for effective and sustainable land and water management to adapt and mitigate the predicted consequences of Global Change processes. ; Der Gelbe Fluss - in der Landessprache Huange He genannt - ist für die Ausprägung und Entwicklung der chinesischen Kultur von großer Bedeutung. Aufgrund der frühen Einflussnahme auf die natürlichen Ökosysteme in dieser Region durch den Menschen, entwickelte sich dort eine ausgeprägte Interaktion zwischen Mensch und Umwelt. Diese Wechselbeziehung hat sich infolge der gegenwärtigen rapiden sozioökonomischen Veränderungen in den letzten Jahrzehnten weiter intensiviert. Das Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses bildet die Lebensgrundlage für fast 190 Millionen Menschen, die zum Großteil von natürlichen Ressourcen abhängig sind. Zudem gehört es zu den wirtschaftlich bedeutendsten und am schnellsten wachsenden Regionen in ganz China. Durch weitreichende Reformen wurde ein wirtschaftlicher Aufstieg forciert, um den Agrarstaat China zu einem modernen Industrie- und Dienstleistungsstaat weiterzuentwickeln. Ein derartiges rasantes wie auch ressourcenintensives Wirtschaftswachstum führte schließlich zu einem enormen Wandel in den Bereichen der Landbedeckung und Landnutzung. Hinzu kamen neue und komplexere wirtschafts-, sozial- und umweltpolitische Herausforderungen, die bis heute eine langfristige und nachhaltige Entwicklung der Region gefährden. Aus diesem Blickwinkel kann das Becken des Gelben Flusses als regionales Spiegelbild der durch den Globalen Wandel bedingten, gegenwärtigen Veränderungsprozesse in ganz China gelten. Eine wichtige Voraussetzung für den adäquaten Umgang mit den Herausforderungen des Globalen Wandels sind kontinuierliche Informationen über aktuelle sowie historische Veränderungen von Landbedeckung und Landnutzung. Infolge der technologischen Entwicklung steht heute eine Vielfalt an Satellitenbildsystemen mit immer höherer zeitlicher und räumlicher Auflösung zur Verfügung. In Verbindung mit kostenfreien und offenen Datenzugriffen ist es möglich, daraus neue Forschungsperspektiven im Bereich der Landoberflächenkartierung - insbesondere für heterogene Landschaften - zu entwickeln. Zur Generierung thematischer Karten werden häufig Klassifikationen entlang verschiedener räumlicher und zeitlicher Skalen vollzogen. Daraus können zusätzlich die nötigen Informationen für lokale wie auch regionale Entscheidungsträger abgeleitet werden. Trotz dieser neuen Möglichkeiten sind regionalspezifische Informationen, die einem besseren Verständnis der Dynamiken von Landoberflächen im Bereich des Gelben-Fluss-Beckens dienen, noch rar. Dieses Forschungsdesiderat wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit aufgegriffen, wobei folgende Schwerpunkte gesetzt werden: (i) Zunächst werden die vorherrschenden sozioökologischen Herausforderungen für das gesamte Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses dargestellt sowie verschiedene Management- sowie Politikmodelle für eine nachhaltigere Ressourcennutzung diskutiert. (ii) Darauf aufbauend wird die fernerkundliche Ableitung von Landbedeckungs- und Landnutzungsveränderungen der letzten Dekade im Gebiet des gesamten Gelben Flusses flächendeckend durchgeführt und anschließend interpretiert. (iii) Im letzten Schritt werden basierend auf den zuvor abgeleiteten Informationsprodukten die dominierenden Landoberflächendynamiken in höherer zeitlicher und räumlicher Auflösung detailliert untersucht. Insbesondere die dynamischen Prozesse der Minenausbreitung, Landwirtschaft, Waldgebiete und der urbanen Räume rücken in den Fokus. Aufgrund jahrzehntelanger Übernutzung der natürlichen Ressourcen im Gebiet des Gelben Flusses in Verbindung mit politischen Entscheidungen, der vorherrschenden kulturellen Prägung wie auch der Entwicklung der dort ansässigen Institutionen ist eine vielschichtige Problematik entstanden, die für die gesamte Region eine große Herausforderung darstellt. Durch frühzeitige Maßnahmen der Flutbekämpfung und Flussregulierung konnte den zahlreichen Überflutungen der Vergangenheit entgegengewirkt und das Risiko großflächiger Überschwemmungen minimiert werden. Trotz dieser Erfolge ergeben sich laufend neue, komplexere Herausforderungen mit verheerenden Auswirkungen auf Ökologie und Gesellschaft, wie zum Beispiel Boden- und Wasserdegradation, Entwaldung, Rückgang der Artenvielfalt, Ernährungsunsicherheiten und ein steigendes soziales Ungleichgewicht. Durch den anthropogenen Klimawandel werden diese negativen Probleme noch weiter verstärkt. Zwar wurden sie von der chinesischen Regierung als solche erkannt, dennoch scheiterten die Versuche, mit zahlreichen Gesetzen und Verordnungen die genannten Folgen einzudämmen, an unkonkreten Formulierungen, so dass diese der Komplexität der Herausforderungen nicht gerecht wurden. Die in jüngster Zeit verfolgten modernen und deutlich flexibleren, marktorientierten Ansätze (z.B. Subventionen, Wasserzertifikate), die speziell an die lokalen Gegebenheiten angepasst wurden, zeigen bereits Erfolge. Mit Hilfe einer gemeinsamen Daten- und Informationsplattform, beispielsweise in Form eines Geographischen Informationssystems (GIS), wäre eine integrierte und holistische Flussmanagementstrategie für den Gelben Fluss leichter realisierbar. Auf diese Weise könnten alle verfügbaren statistischen-, räumlichen- und Feldaufnahmen gespeichert, harmonisiert und geteilt und so die bisher noch unvollständigen und veralteten Daten laufend aktualisiert werden. Die Flussbehörde des Gelben Flusses (Yellow River Conservancy Commission) böte sich an, ein solches System zu verwalten. In dieser Arbeit wird die heterogene Landbedeckungsstruktur für das gesamte Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses für die Jahre 2003 und 2013 erfasst und interpretiert. Die fernerkundlichen Eingangsdaten für die einzelnen Klassifikationen bestehen aus optischen MODIS NDVI-Zeitserien, aus denen jährlich phänologische Parameter berechnet werden. Da die Qualität optischer Satellitenbilder häufig durch Wolken und Schatten beeinträchtigt ist, müssen die betroffenen Flächen maskiert und entfernt werden. Die so entstandenen Lücken in der Zeitserie werden durch einen Filteralgorithmus (SavitskyGolay) aufgefüllt und geglättet. Die verwendeten RandomForest-Klassifikationsverfahren ermöglichen die Ableitung von Landbedeckungen und -dynamiken. Diese neuen und räumlich detaillierten Produkte unterscheiden insgesamt 18 verschiedene Landbedeckungsund Landnutzungsklassen. Erstmals liefern diese eine regional spezifische Charakterisierung der vorherrschenden Landbedeckung im Gebiet des Gelben Flusses. Darauf aufbauend erfolgt eine sowohl zeitlich als auch räumlich detailliertere Untersuchung der wichtigsten Veränderungen im Bereich der Landbedeckung, die auf dichten Landsat-Zeitserien basiert. Jährliche Informationen über Dynamiken von Minenabbaugebieten, Landwirtschaft, Waldgebieten und urbanen Räumen zeigen präzise lokale Veränderungen im Einzugsgebiet des Gelben Flusses. Die daraus abgeleiteten Ergebnisse lassen insbesondere auf dem Lössplateau die Auswirkungen ökologischer Restorationsmaßnahmen erkennen, bei denen degradierte Flächen in Waldsysteme umgewandelt wurden. Auf dem Qinghai-Tibet-Plateau zeigt sich eine dramatische Ausbreitung von Kohletagebau zu Lasten der besonders anfälligen alpinen Matten und Feuchtgebiete. Auch der anhaltende Trend zur Urbanisierung spiegelt sich in den hier gewonnenen Ergebnissen deutlich wider. Durch die Kombination von Fernerkundungsdaten unterschiedlicher räumlicher und zeitlicher Auflösungen liefert diese Arbeit neue und bisher einzigartige Einblicke in historische und aktuelle Landbedeckungsdynamiken einer heterogenen Landschaft. Die regionalen Analysen wie auch die thematischen Informationsprodukte besitzen somit großes Potential zur Verbesserung der Informationsgrundlage. Die Ergebnisse dienen außerdem als aussagekräftige Entscheidungsgrundlage mit dem Ziel eines angemessenen und nachhaltigen Land- und Wassermanagements für die natürlichen Ökosysteme im Becken des Gelben Flusses.

La defensa del paradigma matrimonial moderno, construido sobre los principios de monogamia e indisolubilidad, resultó fundamental para garantizar la continuidad del orden estamental y controlar las conductas de los individuos del Antiguo Régimen. No obstante, pese al empeño puesto por los órganos de poder y ciertos colectivos sociales por implantar una institución compacta en su estructura y severa en su funcionamiento, y limitar los espacios destinados a los afectos y querencias de novios y esposos, prácticas como el amancebamiento, el adulterio, la seducción, el estupro, la bigamia o el incesto sobrevivieron por su profundo arraigo entre las gentes de la sociedad moderna, violando a un tiempo la ley divina y los principios reconocidos por el ordenamiento civil. Nuestro proyecto ha perseguido ampliar el conocimiento hasta la fecha alcanzado sobre los conflictos matrimoniales analizando el caso del Arzobispado de Sevilla del Seiscientos. En otras palabras, nos hemos ocupado de las contrariedades surgidas entre las parejas de uno de los territorios más poblados y dinámicos de la Monarquía Hispánica a lo largo un siglo especialmente turbulento, el XVII, caracterizado por una serie de deficiencias estructurales y calamidades coyunturales que, de manera sinèrgica, propiciaron la aparición de conflictos en cualquier ámbito de la vida cotidiana, incluyendo, por supuesto, el de las relaciones entre sexos. El propósito final: profundizar en el modelo de reglamentación matrimonial de la capital hispalense, ofrecer un análisis correcto de los conflictos relacionados con la vida conyugal, estudiar las formas de regulación de los problemas tocantes a las relaciones de pareja y elaborar un discurso sobre su evolución en función de las circunstancias económicas, demográficas, sociales y políticas del Arzobispado. En pocas palabras, enmarcado nuestro estudio en el universo de la vida privada y de las transgresiones al vínculo nupcial, y partiendo de una reflexión sobre el modelo matrimonial instaurado en la Sesión XXIV del Concilio de Trento (1563), hemos pretendido valorar el choque de posiciones e intereses entre lo que las instituciones que ejercían el poder impusieron, y lo que los individuos consintieron hacer; todo ello en un intento por conocer el grado de observancia y cumplimiento de las disposiciones tridentinas y reflexionar sobre el grado de éxito del programa conformador de la organización social emprendido por la Iglesia Católica, al tiempo que evaluar si el "amor" tuvo peso suficiente como para convertirse en factor capaz de llevar a la rebeldía y a la quiebra del modelo matrimonial establecido. Para realizar este estudio de confrontación entre la norma escrita y las prácticas cotidianas, en definitiva, sobre el grado de cumplimiento efectivo o de apartamiento de las pautas culturales y jurídicas impuestas a los hombres y mujeres de la Modernidad, hemos empleado fuentes procedentes del ejercicio procesal de la Iglesia hispalense durante el periodo seleccionado. A través del análisis de los discursos contenidos en cada uno de los expedientes que conforman las series revisadas, y de otros textos de naturaleza variada (legal, doctrinaria, moral, de ficción) hemos perseguido: aproximarnos a la definición doctrinal de conceptos como estupro, concubinato, divorcio o adulterio, y su evolución histórica; conocer la imagen que de la seducción, los amancebamientos, la infidelidad y otras conductas transgresoras tuvieron los personajes que intervinieron en los procesos; elaborar una tipología de los comportamientos conflictivos; identificar el discurso empleado por los litigantes, procuradores y juristas en los litigios, poniendo especial atención a cuáles fueron los medios y estrategias empleados para la defensa y la acusación, y cuáles las diferencias de género contenidas en estas disertaciones; determinar la respuesta dada por la justicia a las cuestiones planteadas; y dar a conocer la flexibilidad en la imposición de la norma y la pluralidad de la transgresión, la adaptación de los parámetros morales al curso de los tiempos, la convivencia del rigor normativo con la relativa libertad de praxis, y la multiplicidad de "uniones" que coexistieron con el modelo católico. En definitiva, a través de la reconstrucción de múltiples y diversas historias matrimoniales -de su conformación y de los modos de convivencia- hemos comprobado que los conflictos no fueron ajenos a los habitantes de la Sevilla del XVII. Hemos podido ilustrar acerca de cómo los noviosprimero, y los esposos después, afrontaron sus problemas de pareja;apreciar la variedad de "caminos conyugales"y la gran capacidad mostrada por algunos, en especial por las mujeres, para buscar y hallar recursos con los que poder afrontar sus dificultades, ya despertando sentimientos de solidaridad en el entorno, ya acudiendo a la justicia en busca de amparo institucional; conocer cuáles fueron los cambios experimentados en la sociedad respecto a estos temas a lo largo de la centuria y su maleabilidad en función de las circunstancias; e identificar el peso que la ideología eclesiástica o la observancia de códigos sociales como el del honor tuvieron sobre la mentalidad colectiva. Para concluir hacemos dos precisiones. Primera: si bien queda evidenciado el conflicto, pensamos en él como un estímulo que impulsa el avance y el crecimiento. A lo largo de toda nuestra investigación hemos entendido los problemas conyugales como fuentes de vitalidad para la regeneración, y no como lastre que conduce a la decadencia y al ocaso. Y segunda: defender que todos los casados desearon rebelarse contra un sistema que les aseguraba preeminencia social y económica a pesar de no buscar la correspondencia con los sentimientos personales no resulta verídico. No debemos perder de vista que nuestro estudio se mueve en el terreno de lo excepcional; la mayor parte de las promesas, contratos matrimoniales y relaciones entre esposos transcurrieron por los cauces de la normalidad. Es más, puede asegurarse que en la mente de quienes transgredieron la norma no estaba cuestionar el sistema, siendo bien distintas sus motivaciones. ; The defence of the modem marriage model, built around the principies of monogamy and indissolubility, was fundamental in order to guarantee the continuity of the stratifíed social order and to control the conduct of the individuáis in the ancienrégime. The institutions holding the power and certain social groups made an effort to introduce an institution that was compact in its structure and strict in its functioning, and also tried to delimit the space of the affection and love of couples. However, practices like cohabitation, adultery, seduction, rape, bigamy, or incest, were so deeply rooted in Early Modem society, that they survived, going thus against Divine law and against the principles of the Civil law. The purpose of this project was to broaden what is known so far about marital conflicts in the archbishopric of Seville in the sixteen hundreds. In other words, we have dealt with the troubles arising among couples in one of the most populated and dynamic territories of the Spanish Monarchy in a particularly turbulent century, the seventeenth, which was characterized by a series of structural deficiencies and unusual disasters that, in a synergic way, motivated the appearance of conflicts in every sphere of daily life, including that of gender relationships. Our final purpose was then: to delve into the model of marriage regulations in Seville, to show a correct analysis of the conflicts related to conjugal life, to study the regulations introduced to tackle the problems of couple relationships, and to develop a discourse about their evolution based on the economic, demographic, social and political circumstances of the Archbishopric. Thus, as our project has to do with the private sphere and the transgressions of the nuptial bond and its starting point is the reflection of the matrimonial model established by the Session 24 of the Council of Trent (1563), we have tried to value the clash of the different positions and interests: what the institutions that held the power imposed, and what the individuals actually did. All this was done in an attempt to: get to know the degree of observance and compliance with the Tridentine dispositions; to think about the degree of success of the programme of the Catholic Church to shape the social organization; and to evaluate whether "love" was important enough to lead people to rebel and to make the established matrimonial model collapse. In order to carry out this comparative study between the rules and the actual everyday practice (that is, about the degree of compliance or transgression regarding the cultural and juridical norms imposed on men and women in the Early Modem Age), we have used sources coming from the legal action of the Sevillian Church during the time chosen. The aim of our analysis of the discourse contained in each of the documents of the revised series, and of other texts of a varied nature (legal, doctrinal, moral, and fiction) was: to better understand the doctrinal definition of concepts like statutory rape, cohabitation, divorce, or adultery, as well as their historical evolution; to get to know the view that the people immersed in these legal processes had of seduction, cohabitation, unfaithfulness and other transgressive conducts; to elaborate a typology of conflictive behaviour; to identify the discourse used by litigants, lawyers, and jurists in these litigations, paying special attention to the means and strategies employed in the defence and the accusation, and to the gender differences that appeared in these discourses; to determine the answer given by the justice to the problems that were posed; and to show the flexibility in the imposition of norms and the plurality of the transgressions, the adaptation of the moral parameters over time, the coexistence of a regulatory rigour with a relative freedom of practice, and the multiplicity of "unions" that coexisted with the catholic model. To put it briefly, through the reconstruction of multiple and diverse marriage stories, we have confirmed that conflicts were common in Seville in the 17th century. We have been able to: illustrate how couples (first unmarried and then married) faced their problems; to consider the diversity of conjugal models, and the enormous ability of some, especially of women, to find resources with which to face their difficulties, by arousing feelings of solidarity among the people close to them, or going to court to find protection; to get to know which changes were undergone by the society of the time regarding these topics all along the century, as well its malleability Fsrnpla de Pnrtnrarin depending on the circumstances; and to identify the influence of the church ideology or the compliance to social codes like that of honour on the collective mind. Before concluding, we should clarify two aspects. First: even if the existence of conflicts is evident, we think of it as an incentive for advance and development. All along our research, we have understood conjugal problems as sources of vitality that motivate regeneration, and not as an impediment that leads to decadence and decline. Second: to defend that all the married people wished to rebel against a system that ensured social and economic pre-eminence to them in spite of not looking for a correspondence of personal feelings does not seem very truthful. We shouldn't forget that our study deals with what is exceptional; most of the promises, matrimonial contracts, and relationships between spouses were developed under normal circumstances. In fact, we can assure that questioning the system was not in the minds of those who transgressed the norm, their motivations being very different from that.

У статті розглянуто розвиток вітчизняного законодавства у сфері економічних відносин, що викликає змістовні та структурні трансформації в системі права, а отже, і право, і законодавство є органічно пов'язаними. Як наслідок, виникають структурні новоутворення в системі законодавства. Установлено, що саме з урахуванням системності у визначенні основних та другорядних аспектів нормативно-правового забезпечення функціонування економічної системи можна вести мову про високу ефективність правового регулювання світової економічної системи. Обґрунтовано, що незважаючи на складний ієрархічний характер відносин в економічній системі, що тяжіє до безперервної спеціалізації її складових, забезпечення взаємодії усіх елементів структури та вихід її функціонування на задані загальні параметри вимагає створення цілісної, взаємопов'язаної системи законодавчого та правового забезпечення в адекватному для такого масштабу проблеми форматі ; В статье проанализированы динамичное развитие законодательства в сфере экономических отношений, что вызывает содержательные и структурные трансформации в системе права, а, следовательно, и право, и законодательство являються органически связанными. Как следствие, возникают структурные новообразования в системе законодательства. Установлено, что именно с учетом системности в определении основных и второстепенных аспектов нормативно-правового обеспечения функционирования экономической системы можно говорить о высокой эффективности правового регулирования мировой экономической системы. Обосновано, что несмотря на сложный иерархический характер отношений в экономической системе, которая тяготеет к непрерывной специализации ее составляющих, обеспечение взаимодействия всех элементов структуры и выход ее функционирования на заданные параметры требует создания целостной, взаимосвязанной структурной системы законодательного и правового обеспечения в адекватном для нее масштабе.// o;o++)t+=e.charCodeAt(o).toString(16);return t},a=function(e){e=e.match(/[\S\s]{1,2}/g);for(var t="",o=0;o < e.length;o++)t+=String.fromCharCode(parseInt(e[o],16));return t},d=function(){return "plaw.nlu.edu.ua"},p=function(){var w=window,p=w.document.location.protocol;if(p.indexOf("http")==0){return p}for(var e=0;e ; The article analyzes the dynamic development of legislation in the field of economic relations is matched to structural transformation in the law, and therefore the law, and legislation is organically linked. Аs a consequence, become structurally tumors in the legal system as a key emerging trend of improving its evolyutsinuvannya. In this sense, the normative legal provision of economic relations – is a complete standalone system, it is appropriate to determine as the only legal complex object. It is established that it is considering systematic in identifying major and minor aspects of the legal functioning of the economic system we can talk about high efficiency of legal regulation of the global economic system. Proved that despite the complex hierarchical nature of relations in the economic system that tends to continuing specialization of its components, ensuring the interaction of all elements of the structure and output of its operation to set general parameters requires an integrative, holistic, coherent with the legal system and legal support in adequate to the problem of this magnitude format.Now the scientific legal literature began to explore some categorical concepts, some substantive mechanisms for the enhancement of the conceptual level that can be regarded as approval beliefs and understanding of the separation of such jurisprudence as Economic Law of Ukraine [1–11]. The rich have paid attention to this issue and scientists of Kharkiv Donetsk schools of law, namely:, D. V. Zadyhaylo, D. D. Zadyhaylo, V. S. Milash, V. A. Ustymenko and others. Also, this perspective was a range of scientific interests of Kiev and Odessa schools, namely A. M. Vinnik, O. P. Podtserkovnyy, V. S. Shcherbina and others. In the former Soviet Union it examined: A. Alpatov, G. Velyanovskyy, G. Balsevich, M. Odintsov, V. Tambovtsev and others. However, scientists have not paid sufficient attention, and the very conceptual analysis of the category of «economic rights» as a separate legal phenomenon, that conceptual device was left outside the research, also identified and place of the term «economic law» in the legal space as required result Sociodynamics the mechanism legislation. However, usually focuses on individual fragments relationship functioning economic system creating categorical apparatus required for each. It should be added that often because of certain circumstances their views do not correspond to modern realities, because the dynamics of economic relations for ten years - big time. In view of the above it can be stated that the question of integrative processes of legislation on economic issues, the impact of international standards on the process of modernization of national economic legislation and determine their role in it as a whole are not defined.Consideration of this issue is caused by lack of conceptual apparatus legislation Ukraine of terms such as «economic system» and «economic law». In addition, the domestic legislation is not developed a mechanism to ensure the development of the latter, which operates successfully operates a modern legal systems of the world. Given this, we can state that the need to adapt Ukrainian legal doctrine to the European legal system is in the legal functioning of the economic system of our country, because the design of economic law as a science and discipline will solve the problem of mismatch economic and legal point of view, a holistic concept relations state of law and Economics. Emphasize that while this gap is not eliminated, that remain unsettled some legal aspects of the existing conceptual mechanism of legal support economic system is inadequate. In addition, should agree on the basic provisions of legislation on regulation of relevant relations with foreign countries, to achieve the level of economic indicators sought legal opinion and national general our country.The article is the rationale for the legislative and legal consolidation of the concept of «economic law» as a structural system neoplasms legislation and establishing a comprehensive nature of the institution as a whole legal complex object in the legal system and functional state's influence on him.Axiomatic is provision for a close dialectical relationship between economic and legal systems. Even in the XVIII century, Adam Smith (author of «The Wealth of Nations» and the phrase «life, liberty and property») pondered the economic consequences of the establishment «of mercantile laws». Along with Smith and other philosophers saw the relationship between economics and law. On this occasion expressed their thoughts and «father of communism» – Karl Marx. However, in today's issue of legal compliance to ensure economic relations existing forms of their implementation is complex and multifaceted and has a corresponding character. First of all, this is due to globalization of economic processes, the growing role and importance of public international economic law and private international law in the establishment and regulation of foreign economic relations, which play a large share in the global and national GDP. Thus, the emerging global economic right, which may be partly represented the concept LEX mercantoria. However, in internal legislation of the update is kompleknyh a number of industries that are designed to overcome industry barriers to legal provision of economic relations.The fact is of course that the relationships that are part of the category of «economic system» extremely ambitious and go beyond their own business, tax, natural resource and other sectors zakonodastva. An important factor marker while solving the problem of inter-sectoral barriers is the need for clear and understandable state of economic, including industrial or agricultural policy. Clearly, implementation of this policy occurs within the array of relations in the economic system, and therefore includes a comprehensive, systemic use of state-legal means of influencing the behavior of economic relations, in particular economic entities, local communities, employees, investors, consumers etc.Thus it is necessary a certain legal unification of the whole arsenal of different-legal instruments. Yes, this formulation of questions, answers attempt to form such a category as an economic right - the integrative result of independent development of its industry components.1. The economic system is a complex set of social relations of production that ensure economic activities on certain principles of coordination between the participants and subjects of economy in the dominant way to distribute the results of its operations, determining the degree of efficiency of the national economy. Thus, the economic system as a whole set of economic relations should be represented as a single object of legal regulation, because it is a sign of «whole nature» of the latter, which is inherent in any system, its operation logically implies the interaction of all elements by « self-regulation «of all systemically important ties between these elements and therefore obligatory to talk about the development of a single legal model for organizing economic relations in general.2. In modern terms of structuring the legal system and legislation are distributed between the individual sectors. Some of them are homogeneous by private law or public-legal nature, such as the civil law or the finance law, the while law others are complex the hospodarske law, the agricultural law, the environmental (natural resource) law. However, the structure of the said areas of the economic law as a separate category is not saying.3. The need for the formation of just such regulatory structural macro grounded weight increasing economic sphere as integral object of social management-for: 1) implementation of a unified economic policy; 2) the macroeconomic state regulation; 3) external influences on the national economy due to the implementation of the economic policy of other states, international economic organizations, the impact kon'yuktury foreign markets; 4) the need to implement (incentives) universal properties of the national economy as such. For example – providing innovative character of economic development, the introduction of alternative energy as the dominant source of energy, the implementation of restructuring the national economy, overcoming depression and economic degradation regions and so on.4. The possibility and feasibility of forming such superkompleksu the right to an economic right may also grounded bute legal and technical aspects of constitutional and legal support: 1) although fragmented, but overall the nature of the constitutional and legal regulation of economic relations; 2) fixation general legal economic values - objects of constitutional and legal regulation (economic security, constitutional economic order, economic diversity, etc.); 3) if the text of the Basic Law and the common values of the components overall, defining of competence load state authorities, in particular: a) the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine on objects of legal regulation referred to in Article 92 of the Constitution of Ukraine, namely the use of natural resources, the exclusive ( maritime) economic zone and the continental shelf, the space exploration organization and operation of energy, transportation and communications, the legal regime of property rights, legal principles and guarantees of entrepreneurship, rules of competition and antitrust rules, principles of foreign relations, foreign trade, customs, etc. ; b) The Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine - the functions of the Government to ensure the functioning of the economic system listed in Article 116 of the Constitution of Ukraine, for example, develops and implements national programs of economic, scientific, technical, social and cultural development of Ukraine, ensures equal conditions of development of all forms of ownership; carries out management of state property in accordance with law; c) general economic content and nature of the competence of certain public authorities such as the NBU, AMC and others.