WORLD FEDERATION FOR CULTURE COLLECTIONS NEWSLETTER No. 26 (WFCC) July 1977 Code Number:NL97010 Sizes of Files: Text: 73.4K Graphics: No associated graphics files WFCC EXECUTIVE BOARD Officers and members WFCC COMMITTEES Committee on Biodiversity: Committee on Education and Capacity Building: Committee on Endangered Culture Collections: Committee on Patents: Committee on Postal, Quarantine and Safety Regulations: Committee on Publications and Publicity: Committee on World Data Centre for Microorganisms: WFCC REPORTS Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Board, August 28, 1996, Veldhoven, Netherlands Minute 1. Call to order. Minute 2. Record of attendance. Minute 3. Committees. The composition of the newly agreed upon committees - World Data Centre on Microorganisms Committee: - Postal, Quarantine and Safety Regulations Committee: - Endangered Collections Committee: - Patents Committee: Minute 4. Adjournment. Minute 5. Meeting reconvened on 29 August 1996 at 8:00 am. Minute 6. Committees - Biodiversity Committee: - Publications and Publicity Committee: - Education and Capacity Building Committee: Minute 7. Resolutions. Minute 8. General Business. - Skerman Prize. - Revision of Guidelines/Standards. - Statutes Revision. - WFCC Business Plan. - Technical Information Sheets (TIS). Minute 9. Future Meetings. Minute 10. Close of Meeting. WFCC EDUCATION AND CAPACITY BUILDING COMMITTEE (EBB) GOALS 1. Assessment of the needs for the establishment of new culture collections and of the training and capacity building needs of microbial culture collections on a global and regional basis. 2. Development and continued promotion of capacity building and education programmes for CCs on a global and regional basis, with the main emphasis being on taxonomy and electronic communication systems (at least e-mail, information about holdings on www). 3. Support of WDCM activities through collection and update of information on a regional basis. GENERAL OUTLINE Many of the activities of the EBB Committee will be carried out regionally. The initial effort of the members will be towards building an assessment on the needs for establishment of CCs, status of capacity building, education and training needs of the existing CCs in their area of representation. The proposal for regional development should be analysed in regional workshops, organised by EBB representatives of the region. Funds for doing the workshops should be sought on a regional basis and complemented with funds from international agencies. ACTION PLAN Activity 1. Assessment of CCs status and needs on a global and regional basis. An inventory of existing CCs in different regions of the world will be conducted, mainly using data obtained from WDCM, supplemented with regional contacts. Activity 2 - Support to WDCM activities Activity 3 - Proposal for Education and Capacity Building activities Activity 4. Strengthening existing activities of CCs MEMBERSHIP A core committee was agreed during ICCC8 in Veldhoven. The Policy for membership was to include 2 representatives from 6 geographical regions and to establish working links with the WFCC Biodiversity Committee The immediate action that will be taken by EBB is the distribution of a questionnaire, developed together with the Biodiversity Committee and WDCM, for the assessment of CC needs in training and education. The questionnaire will be added to the WFCC Newsletter, as well as to the ECCO Newsletter. Readers are kindly asked to help in circulating it to the CC people in their regions, hoping that with the assessment of the needs EBB will be more able to make the right steps and help to overcome deficiencies. WFCC ENDANGERED COLLECTIONS COMMITTEE GOALS 1. To act as first port of call for any collection (industrial/private/academic) which considers itself to be endangered. 2. To assess the requirements of the Endangered Collections and provide any supportive or lobbying assistance it can. 3. In the event of a culture collection being in imminent danger of being lost, to visit or by means of correspondence assess its sector of expertise and interest (i.e. industrial/medical/fungal/algal etc) and solicit possible alternative sites. 4. To seek a source funding for this exercise; or if a "pot" already exists to allocate appropriate funds for the task to be carried out. MEMBERSHIP NEW WFCC MEMBERS, NEW ADDRESSES AND OTHER CHANGES Relocation of the National Collection of Food Bacteria (NCFB) Address correction OBITUARIES ROWLAND HILL 1935-1996 In memoriam Professor Bela Lanyi (1927-1997) RETIREMENT Retirement of Dr. Ivan J. Bousfield FOCUS ON CULTURE COLLECTIONS Future prospects for the UK National Culture Collections For some considerable time now the UK Culture Collection network has existed as a loosely affiliated federal system comprising eleven separate specialist entities. These collections have been supported by eight sources of Government funding emanating from five Government departments and are all maintained on separate sites by nine different parent organisations. Also, in more recent years, continued funding for several of the collections has been a major worry. Consequently a review on the whole UK system of operating service collections has been long overdue. Co-ordinated Marketing Policy This will involve the development of a unified house style (UKNCC) and the production of advertising materials around three sectoral nodes - an industrial node at NCIMB, a medical node at ECACC/CAMR and an agricultural/mycological node at IMI. Co-ordinated Database Construction This will provide a single electronic contact point for the UKNCC allowing access to a range of information such as strain dam, culture availability, uses and applications, services and expertise available, as well as providing a central ordering point. This initiative is also aimed at updating and harmonising data storage and retrieval facilities at UKNCC member collections as well as providing the facility for combined/specialist hard copy catalogue production. The Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa (CCAP) The Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa functions as the national service collection for algae and protozoa in the UK, acting as a depository for strains of prokaryotic cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), eukaryotic microalgae, small seaweeds and free-living non-pathogenic protozoa. Freshwater algae and all protozoa are maintained at the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH), Institute of Freshwater Ecology (IFE) Windermere Laboratory. Marine algae are kept at the NERC, Centre for Coastal and Marine Science (CCMS) Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory (DML). NEWS FROM AND FOR CULTURE COLLECTIONS Journal of Culture Collections New Settlement of the Spanish Type Culture Collection (CECT) Philippine Network of Microbial Culture Collections Established National Collection of Dairy Cultures (NCDC), Karnal, India News on Cuban Culture Collections NEW CATALOGUES AND DATABASES OF CULTURE COLLECTIONS American Type Culture Collection (ATCC), 12301 Parklawn Drive, Rockville, MD 208521776, USA. Filamentoas Fungi Reference Guide. The first edition of ATCC Quality Control and Reference Strains has been published. Collection Nationale de Cultures de Microorganismes Institut Pasteur. Fungi Culture Collection, Catalogue of Strains 1997, Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa (CCAP) 1995 DSMZ Catalogue of Strains 1997. Institute for Fermentation, Osaka (IFO). Catalogue of newly accepted strains. WORLD WIDE WEB International Course: Biochemical Engineering Applications in Environmental Biotechnology and Cleaner Production (Workshops and Roundtables), The List of Bacterial Names with Standing in Nomenclature Bacterial Nomenclature Up to Date The Microbe Files RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF INTEREST TO CULTURE COLLECTIONS NEW BOOKS RELEVANT TO CULTURE COLLECTION WORK EURACHEM Gives Guidance towards Accreditation EURACHEM has recently published a guide entitled "Accreditation for Laboratories Performing Microbiological Testing". WORKSHOPS AND TRAINING COURSES Details of events from September 8 1997 to December 5 1997 CONFERENCES AND MEETINGS Details of events from 4 September 1997 to 22 January 1998.
The 2008 financial crisis opened the doors of green capitalism as a financially sound approach to saving the planet from the worst effects of the climate emergency. The emphasis on the role of finance in promoting "green growth" has permeated mainstream political, academic and business approaches to climate change adaptation and mitigation, assuming multiple forms - from the carbon markets of the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, to the Environmental, Social and Governance taxonomy for "green" investments, to the proliferation of sustainable labels in several economic sectors. The present article offers a critical appraisal of one of the most prominent arguments that upholds the idea that it is possible and desirable to achieve sustainability and economic growth through finance: green bonds. Green bonds are debt instruments whose proceeds are earmarked to fund projects with supposedly environmental benefits. After some years in the background, they now occupy a central position in the green recovery narrative and political framework all over the world. Most of the academic literature tends to naturalize green bonds as an eminently technical solution to reconcile economic growth and environmental sustainability. Filling an epistemological gap, the present article leverages a world-ecology approach to embed the financial phenomenon of green bonds within the broader picture of the capitalist political economy and the expansion of its ecological frontier. In light of the ongoing experiences that the authors have been following in the Brazilian legal, financial and political context, the article unpacks and makes sense of green bonds as a tool in the hands of climate finance that reproduces global patterns of North-South uneven development and the shifting of ecological costs. To test the potential of the "interpretative framework" offered by a world-ecology approach, we mobilize it in the concrete case of green bonds issuances directed to fund the forestry sector in Brazil. Aware that the current phenomenon only represents a blip in comparison to the largeer temporal (the longue dureé) and spatial (the world system) scales usually deployed by world-ecology, we nonetheless discuss how the ideological, technical and power dynamics behind the issuance of green bonds unleash capital accumulation, produce a financialized and subordinated construction of nature, and entail an institutional arrangement. The article is organized around 3 main sections. After the introduction, section 1 describes green bonds as one of the most fashionable financial topics of the moment, and one that promotes a shift in discourses towards the need of actively building a "green economy". Although from a legal standpoint green bonds embody no significant difference from regular bonds, our focus is to describe the promises around them, the current (private) governance structure, and the trends in the issuance of these debt instruments both in the Global North and South, with a specific focus on the case of Brazil. In section 2, we look at the operations of green bonds emissions on the ground, i.e. taking as an example the context of green debt underpinning the Brazilian forestry sector. The analysis reveals how the emissions, made predominantly by large multinational companies actively present on the global market, feed off great efforts deployed by both the public and the private sector in constructing an image of the sector as a key player in the emergent "bioeconomy" and in the strengthening of Brazil's goals in the Paris Agreement. However, we describe how green bond revenues that are officially committed to the implementation of "sustainable management of forests" are associated with the expansion of the ecological frontier in the Brazilian territory, stretching the boundaries of the area dedicated to tree plantations and amplifying social and environmental tensions. The backstage of the emissions shows how capital accumulation through green bonds is associated with the co-production of nature for the purpose of accumulation, generating concerns that are often diluted or transformed into procedural requirements. Debt generated by the subscription of green bonds, we argue, is not only financial, but also social and ecological. In section 3, we put forward that for private accumulation to be successful, green bonds in the forestry sector demand an institutional arrangement that combines state support and private governance of debt in its financial, social and ecological dimensions. Rather than being the result of an idealized and spontaneous market, a set of institutional transformations have to be considered in order to comprehend the feasibility of green bonds in the Brazilian forestry sector. We thus describe the historic connection between forestry and the state, the endless public incentives to put nature to work, the functional adaptations of the Brazilian environmental legislation and the regulation concerning the demarcation, access and use of land. In this context, we argue that green bonds add yet a new institutional layer to the process of creating and validating specific forms of nature, through a governance structure that dilutes the tensions between the promise of environmental benefits and its concrete negative social and environmental impacts. We conclude the article by reassembling these findings as part of the capitalist world ecology "dialectical unity" of capital accumulation, co-production of nature and power. We suggest that the world-ecology approach allows us to grasp green bonds as a complex form that has so far been ignored in the relevant literature. As any other phenomenon of financialization, a green bond should not be understood in isolation from its material basis, since it is from that basis – and its social and environmental conditions and contradictions – that it appropriates value. As the example of the Brazilian forestry sector illuminates, the "greenness" of the financial debt inscribed in green bonds may come into existence at the expense of the social and environmental debt that underlie the forestry sector productive model. Hence, although the explicit inclusion of "environmental concerns" into financial considerations and project implementation has been praised as a step towards the recognition that finance has a material impact on the planet and that these externalities shall be accounted for, the article warns of the typical green arithmetic move put forward by green bonds. Green bonds inevitably co-produce nature and social relations, but in a very unequal way that emphasizes capital accumulation and that does not necessarily protect the environment (even when standards are introduced). Much to the contrary, green bonds may come into being at the expense of other ways of living ecologically, and by restoring injustices of the past and creating a regenerative future - in other words, by creating debt. ; El presente artículo parte de un enfoque de ecología-mundo para develar y dar sentido a los bonos verdes como una herramienta en manos de las finanzas climáticas, que reproduce los patrones globales de desarrollo desigual y acumulación capitalista. A través del estudio de las emisiones de bonos verdes dirigidas a financiar el sector forestal en Brasil, se revisa cómo la dinámica ideológica, técnica y de poder detrás de dichas emisiones desencadena la acumulación de capital, y produce una construcción de la naturaleza financiarizada y subordinada. Actualmente, los bonos verdes son una de las formas más destacadas de la economía verde para intentar conciliar la "sostenibilidad ambiental" con el crecimiento dentro de los parámetros de las finanzas. Como instrumentos de deuda cuyos ingresos van destinados a financiar proyectos con supuestos beneficios ambientales, los bonos verdes ocupan ya una posición central en la narrativa y el marco político de la economía verde. El artículo reseña los bonos verdes, como uno de los temas financieros relevantes del momento, y describe las promesas y tendencias de emisiones de estos bonos, tanto en los países del Norte y del Sur, y específicamente en Brasil. Al observar las emisiones concretas en el sector forestal brasileño, el artículo muestra cómo la acumulación de capital a través de bonos verdes se asocia a coproducir la naturaleza en formas problemáticas, tanto social como ambientalmente, generando deuda no solo financiera, sino esencialmente social y ecológica. Con una combinación de enfoques micro y macro del tema, el artículo explica cómo los bonos verdes en el sector forestal exigen un arreglo institucional que combine el apoyo estatal y la gobernanza privada de la deuda en sus ámbitos financiero, social y ecológico, para que la acumulación se produzca en tales términos. Se sugiere, sin pretensión de universalidad, que el caso de los bonos verdes en el sector forestal en Brasil es un fenómeno financiero y ecológico novedoso, e ilumina el rompecabezas del capitalismo en la trama de la vida y el análisis de las nuevas fronteras de la miseria planificada.
For whom do we transform our built environment? The answer may seem obvious, since architecture, in theory, is conceived for humans and for the emancipation of communities. However, it is clear that architecture has moved away in many ways from this initial purpose. Making our cities increasingly attractive through ambitious urban renovation campaigns, with renewed public spaces and neighbourhoods, has led to issues that are the consequences of an urbanism of exclusion. These include gentrification, social tensions and mass tourism. Recently, this situation has caused some to consider architecture and urbanism in a more inclusive way, from the perspective of neighbourhood communities and for the common good. Inherited from the twentieth century, participation processes, which are related directly with reclaiming the city, are now re-emerging in urban and architectural processes in democratic administrations. Sustainable, resilient, inclusive urban regeneration means working with inhabitants when cities are transformed, giving them the opportunity to collaborate in the city's creation. Today, these processes are evolving. New creative artistic tools are emerging that are changing the modus operandi. However, there are many gaps, with so-called participatory processes that do not guarantee the real participation of local communities. It seems that there are still many doubts and misunderstandings about how to define participatory architecture and its processes, and there is a real need for a paradigm shift. The aim of this research is to provide an updated definition and interpretation of participation in architecture in urban spaces. The thesis is organised into three parts: (1) Retrospective, (2) Tools and (3) Co-creation Experiments. The first part (1) consists of an organised retrospective of participation in history, to clarify the concept and understand all its facets. The second part (2) examines the creation of methodology for participatory action with new and traditional tools (information and communication technology, mapping, big data cartographies, artistic and creative tools such as urban sketching, tactical planning, opinion polls and collaborative websites, among others). This is achieved by classifying the tools into a taxonomy, generated through an analysis of several past and recent case studies in which the real stakeholders in urban planning – its users – co-designed the project. By combining the tools, we should be able to build a methodology or a guide for co-creation workshops. Finally, the last part (3) describes experiments in which our students collaborated with the local community, hopefully to encourage a change in habits and mindset. In fact, we show how the momentum should start from universities and education, relying on artistic co-creation as a participatory and project medium. In other words, the idea is to work creatively together for the common good. ; ¿Para quién hacemos arquitectura y ciudad? la respuesta puede parecer obvia, ya que la arquitectura, en teoría, se dedica a construir para la humanidad y la emancipación de sus comunidades. Sin embargo, está claro que también se ha alejado en muchos aspectos de este primer objetivo. Hacer que nuestras ciudades sean cada vez más atractivas a través de ambiciosas campañas de renovación urbana, con espacios públicos y vecindarios renovados, también ha llevado a problemas emergentes, consecuencias de un urbanismo de exclusión. Este último se expresa a través de la gentrificación, tensiones sociales, y turismo de masas. Afortunadamente, esto ha llevado recientemente pensar de una manera más inclusiva desde las comunidades locales. Heredados del siglo XX, los procesos de participación, que están directamente relacionados con la recuperación de la ciudad, ahora están resurgiendo en procesos urbanos y arquitectónicos en administraciones democratizadoras. La regeneración urbana sostenible, resiliente e inclusiva significa trabajar con los habitantes cuando las ciudades se transforman, dándoles la oportunidad de colaborar en la creación de la ciudad. Hoy en día, estos procesos evolucionan: emergen nuevas herramientas artísticas creativas que cambian el modus operandi. Sin embargo, hay muchas brechas actuales, con los llamados procesos participativos que no garantizan la participación real de las comunidades locales. Parece que todavía hay malentendidos sobre lo que es la arquitectura participativa, así como sus procesos, mientras que existe una necesidad real de cambio paradigmático. Esta investigación propone dar una respuesta y una interpretación renovada de la participación en la arquitectura, y más exactamente en los espacios urbanos, organizadas en tres partes: (1) retrospectiva, (2) herramientas y (3) experimentos de co-creación. La primera parte (1) consiste en una retrospectiva organizada de participación en la historia para aclarar su concepto y comprender su diversidad de facetas. La segunda parte (2) revela la creación de una metodología para la acción participativa con herramientas nuevas y tradicionales (tecnología de la información y las comunicaciones, mapeo, cartografías de big data, herramientas artísticas y creativas como bosquejos urbanos, planificación táctica, encuestas de opinión y sitios web colaborativos, entre otros), a través de su clasificación en una taxonomía. La taxonomía se ha generado a través de un análisis de varios estudios de casos históricos y recientes en los que sus usuarias y sus usuarios, co-diseñaron el proyecto. Al combinar las herramientas, deberíamos ser capaces de construir una metodología o una guía para talleres de co-creación. Finalmente, la última parte (3) involucra experimentos en los cuales nuestras y nuestros estudiantes colaboran con la comunidad local, con la esperanza de alentar un cambio en los hábitos y la sensibilidad. De hecho, mostraremos cómo debe comenzar el impulso desde las universidades y la educación, confiando en la co-creación artística como medio participativo y proyectual. En otras palabras, trabajar creativamente juntos por el bien común. ; Pour qui transformons-nous notre environnement bâti? La réponse peut sembler évidente puisque l'architecture, en théorie, conçoit pour l'être humain et pour l'émancipation de ses communautés. Néanmoins, il est clair qu'elle s'est également éloignée à bien des égards de ce premier objectif : la transformation de nos villes afin de les rendre plus attractives, à travers d'ambitieuses campagnes de rénovation urbaine, avec des espaces publics et des quartiers renouvelés, a également conduit à des enjeux émergents, qui sont les conséquences d'un urbanisme de l'exclusion. Ce dernier s'exprime à travers la gentrification (ou embourgeoisement), l'augmentation des tensions sociales ou encore l'abandon à un scénario de tourisme de masse. Ces conséquences ont récemment amené à penser l'urbanisme d'une manière plus inclusive en travaillant avec et depuis les communautés d'un lieu donné. Hérité du XXème siècle, les processus de participation, directement liés à la récupération de la ville, apparaissent désormais dans les outils d'urbanisme reconnus par les administrations démocratiques. Une régénération urbaine durable et flexible, exige de travailler avec les habitants, en leur donnant la possibilité de collaborer directement à la création de la ville. Aujourd'hui, ces processus évoluent : de nouveaux outils artistiques et technologiques créatifs émergent, ce qui change le modus operandi. Cependant, il existe actuellement de nombreuses lacunes, avec des processus soi-disant participatifs qui ne garantissent pas une participation réelle des communautés locales. Il semble qu'il existe encore de nombreux doutes et malentendus sur ce qu'est l'architecture participative ainsi que sur ses processus, alors qu'il y a un réel besoin de changement paradigmatique. Cette recherche a pour objectif d'apporter une réponse et une interprétation renouvelée de la participation appliquée à l'architecture et aux espaces urbains. Cette thèse est organisée en trois parties : (1) Rétrospective, (2) Outils et (3) Expériences de cocréation. La première partie (1) consiste en une rétrospective organisée de la participation qui permet de clarifier son concept et de comprendre la diversité de ses facettes. La deuxième partie (2) met en évidence la création d'une méthodologie d'action participative avec des outils nouveaux et traditionnels (technologies de l'information et de la communication, cartographie, big data, outils artistiques et créatifs tels que l'esquisse urbaine, la planification tactique, les sondages d'opinion et les sites collaboratifs, entre autres). Ces instruments ont été classés dans une taxonomie générée par l'analyse de nombreux cas d'études dans lesquelles les véritables acteurs de l'urbanisme -ses utilisateurs et ses utilisatrices- ont conçu ensemble le projet. En combinant les outils, nous devrions pouvoir construire une méthodologie à l'image d'un guide pour les ateliers de cocréation. Enfin, la dernière partie (3) implique des expériences dans lesquelles nos étudiantes et nos étudiants collaborent avec la communauté locale, dans l'espoir d'encourager un changement d'habitudes et de sensibilité. De fait, nous montrerons comment cet élan devrait commencer depuis l'éducation et le monde universitaire, en s'appuyant sur la cocréation artistique comme médium participatif. En d'autres termes, travailler ensemble, de manière créative et positive, pour le bien commun. ; Postprint (published version)
In: Moro , M A 2018 , An Evolutionary Approach to Water Innovation: Comparing the Water Innovation Systems in China and Europe . Technical University of Denmark , Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark .
Den stigende interesse for den "grønne økonomi" som politiske agenda, har øget den globale opmærksomhed for øko-innovation, med problematikker relateret til vandstress identificeret som en af de største flaskehalse, for at opnå bæredygtig økonomisk udvikling og vækst. Vand er en kritisk ressource, og globalt indser flere og flere lande nødvendigheden, af at øge deres innovative kapacitet indenfor vand-sektoren. Med udgangspunkt i evolutionær økonomisk teori sigter denne afhandling på, at udføre en longitudinal og komparativ analyse af vand innovationsdynamikkerne i henholdsvis Kina og Europa. Afhandlingens mål er at vurdere ligheder og forskellige imellem de tendenser og mekanismer, som foregår i de to regioner, med et fokus på at identificere de faktorer, som driver øko-innovationsudvikling indenfor vand-sektoren. Mere specifikt bygger denne afhandling på innovations system begrebsrammen indenfor evolutionær økonomisk teori og inddrager tillige øko-innovation og vand-specifik litteratur. Forskningen føder ind til den stadig meget begrænsede vand innovationsforskning, så vel som grøn økonomi (green economy) og til dels 'catching up' litteraturen. Vi sætter fokus på at belyse de innovative betingelser for grøn økonomi i regioner, som befinder sig på forskellige udviklingstrin. Den empiriske analyse er baseret primært på patentdata, men inddrager også handelsdata i nogle af analyserne. Denne slags data er tidligere, kun i begrænset omfang, blevet anvendt indenfor vand innovationsstudier og endnu mindre indenfor et evolutionært økonomisk teoretisk perspektiv. Afhandlingen sammenligner og analyserer elementerne og dynamikkerne i henholdsvis det kinesiske og det europæiske vand- innovationssystem, fra tre forskellige vinkler. Først identificeres og karakteriseres; a) aktørerne indenfor vand innovations systemer, dernæst b) de drivende kræfter for den teknologiske udvikling og trends i den innovative kapacitet, og endeligt c) i hvilken grad Kina, som en centralt styret planøkonomi og late-mover indenfor grøn økonomi, har indhentet Europa, som er en veludviklet early mover indenfor grøn økonomi. Hovedfundene i denne afhandling er relateret til de klare forskellige i dynamikken indenfor vand innovations kontra øko-innovation i Kinesisk kontekst, hvor offentlige innovatører (universiteter og videns-institutioner) blev fundet til at spille en vigtigere rolle end i Europa indenfor øko-innovation end er tilfældet generelt indenfor vand-innovation. Dette indikerer en bedre association imellem de involverede aktører indenfor øko-innovations og vand- og innovations-lovgivning. Dette er et forventet fund på grund af den kinesiske planøkonomi, men det er ikke tidligere blevet dokumenteret eller diskuteret i analyser af vandsektoren. Derudover, identificeres og analyseres trends og drivkræfter for den samlede (øko) innovative kapacitetsudvikling for vandsektoren i de to regioner. Disse drivers blev fundet at være sammenlignelige og stærkt relateret til både dn nationale innovative strategier, såvel som de nationale budgetter, miljølovgivningen i regionen og udviklingen af R&D i sektoren. Generelt har Europa en højere (øko) innovativ kapacitet, men afhandlingen indikerer, at Kina i stigende grad øger sin innovative kapacitet i vandsektoren relativt til Europa. Specifikt blev det fundet at Kina er ved at indhente Europa på markedsplan, på trods af at de stadig på patentmæssigt ligger på et væsentligt lavere niveau end Europa. Begge regioner udviser sammenlignelige øko-innovative mønstre, med et vedvarende stærkt fokus på traditionelle vandforurenings- og spildevandsrensnings teknologier. Dette demonstrerer, at der stadig findes et stort uudforsket potentiale for grøn forretningsudvikling relateret til vandbesparelse og vand genindvinding i begge regioner som vil være vigtige for at sikre en fremtidig bæredygtig udvikling på vandområdet. Sammenfattende bidrager afhandlingens analyse til en mere nuanceret forståelse af vandinnovationsdynamikker såvel som globale vandinnovationstrends end hidtil. Nye bidrag til innovationssystemforskningen er den kombinerede belysning af mikroaspekter af vand innovationsdynamikkenerne (aktørerne), den økonometriske analyse af drivkræfter for innovations kapaciteten såvel som den longitudinale analyse af catch-up baseret på kombinerede patent og handelsdata indenfor forskellige teknologiske udviklingsspor. Den udviklede taxonomi for vand innovation samt listen over vandhandelsdata kan anvendes som nye indikatorer for øko-innovationsudviklingen og diffusionen i vandsektoren. På grund af emnets kompleksitet og den begrænsede forskning hidtil indenfor området og visse datamæssige begrænsninger, samt det forhold at mange nye grønne vand politiske tiltag i Kina endnu ikke reflekteres i de anvendte data, er resultaterne af de empiriske analyser ikke helt entydige. På nogle områder bevæger Kina sig imod Europæiske niveauer, hvorimod andre indikatorer er uændrede. Yderligere analyser er nødvendige for at opnå en mere komplet forståelse af dynamikkerne i vandinnovationssystemerne i både Kina og Europa. ; The recent rise of the 'green economy' agenda has increased the attention to eco-innovations globally, with issues related to water stress identified as one of the major bottlenecks for sustainable economic growth. Water being a critical resource, more and more countries worldwide are recognizing the need for increasing their innovative capacity within the water sector. Using evolutionary economic theory, this thesis undertakes a longitudinal and comparative analysis of the water innovation dynamics in Europe and China, representing respectively a developed, green early mover economy, and a centrally-planned economy and green late mover. The thesis aims to assess the similarities and differences in the mechanisms applied across these two regions, with a focus on outlining what drives eco-innovation development in the water sector. The thesis builds more specifically on the innovation system framework within evolutionary economic theory, as well as draws on eco-innovation and water specific literature. The analysis seeks to contribute to the still limited water innovation dynamics research, as well as the green economy and to some degree the 'catching up' literature, highlighting the innovation conditions of the green economy in regions with different stages of development. The empirical analysis is based primarily on patent data but also draws in trade data for some of the analysis. These data have been little used in water innovation studies and even less situated within an evolutionary economic theoretical perspective. The thesis compares and contrasts the elements and dynamics of the Chinese and European water innovation systems, working on multiple levels. The thesis identifies and characterizes: a) the actors of the water innovation system, b) trends in innovative capacity and the driving forces of the technological development, and c) the degree of Chinese catching up to Europe, both in general as well as related to different technological patterns of eco-innovation in the water sector. The main findings of the thesis are related to the clear differences in the dynamics of water innovation versus water eco-innovations in the Chinese context, where public innovators (universities and knowledge institutions) are found to have a more important role than in Europe in the development of eco-innovation – as opposed to the development of "general" water innovations. This points towards a better association among the actors involved in performing eco-innovation and the water regulations and innovation policies. This alignment is expected given the planned economy of China, but which has not been previously documented or discussed for the water sector. Additionally, the thesis identified and analysed the drivers for the overall (eco) innovative capacity development of the water sector in the two regions, and found them to be similar and strongly related to the national innovative strategy, as well as to public budgets, environmental regulations and R&D development. Generally, Europe presents a higher water (eco) innovative capacity; nevertheless, the thesis also indicates that China is increasing its innovative capacity in the water sector relative to Europe. In particular it could be seen that China is in the process of a "market" technological catch-up while remaining at a much lower patenting innovative performance level than Europe. Both regions present similar eco-innovative patterns, with a strong remaining focus on traditional water pollution technologies and wastewater treatment. This demonstrates there is still a huge potential for green business development related to water conservation and water recovery in both regions that hasn't been explored yet and may become crucial to the future transition towards sustainability. Overall, the analysis of the thesis contributes to a more nuanced understanding of water innovation dynamics, as well as global water innovation trends than has been conducted to-date. Novel contributions include the combined analysis of the micro aspects of water innovation dynamics, the econometric analysis of innovative capacity drivers, as well as the longitudinal catch-up analysis of combined patent and trade data, including the discussion of the development of different water technological trajectories. The suggested taxonomy for water (eco-) innovations and the trade data list of water technologies can be used as novel indicators to analyse eco-innovation developments and diffusion in the water sector. Given the limited prior research to draw on and limitations regarding data availability, as well as the many very recent green water policy tendencies in China whose effects are yet to be seen, the empirical results of this thesis are not that clear cut. In some respects, China is catching up in water innovations, in other respects not. Further analyses are needed to provide a more thorough understanding of the water innovation performances and dynamics of the European and Chinese water innovation systems.
*This series is the result of an adaptation of a paper presented as part of a seminar on "Theories and Research in International Relations" at Hebrew University, July 2012. Commentaries are welcome to daniel.wajner@mail.huji.ac.il In the first article of this series we have introduced the debates on the ontology of power and the ways in which these debates have influenced the theoretical divisions in International Relations (IR). In this second article we will present the main epistemological approaches of the different paradigms, leading to controversies on the mechanisms involved in the activation of power and its dimensions.Mechanisms of Power: different theoretical approachesOur first step is to address the questions "how power is activated" and "how power proceeds once it is activated". Scholars of diverse backgrounds proposed different approaches to answer those questions, leading us to the possibility of dealing with the controversies around the epistemology of power.According to the realist tradition, as explained previously, the regular way by which actors operate to assert control over the others and the system is coercion. Through the manipulation of material resources (either via sanctions or inducements), an actor could generate changes in the other's actor conduct even in contrary of their interests. As main representatives of the neo-realist paradigm, Waltz and Mearsheimer went one step forward when they affirmed that the distribution of military capabilities constitutes the best measurable expression of power1; and consequently, that the display of alterations in capabilities is what explains the main changes in decision-making.However, most of the neo-realists tend to accept another way to activate power that is based on the concept of socialization. Although renowned for being "mentioned" by Waltz himself, the concept is in fact developed by other scholars, among them Ikenberry and Kupchan, who move large away from Waltz. They explain the mechanisms and conditions of socialization using the neorealist scheme but, unlike Waltz, Ikenberry and Kupchan incorporate the "normative" element as "a different aspect of power" which guides the state's behavior.2 Moreover, they assume a pseudo-liberal perspective on the role of specific agents (elites) in providing systemic change, undermining the unitary actor assumption and thus abandoning the structuralist approach that neo-realists have usually adopted.Ikenberry and Kupchan seek to describe how hegemonic powers have a tendency to activate processes of socialization, through which secondary countries internalize the norms of the hegemon. According to them, socialization occurs primarily when countries suffer the fragmentation of internal coalitions (especially after wars and political crisis), stimulating certain elites to embrace the norms that the hegemon is articulating. If the receptivity and realignment of the elites is linked with coercive power, norms could be consolidated as well as the policies in line with them (albeit this order may vary depending on whether the socialization is carried through normative persuasion, external inducement or internal reconstruction).3 It is important to note that this is a "one-player" argument; the authors say little about "real" cases - where there are many candidates to hegemony and the socialization processes are "in competition". This appears as a very interesting research agenda for the future.The eighties and nineties developed other interesting realist approaches who explore ideational elements in power analysis. One of them is the Krasner's approach on institutional power, which consists of a "metapower" that has indirect control over outcomes by changing the setting of the confrontation.4 Baldwin went also in that direction by embedding what he called the paradox of unrealized power, in which the will of using the power is a resource by itself.5 Likewise, Walt´s theory about the balance of threat adds aggressive intentions as a main variable, what makes power not a function of material resources but of inter-subjective factors.6 The three went clearly beyond neorealist assumptions.Of course the incorporation of normative elements to analyze power relationships did not only emerge in the realist tradition, but also in the liberal one, the natural candidate. The most famous liberal twist came recently from Nye's soft power concept.7 Accepting coercion" and inducement as two relevant forms of displaying power, Nye suggests co-opting as "a third dimension of power" which affects behavior without being commanded through threats or payments, but through attracting with indirect resources (such as values, culture and policies). This "soft" version of power, argues the prestigious scholar, becomes crucial in a global information era in which "winning hearts and minds" matters more and more; an era in which hard sower and soft power are required to be connected (in what he calls smart power) in order to enable the legitimate use of power, as the war in Irak showed to the United States.Is not casual that Nye writes from a (North)American perspective in a period of time in which their legitimacy was so questioned; anyhow, his concept was rapidly attributed to other situations. Despite the popularity of Nye's scheme, the theoretical contribution is still weak. As Guzzini argued years before, it is clear that "power alone is not what we are looking for"8- what is lacking is an approach that could address the causal mechanisms of the different types of power and could identify their devices once they are activated.Guzzini himself will provide an answer to that challenge, by recommending the separation of the two types of power structural power and interactionist power in two different concepts: governance and power.9 Citing economical-rationalist terms, this new dyadic conceptualization examines the interactions between systemic rules (market constraints) and the decisions of the agents (strategic behaviors), in a power analysis. As a constructivist, Guzzini sustains that in this (inter-subjective) relationship of power, the actors change interests and identities, stressing the value of legitimate power (authority) in enabling "a widing realm of possible (in political action)".10 Despite Guzzini paved the way to other constructivist approaches11, he still leaves us with the confusion between the two different stages of the argumentative chain: the first one based on the agent-structure distinction, and the second one on the material-ideal division.Barnett and Duvall would release us from that confusion by presenting their taxonomy of four dimensions of power.12 It combines the two variables presented above with different names; on one side, the expression of the power (actor's interactions vs. structural constitution), and on the other side the specificity of the power relations (direct connection vs. diffuse relation).13 The analytic combination leads us to four types in which power operates: compulsory, institutional, structural and productive. Therefore, while in a simultaneous power analysis, one side would explain what is "possible" (closer to the Compulsory corner), the other one would explain what is "legitimate-desirable" (closer to the Productive corner).14Once this has been approached, the next challenge consists of transferring these theoretical understanding to a methodological scheme for power analysis in IR. This will be addressed on the next and last part of the series.1 John Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great power Politics (NYC: Norton, 2001); Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics. (NYC: McGraw-Hill, 1979)2 John G. Ikenberry and Charles A. Kupchan, "Socialization and hegemonic power", International Organization 44, No3 (Summer 1990), p. 284.3 Ibid., p. 290-2914Stephen D. Krasner, "Regimes and the Limits of Realism: Regimes as Autonomous Variables", International Organization 36 (Spring 1982), 497-5105 David A. Baldwin, Paradoxes of Power (NYC: Basil Blackwell, 1989).6 Stephen Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987)7 Joseph S. Nye, Soft Power- The Means to Success in World Politics.8 Stefano Guzzini, "Structural power: the limits of neorealist power analysis", International Organization 47, No3 (Summer 1993), p.478.9 Ibid.,, p.471.10 Stefano Guzzini, "Structural power: the limits of neorealist power analysis", p.477.11 In that sense, Hurd presents a similar conclusion to pose legitimacy as an ordering principle at IR, building also on Weber´s approach at the beginning. Another concept that might be reminded in constructivist literature is Risse´s "normative power", that although lacks the "material side", it contributed to highlight the devices of the "logic of truth-seeking arguing" (considered as "the power of the better argument").12 Michael Barnett and Raymond Duvall, "Power in International Politics", 48-57.13 Although is true that Barnett-Duvall do not present this as hard power vs. soft power, with the examples given it is possible to infer that applies a similar logic.14 Ibid., p.44. Fabian Daniel Wajner is a Research and Teaching Assistant at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Department of International Relations) and a Fellow of the Liweranth Center for Latin America Studies.
In the last decade of the 20th century, profound social and urban changes took place in the ports of Iquique and Pisagua, in northern Chile. This meant the advent of a new mindset which was modern, liberal and marked by relations imposed by the capitalist model. They were new cities, different from the Spanish-colonial root, without foundation date or military-management strategy. They arose without links to the past, organized by a new institution formed by liberal politicians, business people and enlightened businessmen, and with the sole purpose of fulfilling the role assigned by modern technique of commercial nexus and services in the product flow of nitrate explotation. It is there, where a theater that hosted the aspirations and social conventions of the ruling class was built. It was the economic boom of the nitrate cycle, where opulence was the attitude that characterized the society at that time, promoting the construction of buildings that recalled the great European theaters, hosting the refinement of social events and lyric-dramatic singing entertainment. Thus the nitrate towns joined the route of the major theater companies in their journey through the world, giving both European immigrants that settled in these desert land and locals, representative of the ruling elite, to reproduce the social and cultural European world. So the theaters were prominent landmarks of the city, as a testimony of that time, and showing the golden past of the nitrate economic boom period. In parallel, the emergence of the working class and social crisis, marked the social and cultural process of the boom phase of nitrate cities with special features. It was on the opposite scenario where another phenomenon emerged, linked with socio-spatial transformations associated with the industrial era, the development of the working class. A process that spread from Europe to America by the cities that were adhering to the industrialization process. The massive concentration of workers in the nitrate offices was the substrate for the origin and expansion of the labor movement that was born in the struggle for its social demands. It was also the basis for the development of guild and mutual associations which were accompanied by illustrated movements that saw in education and culture, the solution to overcome the state of deprivation in which they lived. Thus, the forms of social organization and representation, with the spread of theatrical performances, with operettas and farces, with philharmonics and estudiantinas. It is there where an inner transgressive theatrical endeavour arose, and moved away from conventional buildings of the ruling class and stuck to the mutual and philanthropic societies, building a testimony that was highlighted not by material but by their works. In this definition of context, the crisis that marked the end of the nitrate cycle indicated the decline of the bourgeois theater which disappears with the ruling classes that leave the cities and nitrate offices. However, the theater that emerges is reinvented and represents the middle and lower classes. Until that time, these classes were away from the stage. This process will be supported by the welfare state promoting the creation of new spaces for performances, and by the strengthening of a national theatre. The hypothesis raised focused the study on the imaginary of modernity and its catalytic spread, of improvement by the sake of improvement. At the same time, the partial vision that triggered modern thinking validated the idea of a bounded world of relationships, ignoring the multiplicity of processes that constitutes it. The history of theater in Chile is related to the social history of the process of the occupation of space, inseparable, like all processes in space and time, of the multiple existing links between political, economic, and cultural factors that are expressed in a spatial taxonomy of accumulation, production and space occupation. ; En la última década del siglo XIX afloraron en los puertos de Iquique y Pisagua, en el norte de Chile, profundas transformaciones sociales y urbanas dando cuenta de la instalación en la sociedad de una nueva mentalidad, moderna, liberal y marcada por las relaciones que impuso el modelo capitalista. Eran nuevas ciudades, distintas a las de raíz hispano-colonial, sin fecha de fundación ni afán de estrategia administrativa-militar. Surgieron, sin recurrir al pasado, organizada por una nueva institucionalidad formada por políticos liberales, empresarios e ilustrados hombres de negocio, y con el sólo objeto de cumplir con el rol que la técnica moderna le asignaba, la de nexo comercial y de servicios en la circulación del producto de la explotación del recurso del salitre. Es allí donde surgió un teatro que acogió las aspiraciones y convenciones sociales de la clase dirigente. Se vivía el periodo de auge económico del ciclo del salitre, donde la opulencia fue la actitud que caracterizó a la sociedad en aquel momento, amparando la edificación de salas, que rememoraban a los grandes teatros europeos, acogiendo el refinamiento del evento social y del espectáculo del canto lírico y dramático. De este modo las ciudades del salitre se integraron al itinerario de las principales compañías de teatro en su periplo por el mundo, concediendo tanto a migrantes europeos que poblaron estas tierras desérticas como a los nacionales, representantes de la elite dirigente, para que reprodujeran el mundo cultural y social europeo. Las salas de teatro quedaron así, en sitios destacados de la ciudad, como testimonio de aquella época, dando cuenta del pasado portentoso que se vivió alrededor del auge económico del salitre. En forma paralela, la emergencia de la clase obrera y la crisis social marcó con un selló el proceso social y cultural de la etapa de auge de las ciudades del salitre. Fue en el escenario opuesto donde surgió otro fenómeno socio-espacial asociado a las transformaciones de la era industrial, el desarrollo de la clase obrera. Un proceso que se expandió desde Europa hacia América, por las ciudades que fueron adhiriendo al proceso de industrialización. La concentración masiva de trabajadores en las oficinas salitreras fue el sustrato para el origen y expansión del movimiento obrero, que nació en busca de sus reivindicaciones sociales. Asimismo, fue la base para el desarrollo de la asociatividad gremial y mutualista, la que estuvo acompañada por movimientos ilustrados que vieron en la educación y en la cultura la forma de superación del estado de postración en que se encontraban. En ella, las formas de organización y representación social actuaron a través de las cofradías de la Fiesta de la Tirana, con el teatro que se fue masificando, con zarzuelas y sainetes, con filarmónicas y estudiantinas. Es allí donde surgió un quehacer teatral interiormente transgresor, que se alejó de los edificios convencionales de la clase dirigente y se apegó al de las mutuales y sociedades filantrópicas, edificando un testimonio que no se destacó por lo material sino por sus obras. En esta delimitación del contexto, la crisis que marcó el fin del ciclo del salitre señaló el declive del teatro burgués, el que desaparece con las clases dirigentes que abandonan las ciudades y oficinas salitreras. No obstante, el teatro que se reinventa y emerge es el que representa a las clases media y populares, hasta ese momento, las clases alejadas de los escenarios. Un proceso que va a estar sostenido por el estado benefactor con el apoyo a la creación de nuevos espacios de representación, y por el afianzamiento de un teatro con carácter nacional, que tomando cuerpo en la zona central del país, va a llegar a un punto de auge con la llamada "Etapa de Oro" del teatro chileno, y que va a irradiar hacia las regiones. La hipótesis levantada centró su estudio en el imaginario de la modernidad y en su propagación catalizadora, de la superación por la superación. A la vez, la visión parcializada que impulsó el pensamiento moderno instauro la idea de un mundo acotado de relaciones, desconociendo la multiplicidad de procesos que la constituyen. La historia del teatro en Chile se relaciona con la historia social de los procesos de ocupación del espacio, inseparable, como todo proceso en el espacio y en el tiempo, de los múltiples vínculos existentes entre procesos políticos, económicos, y culturales que se expresan en una taxonomía espacial, de acumulación, producción, y ocupación del espacio. ; Postprint (published version)
In the last decade of the 20th century, profound social and urban changes took place in the ports of Iquique and Pisagua, in northern Chile. This meant the advent of a new mindset which was modern, liberal and marked by relations imposed by the capitalist model. They were new cities, different from the Spanish-colonial root, without foundation date or military-management strategy. They arose without links to the past, organized by a new institution formed by liberal politicians, business people and enlightened businessmen, and with the sole purpose of fulfilling the role assigned by modern technique of commercial nexus and services in the product flow of nitrate explotation. It is there, where a theater that hosted the aspirations and social conventions of the ruling class was built. It was the economic boom of the nitrate cycle, where opulence was the attitude that characterized the society at that time, promoting the construction of buildings that recalled the great European theaters, hosting the refinement of social events and lyric-dramatic singing entertainment. Thus the nitrate towns joined the route of the major theater companies in their journey through the world, giving both European immigrants that settled in these desert land and locals, representative of the ruling elite, to reproduce the social and cultural European world. So the theaters were prominent landmarks of the city, as a testimony of that time, and showing the golden past of the nitrate economic boom period. In parallel, the emergence of the working class and social crisis, marked the social and cultural process of the boom phase of nitrate cities with special features. It was on the opposite scenario where another phenomenon emerged, linked with socio-spatial transformations associated with the industrial era, the development of the working class. A process that spread from Europe to America by the cities that were adhering to the industrialization process. The massive concentration of workers in the nitrate offices was the substrate for the origin and expansion of the labor movement that was born in the struggle for its social demands. It was also the basis for the development of guild and mutual associations which were accompanied by illustrated movements that saw in education and culture, the solution to overcome the state of deprivation in which they lived. Thus, the forms of social organization and representation, with the spread of theatrical performances, with operettas and farces, with philharmonics and estudiantinas. It is there where an inner transgressive theatrical endeavour arose, and moved away from conventional buildings of the ruling class and stuck to the mutual and philanthropic societies, building a testimony that was highlighted not by material but by their works. In this definition of context, the crisis that marked the end of the nitrate cycle indicated the decline of the bourgeois theater which disappears with the ruling classes that leave the cities and nitrate offices. However, the theater that emerges is reinvented and represents the middle and lower classes. Until that time, these classes were away from the stage. This process will be supported by the welfare state promoting the creation of new spaces for performances, and by the strengthening of a national theatre. The hypothesis raised focused the study on the imaginary of modernity and its catalytic spread, of improvement by the sake of improvement. At the same time, the partial vision that triggered modern thinking validated the idea of a bounded world of relationships, ignoring the multiplicity of processes that constitutes it. The history of theater in Chile is related to the social history of the process of the occupation of space, inseparable, like all processes in space and time, of the multiple existing links between political, economic, and cultural factors that are expressed in a spatial taxonomy of accumulation, production and space occupation. ; En la última década del siglo XIX afloraron en los puertos de Iquique y Pisagua, en el norte de Chile, profundas transformaciones sociales y urbanas dando cuenta de la instalación en la sociedad de una nueva mentalidad, moderna, liberal y marcada por las relaciones que impuso el modelo capitalista. Eran nuevas ciudades, distintas a las de raíz hispano-colonial, sin fecha de fundación ni afán de estrategia administrativa-militar. Surgieron, sin recurrir al pasado, organizada por una nueva institucionalidad formada por políticos liberales, empresarios e ilustrados hombres de negocio, y con el sólo objeto de cumplir con el rol que la técnica moderna le asignaba, la de nexo comercial y de servicios en la circulación del producto de la explotación del recurso del salitre. Es allí donde surgió un teatro que acogió las aspiraciones y convenciones sociales de la clase dirigente. Se vivía el periodo de auge económico del ciclo del salitre, donde la opulencia fue la actitud que caracterizó a la sociedad en aquel momento, amparando la edificación de salas, que rememoraban a los grandes teatros europeos, acogiendo el refinamiento del evento social y del espectáculo del canto lírico y dramático. De este modo las ciudades del salitre se integraron al itinerario de las principales compañías de teatro en su periplo por el mundo, concediendo tanto a migrantes europeos que poblaron estas tierras desérticas como a los nacionales, representantes de la elite dirigente, para que reprodujeran el mundo cultural y social europeo. Las salas de teatro quedaron así, en sitios destacados de la ciudad, como testimonio de aquella época, dando cuenta del pasado portentoso que se vivió alrededor del auge económico del salitre. En forma paralela, la emergencia de la clase obrera y la crisis social marcó con un selló el proceso social y cultural de la etapa de auge de las ciudades del salitre. Fue en el escenario opuesto donde surgió otro fenómeno socio-espacial asociado a las transformaciones de la era industrial, el desarrollo de la clase obrera. Un proceso que se expandió desde Europa hacia América, por las ciudades que fueron adhiriendo al proceso de industrialización. La concentración masiva de trabajadores en las oficinas salitreras fue el sustrato para el origen y expansión del movimiento obrero, que nació en busca de sus reivindicaciones sociales. Asimismo, fue la base para el desarrollo de la asociatividad gremial y mutualista, la que estuvo acompañada por movimientos ilustrados que vieron en la educación y en la cultura la forma de superación del estado de postración en que se encontraban. En ella, las formas de organización y representación social actuaron a través de las cofradías de la Fiesta de la Tirana, con el teatro que se fue masificando, con zarzuelas y sainetes, con filarmónicas y estudiantinas. Es allí donde surgió un quehacer teatral interiormente transgresor, que se alejó de los edificios convencionales de la clase dirigente y se apegó al de las mutuales y sociedades filantrópicas, edificando un testimonio que no se destacó por lo material sino por sus obras. En esta delimitación del contexto, la crisis que marcó el fin del ciclo del salitre señaló el declive del teatro burgués, el que desaparece con las clases dirigentes que abandonan las ciudades y oficinas salitreras. No obstante, el teatro que se reinventa y emerge es el que representa a las clases media y populares, hasta ese momento, las clases alejadas de los escenarios. Un proceso que va a estar sostenido por el estado benefactor con el apoyo a la creación de nuevos espacios de representación, y por el afianzamiento de un teatro con carácter nacional, que tomando cuerpo en la zona central del país, va a llegar a un punto de auge con la llamada "Etapa de Oro" del teatro chileno, y que va a irradiar hacia las regiones. La hipótesis levantada centró su estudio en el imaginario de la modernidad y en su propagación catalizadora, de la superación por la superación. A la vez, la visión parcializada que impulsó el pensamiento moderno instauro la idea de un mundo acotado de relaciones, desconociendo la multiplicidad de procesos que la constituyen. La historia del teatro en Chile se relaciona con la historia social de los procesos de ocupación del espacio, inseparable, como todo proceso en el espacio y en el tiempo, de los múltiples vínculos existentes entre procesos políticos, económicos, y culturales que se expresan en una taxonomía espacial, de acumulación, producción, y ocupación del espacio. ; Postprint (published version)
Human freedom and prosperity have varied enormously among and within countries and regions and have changed drastically over short periods. Social sciences research has begun to illuminate how norms and cultures, as well as legal, political, economic, and social institutions, affect freedom and prosperity, but our understanding of how and why these institutions change remains meager. The researchers who gathered at the National Academy of Sciences in 2010 for a Sackler Symposium sought to give a kick-start to the study of institutional dynamics.
The papers presented vary both in their research methods and in the questions they address. The methods range from theory to econometric studies to detailed cases studies, each seeking to highlight some aspect of how institutions change and what accounts for the differences in institutions that emerge in different settings.
Two of the papers in this volume are analyses of stochastic dynamic systems. One captures a process of contagion by which the new norms governing bilateral exchange may invade a population and become widespread. The other studies the evolution of authority in a society with far-sighted decision makers, who sometimes rationally allow erosion in their long-term control to promote sufficiently better short-term outcomes.
The first of these is Peyton Young's “The Dynamics of Social Innovation” (1), which studies the evolution of norms to be used in bilateral interactions. Agents in Young's network model correspond to nodes that interact with their immediate neighbors and earn payoffs in each interaction that depend on how each party behaves. The agents experiment and learn, so behavior in the system can evolve. The paper discusses how the topology of the network, characteristics of individual learning processes, and the size of the potential improvement affects whether norms are adopted, and how quickly. It turns out that a critical property that superior norms (ones that leads to higher payoffs for all) must have for “fast” adoption is that it must be possible for all members of some local clusters of nodes to profit by adopting the norm, even when the other agents in the network do not adopt. This determinant in turn depends on the size of the gains to adopting the norm, as well as on the nature of the network. The nature of the learning process matters, too. For example, too much experimentation can cause a local group to unlearn their superior norm before it has a chance to spread into the rest of the network.
The second is “A Political Model of Social Evolution” by Daron Acemoglu, Georgy Egorov, and Konstantin Sonin (2), which studies how undemocratic and authoritarian regimes may become progressively more democratic. In their model, choices are made by a changing set of individual decision makers, who rule according to a voting system. Sometimes expanding participation can lead to greater short-run payoffs at the expense of less control in the longer term, and authoritarian regimes may sometimes accept immediate gains even at the risk of reduced control over the longer run. The model provides a framework for studying how the initial state of the system, the payoffs to different actions, and the nature of voting systems affect long-run outcomes of the system. In particular, outcomes can be history-dependent, and change emerges as the combined result of random events and actual choices by the ruling class.
Four of the papers provide general schemata for thinking about a set of issues, from regional and national political leadership and how it affects the evolution of democracy, to the role of international institutions, to the role of norms in promoting economic development both overall and at different stages in development.
Roger Myerson's “Toward a Theory of Leadership and State-Building” (3) surveys his analyses of the problem of nation building, which has both ancient and modern application. The fundamental issues in Myerson's perspective revolve around problems of leadership. On one hand, to gain followers, new leaders must successfully distribute patronage, particularly in times when and places where following the new leader is dangerous. However, the system also needs to provide discipline for the leader, so that promises are kept once the leader gains power. Additionally, for democracy to thrive, it needs to encourage the development of leaders who can establish the credentials and following needed to challenge the existing authority. The paper develops a wide perspective on the groundwork that needs to be laid for nation building, that is, for promoting the development of systems that can evolve into functioning democracies.
Stephen Krasner's “Changing State Structures: Outside In” (4) considers different situations in which, and channels through which, some states deploy purposive strategies to exercise power over other states. His classification covers (i) contracting with basically voluntary agreement of the state that is subject to the influence, (ii) coercion that forces a weaker state to take a particular action or substantially limits its choice set, (iii) institutional power, whereby the stronger state sets the rules of the game of decision-making in the weaker state, (iv) constitutive power, whereby the stronger state establishes the international system within which the weaker state must operate, and (v) productive power, which alters the identities and capabilities of actors in the weaker state. These provide a useful taxonomy and examples for thinking about the interaction between different countries’ institutions and international institutions and organizations.
“Development, Social Norms, and Assignment to Task” by Marcel Fafchamps (5) traces some broad trends in the dynamics of social norms that are required to support different stages in the process of economic development. Developing economies move to greater specialization of labor, requiring more complex interactions to determine efficient allocation of labor to tasks. In the least-developed economies, production occurs in almost self-contained households where workers must be jacks-of-all-trades. As economies develop, families become the basis for small firms that use and eventually employ labor with specialized skills and come to be supervised by the owner or entrepreneur. Finally, as the volume of market transactions grows, large firms arise, with a managerial hierarchy with delegated authority to supervise workers with longer-term employment contracts. Fafchamps examines how the governance of the transactions with workers needs to differ in the different stages, whether the norms and practices appropriate for different stages can coexist or will clash during the dynamics of development, and what this implies for the prospects of successful and speedy development.
In “Individualism, Innovation, and Long-Run Growth,” Yuriy Gorodnichenko and Gerard Roland (6) provide direct and indirect empirical tests supporting the hypothesis that cultures attaching greater social status to innovators experience higher rates of innovation and economic growth. The direct tests use certain cultural scores as independent variables and growth rates as dependent variables. The indirect tests use genetic distance as an instrument for culture, with closer genetic proximity to the US population implying greater cultural similarity.
The last two papers study the roles of two particular but important institutions of development: law (in opposition to custom) and brokerage (facilitating exchange across boundaries).
“Legal Reform in the Presence of a Living Custom: An Economic Approach,” by Gani Aldashev, Jean-Philippe Platteau, and Sake Wham (7) addresses the ability of statutes that empower traditionally disadvantaged groups, such as women, to promote development-enhancing change, even when the statutes conflict with entrenched social norms. Although full enforcement of such laws is rare, by creating an implicit threat to the traditional authorities—loss of face when their decisions are overruled by higher authorities and reduction in the size of the population over which they rule as the disadvantaged populations find better outside options—formal law can shift the bargaining power of parties and lead to changes in outcomes. The paper constructs a theoretical model and offers examples in support.
Finally, “Stabilizing Brokerage” by Katherine Stovel, Benjamin Golub, and Eva Meyersson Milgrom (8) examines one of the most important and puzzling institutions that promotes change through the exchange of goods, services, information, and practices across an otherwise disconnected social network, from one isolated group to another. Agents who do this are called brokers, and their role is problematic. Each side in the transaction may suspect the broker's integrity or impartiality; therefore, brokerage can be fragile. The paper examines and compares three mechanisms that can counter this problem: (i) isolation of brokers into a distinct social group, separated from the transactors, (ii) complete capture of brokers by one side of the transaction, and (iii) grafting of brokerage functions on to other organizations that have separate motives to develop and sustain a reputation for trustworthiness. The authors analyze theoretical considerations and discuss examples of all three, but the inherent fragility of brokerage creates a natural dynamic in which relatively frequent failures are followed by change.
The variety of approaches, in terms of both questions and methods, highlights the richness of this area of research and indeed made for lively discussion at the conference. We hope this collection of papers will serve to broker ideas across disciplines and eventually to deepen social scientists’ understanding of the process of institutional change.
This book contains 20 chapters covering a range of infectious diseases, as well as a few non-infectious diseases such as cancer, and how they greatly affected the course of human history. It explores host-pathogen relationship, transmission routes, evolution, and global spread of infectious diseases including numerous viral, bacterial, protozoal, and helminth infections. It also covers the contribution of pets (dogs and cats), food, hygiene, and climate change in the spread of infectious diseases. This book is a valuable resource for students, practitioners and researchers working in global health and anyone interested in the understanding of the basis of disease.
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The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) is an international standard to promote open and accountable management of natural resources. By encouraging governments, extractive companies, civil society and the public to engage in discourse around transparency of the extractive sector, it aims to facilitate the management of a country's natural resource wealth to benefit all its citizens. The objective of this report is to present, in a structured form, data categories and their reporting formats, that can be used to standardize information generated under each EITI Requirement. The review conducted for this study included a sample of recent EITI Country Reports, as well as other initiatives and industry standards. 'Good' refers to reporting standards that meet the minimum data to be provided under each EITI Requirement. 'Better' typically refers to reporting standards that are enhancements of data covered under the good category. 'Best' refers to standard formats for reporting data that represent the highest international benchmarks and are considered to provide comprehensive information, beyond the minimum data requirements. The research team recommends a step by step approach to this, starting with a specific set of Requirements, across a number of countries. This would allow the EITI International Secretariat to develop a set of comparable statistics for various reporting entities, as well as start constructing guidelines for EITI implementers.
In response to a growing interest in comparing inequality levels and trends across countries, several cross-national inequality databases are now available. These databases differ considerably in purpose, coverage, data sources, inclusion and exclusion criteria, and quality of documentation. A special issue of the Journal of Economic Inequality, which this paper introduces, is devoted to an assessment of the merits and shortcomings of eight such databases. Five of these sets are microdata-based: CEPALSTAT, Income Distribution Database, Luxembourg Income Study, PovcalNet, and Socio-Economic Database for Latin America and the Caribbean. Two are based on secondary sources: All the Ginis and the World Income Inequality Database; and one is generated entirely through multiple-imputation methods: the Standardized World Income Inequality Database. Although there is much agreement across these databases, there is also a nontrivial share of country/year cells for which substantial discrepancies exist. In some cases, different databases would lead users to radically different conclusions about inequality dynamics in certain countries and periods. The methodological differences that lead to these discrepancies often appear to be driven by a fundamental trade-off between a wish for broader coverage on the one hand, and for greater comparability on the other hand. These differences across databases place considerable responsibility on both producers and users: on the former, to better document and explain their assumptions and procedures, and on the latter, to understand the data they are using, rather than merely taking them as true because available.
Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Algeria, Phaeoacremonium adelophialidum from Vitis vinifera. Antarctica, Comoclathris antarctica from soil. Australia, Coniochaeta salicifolia as endophyte from healthy leaves of Geijera salicifolia, Eremothecium peggii in fruit of Citrus australis, Microdochium ratticaudae from stem of Sporobolus natalensis, Neocelosporium corymbiae on stems of Corymbia variegata, Phytophthora kelmanii from rhizosphere soil of Ptilotus pyramidatus, Pseudosydowia backhousiae on living leaves of Backhousia citriodora, Pseudosydowia indoor oopillyensis, Pseudosydowia louisecottisiae and Pseudosydowia queenslandica on living leaves of Eucalyptus sp. Brazil, Absidia montepascoalis from soil. Chile, Ilyonectria zarorii from soil under Maytenus boaria. Costa Rica, Colletotrichum filicis from an unidentified fern. Croatia, Mollisia endogranulata on deteriorated hardwood. Czech Republic, Arcopilus navicularis from tea bag with fruit tea, Neosetophoma buxi as endophyte from Buxus sempervirens, Xerochrysium bohemicum on surface of biscuits with chocolate glaze and filled with jam. France, Entoloma cyaneobasale on basic to calcareous soil, Fusarium aconidiale from Triticum aestivum, Fusarium juglandicola from buds of Juglans regia. Germany, Tetraploa endophytica as endophyte from Microthlaspi perfoliatum roots. India, Castanediella ambae on leaves of Mangifera indica, Lactifluus kanadii on soil under Castanopsis sp., Penicillium uttarakhandense from soil. Italy, Penicillium ferraniaense from compost. Namibia, Bezerromyces gobabebensis on leaves of unidentified succulent, Cladosporium stipagrostidicola on leaves of Stipagrostis sp., Cymostachys euphorbiae on leaves of Euphorbia sp., Deniquelata hypolithi from hypolith under a rock, Hysterobrevium walvisbayicola on leaves of unidentified tree, Knufia hypolithi and Knufia walvisbayicola from hypolith under a rock, Lapidomyces stipagrostidicola on leaves of Stipagrostis sp., Nothophaeotheca mirabibensis (incl. Nothophaeotheca gen. nov.) on persistent inflorescence remains of Blepharis obmitrata, Paramyrothecium salvadorae on twigs of Salvadora persica, Preussia procaviicola on dung of Procavia sp., Sordaria equicola on zebra dung, Volutella salvadorae on stems of Salvadora persica. Netherlands, Entoloma ammophilum on sandy soil, Entoloma pseudocruentatum on nutrient poor(acid)soil, Entoloma pudens on plant debris, amongst grasses. [.] ; Leslie W.S. de Freitas and colleagues express their gratitude to Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) for scholarships provided to Leslie Freitas and for the research grant provided to André Luiz Santiago; their contribution was financed by the projects 'Diversity of Mucoromycotina in the different ecosystems of the Atlantic Rainforest of Pernambuco' (FACEPE–First Projects Program PPP/ FACEPE/CNPq–APQ–0842-2.12/14) and 'Biology of conservation of fungi s.l. in areas of Atlantic Forest of Northeast Brazil' (CNPq/ICMBio 421241/ 2017-9) H.B. Lee was supported by the Graduate Program for the Undiscovered Taxa of Korea (NIBR202130202). The study of O.V. Morozova, E.F. Malysheva, V.F. Malysheva, I.V. Zmitrovich, and L.B. Kalinina was carried out within the framework of a research project of the Komarov Botanical Institute RAS (АААА-А19-119020890079-6) using equipment of its Core Facility Centre 'Cell and Molecular Technologies in Plant Science'. The work of O. V. Morozova, L.B. Kalinina, T. Yu. Svetasheva, and E.A. Zvyagina was financially supported by Russian Foundation for Basic Research project no. 20-04-00349. E.A. Zvyagina and T.Yu. Svetasheva are grateful to A.V. Alexandrova, A.E. Kovalenko, A.S. Baykalova for the loan of specimens, T.Y. James, E.F. Malysheva and V.F. Malysheva for sequencing. J.D. Reyes acknowledges B. Dima for comparing the holotype sequence of Cortinarius bonachei with the sequences in his database. A. Mateos and J.D. Reyes acknowledge L. Quijada for reviewing the phylogeny and S. de la Peña- Lastra and P. Alvarado for their support and help. Vladimir I. Kapitonov and colleagues are grateful to Brigitta Kiss for help with their molecular studies. This study was conducted under research projects of the Tobolsk Complex Scientific Station of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences (N АААА-А19-119011190112-5). E. Larsson acknowledges the Swedish Taxonomy Initiative, SLU Artdatabanken, Uppsala (dha.2019.4.3-13). The study of D.B. Raudabaugh and colleagues was supported by the Schmidt Science Fellows, in partnership with the Rhodes Trust. Gregorio Delgado is grateful to Michael Manning and Kamash Pillai (Eurofins EMLab P&K) for provision of laboratory facilities. Jose G. Maciá-Vicente acknowledges support from the German Research Foundation under grant MA7171/1-1, and from the Landes-Offensive zur Entwicklung Wissenschaftlich-ökonomischer Exzellenz (LOEWE) of the state of Hesse within the framework of the Cluster for Integrative Fungal Research (IPF). Thanks are also due to the authorities of the Cabañeros National Park and Los Alcornocales Natural Park for granting the collection permit and for support during field work. The study of Alina V. Alexandrova was carried out as part of the Scientific Project of the State Order of the Government of Russian Federation to Lomonosov Moscow State University No. 121032300081-7. Michał Gorczak was financially supported by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education through the Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw intramural grant DSM 0117600- 13. M. Gorczak acknowledges M. Klemens for sharing a photo of the Białowieża Forest logging site and M. Senderowicz for help with preparing the illustration. Ivona Kautmanová and D. Szabóová were funded by the Operational Program of Research and Development and co-financed with the European Fund for Regional Development (EFRD). ITMS 26230120004: 'Building of research and development infrastructure for investigation of genetic biodiversity of organisms and joining IBOL initiative'. Ishika Bera, Aniket Ghosh, Jorinde Nuytinck and Annemieke Verbeken are grateful to the Director, Botanical Survey of India (Kolkata), Head of the Department of Botany & Microbiology & USIC Dept. HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal for providing research facilities. Ishika Bera and Aniket Ghosh acknowledge the staff of the forest department of Arunachal Pradesh for facilitating the macrofungal surveys to the restricted areas. Sergey Volobuev was supported by the Russian Science Foundation (RSF project N 19-77- 00085). Aleksey V. Kachalkin and colleagues were supported by the Russian Science Foundation (grant No. 19-74-10002). The study of Anna M. Glushakova was carried out as part of the Scientific Project of the State Order of the Government of Russian Federation to Lomonosov Moscow State University No. 121040800174-6. Tracey V. Steinrucken and colleagues were supported by AgriFutures Australia (Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation), through funding from the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, as part of its Rural Research and Development for Profit program (PRJ-010527). Neven Matočec and colleagues thank the Croatian Science Foundation for their financial support under the project grant HRZZ-IP-2018-01-1736 (ForFungiDNA). Ana Pošta thanks the Croatian Science Foundation for their support under the grant HRZZ-2018-09-7081. The research of Milan Spetik and co-authors was supported by Internal Grant of Mendel University in Brno No. IGAZF/ 2021-SI1003. K.C. Rajeshkumar thanks SERB, the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India for providing financial support under the project CRG/2020/000668 and the Director, Agharkar Research Institute for providing research facilities. Nikhil Ashtekar thanks CSIR-HRDG, INDIA, for financial support under the SRF fellowship (09/670(0090)/2020-EMRI), and acknowledges the support of the DIC Microscopy Facility, established by Dr Karthick Balasubramanian, B&P (Plants) Group, ARI, Pune. The research of Alla Eddine Mahamedi and co-authors was supported by project No. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_017/0002334, Czech Republic. Tereza Tejklová is thanked for providing useful literature. A. Polhorský and colleagues were supported by the Operational Program of Research and Development and co-financed with the European fund for Regional Development (EFRD), ITMS 26230120004: Building of research and development infrastructure for investigation of genetic biodiversity of organisms and joining IBOL initiative. Yu Pei Tan and colleagues thank R. Chen for her technical support. Ernest Lacey thanks the Cooperative Research Centres Projects scheme (CRCPFIVE000119) for its support. Suchada Mongkolsamrit and colleagues were financially supported by the Platform Technology Management Section, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), Project Grant No. P19-50231. Dilnora Gouliamova and colleagues were supported by a grant from the Bulgarian Science Fund (KP-06-H31/19). The research of Timofey A. Pankratov was supported by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (grant No. 19-04-00297a). Gabriel Moreno and colleagues wish to express their gratitude to L. Monje and A. Pueblas of the Department of Drawing and Scientific Photography at the University of Alcalá for their help in the digital preparation of the photographs, and to J. Rejos, curator of the AH herbarium, for his assistance with the specimens examined in the present study. Vit Hubka was supported by the Charles University Research Centre program No. 204069. Alena Kubátová was supported by The National Programme on Conservation and Utilization of Microbial Genetic Resources Important for Agriculture (Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic). The Kits van Waveren Foundation (Rijksherbariumfonds Dr E. Kits van Waveren, Leiden, Netherlands) contributed substantially to the costs of sequencing and travelling expenses for M. Noordeloos. The work of B. Dima was supported by the ÚNKP-20-4 New National Excellence Program of the Ministry for Innovation and Technology from the source of the National Research, Development and Innovation Fund, and by the ELTE Thematic Excellence Programme 2020 supported by the National Research, Development and Innovation Office of Hungary (TKP2020-IKA-05). The Norwegian Entoloma studies received funding from the Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre (NBIC), and the material was partly sequenced through NorBOL. Gunnhild Marthinsen and Katriina Bendiksen (Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, Norway) are acknowledged for performing the main parts of the Entoloma barcoding work. Asunción Morte is grateful to AEI/FEDER, UE (CGL2016-78946-R) and Fundación Séneca - Agencia de Ciencia y Tecnología de la Región de Murcia (20866/PI/18) for financial support. Vladimír Ostrý was supported by the Ministry of Health, Czech Republic - conceptual development of research organization (National Institute of Public Health – NIPH, IN 75010330). Konstanze Bensch (Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht) is thanked for correcting the spelling of various Latin epithets. ; Peer reviewed
AN ANALYSIS OF THE RELEVANCE OF ENGLISH MATERIALS IN TEXTBOOK ENTITLED "PATHWAY TO ENGLISH" FOR SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL GRADE X TO THE 2013 CURRICULUM Laras Ratnasari English Study Program FBS Surabaya State University larasratnasari@gmail.com Ririn Pusparini, S.Pd., M.Pd. Lecturer of English Study Program FBS Surabaya State University rrn.puspa@gmail.com ABSTRACT Recently, by Peraturan Pemerintah No.32 Th. 2013 the educational system of Indonesia has launched the 2013 curriculum. Due to the new launched curriculum, there are several changes in some parts of education, including the material. Textbook is one of the materials which have to give deep attention. A research from McGrath (2006) showed that mostly English language teacher use textbook as their main sources of teaching. Therefore, textbook should be matched with curriculum applied. However, selecting the best textbook is considering difficult for some teachers. Although there are many textbooks which are claims suitable with the 2013 curriculum, there is no guarantee whether the textbook is relevant to the standard competences of the 2013 English curriculum. To solve this problem, the researcher focused this study: 1) to describe the relevance of the materials in textbook entitled "Pathway to English" to the 2013 English Standard Competence in term of cognitive aspects, 2) to describe the relevance of the materials in textbook entitled "Pathway to English" to the 2013 English Standard Competence in term of psychomotor aspects. This study was designed in descriptive qualitative research. The instrument used to collect the data is observation in the form of checklists. After being analyzed, it is found that all chapters in the first semester successfully cover the indicators of cognitive aspects in the basic competences three. Meanwhile, some of the materials are irrelevant in terms of psychomotor aspects. After all, the researcher argues that this textbook is still appropriate to be used, since the materials are mostly relevant with the 2013 curriculum. This textbook is still suitable to be used in order to help teacher and students in the process of teaching and learning. Key words: analysis, relevance, materials, textbook, the 2013 Curriculum ABSTRAK Baru-baru ini, melalui Peraturan Pemerintah No.32 Th. 2013 pemerintah Indonesia meluncurkan kurikulum 2013. Karena adanya peluncuran kurikulum baru ini, ada beberapa perubahan dalam beberapa bagian di sistem pendidikan termasuk di material. Buku teks adalah salah satu material yang harus diberi perhatian. Riset dari McGrath (2006) menunjukan bahwa sebagian besar guru bahasa Inggris menggunakan buku teks sebagai sumber utama dalam mengajar. Oleh karena itu, buku teks haruslah sesuai dengan kurikulum yang berlaku. Namun, memilih buku teks terbaik itu tidaklah mudah bagi beberapa guru. Meskipun banyak buku yang mengklaim sesuai dengan kurikulum 2013 namun, tidak ada jaminan apakah buku itu benar-benar relevan dengan kompetensi dasar dari kurikulum 2013. Untuk mengatasi masalah ini, peneliti memfokuskan penelitian ini: 1) untuk mendeskripsikan kesesuaian material buku teks berjudul 'Pathway to English' dengan kompetensi dasar bahasa Inggris kurikulum 2013 sesuai dengan kognitif aspek, 2) untuk mendeskripsikan kesesuaian material buku teks berjudul 'Pathway to English' dengan kompetensi dasar bahasa Inggris kurikulum 2013 sesuai dengan psikomotor aspek. Metode penelitian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah deskriptif kualitatif. Instrumen yang digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data adalah observasi dalam bentuk checklist. Setelah dianalisis, ditemukan bahwa semua bab dalam buku teks ini dapat memenuhi semua indikator dari kognitif aspek dalam kompetensi dasar tiga. Sedangkan, sebagian material ada yang tidak sesuai dengan psychomotor aspek. Meskipun demikian, peneliti berargumen bahwa buku teks ini masih cocok untuk digunakan, karena sebagian besar materinya telah sesuai dengan kurikulum 2013. Buku teks 'Pathway to English' ini masih bisa digunakan untuk membantu guru dan murid dalam proses mengajar dan belajar. Kata kunci: analysis, relevance, materials, textbook, the 2013 Curriculum Introduction Realizing the importance of English language in globalization era, recently, Indonesian government has implemented English subject into the academic curriculum as a compulsory subject to be taught in Junior and Senior High school. Recently, by Peraturan Pemerintah No.32 Th. 2013 the educational system of Indonesia has launched the 2013 curriculum. This new launched curriculum is a school based curriculum, an operational curriculum which is constructed, developed, and implemented by each education unit (school). The aim of this curriculum is preparing Indonesian people to be religious, productive, creative, and innovative. Furthermore it is hoped that they also can give contribution for their social life, nation, country and world civilization. Due to the new launched curriculum, there are several changes in some parts of education. As stated by Richards (2001:103), Curriculum changes are of many different kinds. Curriculum may affect teachers' pedagogical values and beliefs, teachers' understanding of the nature of language or second language learning, or their classroom practices and the use of teaching and learning materials. Among several changes in education parts teaching material also need to be adjusted because it is one of the most important factors in teaching and learning process. This argument is supported by Richards (2001). He argues teaching materials are regarded as a key factor in most language programs. Teaching materials can be developed from many learning sources, one of it is from textbook, thus, it also need special attention regarding its changes toward recent applied curriculum. The adjustment of textbook to the recent curriculum should be conducted because English teachers tend to display a strong reliance on textbook usage. In a research by Richards, Tung & Ng as cited by Lawrence (2011) they conducted a research with 149 local secondary school English teachers, it was reported that textbook were one of the primary sources of teaching material. Only 28% of the total respondents have claimed that they have made a significant use of self-developed teaching materials. In addition for the use of textbook in English language teaching, the research from McGrath (2006) also showed that mostly English language teacher use textbook as their main sources of teaching. The study involved 75 teachers of English, mainly English teachers of secondary schools, and several hundreds of secondary school students. It was found that teachers mostly think that the use of textbooks is important. The wide use of textbooks in the local ELT classroom is understandable as given the fact that material (textbooks) are not simply the everyday tools of the language teacher, they are embodiment of the aims, values and methods of the particular teaching and learning situation (Hutchinson: 1987). A good textbook should be reflected the curriculum which is applied. It is because there is a strong relationship between both of them. The relationship of textbook and curriculum can be described as water and fish, or as the two sides of coin, two but one, one but two (Tarigan and Tarigan, 1986: 66). It should be matched with the goal of the curriculum and be able to support curriculum and facilitate the process of teaching and learning. Every curriculum has their own goals which have to be reached by students as the sign of their success and expertness in their education. One of the goals in curriculum is instructional objective. It describes what behavior and ability that the students need to reach after teaching and learning process. Instructional objective should depict the learning objective which is expected from the students. The learning objective which is expected is behavior change of the students. The forms of students' objective behavior are classified into three domains by Bloom et. al.(1956). They named it as "The taxonomy of educational objectives". Objectives could be placed in one of three major domains or classification; (1) Cognitive, (2) Affective, and (3) Psychomotor. Thus every textbook written nowadays should be applied those three objectives as one of qualification of a suitable textbook based on 2013 curriculum because it is the recent curriculum applied in Indonesia. Despite the need of a suitable textbook for teachers and students, selecting an appropriate textbook with a good quality and curriculum matched is not easy. Cunningsworth and Green in Lawrence (2011) stated that the increasing of textbook on the market makes it difficult to choose the right textbooks. Therefore, the selection of textbook should be conducted seriously because it can have massive impact on the teaching and learning process as teachers would make references to the textbooks. (Cunningsworth, Harmer, McGrath in Lawrence, 2011). One wrong step in choosing an appropriate textbook can lead into the failure in teaching and learning process. It is supported by Mukundan (2007) that the quality of a textbook might be so important that it can determine the success or failure on ELT courses. Unfortunately, not all textbooks are written in a good quality in terms of its appropriateness with teacher and students' need or its compatibility with applied curriculum. Teachers as the determiner of teaching process in class sometimes careless in choosing the right textbook for their students. In line with this argument, McGrath (2002) showed that textbooks are often purchased without careful analysis. Frequently, a textbook selection is not based on its intrinsic pedagogical value, but the perceived prestige of the author or the publisher, or skillful marketing by the publishers. The books are printed in attractive covers or teachers only blindly use the best-selling textbooks which are used in many other places. (McGrath 2002) It is regrettably consider the significant of textbook in teaching and learning process. There are various textbook written by expert writers which are claimed based on the 2013 curriculum. However, though the textbook written by professional writers are usually of good quality in terms of organization, packaging and design, they tend to be lacking in qualities of being creative and imaginative (Tomlinson, 2003). Besides, the urgency to evaluate ELT textbooks written for the new curriculum on its pedagogical fitness with the recommended instructional objectives has become an urgent concern as many local English teachers have displayed heavy reliance on textbooks in their daily teaching (Lawrence, 2011). There are some previous studies related to the textbook analysis. Some of them are Widiarto (2009) and Fauzi (2012). They analyse the relevance of textbook materials with 2006 English Standard Competence. Widiarto (2009) found that there are some conformity of the text materials in the textbook. However, not all of the text materials which are suggested in standard isi 2006 are developed in four language skills in the textbook. Meanwhile, Fauzi (2012) found that all of reading materials are not relevant to the 2006 English Standard Competence. It did not provide any explanations, examples, and exercises in order to make the students really understand about the texts being learnt. Thus, it is proven that not all the textbook used are relevant to the curriculum. In addition, although the 2013 curriculum is already applied in Indonesian education system, there is still lack analysis of textbook which based on the 2013 Curriculum, since the 2013 curriculum is still fresh launched in 2013. According to those reasons stated, this study is aimed to analyze and figure out the relevance of materials of English textbook entitled "Pathway to English" for Senior High School published by Erlangga with the 2013 English Standard Curriculum in terms of Cognitive and Psychomotor aspects. RESEARCH METHOD Since this study deals with analysis of the content of the textbook especially in the form of document book, a descriptive qualitative research design will be implemented. Furthermore, Ary, D. et.al (2010: 423) stated that qualitative research mostly relies on words only minor use of numbers. Thus, the data which was derived is in the form of document from textbook then those data were described in the form of words without using statistical calculation. The object and the source of the data of this study is an English textbook entitled "Pathway to English" for Senior High School Grade X Published by Erlangga. This textbook is written by Th. M. Sudarwati and Eudia Grace. The textbook consists of 11 chapters and 248 pages. The materials of each unit are organized into 8 parts; (1) listening, (2) speaking, (3) reading, (4) writing, (5) grammar, (6) values, (7) cultural awareness, and (8) ways to say it. The researcher focused on just one book and all of the activities in the textbook in the scope of first semester, therefore, the research only focused at chapter 1 until chapter 5. The data gained from this research then analyzed using two research instruments. The first instrument was the researcher herself as the main instrument to collect the data. As stated by Ary,D. et.al (2010: 421) The primary instrument used for data collection in qualitative research is the researcher him- or herself, often collecting data through direct observation or interviews. The second instrument was the observation in the form of checklist. The data from this study was collected through several steps of observation. First, the researcher determined the textbook which is going to be analyzed through some survey on various textbooks which claimed based on the 2013 Curriculum on its cover. Second, the researcher read and observed the content of the textbook thoroughly. Third, the researcher will compare the content of the textbook with the 2013 Curriculum in terms of cognitive and psychomotor aspects. After being collected, the data was analyzed through some steps. First, the researcher analyzed the relevance of the materials with the cognitive aspects which are contained in the 2013 English Standard Competence. Second, the researcher analyzed the relevance of the materials with the psychomotor aspects which are contained in the 2013 English Standard Competence. Third, the researcher described and elaborated the analysis. The last, the researcher determined the conclusion. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The Relevance of 'Pathway to English' Textbook to the 2013 English Standard Competences In this section there will be some example of the tables of observation sheet and also the discussion to figure out the results of the relevance of 'Pathway to English' textbook material with the 2013 English Standard Competences. Each observation sheet for cognitive aspect in basic competence three is consisted of three columns. The first column will be divided into three aspects of the 2013 English curriculum, including Topic, Text structure, Language feature and also Social function. The second column is the example of activity in the textbook which is suitable with the 2013 English curriculum. the last column is the relevance of the material. for tables of psychomotor aspect in basic competence four it is also consisted of three columns but the first column will be divided into two aspects. It is including Topic and indicators only. The researcher used the third and fourth basic competences to analyze the relevance of the textbook material. The basic competences then broke down into sub-basic competences. In the following tables, the sign (√) means that the sub-basic competency and the material are relevant. Meanwhile, the sign (-) means the material are not relevant with sub-basic competence. The Relevance of the Materials with the Cognitive Aspects The table below is the result of the analysis of the relevance of textbook material with the 2013 curriculum in terms of cognitive aspects. Table 1. The conformity of textbook materials with the cognitive aspects The Relevance The Third Basic Competence Relevant All chapters in first semester Partly Relevant - Irrelevant - According to the table above, it can be seen that there is no partly relevant or irrelevant materials in chapter one to chapter five. All the materials in those chapters are relevant to the 2013 English curriculum in terms of cognitive aspects in basic competences three. All materials successfully provided the indicators needed in each sub-basic competence including the topic, the text structure, the language features and also the social function. The Relevance of the Textbook Materials with the Psychomotor Aspects Table 1. The conformity of textbook materials with the cognitive aspects The Relevance The Third Basic Competence Relevant 4.2.1, 4.2.2, 4.3.1, 4.3.2, 4.4.1, 4.4.2, 4.5.1, 4.5.2, 4.6.1, 4.6.2 Partly Relevant 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 Irrelevant - In the table above, it can be seen that there are some materials which are relevant and partly relevant with the psychomotor aspects in basic competence four. The relevant material successfully provided the indicators needed in each sub-basic competence four. The irrelevant materials cannot cover all the indicators in the sub-competences 4.1.1 and 4.1.2 both of the chapters do not include indicators 'Find the purpose of the text' which is one of the indicators of understanding the text. Thus, it can be concluded that the textbook materials is partly relevant with the basic competence four. CONCLUSION & SUGGESTION Conclusion The conclusion from the analysis can be subtracted into two points. The first point is the materials in the textbook 'Pathway to English' are all relevant with the cognitive aspects which are contained in the 2013 English Standard Competence. There are ten analysis tables for basic competences three. From all the ten tables, the researcher found that all the materials are relevant to the sub-competences in basic competences three. Therefore, the researcher concluded 'The Pathway to English' English textbook is relevant to the 2013 English curriculum in terms of cognitive aspects which are shown in basic competences three. Meanwhile, in the second point the researcher concluded that the materials in the textbook 'Pathway to English' are quite relevant with the psychomotor aspects in the 2013 English Standard Competence. There are twelve tables for the analysis of basic competences four. From twelve tables, there are two tables which showed that the materials in this textbook are not fully relevant to sub-competences which are tables for sub-competences 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. Another ten tables showed that the materials are relevant because it contains the materials for the sub-competences. According to the analysis above, the final conclusion states that material in the textbook 'Pathway to English' is still quite relevant with the 2013 English curriculum in terms of cognitive and psychomotor aspects. Since, the researcher found the materials which are relevant to sub-basic competence are more than the irrelevant one. Therefore, the researcher argues that this textbook is appropriate to be used as the aid material in English teaching and learning process. Suggestions After the analysis of this textbook 'Pathway to English', the researcher would like to give suggestions for: a) For teacher, they should be aware of what kind of textbook which is most suitable with their need. Since the process of teaching and learning depend on the curriculum, the teacher should be selective and careful to choose the most suitable textbook which covers the curriculum aims. The selected textbook should support the curriculum to achieve the instructional objectives. b) For the textbook writers/publishers, they have to apply the criteria in developing the materials. For this period of time, the materials should be in line with the 2013 English Standard Competence stated in the 2013 curriculum. Furthermore, the writers/publishers should be able to serve the high quality textbook which is able to fulfill all of the indicators, topics, language features, text structure and the social functions related to the competences. c) For the textbook writer of 'Pathway to English', they should concern more in conducting questions related to sub-competences understanding the texts. In order to be able to cover all the indicators stated in the sub-competences. d) For further research, the researcher hopes that in the future there will be another research regarding to analyze textbook with the 2013 Curriculum. The next researchers can conduct their research for the same textbook but focus on the activities in second semester. Otherwise, they can conduct research for another textbook with different grade. REFERENCES Ary, Donald. et.al. 2010. Introduction to Research in Education.Canada: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. Bloom B. S. 1956. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, Handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc. Byrd, P. 2001. Textbook: Evaluation for Selection and Analysis for Implementation. In M. Celce-Murcia (Eds.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (3rd ed., pp. 415-427). US: Heinle&Heinle. Fauzi, Arif. 2012. An analysis of Reading Materials in "Interlanguage: English for Senior High School Students XI (Science and Social Study Programme)" Published by The National Education Departement as An Implementation of The 2006 English Standard Competence. UNESA: Unpublished Thesis. Hutchinson, T. 1987. 'What's Underneath?: An Interactive View of Materials Evaluation'. In L. Sheldon. (Ed). ELT Textbook and Materials: Problems in Evaluation and Development (pp. 37-44). Oxford: Modern English Publications. Lawrence , W. 2011. Textbook Evaluation: A Framework for Evaluating the Fitness of the Hongkong New Secondary School (NSS) Curriculum. Department of English City University of Hongkong: Hongkong. McGrath, I. 2002. Materials Evaluation and Design for Language Teaching. Edinburgh: Edinburg University Press. Mukundan, J. 2007. Evaluation of English Language Textbooks: Some Important Issues for Consideration'. Journal of NELTA, Vol 12 No1&2: 80-4. Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Dan Kebudayaan No.69 Th. 2013 . 2013. Kerangka Dasar Dan Struktur Kurikulum Sekolah Menengah Atas/Madrasah Aliyah. Jakarta: Mendikbud. Richards, Jack. 2001. Curriculum Development in Language Teaching. USA: Cambridge University Press. Tarigan, H. G and Tarigan, D. 1986. Telaah Buku Teks Bahasa Indonesia. Bandung Angkasa. Tomlinson, B. 2003. Developing Materials for Language Teaching. London: Continuum. Widiarto, Yos. 2009. A Study On The Relevance of English Textbook "Look A Head" Materials with Standar Isi 2006. UNESA: Unpublished Thesis.
Novel species of fungi described in this study include those from various countries as follows: Antartica, Cladosporium austrolitorale from coastal sea sand. Australia, Austroboletus yourkae on soil, Crepidotus innuopurpureus on dead wood, Curvularia stenotaphri from roots and leaves of Stenotaphrum secundatum and Thecaphora stajsicii from capsules of Oxalis radicosa. Belgium, Paraxerochrysium coryli (incl. Paraxerochrysium gen. nov.) from Corylus avellana. Brazil, Calvatia nordestina on soil, Didymella tabebuiicola from leaf spots on Tabebuia aurea, Fusarium subflagellisporum from hypertrophied floral and vegetative branches of Mangifera indica and Microdochium maculosum from living leaves of Digitaria insularis. Canada, Cuphophyllus bondii fromagrassland. Croatia, Mollisia inferiseptata from a rotten Laurus nobilis trunk. Cyprus, Amanita exilis oncalcareoussoil. Czech Republic, Cytospora hippophaicola from wood of symptomatic Vaccinium corymbosum. Denmark, Lasiosphaeria deviata on pieces of wood and herbaceousdebris. Dominican Republic, Calocybella goethei among grass on a lawn. France (Corsica) , Inocybe corsica onwetground. France (French Guiana) , Trechispora patawaensis on decayed branch of unknown angiosperm tree and Trechispora subregularis on decayed log of unknown angiosperm tree. [.] ; P.R. Johnston thanks J. Sullivan (Lincoln University) for the habitat image of Kowai Bush, Duckchul Park (Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research) for the DNA sequencing, and the New Zealand Department of Conservation for permission to collect the specimens; this research was supported through the Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research Biota Portfolio with funding from the Science and Innovation Group of the New Zealand Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. V. Hubka was supported by the Czech Ministry of Health (grant number NU21-05-00681), and is grateful for the support from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science – grant-in-aid for JSPS research fellow (grant no. 20F20772). K. Glässnerová was supported by the Charles University Grant Agency (grant No. GAUK 140520). J. Trovão and colleagues were financed by FEDERFundo Europeu de Desenvolvimento Regional funds through the COMPETE 2020 – Operational Programme for Competitiveness and Internationalisation (POCI), and by Portuguese funds through FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia in the framework of the project POCI-01-0145-FEDER-PTDC/ EPH-PAT/3345/2014. This work was carried out at the R&D Unit Centre for Functional Ecology – Science for People and the Planet (CFE), with reference UIDB/04004/2020, financed by FCT/MCTES through national funds (PIDDAC). J. Trovão was also supported by POCH – Programa Operacional Capital Humano (co-funding by the European Social Fund and national funding by MCTES), through a 'FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia' PhD research grant (SFRH/BD/132523/2017). D. Haelewaters acknowledges support from the Research Foundation – Flanders (Junior Postdoctoral Fellowship 1206620N). M. Loizides and colleagues are grateful to Y. Cherniavsky for contributing collections AB A12-058-1 and AB A12- 058-2, and Á. Kovács and B. Kiss for their help with molecular studies of these specimens. C. Zmuda is thanked for assisting with the collection of ladybird specimens infected with Hesperomyces parexochomi. A.V. Kachalkin and colleagues were supported by the Russian Science Foundation (grant No. 19-74-10002). The study of A.M. Glushakova was carried out as part of the Scientific Project of the State Order of the Government of Russian Federation to Lomonosov Moscow State University No. 121040800174-6. S. Nanu acknowledges the Kerala State Council for Science, Technology and Environment (KSCSTE) for granting a research fellowship and is grateful to the Chief Conservator of Forests and Wildlife for giving permission to collect fungal samples. A. Bañares and colleagues thank L. Monje and A. Pueblas of the Department of Drawing and Scientific Photography at the University of Alcalá for their help in the digital preparation of the photographs, and J. Rejos, curator of the AH herbarium for his assistance with the specimens examined in the present study. The research of V. Antonín received institutional support for long-term conceptual development of research institutions provided by the Ministry of Culture (Moravian Museum, ref. MK000094862). The studies of E.F. Malysheva, V.F. Malysheva, O.V. Morozova, and S.V. Volobuev were carried out within the framework of a research project of the Komarov Botanical Institute RAS, St Petersburg, Russia (АААА-А18-118022090078-2) using equipment of its Core Facility Centre 'Cell and Molecular Technologies in Plant Science'.The study of A.V. Alexandrova was carried out as part of the Scientific Project of the State Order of the Government of Russian Federation to Lomonosov Moscow State University No. 121032300081-7. The Kits van Waveren Foundation (Rijksherbariumfonds Dr E. Kits van Waveren, Leiden, Netherlands) contributed substantially to the costs of sequencing and travelling expenses for M.E. Noordeloos. The work of B. Dima was partly supported by the ÚNKP- 20-4 New National Excellence Program of the Ministry for Innovation and Technology from the source of the National Research, Development and Innovation Fund. The work of L. Nagy was supported by the 'Momentum' program of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (contract No. LP2019- 13/2019 to L.G.N.). G.A. Kochkina and colleagues acknowledge N. Demidov for the background photograph, and N. Suzina for the SEM photomicrograph. The research of C.M. Visagie and W.J. Nel was supported by the National Research Foundation grant no 118924 and SFH170610239162. C. Gil-Durán acknowledges Agencia Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo, Ministerio de Ciencia, Tecnología, Conocimiento e Innovación, Gobierno de Chile, for grant ANID – Fondecyt de Postdoctorado 2021 – N° 3210135. R. Chávez and G. Levicán thank DICYT-USACH and acknowledges the grants INACH RG_03-14 and INACH RT_31-16 from the Chilean Antarctic Institute, respectively. S. Tiwari and A. Baghela would like to acknowledge R. Avchar and K. Balasubramanian from the Agharkar Research Institute, Pune, Maharashtra for helping with the termite collection. S. Tiwari is also thankful to the University Grants Commission, Delhi (India) for a junior research fellowship (827/(CSIR-UGC NET DEC.2017)). R. Lebeuf and I. Saar thank D. and H. Spencer for collecting and photographing the holotype of C. bondii, and R. Smith for photographing the habitat. A. Voitk is thanked for helping with the colour plate and review of the manuscript, and the Foray Newfoundland and Labrador for providing the paratype material. I. Saar was supported by the Estonian Research Council (grant PRG1170) and the European Regional Development Fund (Centre of Excellence EcolChange). M.P.S. Câmara acknowledges the 'Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico – CNPq' for the research productivity fellowship, and financial support (Universal number 408724/2018-8). W.A.S. Vieira acknowledges the 'Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento Pessoal de Ensino Superior – CAPES' and the 'Programa Nacional de Pós-Doutorado/CAPES – PNPD/CAPES' for the postdoctoral fellowship. A.G.G. Amaral acknowledges CNPq, and A.F. Lima and I.G. Duarte acknowledge CAPES for the doctorate fellowships. F. Esteve-Raventós and colleagues were financially supported by FEDER/ Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades – Agencia Estatal de Investigación (Spain)/ Project CGL2017-86540-P. The authors would like to thank L. Hugot and N. Suberbielle (Conservatoire Botanique National de Corse, Office de l'Environnement de la Corse, Corti) for their help. The research of E. Larsson is supported by The Swedish Taxonomy Initiative, SLU Artdatabanken, Uppsala. Financial support was provided to R.J. Ferreira by the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), and to I.G. Baseia, P.S.M. Lúcio and M.P. Martín by the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) under CNPq-Universal 2016 (409960/2016-0) and CNPq-visiting researcher (407474/2013-7). J. Cabero and colleagues wish to acknowledge A. Rodríguez for his help to describe Genea zamorana, as well as H. Hernández for sharing information about the vegetation of the type locality. S. McMullan-Fisher and colleagues acknowledge K. Syme (assistance with illustrations), J. Kellermann (translations), M. Barrett (collection, images and sequences), T. Lohmeyer (collection and images) and N. Karunajeewa (for prompt accessioning). This research was supported through funding from Australian Biological Resources Study grant (TTC217-06) to the Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria. The research of M. Spetik and co-authors was supported by project No. CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0 /16_017/0002334. N. Wangsawat and colleagues were partially supported by NRCT and the Royal Golden Jubilee Ph.D. programme, grant number PHD/0218/2559. They are thankful to M. Kamsook for the photograph of the Phu Khiao Wildlife Sanctuary and P. Thamvithayakorn for phylogenetic illustrations. The study by N.T. Tran and colleagues was funded by Hort Innovation (Grant TU19000). They also thank the turf growers who supported their surveys and specimen collection. N. Matočec, I. Kušan, A. Pošta, Z. Tkalčec and A. Mešić thank the Croatian Science Foundation for their financial support under the project grant HRZZ-IP-2018-01-1736 (ForFungiDNA). A. Pošta thanks the Croatian Science Foundation for their support under the grant HRZZ-2018-09-7081. A. Morte is grateful to Fundación Séneca – Agencia de Ciencia y Tecnología de la Región de Murcia (20866/ PI/18) for financial support. The research of G. Akhmetova, G.M. Kovács, B. Dima and D.G. Knapp was supported by the National Research, Development and Innovation Office, Hungary (NKFIH KH-130401 and K-139026), the ELTE Thematic Excellence Program 2020 supported by the National Research, Development and Innovation Office (TKP2020-IKA-05) and the Stipendium Hungaricum Programme. The support of the János Bolyai Research Scholarship of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and the Bolyai+ New National Excellence Program of the Ministry for Innovation and Technology to D.G. Knapp is highly appreciated. F.E. Guard and colleagues are grateful to the traditional owners, the Jirrbal and Warungu people, as well as L. and P. Hales, Reserve Managers, of the Yourka Bush Heritage Reserve. Their generosity, guidance, and the opportunity to explore the Bush Heritage Reserve on the Einasleigh Uplands in far north Queensland is greatly appreciated. The National Science Foundation (USA) provided funds (DBI#1828479) to the New York Botanical Garden for a scanning electron microscope used for imaging the spores. V. Papp was supported by the ÚNKP-21-5 New National Excellence Program of the Ministry for Innovation and Technology from the National Research, Development and Innovation Fund of Hungary. A.N. Miller thanks the WM Keck Center at the University of Illinois Urbana – Champaign for sequencing Lasiosphaeria deviata. J. Pawłowska acknowledges support form National Science Centre, Poland (grant Opus 13 no 2017/25/B/NZ8/00473). The research of T.S. Bulgakov was carried out as part of the State Research Task of the Subtropical Scientific Centre of the Russian Academy of Sciences (Theme No. 0492-2021- 0007). K. Bensch (Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht) is thanked for correcting the spelling of various Latin epithets. ; Peer reviewed
In this work the management effectiveness of a Cuban MPA is assessed using an interdisciplinary approach. A series of three hypotheses are tested to determine how effective the Punta Frances Marine Protected Area (PFMPA) has been in meeting the multiple objectives of conserving biological diversity and ecological integrity, while allowing for the development of economic opportunities for tourism, and satisfying the needs of local and distant human populations. A new typology of benefits derived from MPAs was produced to provide managers with a practical tool that enable them to: 1) identify the benefits at the early stages of MPA creation, 2) state MPA objectives in a clear and measurable way, 3) assess the effectiveness of their MPA in meeting their management objectives. A new methodology was also developed to assess MPA effectiveness. This methodology constitutes an advancement from previous work, and it is based on qualitative and quantitative measurements of benefits depicted in the proposed typology. It has several advantages over previous methods. One of the main advantages is that it can be applied to assess one single MPA or a group of MPAs in a comparative fashion. The case study analyzed showed that to date, the PFMPA shows little signs of being negatively affected by the recreational SCUBA diving activities for which it was intended, given that no significant differences were found between intensively used diving areas and unused diving areas in terms of fish abundance, coral cover and macroalgae cover. Despite this, the PFMPA is not currently providing the full set of benefits to humans and the rest of nature, due mainly to administrative issues. If the PFMPA eventually becomes a National Marine Park (i.e. is fully protected from extractive activities), and management is correctly implemented, an annual economic value of almost USD $127,164,116.37 is forecast. At present the PFMPA does not provide any social or economic benefit to the nearby coastal community of Cocodrilo, thereby maintaining a divorce between local people and the users and managers of the MPA. Conversely, foreigners are receiving most of the benefits associated with recreation in a pristine tropical coastal ecosystem situated on the edge of the Caribbean Sea basin. The interdisciplinary methodologies for assessing effectiveness of MPAs developed in this study provided quantitative and qualitative evidence of a poor level of success in meeting the multiple management objectives of the PFMPA. 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