Suchergebnisse

Thirty years ago, Kenneth Hudson, the grand old figure of the European museum world, said that there are chiefly two qualities that will be demanded of the museums in the future: pluralism of interest and the flexibility of imagination. Today, we cannot but admit that he was right. Even if the diversity of definitions of museum is bigger than ever, there is no doubt that modern museums want to live up to the expectations from new groups of visitors, from cultural policy and a changing society in general. Many museums have left the traditional role of embodying merely a national collective memory and have become a kind of commentators on the present; the museum of the 21st century is supposed to explain the complexity of the world and what it is to be human in this world – in a historical perspective. Museums are changing from being institutions and presenting "institutional" knowledge, to multicultural platforms for negotiations about the past and a future that would be more sustainable. I would like to use the term process-museum, or museum-as-process, and change the term "taxonomy" – the classical art of classification – to "folksonomy", a classification that includes user/visitor aggregation and distribution of knowledge. This means also that museums' focus enlarges a bit from thing- and collection-orientation to visitor- and user-orientation. Now, what is the role of museology in this? What is tradition in museology and where are we going from here? What do we do with the theory we have? How have we brought, and will bring, museological theory and epistemological developments into the museums and their practices? Museology has, for sure, been shaped and debated over the years and decades in interaction with new practices and social experimentation in museums. We have been exploring processes of museality and musealization, the means and ways in which a society selects, exhibits, interprets and administers the tangible and intangible products of culture, with a view to preserving them for posterity. According to Stránsky (just to mention one of the founders of European museology) the task of museology is not to understand reality (e.g. the material) but rather to understand the laws that are steering our actions in reality, in collection, preservation, registration and use. If we'd break down the "traditions" of museological thoughts and concepts from the last fifty years, we'd end up with quite a few definitions and approaches to what museology does, as well as what traditions it has. Here I will mention just a few perspectives. Museology has: • a historical-institutional perspective, including research into the history, collections, exhibitions and artefact concepts of museums 12 Introduction • a didactic perspective, focusing on young people, life-long learning and communication • a communicative perspective, with a focus on strategic communication and exhibition planning in the museum world • a social, economic and sociological perspective, including research into museum economy and social impact (e.g. community museums) as well as the impact of cultural heritage policy. • a philosophical / existential perspective, museum as a phenomenon in modernity • a technological perspective, with research into digital museology or cybermuseology Apart from these perspectives, we have to deal with the great global diversity of cultures and traditions within heritage management, preservation, collecting and collective memory. Consequently, museology and museological research – in dealing with these traditions – has also developed differently in different parts of the world bringing different approaches to the field, geographically and culturally as well as regarding schools of museological thought. Tradition, in this perspective, could be considered as «classical museology» confronted with critical museology socio-museology or the more modern "critical heritage studies". In what respect does there exist anything like "classical" museology, and where? One needs only to mention that the field in East and North Europe is very large and encompasses not only museums but the cultural heritage at large, thus rendering new terms or concepts: mnemosophy or heritology (T. Sôla). E.g. in Sweden, there is actually no conflict or gap between museology/museums studies on the one side and/or heritage studies or critical heritage on the other. All this is real achievement when it comes to development of critical thinking in relation to the phenomenon and development of museums. But – for the practitioner – have we been of any help? Some say that museology has long since become too conceptual – a "philosophie du muséal" – and is no longer dealing with "real things", and that we have broken tradition with museum professionals and museum practice. That theory has left the professionals behind. This pinpoints – one more time – the old "conflict" between theory and practice, where some "practitioners" still think that museums need no theory, only classical "housekeeping skills" for museum management. So the question is: does museology reach the museums? Do museums feel they need museology, and if, how are the theories implemented and turned into practice? The purpose of the Kyoto symposium is to discuss the links between past, present and future in cultural traditions and in museology and what theories we would need in the future to support a sustainable development of museums and heritage. We want to challenge tradition, without abandoning it, but present a critical view Introduction 13 of museological theory and museum practice in relation to traditions, and ponder in what directions museology and museums should be developed in the future. The following sections of analysis were called for when planning the conference: 1. ICOFOM future / past roles: how do our members see ICOFOM's theoretical development and role in the XXIst century / what are the expectations / illusions / possibilities? What is the position of museology in relation to the traditions of Museum Studies and the fast growing field of Critical Heritage Studies. Differences – similarities? 2. Museological theory, past and present, in relation to practice (in museums, exhibitions and heritage sites). How, in what way, do museums implement or use museological theory? Is museological theory useful, and if it is, in what respect? 3. Museological tradition versus global development and new technologies: what role does museology play and what positions does it take in relation to the rapid changes that are taking place, on the one hand in the museum world – e.g. will cyberspace out rule other spaces and materialities – and on the other hand in the world at large in an economic and political perspective (e.g. considering the return to extreme political positions and the "war" of information and knowledge?) 4. Notes on different forms of experimental museology; the role of museology in social experimentation in the development of new forms of museums that challenge tradition, or even reinterpret the concepts of traditional museums. Along what lines and where, do museums develop, for instance, into multicultural platforms for negotiations about the past and a future, thanks to New Museology/Social museology. 5. Museology and the Anthropocene – how can museology reduce the disastrous effect Man has on our planet Earth and our living conditions? How can museology help to bridge the gap between Mind and Matter – the gap that is the reason for the state of mankind right now – the belief that Man is superior to nature and all other creatures?! It is time to leave the conceptual ideas about discourses, "texts" and "objects as texts" and narrations behind, and realize that we and the material world are One whole; we have come into being together with the material world, not apart from it. We are buddies with the material; we wouldn't otherwise be human; we would have achieved nothing without the help of material, tools and objects. We are all subordinated to entropy, death and extinction as well. So what impact should this insight bring to our dealing with museums, objects and collections, with a sustainable future in mind? Many papers in this book, intended as material for discussions on and after the conference, deal with these specific questions while others use these as a takeoff for related perspectives on the future of traditions in museums and museology. ; Papers from the ICOFOM 42nd symposium held in Kyoto (Japan), 1-7 September 2019

La lecture joue un grand rôle dans le processus d'enseignement-apprentissage. Elle constitue une base solide de la formation didactique de l'apprenant pour s'adapter à la société. Il existe quatre niveaux de compréhension en lecture : littérale, inférentielle ou interprétative, critique et créative. Les habiletés de ces quatre niveaux de compréhension sont organisées selon la hiérarchie de la taxonomie de Bloom. Notre recherche portait sur le niveau de la compréhension critique en lecture : la lecture critique. À la suite d'une recension de la littérature scientifique, nous avons constaté que les recherches connues à ce jour appuient l'importance de s'intéresser à la didactique de la lecture en classe de français. Cependant, les résultats semblent peu concluants à l'égard de la lecture critique, malgré son importance. La problématique de notre recherche consiste au fait que les apprenants du Français Langue Étrangère (FLE) éprouvent des difficultés en lecture critique. Ils tendent vers une compréhension globale du texte sans chercher ni comprendre le sens implicite. D'une part, différents auteurs ont montré que les raisons de ces difficultés ne sont pas dues seulement aux étudiants eux-mêmes mais aussi aux méthodes d'enseignement non appropriées à enseigner la lecture critique en FLE. Dans le domaine de l'enseignement des langues étrangères aux locuteurs d'autres langues, certains auteurs préconisent également la didactique de la lecture critique où les enseignants ne font pas juste enseigner aux étudiants les compétences linguistiques de base ou de former leurs habiletés de communication, mais aussi le besoin de développer la conscience critique chez les apprenants qui leur permettent de poser des questions plutôt que d'accepter passivement l'information qu'ils trouvent. D'autre part, la recension a montré que l'enseignement basé sur la caricature semble motivant et amène les apprenants à réfléchir, mais que ce support didactique n'a pas été utilisé auprès d'apprenants de français, surtout au niveau universitaire. Des études ont prouvé l'efficacité de la caricature dans l'enseignement de l'histoire, les sciences et la littératie visuelle et politique. Aucune étude, d'après notre recension d'écrits, n'a porté sur la caricature en didactique de FLE. D'ailleurs c'est un domaine peu investigué. Notre recherche exploratoire voulait intégrer la caricature dans l'enseignement de la lecture critique en FLE. En définitive, notre recherche visait à répondre à la question générale suivante : Quelle est la contribution de la caricature comme support didactique au développement des habiletés de la lecture critique chez les apprenants du FLE ? De cette question découlent les questions spécifiques suivantes : 1- Quel est le rôle de la caricature comme support didactique dans le développement de la lecture critique chez les apprenants du FLE ? Et 2- quelles sont les perceptions des apprenants ciblés à l'égard de la caricature ? Pour ce faire, notre recherche a impliqué l'élaboration d'un dispositif didactique au cœur duquel figurait la caricature. Afin de recueillir les données, nous avons choisi un échantillon volontaire parmi des étudiants adultes qui apprennent le FLE, à l'Université de Sherbrooke. Notre expérimentation didactique consistait à leur faire vivre des activités de lecture critique de textes basés sur la caricature en trois séances complémentaires. Les outils de collecte de données étaient les suivants : des prétests qui précédaient chaque séance du dispositif didactique pour diagnostiquer le niveau des étudiants en lecture critique, des posttests en lecture critique qui suivaient chacune des séances, des entrevues pour identifier les perceptions et les productions des participants. Nous avons analysé l'ensemble des données. Il s'agissait d'une analyse évaluative des réponses des participants dans les pré/posttests; d'une analyse thématique du verbatim des entrevues afin d'identifier les perceptions des participants ; et d'une analyse du contenu des caricatures produites par les participants pour appuyer les résultats obtenus. Les résultats de l'analyse ont indiqué que la caricature a contribué au développement de la lecture critique chez les apprenants du FLE : grandement chez les débutants et les intermédiaires et partiellement chez les avancés. En parallèle, la caricature était positivement perçue par tous les participants. Ceux-ci ont avancé que la caricature était pour eux une expérience originale, motivante et transférable. Ces résultats combinés avec ceux des recherches antérieures dans le même domaine laissent entrevoir que la caricature comme support didactique pourrait favoriser la compréhension en lecture en général chez les apprenants adultes. ; Abstract: Reading plays an important role in the teaching / learning process. It constitutes a solid basis for the didactic training of the learner to adapt to society. There are four levels of reading comprehension: literal, inferential or interpretive, critical and creative. The skills of these four levels of understanding are organized according to the hierarchy of Bloom's taxonomy. Our research focused on the level of critical reading comprehension: critical reading. Following a review of the scientific literature, we found that the research known to date supports the importance of taking an interest in reading literacy in French. However, the results seem inconclusive with regard to critical reading, despite its importance. The problem of our research is that the learners of the French Foreign Language (FFL) have difficulties in critical reading. They tend towards a global understanding of the text without going further in the implicit sense. On the one hand, different authors have shown that the reasons for these difficulties are not only due to the students themselves but also to the teaching methods not appropriate to teach critical reading in FFL. In the field of foreign language teaching to speakers of other languages, some authors also advocate the teaching of critical reading where teachers do not just teach students basic language skills or train their communication skills, but also the need to develop critical awareness in learners that allow them to ask questions rather than passively accepting the information they find. On the other hand, the review showed that teaching based on caricature seems motivating and leads learners to think, but that this didactic support was not used with learners of French, especially at the university level. Studies have proven the effectiveness of caricature in the teaching of history, science and visual and political literacy. No study, according to our review of writings, has focused on the caricature in didactics of FFL. Besides, it is a little investigated field. Our exploratory research wanted to integrate caricature into the teaching of critical reading in FFL. As a conclusion, our research aimed to answer the following general question: What is the contribution of caricature as a didactic medium to the development of the skills of critical reading in the learners of the FFL? From this issue arise the following specific questions: 1- What is the role of caricature as a didactic medium in the development of critical reading in the learners of the FFL? And what are the perceptions of targeted learners about caricature? To do this, our research involved the development of a didactic system at the heart of which caricature was included. In order to collect the data, we chose a sample of adult learners who were studying at the University of Sherbrooke. Our didactic experimentation consisted in making them live the activities of critical reading of texts based on caricature in three complementary stages. The data collection tools included pre-tests that preceded each stage of the didactic experimentation to diagnose the participant's level in critical reading; post-tests that followed each stage; interviews to identify their perceptions, and drawings produced by them. We analyzed all the data. This was an evaluative analysis of the students' responses in pre / posttests; a thematic analysis of the interview verbatim in order to identify their perceptions; and an analysis of the content of the caricatures produced in support of the results obtained. The results of the analysis showed that caricature has greatly contributed to the development of critical reading in FFL among the beginners and intermediates and partially among the advanced students. At the same time, the caricature was positively perceived by all participants. These ones argued that caricature was an original, motivating and transferable experience. These results, combined with previous research in the same field, suggest that caricature as a didactic medium could promote reading comprehension in adult learners in general.

Relatório Final do Projecto de I&D financiado pela FCT. ; Instituição Proponente: Fundação Gaspar Frutuoso (FGF); Instituições Participantes: Universidade dos Açores (UAçores) e University of East Anglia (UEA); Unidade de Investigação Principal: Centro de Investigação e Tecnologia Agrária dos Açores (CITAa/UAçores). ; As ilhas da Macaronésia, devido à sua localização geográfica, intervalo de idades geológicas e elevados níveis de endemismo, constituem um sistema ideal para a realização de estudos evolutivos. Neste projeto foram investigados padrões de diversificação em taxa que diversificaram em vários arquipélagos da Macaronésia, com especial ênfase nos Açores, o arquipélago mais recente e mais remoto. Os insetos estão entre os organismos que mais diversificaram nas ilhas da Macaronésia e os escaravelhos do género Tarphius e Laparocerus e as borboletas do género Hipparchia são insetos com distintas capacidades de dispersão que colonizaram estas ilhas e que posteriormente sofreram extensa especiação. Estes insetos foram assim utilizados para estudar padrões e processos de diversificação em ilhas, e para investigar a dinâmica a longo termo da diversificação e o seu impacto na riqueza específica. Neste projeto utilizaram-se técnicas moleculares e abordagens filogenéticas e de genética de populações para estudar colonização e diversificação em ilhas oceânicas. Caracterizou-se a diversidade molecular para vários genes mitocondriais e nucleares em Tarphius e Hipparchia dos Açores, Madeira, Canárias e das áreas continentais vizinhas (Norte de África e Península Ibérica), e Laparocerus das Canárias. Os dados gerados permitiram: i) estimar relações filogenéticas e filogeográficas, e assim investigar hipóteses sobre a origem dos colonizadores; ii) investigar os papeis desempenhados pela capacidade de dispersão e fluxo genético, idade geológica, geografia e distância a fontes de colonizadores nos níveis de diferenciação; iii) investigar a importância relativa de vários processos (e.g., hibridação, separação incompleta de linhagens, especiação in situ, especiação pós-colonização) na evolução dos géneros em estudo; iv) definir unidades evolutivas significativas para conservação; e v) clarificar a taxonomia dos grupos em estudo, conjuntamente com dados morfológicos. Uma vez que Tarphius e Hipparchia ocorrem em múltiplos arquipélagos, este estudo representa o primeiro esforço para inferir padrões de colonização e diversificação em animais a uma escala englobando vários arquipélagos da Macaronésia. O trabalho de campo realizado possibilitou ainda a atualização da distribuição dos taxa em estudo, tendo sido descobertas novas espécies de Tarphius em Marrocos e nos Açores. De modo a colmatar a recorrente falta de partilha de conhecimento científicos com o público em geral, este projeto possui uma componente educacional que visa dar a conhecer espécies insulares endémicas, em particular insetos, e promover a sua conservação. A apresentação de informação sobre esta temática num formato apelativo e compreensível pela população em geral foi uma prioridade cujo objectivo final é influenciar a tomada de medidas políticas que conduzam a um modelo de desenvolvimento mais sustentável em que a biodiversidade não seja entendida como um impedimento ao progresso económico. Neste sentido foram desenvolvidas várias iniciativas junto das populações locais no arquipélago dos Açores, nomeadamente estudantes do 7 ao 12º ano, Câmara do Comércio de Angra do Heroísmo e o público em geral. Os inquéritos realizados a estudantes sobre o património natural dos Açores está a ser utilizado para a criação de dispositivos de aprendizagem sobre a temática da especiação em ilhas e espécies endémicas usando exemplos da Macaronésia. Foi criado uma página na rede social Facebook (www.facebook.com/Chama.lhe.Nomes) que, de um modo interactivo, dá a conhecer espécies de insetos que só existem nos Açores. Também para o público em geral foram produzidas exposições itinerantes sobre insetos dos Açores, uma para ser exposta em espaços interiores e outra composta por telas de grande formato para afixação em fachadas de edifícios. Foram ainda iniciados contactos com a Câmara do Comércio de Angra do Heroísmo, uma associação para a promoção do tecido empresarial regional e que de momento está envolvida no programa PRIMEA (Programa de Requalificação da Imagem das Empresas Açorianas). O objectivo é estabelecer uma parceria activa em que a biodiversidade regional passe a ser aceite como uma mais valia para a economia local e na definição da "Marca Açores". Os resultados deste projeto estão disponíveis para o público em geral no Portal da Biodiversidade dos Açores - www.azoresbioportal.angra.uac.pt (dados de distribuição de espécies), no Genbank - www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/ (sequências de ADN) e no site oficial do projeto - www.gba.uac.pt/projetos/ver.php?id=4. ; ABSTRACT: The Macaronesian islands, due to their geographical location, range of geological ages and high levels of endemism, are an excellent system to study a myriad of evolutionary questions. In this Project we investigated diversification patterns in taxa that diverged in several Macaronesian archipelagos, focusing in the youngest and most remote group of islands, the Azores Insects are among the organisms that have diversified most in the Macaronesian islands. Beetles of the genus Tarphius, weevils of the genus Laparocerus and butterflies of the genus Hipparchia are examples of insects with distinct dispersal abilities that colonized those islands and subsequently underwent extensive speciation. Therefore, they provide an excellent opportunity to study patterns and processes of diversification on islands, and to investigate long-term dynamics of diversification and its impact on species richness. We use molecular techniques and phylogenetic and population genetic approaches to study colonization and diversification on oceanic islands. We characterized molecular diversity at multiple mitochondrial and nuclear genes of Tarphius beetles and Hipparchia butterflies populations from the Azores, Madeira and Canary Islands, and from putative continental sources of colonists (North Africa and Iberia) and of Laparocerus weevils from the Canary Islands. The data generated allowed to: i) estimate phylogenetic and phylogeographic relationships, and thus to investigate hypotheses on the origin of colonizers; ii) investigate the roles of dispersal ability and gene flow, geological age, geography and distance to source of colonists on levels of differentiation; iii) investigate the relative roles of several processes (e.g., hybridization, incomplete lineage sorting, in situ speciation, post-colonization speciation) in the evolution of the study groups; iv) identify evolutionary significant units for conservation, i.e., unique populations that should be given protection priority to prevent further biodiversity loss; and v) clarify the taxonomy of the study groups, combined with morphological data. The fieldwork performed resulted in Tarphius species new to science from Morocco and the Azores, and allowed updating the distribution of the study taxa. To accomplish the often-neglected responsibility of sharing the outcome of scientific endeavours with the general public, we developed several educational activities that focus on the conservation of biodiversity on oceanic islands and, in particular, of island endemic insects. Information on biodiversity was prepared in an appealing and understandable format for the general population. The ultimate goal is to raise awareness on the issue and eventually influence political decisions towards a more sustainable governance model where biodiversity is not perceived as an impediment to economical growth. We developed several initiatives in the Azores, namely with 7-12th grade students, Chamber of Commerce (Câmara do Comércio de Angra do Heroísmo - Terceira) and the general public. The survey to students about the natural heritage of the Azores is being used to create learning devices about island speciation using Macaronesian examples. The page "Chama-lhe Nomes! was created on the social network Facebook (www.facebook.com/Chama.lhe.Nomes) to introduce, in an interactive manner, insects that only exist in the Azores and raise awareness about unknown biodiversity. We also produced two itinerants exhibit on Azorean insets for the general public, one indoor and one large format outdoor. Additionally we started dialogue with the Angra do Heroísmo Chamber of Commerce, an association that promotes regional business and is currently working on the image requalification of Azorean businesses (PRIMEA program). The goal is to establish an active partnership so that biodiversity is perceived as an asset for the local economy an for the creation of the Azores Brand (Marca Açores). Project outcomes were presented in meetings, published in scientific journals and are available to the general public at the Azorean Biodiversity Portal - www.azoresbioportal.angra.uac.pt (species distribution data), at Genbank - www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/ (DNA sequences) and at the Project website - www.gba.uac.pt/projetos/ver.php?id=4. ; Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia.

En Colombia el SENA por delegación del gobierno nacional, a través del Decreto 933 de abril de 2003 Art. 19 "Certificación de Competencias Laborales: El Servicio Nacional de Aprendizaje SENA, regulará, diseñará, normalizará y certificará las competencias laborales", deja en su estructura la Dirección del Sistema Nacional de Formación para el Trabajo, área que tiene la competencia para "Dirigir la implementación en el país del Sistema Nacional de Formación para el Trabajo y proponer las políticas para la ejecución de los procesos de Normalización, y Evaluación y Certificación reconocimiento y articulación de programas de formación que de él se derivan para el desarrollo del talento humano, su empleabilidad y el aprendizaje permanente". La tecnología en el SENA parece no soportar de manera adecuada este proceso crítico, más aun cuando es crucial su interacción entre los diferentes procesos misionales de la institución y del país. En este trabajo de investigación se hace una propuesta de arquitectura empresarial aplicada al proceso de evaluación y certificación de competencias laborales y utilizando como marco de referencia Togaf y Zachman. El SENA tiene la responsabilidad de brindar una respuesta pertinente, oportuna y de calidad a los requerimientos del sector productivo del país, por lo cual es importante continuar con las actividades de innovación en sus procesos, acorde con las políticas de gobierno y las tendencias mundiales, dentro de las cuales la gestión del conocimiento y las TICs ocupa un lugar de extrema relevancia. En Colombia se han certificado 405. 585 personas y se han expedidos 716. 407 certificado entre el año 2005 al 31 de julio de 2012. En la actualidad este proceso presenta grandes dificultades para el manejo de la información, producto de la falta de interacción entre los diferentes procesos y la implementación tecnológica, lo cual, disminuye la eficiencia e impide que se aproveche al máximo el tiempo y los recursos de la misma. Por lo anterior, es necesario implantar un esquema de arquitectura empresarial que permita identificar el estado actual en términos de arquitectura de negocio, arquitectura de información, arquitectura de aplicaciones y arquitectura de tecnología, para así identificar las actividades requeridas, el estado al que se desea llegar y se representarlos mediante un modelo que permita la lectura de la integración entre las TICs y las necesidades del negocio a través de arquitecturas. Para este fin, se propone una arquitectura empresarial alineada a los ejes estratégicos, implementando los frameworks Zachman y Togaf de forma complementaria para identificar la arquitectura actual (AS-IS) y proponer una arquitectura objetivo (TO-BE). Zachman es considerado una taxonomía la cual es implementada en este proyecto para describir la forma en que los proceso de certificación de competencias son llevados a cabo y como se contempla el efecto de la arquitectura empresarial en el manejo de dichos procesos; y TOGAF se encarga de llevar la estructura establecida en el framework Zachman a su método de desarrollo arquitectural, describiendo paso a paso el proceso de desarrollo para la arquitectura propuesta ; TABLA DE CONTENIDO 6 LISTA DE FIGURAS 8 LISTA DE TABLAS 11 INTRODUCCIÓN 11 1. ANTECEDENTES 12 1.1 CUALIFICACIONES 13 1.2 MARCO DE CUALIFICACIONES 14 1.2.1. Marcos de cualificaciones en el mundo 17 1.2.2. Procesos en el marco de cualificacion 26 1.3.1. Referentes 33 1.3.2. Proceso de Evaluación y Certificación de Competencias Laborales en Latinoamérica 36 1.4. ARQUITECTURA EMPRESARIAL 40 1.4.1. Experiencias de arquitectura empresarial 43 2. MARCO TEÓRICO 45 2.1 ARQUITECTURA EMPRESARIAL 45 2.1.1. El Framework Zachman para Arquitectura Empresarial . 46 2.1.2. The Open Group Architecture Framework (TOGAF) 50 2.1.3 Federal Enterprise Architecture (FEA): 56 2.1.4. Gartner 59 2.2 MODELAMIENTO DE PROCESOS 60 2.2.1. Procesos 61 2.3 PROCESOS DE CERTIFICACIÓN 68 3. PLANTEAMIENTO DEL PROBLEMA Y JUSTIFICACIÓN 70 4. PRELIMINARES 71 4.1 PROPÓSITO 71 4.2 ALCANCE 71 4.3 CONTEXTO ORGANIZACIONAL 71 4.4 CADENA DE VALOR 72 4.5 MODELO ESTRATÉGICO SENA 72 4.6 EJES ESTRATÉGICOS 73 5. MARCO DE REFERENCIA 75 5.1 MAPEO DEL ESQUEMA ZACHMAN CON EL MÉTODO TOGAF 76 5.2 VISIÓN DE LA ARQUITECTURA EMPRESARIAL 80 6. ARQUITECTURA DE NEGOCIO 82 6.1 MISIÓN 82 6.2 VISIÓN 82 6.3 INTERESADOS (STAKEHOLDERS) 82 6.4 DRIVERS DEL NEGOCIO 87 6.5 PROCESO DEL NEGOCIO 88 6.6 MARCO DE GOBIERNO 89 6.7 VISTA FACHADA AS-IS Y TO-BE 89 6.8 VISTA DE COMUNICACIONES AS-IS Y TO-BE 109 6.9 VISTA DE PROCESOS 110 6.10 ANÁLISIS GAP DE PROCESOS 121 7. ARQUITECTURA DE INFORMACIÓN 122 7.1 MODELO DE DATOS AS IS 122 7.2 MODELO DE DATOS TO BE 124 7.3 ANÁLISIS GAP DE INFORMACIÓN 130 8. ARQUITECTURA DE APLICACIONES 131 8.1 LISTA DE SERVICIOS AS-IS 131 8.2 LISTA DE SERVICIOS TO-BE 131 8.3 LISTA DE COMPONENTES 133 8.4 MATRIZ DE APLICACIONES 134 8.5 VISTA DE APLICACIONES 137 8.6 ANÁLISIS GAP DE APLICACIONES 141 9. ARQUITECTURA TECNOLÓGICA 142 9.1 REQUERIMIENTOS DE CALIDAD 142 9.2 RESTRICCIONES 143 9.3 POLÍTICAS 144 9.4 ESCENARIOS DE CALIDAD 144 9.5 REPRESENTACIÓN ARQUITECTÓNICA 150 10. OPORTUNIDADES Y SOLUCIONES 153 CONCLUSIONES 158 REFERENCIAS Y BIBLIOGRAFIA 160 ; Maestría ; In Colombia, SENA by delegation of the national government, through Decree 933 of April 2003 Art. 19 "Certification of Labor Competencies: The National Service of Apprenticeship SENA, will regulate, design, standardize and certify labor competencies", it leaves in its structures the Directorate of the National System of Training for Work, an area that has the competence to "Direct the implementation in the country of the National System of Training for Work and propose the policies for the execution of the processes of Standardization, and Evaluation and Certification recognition and articulation of training programs derived from it for the development of human talent, their employability and lifelong learning ". Technology in SENA does not seem to adequately support this critical process, even more so when its interaction between the different missionary processes of the institution and the country is crucial. In this research work, a business architecture proposal is made applied to the process of evaluation and certification of labor competencies and using Togaf and Zachman as a frame of reference. SENA has the responsibility of providing a relevant, timely and quality response to the requirements of the country's productive sector, for which it is important to continue with innovation activities in its processes, in accordance with government policies and world trends. within which knowledge management and ICT occupies an extremely important place. In Colombia, 405. 585 people have been certified and 716. 407 certificates have been issued between 2005 and July 31, 2012. At present, this process presents great difficulties for the management of information, due to the lack of interaction between the different processes and the technological implementation, which reduces efficiency and prevents the maximum use of time and resources. Therefore, it is necessary to implement a business architecture scheme that allows identifying the current state in terms of business architecture, information architecture, application architecture and technology architecture, in order to identify the required activities, the desired state. arrive and be represented by a model that allows the reading of the integration between ICTs and business needs through architectures. For this purpose, a business architecture aligned to the strategic axes is proposed, implementing the Zachman and Togaf frameworks in a complementary way to identify the current architecture (AS-IS) and propose an objective architecture (TO-BE). Zachman is considered a taxonomy which is implemented in this project to describe the way in which the competency certification processes are carried out and how the effect of the business architecture in the management of said processes is contemplated; and TOGAF is in charge of bringing the structure established in the Zachman framework to its architectural development method, describing step by step the development process for the proposed architecture

WORLD FEDERATION FOR CULTURE COLLECTIONS NEWSLETTER No. 26 (WFCC) July 1977 Code Number:NL97010 Sizes of Files: Text: 73.4K Graphics: No associated graphics files WFCC EXECUTIVE BOARD Officers and members WFCC COMMITTEES Committee on Biodiversity: Committee on Education and Capacity Building: Committee on Endangered Culture Collections: Committee on Patents: Committee on Postal, Quarantine and Safety Regulations: Committee on Publications and Publicity: Committee on World Data Centre for Microorganisms: WFCC REPORTS Minutes of the Meeting of the Executive Board, August 28, 1996, Veldhoven, Netherlands Minute 1. Call to order. Minute 2. Record of attendance. Minute 3. Committees. The composition of the newly agreed upon committees - World Data Centre on Microorganisms Committee: - Postal, Quarantine and Safety Regulations Committee: - Endangered Collections Committee: - Patents Committee: Minute 4. Adjournment. Minute 5. Meeting reconvened on 29 August 1996 at 8:00 am. Minute 6. Committees - Biodiversity Committee: - Publications and Publicity Committee: - Education and Capacity Building Committee: Minute 7. Resolutions. Minute 8. General Business. - Skerman Prize. - Revision of Guidelines/Standards. - Statutes Revision. - WFCC Business Plan. - Technical Information Sheets (TIS). Minute 9. Future Meetings. Minute 10. Close of Meeting. WFCC EDUCATION AND CAPACITY BUILDING COMMITTEE (EBB) GOALS 1. Assessment of the needs for the establishment of new culture collections and of the training and capacity building needs of microbial culture collections on a global and regional basis. 2. Development and continued promotion of capacity building and education programmes for CCs on a global and regional basis, with the main emphasis being on taxonomy and electronic communication systems (at least e-mail, information about holdings on www). 3. Support of WDCM activities through collection and update of information on a regional basis. GENERAL OUTLINE Many of the activities of the EBB Committee will be carried out regionally. The initial effort of the members will be towards building an assessment on the needs for establishment of CCs, status of capacity building, education and training needs of the existing CCs in their area of representation. The proposal for regional development should be analysed in regional workshops, organised by EBB representatives of the region. Funds for doing the workshops should be sought on a regional basis and complemented with funds from international agencies. ACTION PLAN Activity 1. Assessment of CCs status and needs on a global and regional basis. An inventory of existing CCs in different regions of the world will be conducted, mainly using data obtained from WDCM, supplemented with regional contacts. Activity 2 - Support to WDCM activities Activity 3 - Proposal for Education and Capacity Building activities Activity 4. Strengthening existing activities of CCs MEMBERSHIP A core committee was agreed during ICCC8 in Veldhoven. The Policy for membership was to include 2 representatives from 6 geographical regions and to establish working links with the WFCC Biodiversity Committee The immediate action that will be taken by EBB is the distribution of a questionnaire, developed together with the Biodiversity Committee and WDCM, for the assessment of CC needs in training and education. The questionnaire will be added to the WFCC Newsletter, as well as to the ECCO Newsletter. Readers are kindly asked to help in circulating it to the CC people in their regions, hoping that with the assessment of the needs EBB will be more able to make the right steps and help to overcome deficiencies. WFCC ENDANGERED COLLECTIONS COMMITTEE GOALS 1. To act as first port of call for any collection (industrial/private/academic) which considers itself to be endangered. 2. To assess the requirements of the Endangered Collections and provide any supportive or lobbying assistance it can. 3. In the event of a culture collection being in imminent danger of being lost, to visit or by means of correspondence assess its sector of expertise and interest (i.e. industrial/medical/fungal/algal etc) and solicit possible alternative sites. 4. To seek a source funding for this exercise; or if a "pot" already exists to allocate appropriate funds for the task to be carried out. MEMBERSHIP NEW WFCC MEMBERS, NEW ADDRESSES AND OTHER CHANGES Relocation of the National Collection of Food Bacteria (NCFB) Address correction OBITUARIES ROWLAND HILL 1935-1996 In memoriam Professor Bela Lanyi (1927-1997) RETIREMENT Retirement of Dr. Ivan J. Bousfield FOCUS ON CULTURE COLLECTIONS Future prospects for the UK National Culture Collections For some considerable time now the UK Culture Collection network has existed as a loosely affiliated federal system comprising eleven separate specialist entities. These collections have been supported by eight sources of Government funding emanating from five Government departments and are all maintained on separate sites by nine different parent organisations. Also, in more recent years, continued funding for several of the collections has been a major worry. Consequently a review on the whole UK system of operating service collections has been long overdue. Co-ordinated Marketing Policy This will involve the development of a unified house style (UKNCC) and the production of advertising materials around three sectoral nodes - an industrial node at NCIMB, a medical node at ECACC/CAMR and an agricultural/mycological node at IMI. Co-ordinated Database Construction This will provide a single electronic contact point for the UKNCC allowing access to a range of information such as strain dam, culture availability, uses and applications, services and expertise available, as well as providing a central ordering point. This initiative is also aimed at updating and harmonising data storage and retrieval facilities at UKNCC member collections as well as providing the facility for combined/specialist hard copy catalogue production. The Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa (CCAP) The Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa functions as the national service collection for algae and protozoa in the UK, acting as a depository for strains of prokaryotic cyanobacteria (blue-green algae), eukaryotic microalgae, small seaweeds and free-living non-pathogenic protozoa. Freshwater algae and all protozoa are maintained at the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC), Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH), Institute of Freshwater Ecology (IFE) Windermere Laboratory. Marine algae are kept at the NERC, Centre for Coastal and Marine Science (CCMS) Dunstaffnage Marine Laboratory (DML). NEWS FROM AND FOR CULTURE COLLECTIONS Journal of Culture Collections New Settlement of the Spanish Type Culture Collection (CECT) Philippine Network of Microbial Culture Collections Established National Collection of Dairy Cultures (NCDC), Karnal, India News on Cuban Culture Collections NEW CATALOGUES AND DATABASES OF CULTURE COLLECTIONS American Type Culture Collection (ATCC), 12301 Parklawn Drive, Rockville, MD 208521776, USA. Filamentoas Fungi Reference Guide. The first edition of ATCC Quality Control and Reference Strains has been published. Collection Nationale de Cultures de Microorganismes Institut Pasteur. Fungi Culture Collection, Catalogue of Strains 1997, Culture Collection of Algae and Protozoa (CCAP) 1995 DSMZ Catalogue of Strains 1997. Institute for Fermentation, Osaka (IFO). Catalogue of newly accepted strains. WORLD WIDE WEB International Course: Biochemical Engineering Applications in Environmental Biotechnology and Cleaner Production (Workshops and Roundtables), The List of Bacterial Names with Standing in Nomenclature Bacterial Nomenclature Up to Date The Microbe Files RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF INTEREST TO CULTURE COLLECTIONS NEW BOOKS RELEVANT TO CULTURE COLLECTION WORK EURACHEM Gives Guidance towards Accreditation EURACHEM has recently published a guide entitled "Accreditation for Laboratories Performing Microbiological Testing". WORKSHOPS AND TRAINING COURSES Details of events from September 8 1997 to December 5 1997 CONFERENCES AND MEETINGS Details of events from 4 September 1997 to 22 January 1998.

"Scale - the understanding of ecological phenomena through levels of biological organization across time and space - is one of most important concepts in ecology. It is often challenging for ecologists to find systems that lend themselves to study across scales; however, Sarracenia, a pitcher plant indigenous to the eastern United States, is unique because it can be studied at a hierarchy of scales: individuals, communities, and whole ecosystems. Ecologists Aaron Ellison and Nicolas Gotelli have studied Sarracenia for decades and, in this book, they synthesize their research and show how this system can inform the broad and challenging question of scaling in ecology. The authors' goal is to deepen the current understanding of major ecological processes, and how they operate across scales"--

The 2008 financial crisis opened the doors of green capitalism as a financially sound approach to saving the planet from the worst effects of the climate emergency. The emphasis on the role of finance in promoting "green growth" has permeated mainstream political, academic and business approaches to climate change adaptation and mitigation, assuming multiple forms - from the carbon markets of the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, to the Environmental, Social and Governance taxonomy for "green" investments, to the proliferation of sustainable labels in several economic sectors. The present article offers a critical appraisal of one of the most prominent arguments that upholds the idea that it is possible and desirable to achieve sustainability and economic growth through finance: green bonds. Green bonds are debt instruments whose proceeds are earmarked to fund projects with supposedly environmental benefits. After some years in the background, they now occupy a central position in the green recovery narrative and political framework all over the world. Most of the academic literature tends to naturalize green bonds as an eminently technical solution to reconcile economic growth and environmental sustainability. Filling an epistemological gap, the present article leverages a world-ecology approach to embed the financial phenomenon of green bonds within the broader picture of the capitalist political economy and the expansion of its ecological frontier. In light of the ongoing experiences that the authors have been following in the Brazilian legal, financial and political context, the article unpacks and makes sense of green bonds as a tool in the hands of climate finance that reproduces global patterns of North-South uneven development and the shifting of ecological costs. To test the potential of the "interpretative framework" offered by a world-ecology approach, we mobilize it in the concrete case of green bonds issuances directed to fund the forestry sector in Brazil. Aware that the current phenomenon only represents a blip in comparison to the largeer temporal (the longue dureé) and spatial (the world system) scales usually deployed by world-ecology, we nonetheless discuss how the ideological, technical and power dynamics behind the issuance of green bonds unleash capital accumulation, produce a financialized and subordinated construction of nature, and entail an institutional arrangement. The article is organized around 3 main sections. After the introduction, section 1 describes green bonds as one of the most fashionable financial topics of the moment, and one that promotes a shift in discourses towards the need of actively building a "green economy". Although from a legal standpoint green bonds embody no significant difference from regular bonds, our focus is to describe the promises around them, the current (private) governance structure, and the trends in the issuance of these debt instruments both in the Global North and South, with a specific focus on the case of Brazil. In section 2, we look at the operations of green bonds emissions on the ground, i.e. taking as an example the context of green debt underpinning the Brazilian forestry sector. The analysis reveals how the emissions, made predominantly by large multinational companies actively present on the global market, feed off great efforts deployed by both the public and the private sector in constructing an image of the sector as a key player in the emergent "bioeconomy" and in the strengthening of Brazil's goals in the Paris Agreement. However, we describe how green bond revenues that are officially committed to the implementation of "sustainable management of forests" are associated with the expansion of the ecological frontier in the Brazilian territory, stretching the boundaries of the area dedicated to tree plantations and amplifying social and environmental tensions. The backstage of the emissions shows how capital accumulation through green bonds is associated with the co-production of nature for the purpose of accumulation, generating concerns that are often diluted or transformed into procedural requirements. Debt generated by the subscription of green bonds, we argue, is not only financial, but also social and ecological. In section 3, we put forward that for private accumulation to be successful, green bonds in the forestry sector demand an institutional arrangement that combines state support and private governance of debt in its financial, social and ecological dimensions. Rather than being the result of an idealized and spontaneous market, a set of institutional transformations have to be considered in order to comprehend the feasibility of green bonds in the Brazilian forestry sector. We thus describe the historic connection between forestry and the state, the endless public incentives to put nature to work, the functional adaptations of the Brazilian environmental legislation and the regulation concerning the demarcation, access and use of land. In this context, we argue that green bonds add yet a new institutional layer to the process of creating and validating specific forms of nature, through a governance structure that dilutes the tensions between the promise of environmental benefits and its concrete negative social and environmental impacts. We conclude the article by reassembling these findings as part of the capitalist world ecology "dialectical unity" of capital accumulation, co-production of nature and power. We suggest that the world-ecology approach allows us to grasp green bonds as a complex form that has so far been ignored in the relevant literature. As any other phenomenon of financialization, a green bond should not be understood in isolation from its material basis, since it is from that basis – and its social and environmental conditions and contradictions – that it appropriates value. As the example of the Brazilian forestry sector illuminates, the "greenness" of the financial debt inscribed in green bonds may come into existence at the expense of the social and environmental debt that underlie the forestry sector productive model. Hence, although the explicit inclusion of "environmental concerns" into financial considerations and project implementation has been praised as a step towards the recognition that finance has a material impact on the planet and that these externalities shall be accounted for, the article warns of the typical green arithmetic move put forward by green bonds. Green bonds inevitably co-produce nature and social relations, but in a very unequal way that emphasizes capital accumulation and that does not necessarily protect the environment (even when standards are introduced). Much to the contrary, green bonds may come into being at the expense of other ways of living ecologically, and by restoring injustices of the past and creating a regenerative future - in other words, by creating debt. ; El presente artículo parte de un enfoque de ecología-mundo para develar y dar sentido a los bonos verdes como una herramienta en manos de las finanzas climáticas, que reproduce los patrones globales de desarrollo desigual y acumulación capitalista. A través del estudio de las emisiones de bonos verdes dirigidas a financiar el sector forestal en Brasil, se revisa cómo la dinámica ideológica, técnica y de poder detrás de dichas emisiones desencadena la acumulación de capital, y produce una construcción de la naturaleza financiarizada y subordinada. Actualmente, los bonos verdes son una de las formas más destacadas de la economía verde para intentar conciliar la "sostenibilidad ambiental" con el crecimiento dentro de los parámetros de las finanzas. Como instrumentos de deuda cuyos ingresos van destinados a financiar proyectos con supuestos beneficios ambientales, los bonos verdes ocupan ya una posición central en la narrativa y el marco político de la economía verde. El artículo reseña los bonos verdes, como uno de los temas financieros relevantes del momento, y describe las promesas y tendencias de emisiones de estos bonos, tanto en los países del Norte y del Sur, y específicamente en Brasil. Al observar las emisiones concretas en el sector forestal brasileño, el artículo muestra cómo la acumulación de capital a través de bonos verdes se asocia a coproducir la naturaleza en formas problemáticas, tanto social como ambientalmente, generando deuda no solo financiera, sino esencialmente social y ecológica. Con una combinación de enfoques micro y macro del tema, el artículo explica cómo los bonos verdes en el sector forestal exigen un arreglo institucional que combine el apoyo estatal y la gobernanza privada de la deuda en sus ámbitos financiero, social y ecológico, para que la acumulación se produzca en tales términos. Se sugiere, sin pretensión de universalidad, que el caso de los bonos verdes en el sector forestal en Brasil es un fenómeno financiero y ecológico novedoso, e ilumina el rompecabezas del capitalismo en la trama de la vida y el análisis de las nuevas fronteras de la miseria planificada.

For whom do we transform our built environment? The answer may seem obvious, since architecture, in theory, is conceived for humans and for the emancipation of communities. However, it is clear that architecture has moved away in many ways from this initial purpose. Making our cities increasingly attractive through ambitious urban renovation campaigns, with renewed public spaces and neighbourhoods, has led to issues that are the consequences of an urbanism of exclusion. These include gentrification, social tensions and mass tourism. Recently, this situation has caused some to consider architecture and urbanism in a more inclusive way, from the perspective of neighbourhood communities and for the common good. Inherited from the twentieth century, participation processes, which are related directly with reclaiming the city, are now re-emerging in urban and architectural processes in democratic administrations. Sustainable, resilient, inclusive urban regeneration means working with inhabitants when cities are transformed, giving them the opportunity to collaborate in the city's creation. Today, these processes are evolving. New creative artistic tools are emerging that are changing the modus operandi. However, there are many gaps, with so-called participatory processes that do not guarantee the real participation of local communities. It seems that there are still many doubts and misunderstandings about how to define participatory architecture and its processes, and there is a real need for a paradigm shift. The aim of this research is to provide an updated definition and interpretation of participation in architecture in urban spaces. The thesis is organised into three parts: (1) Retrospective, (2) Tools and (3) Co-creation Experiments. The first part (1) consists of an organised retrospective of participation in history, to clarify the concept and understand all its facets. The second part (2) examines the creation of methodology for participatory action with new and traditional tools (information and communication technology, mapping, big data cartographies, artistic and creative tools such as urban sketching, tactical planning, opinion polls and collaborative websites, among others). This is achieved by classifying the tools into a taxonomy, generated through an analysis of several past and recent case studies in which the real stakeholders in urban planning – its users – co-designed the project. By combining the tools, we should be able to build a methodology or a guide for co-creation workshops. Finally, the last part (3) describes experiments in which our students collaborated with the local community, hopefully to encourage a change in habits and mindset. In fact, we show how the momentum should start from universities and education, relying on artistic co-creation as a participatory and project medium. In other words, the idea is to work creatively together for the common good. ; ¿Para quién hacemos arquitectura y ciudad? la respuesta puede parecer obvia, ya que la arquitectura, en teoría, se dedica a construir para la humanidad y la emancipación de sus comunidades. Sin embargo, está claro que también se ha alejado en muchos aspectos de este primer objetivo. Hacer que nuestras ciudades sean cada vez más atractivas a través de ambiciosas campañas de renovación urbana, con espacios públicos y vecindarios renovados, también ha llevado a problemas emergentes, consecuencias de un urbanismo de exclusión. Este último se expresa a través de la gentrificación, tensiones sociales, y turismo de masas. Afortunadamente, esto ha llevado recientemente pensar de una manera más inclusiva desde las comunidades locales. Heredados del siglo XX, los procesos de participación, que están directamente relacionados con la recuperación de la ciudad, ahora están resurgiendo en procesos urbanos y arquitectónicos en administraciones democratizadoras. La regeneración urbana sostenible, resiliente e inclusiva significa trabajar con los habitantes cuando las ciudades se transforman, dándoles la oportunidad de colaborar en la creación de la ciudad. Hoy en día, estos procesos evolucionan: emergen nuevas herramientas artísticas creativas que cambian el modus operandi. Sin embargo, hay muchas brechas actuales, con los llamados procesos participativos que no garantizan la participación real de las comunidades locales. Parece que todavía hay malentendidos sobre lo que es la arquitectura participativa, así como sus procesos, mientras que existe una necesidad real de cambio paradigmático. Esta investigación propone dar una respuesta y una interpretación renovada de la participación en la arquitectura, y más exactamente en los espacios urbanos, organizadas en tres partes: (1) retrospectiva, (2) herramientas y (3) experimentos de co-creación. La primera parte (1) consiste en una retrospectiva organizada de participación en la historia para aclarar su concepto y comprender su diversidad de facetas. La segunda parte (2) revela la creación de una metodología para la acción participativa con herramientas nuevas y tradicionales (tecnología de la información y las comunicaciones, mapeo, cartografías de big data, herramientas artísticas y creativas como bosquejos urbanos, planificación táctica, encuestas de opinión y sitios web colaborativos, entre otros), a través de su clasificación en una taxonomía. La taxonomía se ha generado a través de un análisis de varios estudios de casos históricos y recientes en los que sus usuarias y sus usuarios, co-diseñaron el proyecto. Al combinar las herramientas, deberíamos ser capaces de construir una metodología o una guía para talleres de co-creación. Finalmente, la última parte (3) involucra experimentos en los cuales nuestras y nuestros estudiantes colaboran con la comunidad local, con la esperanza de alentar un cambio en los hábitos y la sensibilidad. De hecho, mostraremos cómo debe comenzar el impulso desde las universidades y la educación, confiando en la co-creación artística como medio participativo y proyectual. En otras palabras, trabajar creativamente juntos por el bien común. ; Pour qui transformons-nous notre environnement bâti? La réponse peut sembler évidente puisque l'architecture, en théorie, conçoit pour l'être humain et pour l'émancipation de ses communautés. Néanmoins, il est clair qu'elle s'est également éloignée à bien des égards de ce premier objectif : la transformation de nos villes afin de les rendre plus attractives, à travers d'ambitieuses campagnes de rénovation urbaine, avec des espaces publics et des quartiers renouvelés, a également conduit à des enjeux émergents, qui sont les conséquences d'un urbanisme de l'exclusion. Ce dernier s'exprime à travers la gentrification (ou embourgeoisement), l'augmentation des tensions sociales ou encore l'abandon à un scénario de tourisme de masse. Ces conséquences ont récemment amené à penser l'urbanisme d'une manière plus inclusive en travaillant avec et depuis les communautés d'un lieu donné. Hérité du XXème siècle, les processus de participation, directement liés à la récupération de la ville, apparaissent désormais dans les outils d'urbanisme reconnus par les administrations démocratiques. Une régénération urbaine durable et flexible, exige de travailler avec les habitants, en leur donnant la possibilité de collaborer directement à la création de la ville. Aujourd'hui, ces processus évoluent : de nouveaux outils artistiques et technologiques créatifs émergent, ce qui change le modus operandi. Cependant, il existe actuellement de nombreuses lacunes, avec des processus soi-disant participatifs qui ne garantissent pas une participation réelle des communautés locales. Il semble qu'il existe encore de nombreux doutes et malentendus sur ce qu'est l'architecture participative ainsi que sur ses processus, alors qu'il y a un réel besoin de changement paradigmatique. Cette recherche a pour objectif d'apporter une réponse et une interprétation renouvelée de la participation appliquée à l'architecture et aux espaces urbains. Cette thèse est organisée en trois parties : (1) Rétrospective, (2) Outils et (3) Expériences de cocréation. La première partie (1) consiste en une rétrospective organisée de la participation qui permet de clarifier son concept et de comprendre la diversité de ses facettes. La deuxième partie (2) met en évidence la création d'une méthodologie d'action participative avec des outils nouveaux et traditionnels (technologies de l'information et de la communication, cartographie, big data, outils artistiques et créatifs tels que l'esquisse urbaine, la planification tactique, les sondages d'opinion et les sites collaboratifs, entre autres). Ces instruments ont été classés dans une taxonomie générée par l'analyse de nombreux cas d'études dans lesquelles les véritables acteurs de l'urbanisme -ses utilisateurs et ses utilisatrices- ont conçu ensemble le projet. En combinant les outils, nous devrions pouvoir construire une méthodologie à l'image d'un guide pour les ateliers de cocréation. Enfin, la dernière partie (3) implique des expériences dans lesquelles nos étudiantes et nos étudiants collaborent avec la communauté locale, dans l'espoir d'encourager un changement d'habitudes et de sensibilité. De fait, nous montrerons comment cet élan devrait commencer depuis l'éducation et le monde universitaire, en s'appuyant sur la cocréation artistique comme médium participatif. En d'autres termes, travailler ensemble, de manière créative et positive, pour le bien commun. ; Postprint (published version)

Den stigende interesse for den "grønne økonomi" som politiske agenda, har øget den globale opmærksomhed for øko-innovation, med problematikker relateret til vandstress identificeret som en af de største flaskehalse, for at opnå bæredygtig økonomisk udvikling og vækst. Vand er en kritisk ressource, og globalt indser flere og flere lande nødvendigheden, af at øge deres innovative kapacitet indenfor vand-sektoren. Med udgangspunkt i evolutionær økonomisk teori sigter denne afhandling på, at udføre en longitudinal og komparativ analyse af vand innovationsdynamikkerne i henholdsvis Kina og Europa. Afhandlingens mål er at vurdere ligheder og forskellige imellem de tendenser og mekanismer, som foregår i de to regioner, med et fokus på at identificere de faktorer, som driver øko-innovationsudvikling indenfor vand-sektoren. Mere specifikt bygger denne afhandling på innovations system begrebsrammen indenfor evolutionær økonomisk teori og inddrager tillige øko-innovation og vand-specifik litteratur. Forskningen føder ind til den stadig meget begrænsede vand innovationsforskning, så vel som grøn økonomi (green economy) og til dels 'catching up' litteraturen. Vi sætter fokus på at belyse de innovative betingelser for grøn økonomi i regioner, som befinder sig på forskellige udviklingstrin. Den empiriske analyse er baseret primært på patentdata, men inddrager også handelsdata i nogle af analyserne. Denne slags data er tidligere, kun i begrænset omfang, blevet anvendt indenfor vand innovationsstudier og endnu mindre indenfor et evolutionært økonomisk teoretisk perspektiv. Afhandlingen sammenligner og analyserer elementerne og dynamikkerne i henholdsvis det kinesiske og det europæiske vand- innovationssystem, fra tre forskellige vinkler. Først identificeres og karakteriseres; a) aktørerne indenfor vand innovations systemer, dernæst b) de drivende kræfter for den teknologiske udvikling og trends i den innovative kapacitet, og endeligt c) i hvilken grad Kina, som en centralt styret planøkonomi og late-mover indenfor grøn økonomi, har indhentet Europa, som er en veludviklet early mover indenfor grøn økonomi. Hovedfundene i denne afhandling er relateret til de klare forskellige i dynamikken indenfor vand innovations kontra øko-innovation i Kinesisk kontekst, hvor offentlige innovatører (universiteter og videns-institutioner) blev fundet til at spille en vigtigere rolle end i Europa indenfor øko-innovation end er tilfældet generelt indenfor vand-innovation. Dette indikerer en bedre association imellem de involverede aktører indenfor øko-innovations og vand- og innovations-lovgivning. Dette er et forventet fund på grund af den kinesiske planøkonomi, men det er ikke tidligere blevet dokumenteret eller diskuteret i analyser af vandsektoren. Derudover, identificeres og analyseres trends og drivkræfter for den samlede (øko) innovative kapacitetsudvikling for vandsektoren i de to regioner. Disse drivers blev fundet at være sammenlignelige og stærkt relateret til både dn nationale innovative strategier, såvel som de nationale budgetter, miljølovgivningen i regionen og udviklingen af R&D i sektoren. Generelt har Europa en højere (øko) innovativ kapacitet, men afhandlingen indikerer, at Kina i stigende grad øger sin innovative kapacitet i vandsektoren relativt til Europa. Specifikt blev det fundet at Kina er ved at indhente Europa på markedsplan, på trods af at de stadig på patentmæssigt ligger på et væsentligt lavere niveau end Europa. Begge regioner udviser sammenlignelige øko-innovative mønstre, med et vedvarende stærkt fokus på traditionelle vandforurenings- og spildevandsrensnings teknologier. Dette demonstrerer, at der stadig findes et stort uudforsket potentiale for grøn forretningsudvikling relateret til vandbesparelse og vand genindvinding i begge regioner som vil være vigtige for at sikre en fremtidig bæredygtig udvikling på vandområdet. Sammenfattende bidrager afhandlingens analyse til en mere nuanceret forståelse af vandinnovationsdynamikker såvel som globale vandinnovationstrends end hidtil. Nye bidrag til innovationssystemforskningen er den kombinerede belysning af mikroaspekter af vand innovationsdynamikkenerne (aktørerne), den økonometriske analyse af drivkræfter for innovations kapaciteten såvel som den longitudinale analyse af catch-up baseret på kombinerede patent og handelsdata indenfor forskellige teknologiske udviklingsspor. Den udviklede taxonomi for vand innovation samt listen over vandhandelsdata kan anvendes som nye indikatorer for øko-innovationsudviklingen og diffusionen i vandsektoren. På grund af emnets kompleksitet og den begrænsede forskning hidtil indenfor området og visse datamæssige begrænsninger, samt det forhold at mange nye grønne vand politiske tiltag i Kina endnu ikke reflekteres i de anvendte data, er resultaterne af de empiriske analyser ikke helt entydige. På nogle områder bevæger Kina sig imod Europæiske niveauer, hvorimod andre indikatorer er uændrede. Yderligere analyser er nødvendige for at opnå en mere komplet forståelse af dynamikkerne i vandinnovationssystemerne i både Kina og Europa. ; The recent rise of the 'green economy' agenda has increased the attention to eco-innovations globally, with issues related to water stress identified as one of the major bottlenecks for sustainable economic growth. Water being a critical resource, more and more countries worldwide are recognizing the need for increasing their innovative capacity within the water sector. Using evolutionary economic theory, this thesis undertakes a longitudinal and comparative analysis of the water innovation dynamics in Europe and China, representing respectively a developed, green early mover economy, and a centrally-planned economy and green late mover. The thesis aims to assess the similarities and differences in the mechanisms applied across these two regions, with a focus on outlining what drives eco-innovation development in the water sector. The thesis builds more specifically on the innovation system framework within evolutionary economic theory, as well as draws on eco-innovation and water specific literature. The analysis seeks to contribute to the still limited water innovation dynamics research, as well as the green economy and to some degree the 'catching up' literature, highlighting the innovation conditions of the green economy in regions with different stages of development. The empirical analysis is based primarily on patent data but also draws in trade data for some of the analysis. These data have been little used in water innovation studies and even less situated within an evolutionary economic theoretical perspective. The thesis compares and contrasts the elements and dynamics of the Chinese and European water innovation systems, working on multiple levels. The thesis identifies and characterizes: a) the actors of the water innovation system, b) trends in innovative capacity and the driving forces of the technological development, and c) the degree of Chinese catching up to Europe, both in general as well as related to different technological patterns of eco-innovation in the water sector. The main findings of the thesis are related to the clear differences in the dynamics of water innovation versus water eco-innovations in the Chinese context, where public innovators (universities and knowledge institutions) are found to have a more important role than in Europe in the development of eco-innovation – as opposed to the development of "general" water innovations. This points towards a better association among the actors involved in performing eco-innovation and the water regulations and innovation policies. This alignment is expected given the planned economy of China, but which has not been previously documented or discussed for the water sector. Additionally, the thesis identified and analysed the drivers for the overall (eco) innovative capacity development of the water sector in the two regions, and found them to be similar and strongly related to the national innovative strategy, as well as to public budgets, environmental regulations and R&D development. Generally, Europe presents a higher water (eco) innovative capacity; nevertheless, the thesis also indicates that China is increasing its innovative capacity in the water sector relative to Europe. In particular it could be seen that China is in the process of a "market" technological catch-up while remaining at a much lower patenting innovative performance level than Europe. Both regions present similar eco-innovative patterns, with a strong remaining focus on traditional water pollution technologies and wastewater treatment. This demonstrates there is still a huge potential for green business development related to water conservation and water recovery in both regions that hasn't been explored yet and may become crucial to the future transition towards sustainability. Overall, the analysis of the thesis contributes to a more nuanced understanding of water innovation dynamics, as well as global water innovation trends than has been conducted to-date. Novel contributions include the combined analysis of the micro aspects of water innovation dynamics, the econometric analysis of innovative capacity drivers, as well as the longitudinal catch-up analysis of combined patent and trade data, including the discussion of the development of different water technological trajectories. The suggested taxonomy for water (eco-) innovations and the trade data list of water technologies can be used as novel indicators to analyse eco-innovation developments and diffusion in the water sector. Given the limited prior research to draw on and limitations regarding data availability, as well as the many very recent green water policy tendencies in China whose effects are yet to be seen, the empirical results of this thesis are not that clear cut. In some respects, China is catching up in water innovations, in other respects not. Further analyses are needed to provide a more thorough understanding of the water innovation performances and dynamics of the European and Chinese water innovation systems.

*This series is the result of an adaptation of a paper presented as part of a seminar on "Theories and Research in International Relations" at Hebrew University, July 2012. Commentaries are welcome to daniel.wajner@mail.huji.ac.il In the first article of this series we have introduced the debates on the ontology of power and the ways in which these debates have influenced the theoretical divisions in International Relations (IR). In this second article we will present the main epistemological approaches of the different paradigms, leading to controversies on the mechanisms involved in the activation of power and its dimensions.Mechanisms of Power: different theoretical approachesOur first step is to address the questions "how power is activated" and "how power proceeds once it is activated". Scholars of diverse backgrounds proposed different approaches to answer those questions, leading us to the possibility of dealing with the controversies around the epistemology of power.According to the realist tradition, as explained previously, the regular way by which actors operate to assert control over the others and the system is coercion. Through the manipulation of material resources (either via sanctions or inducements), an actor could generate changes in the other's actor conduct even in contrary of their interests. As main representatives of the neo-realist paradigm, Waltz and Mearsheimer went one step forward when they affirmed that the distribution of military capabilities constitutes the best measurable expression of power1; and consequently, that the display of alterations in capabilities is what explains the main changes in decision-making.However, most of the neo-realists tend to accept another way to activate power that is based on the concept of socialization. Although renowned for being "mentioned" by Waltz himself, the concept is in fact developed by other scholars, among them Ikenberry and Kupchan, who move large away from Waltz. They explain the mechanisms and conditions of socialization using the neorealist scheme but, unlike Waltz, Ikenberry and Kupchan incorporate the "normative" element as "a different aspect of power" which guides the state's behavior.2 Moreover, they assume a pseudo-liberal perspective on the role of specific agents (elites) in providing systemic change, undermining the unitary actor assumption and thus abandoning the structuralist approach that neo-realists have usually adopted.Ikenberry and Kupchan seek to describe how hegemonic powers have a tendency to activate processes of socialization, through which secondary countries internalize the norms of the hegemon. According to them, socialization occurs primarily when countries suffer the fragmentation of internal coalitions (especially after wars and political crisis), stimulating certain elites to embrace the norms that the hegemon is articulating. If the receptivity and realignment of the elites is linked with coercive power, norms could be consolidated as well as the policies in line with them (albeit this order may vary depending on whether the socialization is carried through normative persuasion, external inducement or internal reconstruction).3 It is important to note that this is a "one-player" argument; the authors say little about "real" cases - where there are many candidates to hegemony and the socialization processes are "in competition". This appears as a very interesting research agenda for the future.The eighties and nineties developed other interesting realist approaches who explore ideational elements in power analysis. One of them is the Krasner's approach on institutional power, which consists of a "metapower" that has indirect control over outcomes by changing the setting of the confrontation.4 Baldwin went also in that direction by embedding what he called the paradox of unrealized power, in which the will of using the power is a resource by itself.5 Likewise, Walt´s theory about the balance of threat adds aggressive intentions as a main variable, what makes power not a function of material resources but of inter-subjective factors.6 The three went clearly beyond neorealist assumptions.Of course the incorporation of normative elements to analyze power relationships did not only emerge in the realist tradition, but also in the liberal one, the natural candidate. The most famous liberal twist came recently from Nye's soft power concept.7 Accepting coercion" and inducement as two relevant forms of displaying power, Nye suggests co-opting as "a third dimension of power" which affects behavior without being commanded through threats or payments, but through attracting with indirect resources (such as values, culture and policies). This "soft" version of power, argues the prestigious scholar, becomes crucial in a global information era in which "winning hearts and minds" matters more and more; an era in which hard sower and soft power are required to be connected (in what he calls smart power) in order to enable the legitimate use of power, as the war in Irak showed to the United States.Is not casual that Nye writes from a (North)American perspective in a period of time in which their legitimacy was so questioned; anyhow, his concept was rapidly attributed to other situations. Despite the popularity of Nye's scheme, the theoretical contribution is still weak. As Guzzini argued years before, it is clear that "power alone is not what we are looking for"8- what is lacking is an approach that could address the causal mechanisms of the different types of power and could identify their devices once they are activated.Guzzini himself will provide an answer to that challenge, by recommending the separation of the two types of power structural power and interactionist power in two different concepts: governance and power.9 Citing economical-rationalist terms, this new dyadic conceptualization examines the interactions between systemic rules (market constraints) and the decisions of the agents (strategic behaviors), in a power analysis. As a constructivist, Guzzini sustains that in this (inter-subjective) relationship of power, the actors change interests and identities, stressing the value of legitimate power (authority) in enabling "a widing realm of possible (in political action)".10 Despite Guzzini paved the way to other constructivist approaches11, he still leaves us with the confusion between the two different stages of the argumentative chain: the first one based on the agent-structure distinction, and the second one on the material-ideal division.Barnett and Duvall would release us from that confusion by presenting their taxonomy of four dimensions of power.12 It combines the two variables presented above with different names; on one side, the expression of the power (actor's interactions vs. structural constitution), and on the other side the specificity of the power relations (direct connection vs. diffuse relation).13 The analytic combination leads us to four types in which power operates: compulsory, institutional, structural and productive. Therefore, while in a simultaneous power analysis, one side would explain what is "possible" (closer to the Compulsory corner), the other one would explain what is "legitimate-desirable" (closer to the Productive corner).14Once this has been approached, the next challenge consists of transferring these theoretical understanding to a methodological scheme for power analysis in IR. This will be addressed on the next and last part of the series.1 John Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great power Politics (NYC: Norton, 2001); Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics. (NYC: McGraw-Hill, 1979)2 John G. Ikenberry and Charles A. Kupchan, "Socialization and hegemonic power", International Organization 44, No3 (Summer 1990), p. 284.3 Ibid., p. 290-2914Stephen D. Krasner, "Regimes and the Limits of Realism: Regimes as Autonomous Variables", International Organization 36 (Spring 1982), 497-5105 David A. Baldwin, Paradoxes of Power (NYC: Basil Blackwell, 1989).6 Stephen Walt, The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987)7 Joseph S. Nye, Soft Power- The Means to Success in World Politics.8 Stefano Guzzini, "Structural power: the limits of neorealist power analysis", International Organization 47, No3 (Summer 1993), p.478.9 Ibid.,, p.471.10 Stefano Guzzini, "Structural power: the limits of neorealist power analysis", p.477.11 In that sense, Hurd presents a similar conclusion to pose legitimacy as an ordering principle at IR, building also on Weber´s approach at the beginning. Another concept that might be reminded in constructivist literature is Risse´s "normative power", that although lacks the "material side", it contributed to highlight the devices of the "logic of truth-seeking arguing" (considered as "the power of the better argument").12 Michael Barnett and Raymond Duvall, "Power in International Politics", 48-57.13 Although is true that Barnett-Duvall do not present this as hard power vs. soft power, with the examples given it is possible to infer that applies a similar logic.14 Ibid., p.44. Fabian Daniel Wajner is a Research and Teaching Assistant at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Department of International Relations) and a Fellow of the Liweranth Center for Latin America Studies.

In the last decade of the 20th century, profound social and urban changes took place in the ports of Iquique and Pisagua, in northern Chile. This meant the advent of a new mindset which was modern, liberal and marked by relations imposed by the capitalist model. They were new cities, different from the Spanish-colonial root, without foundation date or military-management strategy. They arose without links to the past, organized by a new institution formed by liberal politicians, business people and enlightened businessmen, and with the sole purpose of fulfilling the role assigned by modern technique of commercial nexus and services in the product flow of nitrate explotation. It is there, where a theater that hosted the aspirations and social conventions of the ruling class was built. It was the economic boom of the nitrate cycle, where opulence was the attitude that characterized the society at that time, promoting the construction of buildings that recalled the great European theaters, hosting the refinement of social events and lyric-dramatic singing entertainment. Thus the nitrate towns joined the route of the major theater companies in their journey through the world, giving both European immigrants that settled in these desert land and locals, representative of the ruling elite, to reproduce the social and cultural European world. So the theaters were prominent landmarks of the city, as a testimony of that time, and showing the golden past of the nitrate economic boom period. In parallel, the emergence of the working class and social crisis, marked the social and cultural process of the boom phase of nitrate cities with special features. It was on the opposite scenario where another phenomenon emerged, linked with socio-spatial transformations associated with the industrial era, the development of the working class. A process that spread from Europe to America by the cities that were adhering to the industrialization process. The massive concentration of workers in the nitrate offices was the substrate for the origin and expansion of the labor movement that was born in the struggle for its social demands. It was also the basis for the development of guild and mutual associations which were accompanied by illustrated movements that saw in education and culture, the solution to overcome the state of deprivation in which they lived. Thus, the forms of social organization and representation, with the spread of theatrical performances, with operettas and farces, with philharmonics and estudiantinas. It is there where an inner transgressive theatrical endeavour arose, and moved away from conventional buildings of the ruling class and stuck to the mutual and philanthropic societies, building a testimony that was highlighted not by material but by their works. In this definition of context, the crisis that marked the end of the nitrate cycle indicated the decline of the bourgeois theater which disappears with the ruling classes that leave the cities and nitrate offices. However, the theater that emerges is reinvented and represents the middle and lower classes. Until that time, these classes were away from the stage. This process will be supported by the welfare state promoting the creation of new spaces for performances, and by the strengthening of a national theatre. The hypothesis raised focused the study on the imaginary of modernity and its catalytic spread, of improvement by the sake of improvement. At the same time, the partial vision that triggered modern thinking validated the idea of a bounded world of relationships, ignoring the multiplicity of processes that constitutes it. The history of theater in Chile is related to the social history of the process of the occupation of space, inseparable, like all processes in space and time, of the multiple existing links between political, economic, and cultural factors that are expressed in a spatial taxonomy of accumulation, production and space occupation. ; En la última década del siglo XIX afloraron en los puertos de Iquique y Pisagua, en el norte de Chile, profundas transformaciones sociales y urbanas dando cuenta de la instalación en la sociedad de una nueva mentalidad, moderna, liberal y marcada por las relaciones que impuso el modelo capitalista. Eran nuevas ciudades, distintas a las de raíz hispano-colonial, sin fecha de fundación ni afán de estrategia administrativa-militar. Surgieron, sin recurrir al pasado, organizada por una nueva institucionalidad formada por políticos liberales, empresarios e ilustrados hombres de negocio, y con el sólo objeto de cumplir con el rol que la técnica moderna le asignaba, la de nexo comercial y de servicios en la circulación del producto de la explotación del recurso del salitre. Es allí donde surgió un teatro que acogió las aspiraciones y convenciones sociales de la clase dirigente. Se vivía el periodo de auge económico del ciclo del salitre, donde la opulencia fue la actitud que caracterizó a la sociedad en aquel momento, amparando la edificación de salas, que rememoraban a los grandes teatros europeos, acogiendo el refinamiento del evento social y del espectáculo del canto lírico y dramático. De este modo las ciudades del salitre se integraron al itinerario de las principales compañías de teatro en su periplo por el mundo, concediendo tanto a migrantes europeos que poblaron estas tierras desérticas como a los nacionales, representantes de la elite dirigente, para que reprodujeran el mundo cultural y social europeo. Las salas de teatro quedaron así, en sitios destacados de la ciudad, como testimonio de aquella época, dando cuenta del pasado portentoso que se vivió alrededor del auge económico del salitre. En forma paralela, la emergencia de la clase obrera y la crisis social marcó con un selló el proceso social y cultural de la etapa de auge de las ciudades del salitre. Fue en el escenario opuesto donde surgió otro fenómeno socio-espacial asociado a las transformaciones de la era industrial, el desarrollo de la clase obrera. Un proceso que se expandió desde Europa hacia América, por las ciudades que fueron adhiriendo al proceso de industrialización. La concentración masiva de trabajadores en las oficinas salitreras fue el sustrato para el origen y expansión del movimiento obrero, que nació en busca de sus reivindicaciones sociales. Asimismo, fue la base para el desarrollo de la asociatividad gremial y mutualista, la que estuvo acompañada por movimientos ilustrados que vieron en la educación y en la cultura la forma de superación del estado de postración en que se encontraban. En ella, las formas de organización y representación social actuaron a través de las cofradías de la Fiesta de la Tirana, con el teatro que se fue masificando, con zarzuelas y sainetes, con filarmónicas y estudiantinas. Es allí donde surgió un quehacer teatral interiormente transgresor, que se alejó de los edificios convencionales de la clase dirigente y se apegó al de las mutuales y sociedades filantrópicas, edificando un testimonio que no se destacó por lo material sino por sus obras. En esta delimitación del contexto, la crisis que marcó el fin del ciclo del salitre señaló el declive del teatro burgués, el que desaparece con las clases dirigentes que abandonan las ciudades y oficinas salitreras. No obstante, el teatro que se reinventa y emerge es el que representa a las clases media y populares, hasta ese momento, las clases alejadas de los escenarios. Un proceso que va a estar sostenido por el estado benefactor con el apoyo a la creación de nuevos espacios de representación, y por el afianzamiento de un teatro con carácter nacional, que tomando cuerpo en la zona central del país, va a llegar a un punto de auge con la llamada "Etapa de Oro" del teatro chileno, y que va a irradiar hacia las regiones. La hipótesis levantada centró su estudio en el imaginario de la modernidad y en su propagación catalizadora, de la superación por la superación. A la vez, la visión parcializada que impulsó el pensamiento moderno instauro la idea de un mundo acotado de relaciones, desconociendo la multiplicidad de procesos que la constituyen. La historia del teatro en Chile se relaciona con la historia social de los procesos de ocupación del espacio, inseparable, como todo proceso en el espacio y en el tiempo, de los múltiples vínculos existentes entre procesos políticos, económicos, y culturales que se expresan en una taxonomía espacial, de acumulación, producción, y ocupación del espacio. ; Postprint (published version)

In the last decade of the 20th century, profound social and urban changes took place in the ports of Iquique and Pisagua, in northern Chile. This meant the advent of a new mindset which was modern, liberal and marked by relations imposed by the capitalist model. They were new cities, different from the Spanish-colonial root, without foundation date or military-management strategy. They arose without links to the past, organized by a new institution formed by liberal politicians, business people and enlightened businessmen, and with the sole purpose of fulfilling the role assigned by modern technique of commercial nexus and services in the product flow of nitrate explotation. It is there, where a theater that hosted the aspirations and social conventions of the ruling class was built. It was the economic boom of the nitrate cycle, where opulence was the attitude that characterized the society at that time, promoting the construction of buildings that recalled the great European theaters, hosting the refinement of social events and lyric-dramatic singing entertainment. Thus the nitrate towns joined the route of the major theater companies in their journey through the world, giving both European immigrants that settled in these desert land and locals, representative of the ruling elite, to reproduce the social and cultural European world. So the theaters were prominent landmarks of the city, as a testimony of that time, and showing the golden past of the nitrate economic boom period. In parallel, the emergence of the working class and social crisis, marked the social and cultural process of the boom phase of nitrate cities with special features. It was on the opposite scenario where another phenomenon emerged, linked with socio-spatial transformations associated with the industrial era, the development of the working class. A process that spread from Europe to America by the cities that were adhering to the industrialization process. The massive concentration of workers in the nitrate offices was the substrate for the origin and expansion of the labor movement that was born in the struggle for its social demands. It was also the basis for the development of guild and mutual associations which were accompanied by illustrated movements that saw in education and culture, the solution to overcome the state of deprivation in which they lived. Thus, the forms of social organization and representation, with the spread of theatrical performances, with operettas and farces, with philharmonics and estudiantinas. It is there where an inner transgressive theatrical endeavour arose, and moved away from conventional buildings of the ruling class and stuck to the mutual and philanthropic societies, building a testimony that was highlighted not by material but by their works. In this definition of context, the crisis that marked the end of the nitrate cycle indicated the decline of the bourgeois theater which disappears with the ruling classes that leave the cities and nitrate offices. However, the theater that emerges is reinvented and represents the middle and lower classes. Until that time, these classes were away from the stage. This process will be supported by the welfare state promoting the creation of new spaces for performances, and by the strengthening of a national theatre. The hypothesis raised focused the study on the imaginary of modernity and its catalytic spread, of improvement by the sake of improvement. At the same time, the partial vision that triggered modern thinking validated the idea of a bounded world of relationships, ignoring the multiplicity of processes that constitutes it. The history of theater in Chile is related to the social history of the process of the occupation of space, inseparable, like all processes in space and time, of the multiple existing links between political, economic, and cultural factors that are expressed in a spatial taxonomy of accumulation, production and space occupation. ; En la última década del siglo XIX afloraron en los puertos de Iquique y Pisagua, en el norte de Chile, profundas transformaciones sociales y urbanas dando cuenta de la instalación en la sociedad de una nueva mentalidad, moderna, liberal y marcada por las relaciones que impuso el modelo capitalista. Eran nuevas ciudades, distintas a las de raíz hispano-colonial, sin fecha de fundación ni afán de estrategia administrativa-militar. Surgieron, sin recurrir al pasado, organizada por una nueva institucionalidad formada por políticos liberales, empresarios e ilustrados hombres de negocio, y con el sólo objeto de cumplir con el rol que la técnica moderna le asignaba, la de nexo comercial y de servicios en la circulación del producto de la explotación del recurso del salitre. Es allí donde surgió un teatro que acogió las aspiraciones y convenciones sociales de la clase dirigente. Se vivía el periodo de auge económico del ciclo del salitre, donde la opulencia fue la actitud que caracterizó a la sociedad en aquel momento, amparando la edificación de salas, que rememoraban a los grandes teatros europeos, acogiendo el refinamiento del evento social y del espectáculo del canto lírico y dramático. De este modo las ciudades del salitre se integraron al itinerario de las principales compañías de teatro en su periplo por el mundo, concediendo tanto a migrantes europeos que poblaron estas tierras desérticas como a los nacionales, representantes de la elite dirigente, para que reprodujeran el mundo cultural y social europeo. Las salas de teatro quedaron así, en sitios destacados de la ciudad, como testimonio de aquella época, dando cuenta del pasado portentoso que se vivió alrededor del auge económico del salitre. En forma paralela, la emergencia de la clase obrera y la crisis social marcó con un selló el proceso social y cultural de la etapa de auge de las ciudades del salitre. Fue en el escenario opuesto donde surgió otro fenómeno socio-espacial asociado a las transformaciones de la era industrial, el desarrollo de la clase obrera. Un proceso que se expandió desde Europa hacia América, por las ciudades que fueron adhiriendo al proceso de industrialización. La concentración masiva de trabajadores en las oficinas salitreras fue el sustrato para el origen y expansión del movimiento obrero, que nació en busca de sus reivindicaciones sociales. Asimismo, fue la base para el desarrollo de la asociatividad gremial y mutualista, la que estuvo acompañada por movimientos ilustrados que vieron en la educación y en la cultura la forma de superación del estado de postración en que se encontraban. En ella, las formas de organización y representación social actuaron a través de las cofradías de la Fiesta de la Tirana, con el teatro que se fue masificando, con zarzuelas y sainetes, con filarmónicas y estudiantinas. Es allí donde surgió un quehacer teatral interiormente transgresor, que se alejó de los edificios convencionales de la clase dirigente y se apegó al de las mutuales y sociedades filantrópicas, edificando un testimonio que no se destacó por lo material sino por sus obras. En esta delimitación del contexto, la crisis que marcó el fin del ciclo del salitre señaló el declive del teatro burgués, el que desaparece con las clases dirigentes que abandonan las ciudades y oficinas salitreras. No obstante, el teatro que se reinventa y emerge es el que representa a las clases media y populares, hasta ese momento, las clases alejadas de los escenarios. Un proceso que va a estar sostenido por el estado benefactor con el apoyo a la creación de nuevos espacios de representación, y por el afianzamiento de un teatro con carácter nacional, que tomando cuerpo en la zona central del país, va a llegar a un punto de auge con la llamada "Etapa de Oro" del teatro chileno, y que va a irradiar hacia las regiones. La hipótesis levantada centró su estudio en el imaginario de la modernidad y en su propagación catalizadora, de la superación por la superación. A la vez, la visión parcializada que impulsó el pensamiento moderno instauro la idea de un mundo acotado de relaciones, desconociendo la multiplicidad de procesos que la constituyen. La historia del teatro en Chile se relaciona con la historia social de los procesos de ocupación del espacio, inseparable, como todo proceso en el espacio y en el tiempo, de los múltiples vínculos existentes entre procesos políticos, económicos, y culturales que se expresan en una taxonomía espacial, de acumulación, producción, y ocupación del espacio. ; Postprint (published version)

Human freedom and prosperity have varied enormously among and within countries and regions and have changed drastically over short periods. Social sciences research has begun to illuminate how norms and cultures, as well as legal, political, economic, and social institutions, affect freedom and prosperity, but our understanding of how and why these institutions change remains meager. The researchers who gathered at the National Academy of Sciences in 2010 for a Sackler Symposium sought to give a kick-start to the study of institutional dynamics.

The papers presented vary both in their research methods and in the questions they address. The methods range from theory to econometric studies to detailed cases studies, each seeking to highlight some aspect of how institutions change and what accounts for the differences in institutions that emerge in different settings.

Two of the papers in this volume are analyses of stochastic dynamic systems. One captures a process of contagion by which the new norms governing bilateral exchange may invade a population and become widespread. The other studies the evolution of authority in a society with far-sighted decision makers, who sometimes rationally allow erosion in their long-term control to promote sufficiently better short-term outcomes.

The first of these is Peyton Young's “The Dynamics of Social Innovation” (1), which studies the evolution of norms to be used in bilateral interactions. Agents in Young's network model correspond to nodes that interact with their immediate neighbors and earn payoffs in each interaction that depend on how each party behaves. The agents experiment and learn, so behavior in the system can evolve. The paper discusses how the topology of the network, characteristics of individual learning processes, and the size of the potential improvement affects whether norms are adopted, and how quickly. It turns out that a critical property that superior norms (ones that leads to higher payoffs for all) must have for “fast” adoption is that it must be possible for all members of some local clusters of nodes to profit by adopting the norm, even when the other agents in the network do not adopt. This determinant in turn depends on the size of the gains to adopting the norm, as well as on the nature of the network. The nature of the learning process matters, too. For example, too much experimentation can cause a local group to unlearn their superior norm before it has a chance to spread into the rest of the network.

The second is “A Political Model of Social Evolution” by Daron Acemoglu, Georgy Egorov, and Konstantin Sonin (2), which studies how undemocratic and authoritarian regimes may become progressively more democratic. In their model, choices are made by a changing set of individual decision makers, who rule according to a voting system. Sometimes expanding participation can lead to greater short-run payoffs at the expense of less control in the longer term, and authoritarian regimes may sometimes accept immediate gains even at the risk of reduced control over the longer run. The model provides a framework for studying how the initial state of the system, the payoffs to different actions, and the nature of voting systems affect long-run outcomes of the system. In particular, outcomes can be history-dependent, and change emerges as the combined result of random events and actual choices by the ruling class.

Four of the papers provide general schemata for thinking about a set of issues, from regional and national political leadership and how it affects the evolution of democracy, to the role of international institutions, to the role of norms in promoting economic development both overall and at different stages in development.

Roger Myerson's “Toward a Theory of Leadership and State-Building” (3) surveys his analyses of the problem of nation building, which has both ancient and modern application. The fundamental issues in Myerson's perspective revolve around problems of leadership. On one hand, to gain followers, new leaders must successfully distribute patronage, particularly in times when and places where following the new leader is dangerous. However, the system also needs to provide discipline for the leader, so that promises are kept once the leader gains power. Additionally, for democracy to thrive, it needs to encourage the development of leaders who can establish the credentials and following needed to challenge the existing authority. The paper develops a wide perspective on the groundwork that needs to be laid for nation building, that is, for promoting the development of systems that can evolve into functioning democracies.

Stephen Krasner's “Changing State Structures: Outside In” (4) considers different situations in which, and channels through which, some states deploy purposive strategies to exercise power over other states. His classification covers (i) contracting with basically voluntary agreement of the state that is subject to the influence, (ii) coercion that forces a weaker state to take a particular action or substantially limits its choice set, (iii) institutional power, whereby the stronger state sets the rules of the game of decision-making in the weaker state, (iv) constitutive power, whereby the stronger state establishes the international system within which the weaker state must operate, and (v) productive power, which alters the identities and capabilities of actors in the weaker state. These provide a useful taxonomy and examples for thinking about the interaction between different countries’ institutions and international institutions and organizations.

“Development, Social Norms, and Assignment to Task” by Marcel Fafchamps (5) traces some broad trends in the dynamics of social norms that are required to support different stages in the process of economic development. Developing economies move to greater specialization of labor, requiring more complex interactions to determine efficient allocation of labor to tasks. In the least-developed economies, production occurs in almost self-contained households where workers must be jacks-of-all-trades. As economies develop, families become the basis for small firms that use and eventually employ labor with specialized skills and come to be supervised by the owner or entrepreneur. Finally, as the volume of market transactions grows, large firms arise, with a managerial hierarchy with delegated authority to supervise workers with longer-term employment contracts. Fafchamps examines how the governance of the transactions with workers needs to differ in the different stages, whether the norms and practices appropriate for different stages can coexist or will clash during the dynamics of development, and what this implies for the prospects of successful and speedy development.

In “Individualism, Innovation, and Long-Run Growth,” Yuriy Gorodnichenko and Gerard Roland (6) provide direct and indirect empirical tests supporting the hypothesis that cultures attaching greater social status to innovators experience higher rates of innovation and economic growth. The direct tests use certain cultural scores as independent variables and growth rates as dependent variables. The indirect tests use genetic distance as an instrument for culture, with closer genetic proximity to the US population implying greater cultural similarity.

The last two papers study the roles of two particular but important institutions of development: law (in opposition to custom) and brokerage (facilitating exchange across boundaries).

“Legal Reform in the Presence of a Living Custom: An Economic Approach,” by Gani Aldashev, Jean-Philippe Platteau, and Sake Wham (7) addresses the ability of statutes that empower traditionally disadvantaged groups, such as women, to promote development-enhancing change, even when the statutes conflict with entrenched social norms. Although full enforcement of such laws is rare, by creating an implicit threat to the traditional authorities—loss of face when their decisions are overruled by higher authorities and reduction in the size of the population over which they rule as the disadvantaged populations find better outside options—formal law can shift the bargaining power of parties and lead to changes in outcomes. The paper constructs a theoretical model and offers examples in support.

Finally, “Stabilizing Brokerage” by Katherine Stovel, Benjamin Golub, and Eva Meyersson Milgrom (8) examines one of the most important and puzzling institutions that promotes change through the exchange of goods, services, information, and practices across an otherwise disconnected social network, from one isolated group to another. Agents who do this are called brokers, and their role is problematic. Each side in the transaction may suspect the broker's integrity or impartiality; therefore, brokerage can be fragile. The paper examines and compares three mechanisms that can counter this problem: (i) isolation of brokers into a distinct social group, separated from the transactors, (ii) complete capture of brokers by one side of the transaction, and (iii) grafting of brokerage functions on to other organizations that have separate motives to develop and sustain a reputation for trustworthiness. The authors analyze theoretical considerations and discuss examples of all three, but the inherent fragility of brokerage creates a natural dynamic in which relatively frequent failures are followed by change.

The variety of approaches, in terms of both questions and methods, highlights the richness of this area of research and indeed made for lively discussion at the conference. We hope this collection of papers will serve to broker ideas across disciplines and eventually to deepen social scientists’ understanding of the process of institutional change.

This book contains 20 chapters covering a range of infectious diseases, as well as a few non-infectious diseases such as cancer, and how they greatly affected the course of human history. It explores host-pathogen relationship, transmission routes, evolution, and global spread of infectious diseases including numerous viral, bacterial, protozoal, and helminth infections. It also covers the contribution of pets (dogs and cats), food, hygiene, and climate change in the spread of infectious diseases. This book is a valuable resource for students, practitioners and researchers working in global health and anyone interested in the understanding of the basis of disease.

The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) is an international standard to promote open and accountable management of natural resources. By encouraging governments, extractive companies, civil society and the public to engage in discourse around transparency of the extractive sector, it aims to facilitate the management of a country's natural resource wealth to benefit all its citizens. The objective of this report is to present, in a structured form, data categories and their reporting formats, that can be used to standardize information generated under each EITI Requirement. The review conducted for this study included a sample of recent EITI Country Reports, as well as other initiatives and industry standards. 'Good' refers to reporting standards that meet the minimum data to be provided under each EITI Requirement. 'Better' typically refers to reporting standards that are enhancements of data covered under the good category. 'Best' refers to standard formats for reporting data that represent the highest international benchmarks and are considered to provide comprehensive information, beyond the minimum data requirements. The research team recommends a step by step approach to this, starting with a specific set of Requirements, across a number of countries. This would allow the EITI International Secretariat to develop a set of comparable statistics for various reporting entities, as well as start constructing guidelines for EITI implementers.