Acknowledgments Research reported in this publication was supported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the University of Melbourne, Public Health England, the Norwegian Institute of Public Health, the National Institute on Aging of the National Institutes of Health (award P30AG047845), and the National Institute of Mental Health of the National Institutes of Health (award R01MH110163). Aruna M Kamath is funded by the National Institutes of Health (T32GM086270). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation or the National Institutes of Health. Lucas Guimarães Abreu acknowledges Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - Brasil (CAPES) - Código de Financiamento 001, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) (404710/2018-2 and 310797/2019-5), Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa de Minas Gerais (FAPEMIG), and Pró-Reitoria de Pesquisa (PRPq) of Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. Olatunji O Adetokunboh was supported by the National Research Foundation, and Department of Science and Innovation, South Africa. Syed Mohamed Aljunid would like to acknowledge the Department of Health Policy and Management, Faculty of Public Health, Kuwait University, Kuwait and International Centre for Casemix and Clinical Coding, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Malaysia, Malaysia for the approval and support to participate in this research project. Marcel Ausloos, Adrian Pana, and Claudiu Herteliu are partially supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research and Innovation, CNDS-UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P4-ID-PCCF-2016-0084. Claudiu Herteliu and Adrian Pana are partially supported by a grant of the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research and Innovation, CNDS-UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P2-2.1-SOL-2020-2-0351. Derrick A Bennett receives support from the Oxford National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the National Health Service (NHS), the NIHR, or the Department of Health and Social Care. Felix Carvalho and Eduarda Fernandes acknowledge UID/MULTI/04378/2019 and UID/QUI/50006/2019 support with funding from FCT/MCTES through national funds. Joao Conde acknowledges the European Research Council, ERC starting grant agreement No 848325. Vera Marisa Costa acknowledges her grant (SFRH/BHD/110001/2015), received by Portuguese national funds through Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT), IP, under the Norma Transitória DL57/2016/CP1334/CT0006. Sagnik Dey acknowledges the support of the Centre of Excellence for Research on Clean Air (CERCA) and IIT Delhi for the institute chair position. Santosh Gaihre acknowledges the GCRF SAFEWATER Project, Ulster University, Northern Ireland. Sheikh Mohammed Shariful Islam acknowledges support from fellowships and funding from NHMRC and National Heart Foundation of Australia. Oommen John is recipient of an UIPA scholarship through University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, Australia. Md Nuruzzaman Khan acknowledges the support of Jatiya Kabi Kazi Nazrul Islam University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh. Yun Jin Kim was supported by the Research Management Centre, Xiamen University Malaysia, Malaysia (XMUMRF/2020-C6/ITCM/0004). Sindhura Lakshmi Koulmane Laxminarayana acknowledges support provided by Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, India. Kewal Krishan is supported by the UGC Centre of Advanced Study (CAS II), awarded to the Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India. Manasi Kumar would like to acknowledge NIH/FIC k43 tw010716-04. Ben Lacey acknowledges support from UK Biobank, the NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, and the BHF Oxford Centre of Research Excellence. Iván Landires is a member of the Sistema Nacional de Investigación (SNI), which is supported by the Panama's Secretaría Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (SENACYT). John J McGrath has been supported by the Danish National Research Foundation (Niels Bohr Professorship), and is employed by The Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research which receives core funding from the Queensland Health. Stefania Mondello acknowledges support from the Italian Ministry of Health (grant number GR-2013-02354960). Jonathan F Mosser acknowledges funding from BMGF (OPP1182474). Bruno Ramos Nascimento was supported in part by CNPq (Bolsa de produtividade em pesquisa, 312382/2019-7), by the Edwards Lifesciences Foundation (Every Heartbeat Matters programme 2020), and by FAPEMIG (grant APQ-000627-20). Shuhei Nomura acknowledges support from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (MEXT). Oluwakemi Ololade Odukoya was supported by the Fogarty International Center of the National Institutes of Health under award number K43TW010704. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. Alberto Ortiz was supported by FIS/Fondos FEDER (PI18/01366, PI19/00588, PI19/00815, DTS18/00032, ERA-PerMed-JTC2018 (KIDNEY ATTACK AC18/00064 and PERSTIGAN AC18/00071, ISCIII-RETIC REDinREN RD016/0009), Sociedad Española de Nefrología, FRIAT, Comunidad de Madrid en Biomedicina B2017/BMD-3686 CIFRA2-CM. Jagadish Rao Padubidri acknowledges the Manipal Academy of Higher Education Mangalore, Mangalore, India for their constant support. George C Patton is supported by an NHMRC senior principal research fellowship. Alberto Raggi is supported by a grant from the Italian Ministry of Health (Ricerca Corrente, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico C. Besta, Linea 4 Outcome Research: dagli Indicatori alle Raccomandazioni Cliniche). Bhageerathy Reshmi acknowledges support from Manipal College of Health Professions, Manipal, India. Daniela Ribeiro acknowledges the financial support from the European Union [FEDER funds through COMPETE, POCI-01-0145-FEDER-029253). Abdallah M Samy acknowledges the support from the Egyptian Fulbright Mission Program, and being a member of the Egyptian Young Academy of Sciences and Technology. Davide Sattin and Silvia Schiavolin acknowledge support by a grant from the Italian Ministry of Health (Ricerca Corrente, Fondazione Istituto Neurologico C Besta, Linea 4 Outcome Research: dagli Indicatori alle Raccomandazioni Cliniche). Francesca Giulia Magnani acknowledges support by a grant from the Italian Ministry of Health GR2016-02365049. Feng Sha and Bingyu Li acknowledge support by the Shenzhen Social Science Fund (Grant No SZ2020C015) and the Shenzhen Science and Technology Program (Grant KQTD20190929172835662). Aziz Sheikh acknowledges the support of the Health Data Research UK BREATHE Hub. João Pedro Silva acknowledges support from grant number UIDB/04378/2020 from the Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit (UCIBIO), supported through Portuguese national funds via FCT/MCTES. David A Sleet acknowledges support from the James F and Sarah T Fries Foundation, The Bizzell Group. Mohammad Reza Sobhiyeh acknowledges support from the Clinical Research Development center of Imam Reza Hospital Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Iran. Joan B Soriano acknowledges support from the Centro de Investigación en Red de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain. Gizachew Assefa Tessema is a recipient of the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) investigator grant (APP1195716). Riaz Uddin is supported by an Alfred Deakin Postdoctoral Research Fellowship. Bhaskaran Unnikrishnan acknowledges Katurba Medical College, Mangalore, India. Charles Shey Wiysonge is supported by the South African Medical Research Council. Sojib Bin Zaman received a scholarship from the Australian Government Research Training Program (RTP) in support of his academic career. Yunquan Zhang acknowledges the Science and Technology Research Project of Hubei Provincial Department of Education (grant number Q20201104) and Middle Aged Technology Innovation Team Project of Hubei Provincial Department of Education (grant number T2020003). ; Peer reviewed ; Publisher PDF
Background: Universal access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities is an essential human right, recognised in the Sustainable Development Goals as crucial for preventing disease and improving human wellbeing. Comprehensive, high-resolution estimates are important to inform progress towards achieving this goal. We aimed to produce highresolution geospatial estimates of access to drinking water and sanitation facilities. Methods: We used a Bayesian geostatistical model and data from 600 sources across more than 88 low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) to estimate access to drinking water and sanitation facilities on continuous continent-wide surfaces from 2000 to 2017, and aggregated results to policy-relevant administrative units. We estimated mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subcategories of facilities for drinking water (piped water on or off premises, other improved facilities, unimproved, and surface water) and sanitation facilities (septic or sewer sanitation, other improved, unimproved, and open defecation) with use of ordinal regression. We also estimated the number of diarrhoeal deaths in children younger than 5 years attributed to unsafe facilities and estimated deaths that were averted by increased access to safe facilities in 2017, and analysed geographical inequality in access within LMICs. Findings: Across LMICs, access to both piped water and improved water overall increased between 2000 and 2017, with progress varying spatially. For piped water, the safest water facility type, access increased from 40·0% (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 39·4–40·7) to 50·3% (50·0–50·5), but was lowest in sub-Saharan Africa, where access to piped water was mostly concentrated in urban centres. Access to both sewer or septic sanitation and improved sanitation overall also increased across all LMICs during the study period. For sewer or septic sanitation, access was 46·3% (95% UI 46·1–46·5) in 2017, compared with 28·7% (28·5–29·0) in 2000. Although some units improved access to the safest drinking water or sanitation facilities since 2000, a large absolute number of people continued to not have access in several units with high access to such facilities (>80%) in 2017. More than 253 000 people did not have access to sewer or septic sanitation facilities in the city of Harare, Zimbabwe, despite 88·6% (95% UI 87·2–89·7) access overall. Many units were able to transition from the least safe facilities in 2000 to safe facilities by 2017; for units in which populations primarily practised open defecation in 2000, 686 (95% UI 664–711) of the 1830 (1797–1863) units transitioned to the use of improved sanitation. Geographical disparities in access to improved water across units decreased in 76·1% (95% UI 71·6–80·7) of countries from 2000 to 2017, and in 53·9% (50·6–59·6) of countries for access to improved sanitation, but remained evident subnationally in most countries in 2017. Interpretation: Our estimates, combined with geospatial trends in diarrhoeal burden, identify where efforts to increase access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities are most needed. By highlighting areas with successful approaches or in need of targeted interventions, our estimates can enable precision public health to effectively progress towards universal access to safe water and sanitation. ; This work was primarily supported by a grant from the Gates Foundation (OPP1132415). LGA has received support from Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (Finance Code 001), Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais. OOA acknowledges the Department of Science and Innovation, National Research Foundation, and DSI/NRF Centre of Excellence for Epidemiological Modelling and Analysis, Stellenbosch, South Africa. SMAl acknowledges the Department of Health Policy and Management, Faculty of Public Health, Kuwait University and International Centre for Casemix and Clinical Coding, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Malaysia for the approval and support to participate in this research project. HTA acknowledges Aksum University. MAu and CH are partly supported by a grant from the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research and Innovation, CNDS-UEFISCDI, project number PN-III-P4-ID-PCCF-2016-0084. AAz acknowledges funding from the Gates Foundation (OPP1171700). ABad is supported by the Public Health Agency of Canada. TWB was supported by the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation through the Alexander von Humboldt Professor award, funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research; the EU; the Wellcome Trust; and from National Institute of Child Health and Human Development of National Institutes of Health (NIH; R01-HD084233), National Institute on Aging of NIH (P01AG041710), National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases of NIH (R01-AI124389 and R01-AI112339), as well as Fogarty International Center of NIH (D43-TW009775). DABen was supported by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Oxford Biomedical Research Centre. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the National Health Service, the NIHR, or the UK Department of Health and Social Care. GBB is supported by Sistema Nacional de Investigación (SNI) de la Secretaría Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (SENACYT) of Panamá. FCar acknowledges UID/ MULTI/04378/2019 and UID/QUI/50006/2019 support with funding from FCT/Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior through national funds. VMC acknowledges her grant (SFRH/BHD/110001/2015), received by Portuguese national funds through Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT), IP, under the Norma Transitória DL57/2016/CP1334/CT0006. JDN acknowledges support from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. DBD acknowledges support from the Gates Foundation. KD is supported by a Wellcome Trust grant (number 201900/Z/16/Z) as part of his International Intermediate Fellowship. AGo acknowledges Sistema Nacional de Investigadores de Panamá (SNI), Secretaría Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (SENACYT). CH is partly supported by a grant co-funded by European Fund for Regional Development through the Operational Program for Competitiveness (project ID P_40_382). SMSI is funded by a Fellowship from National Heart Foundation of Australia and Deakin University. MJ and the Serbian part of this GBD contribution was co-funded through grant OI175014 of the Ministry of Education Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia. JK is a recipient of the 2020 Benjamin V Cohen Peace Fellowship from Ball State University Center for Peace and Conflict Studies. YJK's work was supported by the Research Management Centre, Xiamen University Malaysia, grants number XMUMRF/2018-C2/ ITCM/0001. KKr is supported by a DST PURSE grant and UGC Center of Advanced Study awarded to the Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India. BL acknowledges support from the NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre and the British Heart Foundation Centre of Research Excellence, Oxford. PTNM acknowledges the Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa. ANA acknowledges Debre Markos University for its support in-terms of office and internet access while reviewing this paper. AMSam received a fellowship from the Egyptian Fulbright Mission programme. MMS-M acknowledges the support of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (contract number 175087). AShi acknowledges the support of Health Data Research UK. MRS acknowledges the Clinical Research Development Center of Imam Reza Hospital, Kermanshah university of Medical sciences for their wise advice. JBS is part of Centro de Investigación en Red de Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain. RT-S was supported in part by grant PI17/00719 from Instituto de Salud Carlos III–FEDER. BU acknowledges Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal. TWij acknowledges the Migraine Foundation Australia and the Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rajarata, Saliyapura, Anuradhapuraya, Sri Lanka. CSW was supported by the South African Medical Research Council. SBZ received a scholarship from the Australian Government research training program in support of his academic career. ; publishedVersion
Die Bundesregierung hat in vielen Bereichen wichtige Weichen für die Energiewende gestellt. Die entsprechenden Gesetze und Verordnungen sind in den letzten zwei Jahren auf den Weg gebracht worden, um den Ausbau der erneuerbaren Energien, den Netzausbau, den Bau hocheffizienter fossiler Kraftwerke, die Energieeffizienz und Energie-forschung weiter voranzubringen. Aktuelle Zahlen belegen, dass die Ziele zur Erreichung der Energiewende und den damit verbundenen Energie- und CO2-Einsparungen nur mit zusätzlichen Anstrengungen zu erreichen sind (BMWi 2016). Die Stromwende schreitet gut voran; aber die Wärmewende ist noch nicht in Schwung gekommen. Für den Gebäudesektor liegt dies zum einen an der geringen Neubau- und Sanierungsquote sowie zum anderen an der häufig auftretenden Performancelücke. Welche Gründe dazu führen, dass sich die im Vorfeld einer Baumaßnahme ermittelten Bedarfswerte im Betrieb nicht immer einstellen, dieser Frage geht diese Arbeit nach. Die Datenbasis bilden die Ergebnisse zweier Forschungsprojekte in Karlsruhe-Rintheim. Hier wurden drei Gebäuderiegel, welche in den 1950er Jahren erbaut wurden, baukonstruktiv und anlagentechnisch ertüchtigt. Jeder dieser Gebäuderiegel verfügt über drei Eingänge mit jeweils zehn identisch geschnittenen Wohnungen auf fünf Etagen. Somit konnten letztendlich sieben unterschiedliche Sanierungskonzepte umgesetzt werden. Auf Basis einer detaillierten Messdatenanalyse aus zwei Heizperioden werden die nutzerspezifischen Verhaltensweisen herausgearbeitet, die sich nach verschiedenen energetischen Sanierungen in zwei der drei Wohngebäuderiegeln eingestellt haben. Die Analyse der Messdaten hat gezeigt, dass im Gegensatz zur Nutzung der unsanierten Wohnungen tendenziell eine Vergleichmäßigung der Temperaturen innerhalb der Wohnungen vorliegt, und einzelne Räume nicht ausgespart werden. Die vom Nutzer gewünschte Innenraumtemperatur liegt nicht im Bereich der normativen Vorgaben von 19/20 °C, sondern darüber, im Mittel bei 22 °C. Eine Erhöhung der Bilanztemperatur um lediglich 1 K führt zu einem Anstieg des rechnerischen Heizwärmebedarfs von bis zu 16 % je nach Sanierungsvariante. Die internen Gewinne werden erheblich durch die heutige Lebensweise und -form beeinflusst. Aufgrund des demographischen Wandels ist der Wohnflächenverbrauch pro Person gestiegen, gleichzeitig ist auch eine Zunahme an elektrischen Geräten in den Wohnungen zu verzeichnen. Zu beachten ist jedoch, dass die moderneren Geräte deutlich weniger Wärmeentwicklung aufweisen als früher. Im Durchschnitt wurde für die im Betrachtungsgebiet vorzufindende Bevölkerungsstruktur ein Ansatz von 8,9 W/m² - im Vergleich zu 5 W/m² nach Norm - für die internen Gewinne ermittelt. Das Lüftungsverhalten hängt individuell vom Nutzer ab. Trotz Vorhandensein einer maschinellen Lüftungsanlage mit Wärmerückgewinnung (WRG) oder Zwangslüftungselement im Fensterrahmen wird das Fenster vom Nutzer zum Lüften geöffnet. Als Gründe wird bspw. schlechte Luft oder hohe Luftfeuchte angegeben. Die Analyse hat gezeigt, dass dies durch die vorhandenen Messdaten nicht bestätigt werden kann. Allen Nutzern gemeinsam ist, dass bei geringeren Außentemperaturen kleiner 0 °C die Fenster kürzer geöffnet werden als bei Temperaturen größer 0 °C. Das Vorhandensein einer Lüftungsanlage führt nicht unweigerlich zu einem anderen Lüftungsverhalten. Im Zuge der Messdatenanalyse wurden manuelle Fensterluftwechsel im Bereich zwischen 0,19 und 0,44 h-1 ermittelt. Hinzu kommen je nach Sanierungsvariante der Luftwechsel der Lüftungsanlage sowie ggfs. auftretende Leckageströme durch Undichtigkeiten. Dies bedeutet bspw. für eine Sanierungsvariante mit Zwangslüftung (0,44 h-1) eine näherungsweise Übereinstimmung mit dem normativen Ansatz von 0,55 h-1. Mit wachsendem Lebensstandard ist der Wasserverbrauch in den letzten Jahren gestiegen. Für den Bedarf an Trinkwarmwasser können pro Person und Tag rund 40 Liter angesetzt werden; der tatsächliche Verbrauch hängt allerdings stark von den Nutzergewohnheiten ab. Nach Energieeinsparverordnung (EnEV) ist ein Wert von 12,5 kWh/(m²a) für die Berechnung des Trinkwarmwasser-Energiebedarfs anzusetzen. In energieeffizienten Gebäuden kann der Energiebedarf für die Warmwasserbereitung sogar größer sein als der für die Beheizung. Die Auswertung der Messdaten hat gezeigt, dass für die verschiedenen Systeme deutliche Speicher- und Verteilverluste vorhanden sind. Die Messdaten der dezentralen Systeme geben Aufschluss darüber, dass für einen Eingang mit zehn Wohnungen ein jährlicher Verbrauch von 12,0 bis 12,5 kWh/(m²a), also im Rahmen der EnEV, vorliegt. Zwischen einzelnen Nutzern einer Sanierungsvariante sind jedoch deutliche Unterschiede festzustellen. Eine erneute EnEV-Berechnung ergibt unter Berücksichtigung der individuell, aus der Messdatenanalyse ermittelten Parameter, eine breite Varianz in der Streuung der Bedarfswerte. Die Gegenüberstellung mit den witterungsbereinigten Verbrauchswerten zeigt für die meisten Sanierungsvarianten eine Unterschätzung des Bedarfs. Allerdings sind auch Parametervariationen vorzufinden, die die Verbrauchswerte der jeweiligen Jahre einhalten bzw. in deren Bereich liegen. Durch die gewonnenen Ergebnisse können die Aussagen bereits vorliegender Analysen (bspw. Felsmann und Schmidt 2013; Richter et al. 2002) bekräftigt werden. Das individuelle Nutzerverhalten muss unweigerlich zu einer Abweichung zwischen Heizwärmebedarfs- und Verbrauchswerten führen. Ob eine Anpassung der Parameter in der Normung für die Bilanzinnentemperatur, die internen Gewinne oder den Luftwechsel zielführend sein kann, wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit diskutiert, kann aber aufgrund der geringen Stichprobenmenge nicht final beantwortet werden. Abschließend werden zum einen Vorschläge zur Bewusstmachung des Energieverbrauchsverhaltens sowie weitergehende technische Möglichkeiten zur Regelung der Bedarfsparameter und zum anderen mögliche Anforderungen an eine umfassende Energieberatung aufgezeigt. ; The federal German government has set the course for an energy transition in various important areas. Many laws and ordinances have been developed and passed over the last two years, further supporting the expansion of renewable energies and power grids, motivating the construction of highly efficient fossil power plants and driving improvements in energy efficiency and energy research. However, current studies show that the targets for the energy transition and the related reduction of energy consumption and CO2 emissions still require additional efforts (BMWi 2016). The decarbonisation of electricity generation is progressing well; however, a transformation of the "Wärmewende" has hardly yet begun. For the building sector, this is due to the low new construction and refurbishment rates, which are often driven by the frequently occurring performance gap. Why do the expected heat demand values calculated prior to constructions diverge from the actual consumption during the operation of the building? The database rest on the results of two research projects in Karlsruhe-Rintheim. Here, three building blocks, which were built in the 1950s, were upgraded in terms of construction and system engineering. Each of these building blocks has three entrances, each with ten identical apartments on five floors. Thus, seven different refurbishment concepts were finally implemented. This work approaches that question with a detailed measurement data analysis based on two heating periods and six different residential buildings, evaluating the user behavior that has been observed after the energetic refurbishment of these buildings. The data analysis reveals that in contrast to non-renovated apartments with typically different temperatures in individual rooms, there is now a tendency towards equalized temperatures throughout the whole flat. The room temperature favored by the residents is on average 22 °C and thus out of the standardized range of 19 to 20 °C. This difference in interior temperatures leads to an increase of the heating demand by up to 16 %. The internal heat gains are strongly influenced by today's way of life. Due to the demographic change, the floor space consumption per person has risen. At the same time, there is also an increase of electrical appliances in dwellings, with in turn decreasing heat emissions of modern devices. On average, 8.9 W/m² of internal heat gains have been calculated for the population structure in the observed survey area. The ventilation behavior depends on the individual user. Despite of the presence of a mechanical ventilation system with heat recovery or a forced ventilation, the windows are opened by the user for ventilation purposes. The stated reasons are, for example, poor air quality or high humidity. However, the analysis of the measurement data shows that actually this is only extremely rarely the case. It is common to all users that the windows are opened shorter at temperatures below 0 °C, than at temperatures above 0 °C. The presence of a ventilation system does not inevitably lead to a different ventilation behavior. In the course of the measurement data analysis window based air exchange rates in the range between 0.19 and 0.45 h-1 were determined. Together with the air exchange rates of the installed ventilation systems the refurbishment with the forced ventilation reach the standardized air exchange requirement of 0.55 h-1. With the rising living standards also the water consumption increased in recent years. As for the domestic hot water consumption (DHW), about 40 liters per person per day can be estimated; however, the actual consumption depends strongly on the specific user behavior. The German energy saving ordinance EnEV provides a value of 12.5 kWh/(m²a) for the resulting average energy demand. Thus, in very energy-efficient buildings, the energy demand for domestic hot water (DHW) can be even greater than for heating. The evaluation of the measured data has shown significant storage and distribution losses for the various observed DHW systems. The data of the analyzed decentralized DHW systems has shown an average yearly consumption of 12.0 to 12.5 kWh/(m²a), thus being well in accordance with the EnEV. Nevertheless, there are large deviations between individual users. A new energy demand calculation according to EnEV based on the individual specific parameters determined from the measured data analysis shows a wide distribution of the demand values. The comparison with the weather-adjusted actual energy consumption values reveals an underestimation of the energy demand for most evaluated refurbishment scenarios. However, there are also scenarios, which exactly meet the consumption values of the respective year. The obtained results can confirm the results of existing studies (e.g. Felsmann and Schmidt 2013, Richter et al., 2002). The individual user behavior must inevitably lead to a deviation between heat demand and consumption values. Whether an adjustment of the parameters for the inside temperature, the internal heat gains or the air exchange rate in the standardization can be effective to reduce that deviation, cannot be conclusively clarified. Finally, proposals for raising awareness of the energy consumption behaviour as well as further technical possibilities for the regulation of demand parameters and possible requirements for comprehensive energy consulting are shown.
Production of fuel ethanol in the United States has increased ten-fold since 1993, largely as a result of government programs motivated by goals to improve domestic energy security, economic development, and environmental impacts. Over the next decade, the growth of and eventually the total production of second generation cellulosic biofuels is projected to exceed first generation (e.g., corn-based) biofuels, which will require continued expansion of infrastructure for producing and distributing ethanol and perhaps other biofuels. In addition to identifying potential differences in tailpipe emissions from vehicles operating with ethanol-blended or ethanol-free gasoline, environmental comparison of ethanol to petroleum fuels requires a comprehensive accounting of life-cycle environmental effects. Hundreds of published studies evaluate the life-cycle emissions from biofuels and petroleum, but the operation and maintenance of storage, handling, and distribution infrastructure and equipment for fuels and fuel feedstocks had not been adequately addressed. Little attention has been paid to estimating and minimizing emissions from these complex systems, presumably because they are believed to contribute a small fraction of total emissions for petroleum and first generation biofuels. This research aims to quantify the environmental impacts associated with the major components of fuel distribution infrastructure, and the impacts that will be introduced by expanding the parallel infrastructure needed to accommodate more biofuels in our existing systems. First, the components used in handling, storing, and transporting feedstocks and fuels are physically characterized by typical operating throughput, utilization, and lifespan. US-specific life-cycle GHG emission and water withdrawal factors are developed for each major distribution chain activity by applying a hybrid life-cycle assessment methodology to the manufacturing, construction, maintenance and operation of each component. Emissions from activities at the end of life of equipment and infrastructure are not included, as these activities have previously been shown to contribute negligibly to life-cycle emissions. Life-cycle transportation mode GHG emission factors per tonne-kilometer (t-km) are presented for long distance pipelines (5-20 g CO2-e/t-km), ocean tankers (5-17 g/t-km), fuel-carrying barges (31 g/t-km), fuel-carrying unit trains (25 g/t-km), tanker trucks (140-180 g/t-km), and bale-transporting flatbed trucks (200 g/t-km). Life-cycle emission factors are also presented per tonne of material throughput for several types of agricultural equipment (600-19,000 g CO2-e/t handled), fuel conversion facilities (9,000-98,000 g/t), fuel storage and dispensing facilities (2,000-12,000 g/t), and the portion of passenger vehicle operations dedicated to refueling errands (2,000-200,000 g/t). The emissions intensity ranges reported for specific transportation modes are largely due to the greater energy efficiency of larger vehicles and pipelines, and the emissions intensity ranges within stationary storage and handling equipment is often due to differences in utilization of capital equipment and/or material losses during storage and handling activities. Consistent with existing literature, the contribution of non-operation stages to life-cycle GHG emissions ranges from 20% to 40% for most of the components modeled. Criteria air pollutant (NOx, PM2.5, SOx, VOC, CO) emission factors are also presented for the operation stage (e.g., tailpipe only) of each transportation mode. In order to apply the new emission factors to policy-relevant scenarios, a projection is made for the fleet inventory of infrastructure components necessary to distribute 21 billion gallons of ethanol (the 2022 federal mandate for advanced biofuels under the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007) derived entirely from Miscanthus grass, for comparison to the baseline petroleum system. Due to geographic, physical and chemical properties of biomass and alcohols, the distribution system for Miscanthus-based ethanol is more capital- and energy-intensive than petroleum per unit of fuel energy delivered. Assuming steady-state annual turnover, operation, and maintenance of infrastructure to supply the projected quantities of ethanol and petroleum fuels, ethanol is estimated to be approximately five times more GHG and water intensive than petroleum (i.e., GHG emissions of more than 17 g CO2-e/MJ versus 3 g/MJ, and water withdrawals of 380 L/MJ vs. 77 L/MJ of consumed fuel, neglecting feedstock production and conversion). Embodied GHG emissions from manufacturing and maintaining infrastructure, equipment, and vehicles make up less than half of these emissions, at approximately 1 g CO2-e/MJ of petroleum fuel and 8 g CO2-e/MJ of ethanol. Although petroleum fuels are projected to supply twenty times the energy content of ethanol in 2022, the annual GHG and water withdrawal footprint of petroleum's liquid fuel infrastructure and distribution system is slightly less than four times that of ethanol (i.e., 110 vs. 30 million tonnes of CO2-e and 2,500 vs. 640 billion liters of water). Opportunities to significantly reduce emissions include shifting transportation to more efficient modes, consuming products closer to producers, and converting biorefineries to produce fuel with higher energy density than ethanol. Minimizing fuel transportation distance is believed to be the most feasible and cost-effective opportunity to reduce emissions in the near term.The transportation of biofuels away from producer regions poses environmental, health, and economic trade-offs that are herein evaluated using a simplified national distribution network model. In just the last ten years, ethanol transportation within the contiguous United States is estimated to have increased more than ten-fold in total t-km as ethanol has increasingly been transported away from Midwest producers due to air quality regulations pertaining to gasoline, renewable fuel mandates, and the 10% blending limit (i.e., the E10 blend wall). From 2004 to 2009, approximately 10 billion t-km of ethanol transportation are estimated to have taken place annually for reasons other than the E10 blend wall, leading to annual freight costs greater than $240 million and more than 300,000 tonnes of CO2-e emissions and significant emissions of criteria air pollutants from the combustion of more than 90 million liters of diesel. Although emissions from distribution activities are small when normalized to each unit of fuel, they are large in scale.Archetypal fuel distribution routes by rail and by truck are created to evaluate the significance of mode choice and route location on the severity of public health impacts from locomotive and truck emissions, by calculating the average PM2.5 pollution intake fraction along each route. Exposure to pollution resulting from trucking is found to be approximately twice as harmful as rail (while trucking is five times more energy intensive). Transporting fuel from the Midwest to California would result in slightly lower human health impacts than transportation to New Jersey, even though California is more than 50% farther from the Midwest than most coastal Northeast states.In summary, this dissertation integrated concepts from infrastructure management, climate and renewable fuel policy, fuel chemistry and combustion science, air pollution modeling, public health impact assessment, network optimization and geospatial analysis. In identifying and quantifying opportunities to minimize damage to the global climate and regional air quality from fuel distribution, results in this dissertation provide credence to the urgency of harmonizing policies and programs that address national and global energy and environmental goals. Under optimal future policy and economic conditions, infrastructure will be highly utilized and transportation minimized in order to reduce total economic, health, and environmental burdens associated with the entire supply and distribution chain for transportation fuels.
In the two decades since the United States Congress passed the federal Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act, there has been a surge of interest in making urban transportation systems more sustainable. Many agencies, representing all levels of government, have searched for strategies to reduce private automobile use, including policies to shift local driving to pedestrian and bicycle modes. Progress has been made in a number of communities, but the automobile remains the dominant mode of transportation in all metropolitan regions. Sustainable transportation advocates are especially interested in routine travel, such as shopping and other errands, because it tends to be done frequently and for distances that could be covered realistically by walking or bicycling. According to the 2009 National Household Travel Survey, Americans made more trips for shopping than for any other purpose, including commuting to and from work. One-third of these shopping trips were shorter than two miles (3.2 km). However, 76% of these short shopping trips were made by automobile, while only 21% were made by walking and 1% by bicycling. In order to identify effective strategies to change travel behavior, practitioners need a greater understanding of why people choose certain modes for routine travel. Choosing to walk or bicycle rather than travel by automobile may help individuals get exercise, save money, interact with neighbors, and reduce tailpipe emissions. Yet, in some communities, non-motorized modes may also require more time and physical effort to run a series of errands, be less convenient for carrying packages and traveling in bad weather, and be perceived as having a higher risk of traffic crashes or street crime than driving. A mixed-methods approach was used to develop a more complete understanding of factors that are associated with walking or bicycling rather than driving for routine travel. An intercept survey was implemented to gather travel data from 1,003 customers at retail pharmacy stores in 20 San Francisco Bay Area neighborhoods in fall 2009. Follow-up interviews were conducted with 26 survey participants in spring and summer 2010 to gain a deeper understanding of factors that influenced their transportation decisions. The methodological approach makes several contributions to the body of research on sustainable transportation. For example, the study: Explored multiple categories of factors that may be associated with walking and bicycling, including travel, socioeconomic, attitude, perception, and shopping district characteristics. Few studies of pedestrian or bicycle mode choices have included all of these categories of factors. Statistical models showed that variables in all categories had significant associations with mode choice. Documented and analyzed short pedestrian movements, such as from a parking space to a store entrance or from a bus stop to home. These detailed data provided a greater understanding of pedestrian activity than traditional travel survey analyses. Walking was used as the primary mode for 65% of respondent trips between stops within shopping districts, and 52% of all respondents walked along a street or between stops at some time between leaving and returning home. Maps of respondent pedestrian path density revealed distinct pedestrian activity patterns in different types of shopping districts. Used four different approaches to capture participant travel mode information. Respondents reported the primary mode of transportation they were using on the day of the survey, the mode they typically used, and all modes that they would consider using to travel to the survey store. They also mapped all stops on their tour and said what modes they used between each stop. These four approaches revealed nuanced travel habits and made it possible to correct inaccuracies in self-reported primary travel mode data. Measured and tested fine-grained local environment variables in shopping districts rather than around respondents' homes. These variables characterized the shopping district area (e.g., sidewalks, bicycle facilities, metered parking, and tree canopy coverage), the main commercial roadway (e.g., posted speed limit, number of automobile lanes, and pedestrian crossing distance), and the survey store site (e.g., number of automobile and bicycle parking spaces and distance from the public sidewalk to the store entrance). This dissertation adds to the small number of studies that have explored how the characteristics of activity destinations are related to travel behavior. The study results contribute to the body of knowledge about factors that may encourage people to shift routine travel from automobile to pedestrian or bicycle modes. After controlling for travel factors such as time and cost, socioeconomic characteristics, and individual attitudes, mixed logit models showed that automobile use was negatively associated with higher employment density, smaller parking lots, and metered on-street parking in the shopping district. Walking was positively associated with higher population density, more street tree canopy coverage, lower speed limits, and fewer commercial driveway crossings. The exploratory analysis of a small number of bicycle tours found that bicycling was associated with more extensive bicycle facility networks and more bicycle parking. However, people were more likely to drive when they perceived a high risk of crime. Results also suggest the magnitude of mode shifts that could occur if short- and long-term land use and transportation system changes were made to each study shopping district. The mode choice model representing travel only to and from the study shopping districts (N = 388) was used to estimate respondent mode shares under the following three scenarios: 1) double population and employment densities in each study shopping district, 2) double street tree canopy coverage in each study shopping district, and 3) eliminate half of the automobile parking 3 spaces at the survey store. Based on the model, the combination of these three changes could increase pedestrian mode share among the 388 sample respondents from 43% to 61% and decrease automobile mode share from 50% to 31%. This shift could eliminate 129 (13%) of the 983 respondent vehicle miles traveled (208 of the 1,580 respondent vehicle kilometers traveled), and 110 (36%) of the 308 times respondents parked their automobiles in the shopping district. The mode choice model of walking versus driving within survey shopping districts (N = 286) was used to test the combination of the following scenarios: 1) cluster separated stores around shared parking lots, 2) consolidate commercial driveways so that there are half as many driveway crossings along the main commercial roadway, 3) reduce all main commercial roadway speed limits to 25 miles per hour (40 kilometers per hour), and 4) install metered parking in all shopping districts. These changes could increase the percentage of the 286 sample respondents walking between shopping district activities from 32% to 54%. This shift could eliminate 29 (38%) of the 76 respondent vehicle miles traveled (47 of the 122 respondent vehicle kilometers traveled), and 105 (22%) of the 469 times respondents parked their automobiles in the shopping district. Note that these forecasted mode shifts are illustrative examples based on cross-sectional data and do not account for the process of modifying travel behavior habits. Qualitative interviews provided a foundation for a proposed Theory of Routine Mode Choice Decisions. This five-step theory also drew from survey results and other mode choice theories in the transportation and psychology fields. The first step, 1) awareness and availability, determines which modes are viewed as possible choices for routine travel. The next three steps, 2) basic safety and security, 3) convenience and cost, and 4) enjoyment, assess situational tradeoffs between modes in the choice set and are supported by many of the statisticallysignificant factors in the mode choice models. The final step, 5) habit, reinforces previous choices and closes the decision process loop. Socioeconomic characteristics explain differences in how individuals view each step in the process. Understanding each step in the mode choice decision process can help planners, designers, engineers, and other policy-makers implement a comprehensive set of strategies that may be able to shift routine automobile travel to pedestrian and bicycle modes.
In the two decades since the United States Congress passed the federal Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act, there has been a surge of interest in making urban transportation systems more sustainable. Many agencies, representing all levels of government, have searched for strategies to reduce private automobile use, including policies to shift local driving to pedestrian and bicycle modes. Progress has been made in a number of communities, but the automobile remains the dominant mode of transportation in all metropolitan regions.Sustainable transportation advocates are especially interested in routine travel, such as shopping and other errands, because it tends to be done frequently and for distances that could be covered realistically by walking or bicycling. According to the 2009 National Household Travel Survey, Americans made more trips for shopping than for any other purpose, including commuting to and from work. One-third of these shopping trips were shorter than two miles (3.2 km). However, 76% of these short shopping trips were made by automobile, while only 21% were made by walking and 1% by bicycling.In order to identify effective strategies to change travel behavior, practitioners need a greater understanding of why people choose certain modes for routine travel. Choosing to walk or bicycle rather than travel by automobile may help individuals get exercise, save money, interact with neighbors, and reduce tailpipe emissions. Yet, in some communities, non-motorized modes may also require more time and physical effort to run a series of errands, be less convenient for carrying packages and traveling in bad weather, and be perceived as having a higher risk of traffic crashes or street crime than driving.A mixed-methods approach was used to develop a more complete understanding of factors that are associated with walking or bicycling rather than driving for routine travel. An intercept survey was implemented to gather travel data from 1,003 customers at retail pharmacy stores in 20 San Francisco Bay Area neighborhoods in fall 2009. Follow-up interviews were conducted with 26 survey participants in spring and summer 2010 to gain a deeper understanding of factors that influenced their transportation decisions. The methodological approach makes several contributions to the body of research on sustainable transportation. For example, the study:--Explored multiple categories of factors that may be associated with walking and bicycling, including travel, socioeconomic, attitude, perception, and shopping district characteristics. Few studies of pedestrian or bicycle mode choices have included all of these categories of factors. Statistical models showed that variables in all categories had significant associations with mode choice.--Documented and analyzed short pedestrian movements, such as from a parking space to a store entrance or from a bus stop to home. These detailed data provided a greater understanding of pedestrian activity than traditional travel survey analyses. Walking was used as the primary mode for 65% of respondent trips between stops within shopping districts, and 52% of all respondents walked along a street or between stops at some time between leaving and returning home. Maps of respondent pedestrian path density revealed distinct pedestrian activity patterns in different types of shopping districts.--Used four different approaches to capture participant travel mode information. Respondents reported the primary mode of transportation they were using on the day of the survey, the mode they typically used, and all modes that they would consider using to travel to the survey store. They also mapped all stops on their tour and said what modes they used between each stop. These four approaches revealed nuanced travel habits and made it possible to correct inaccuracies in self-reported primary travel mode data.--Measured and tested fine-grained local environment variables in shopping districts rather than around respondents' homes. These variables characterized the shopping district area (e.g., sidewalks, bicycle facilities, metered parking, and tree canopy coverage), the main commercial roadway (e.g., posted speed limit, number of automobile lanes, and pedestrian crossing distance), and the survey store site (e.g., number of automobile and bicycle parking spaces and distance from the public sidewalk to the store entrance). This dissertation adds to the small number of studies that have explored how the characteristics of activity destinations are related to travel behavior.The study results contribute to the body of knowledge about factors that may encourage people to shift routine travel from automobile to pedestrian or bicycle modes. After controlling for travel factors such as time and cost, socioeconomic characteristics, and individual attitudes, mixed logit models showed that automobile use was negatively associated with higher employment density, smaller parking lots, and metered on-street parking in the shopping district. Walking was positively associated with higher population density, more street tree canopy coverage, lower speed limits, and fewer commercial driveway crossings. The exploratory analysis of a small number of bicycle tours found that bicycling was associated with more extensive bicycle facility networks and more bicycle parking. However, people were more likely to drive when they perceived a high risk of crime.Results also suggest the magnitude of mode shifts that could occur if short- and long-term land use and transportation system changes were made to each study shopping district. The mode choice model representing travel only to and from the study shopping districts (N = 388) was used to estimate respondent mode shares under the following three scenarios: 1) double population and employment densities in each study shopping district, 2) double street tree canopy coverage in each study shopping district, and 3) eliminate half of the automobile parking spaces at the survey store. Based on the model, the combination of these three changes could increase pedestrian mode share among the 388 sample respondents from 43% to 61% and decrease automobile mode share from 50% to 31%. This shift could eliminate 129 (13%) of the 983 respondent vehicle miles traveled (208 of the 1,580 respondent vehicle kilometers traveled), and 110 (36%) of the 308 times respondents parked their automobiles in the shopping district.The mode choice model of walking versus driving within survey shopping districts (N = 286) was used to test the combination of the following scenarios: 1) cluster separated stores around shared parking lots, 2) consolidate commercial driveways so that there are half as many driveway crossings along the main commercial roadway, 3) reduce all main commercial roadway speed limits to 25 miles per hour (40 kilometers per hour), and 4) install metered parking in all shopping districts. These changes could increase the percentage of the 286 sample respondents walking between shopping district activities from 32% to 54%. This shift could eliminate 29 (38%) of the 76 respondent vehicle miles traveled (47 of the 122 respondent vehicle kilometers traveled), and 105 (22%) of the 469 times respondents parked their automobiles in the shopping district. Note that these forecasted mode shifts are illustrative examples based on cross-sectional data and do not account for the process of modifying travel behavior habits.Qualitative interviews provided a foundation for a proposed Theory of Routine Mode Choice Decisions. This five-step theory also drew from survey results and other mode choice theories in the transportation and psychology fields. The first step, 1) awareness and availability, determines which modes are viewed as possible choices for routine travel. The next three steps, 2) basic safety and security, 3) convenience and cost, and 4) enjoyment, assess situational tradeoffs between modes in the choice set and are supported by many of the statistically-significant factors in the mode choice models. The final step, 5) habit, reinforces previous choices and closes the decision process loop. Socioeconomic characteristics explain differences in how individuals view each step in the process. Understanding each step in the mode choice decision process can help planners, designers, engineers, and other policy-makers implement a comprehensive set of strategies that may be able to shift routine automobile travel to pedestrian and bicycle modes.
A substantial debate about the approaches employed by courts to interpret statutes and regulations has developed during the last decade. Some have argued that the search for a statute's meaning and purpose should focus on the text, itself, and should not include consulting legislative history. In contrast, others have argued that it is difficult to determine the meaning of a statute without consulting legislative history to determine the legislature's purpose for the statute. The debate about the appropriate method for interpreting statutes underlies a crisis in the administration of tax law. The recent proliferation of tax shelters has at least in part been facilitated by the ascendancy of textualism. Our conversations with practitioners indicate that tax advisors have become more aggressive in structuring transactions that comply with the form of the tax statutes even though the transactions may be highly questionable in light of the legislation's history or underlying purpose. The result has been a cottage industry where investment banks and accounting firms market tax shelters that triumph in form, but not substance, at the expense of the fisc. Because most tax shelter activity is hidden, it is difficult to ascertain its revenue impact. It is estimated that tax shelters reduced tax revenues by approximately $10 to $24 billion in 1999. In addition, practitioners and government officials worry that the use of shelters is eroding confidence in the tax system. Although the majority of courts have not adopted textualism, the legal community's acceptance of textualism as a plausible method of interpretation has dramatically affected the practice of tax law. Taxpayers often invest in tax shelters based upon the opinion of counsel assessing the probability that the desired tax results from the transaction, if challenged, will be sustained. These opinion letters are essential to attract investors because they protect taxpayers from various penalties that otherwise might be imposed if the Service successfully challenges the transaction. Under the textualist approach, it is much easier for an attorney to write a favorable opinion for transactions that are designed to comply with the letter of the law, but not its spirit, for at least two reasons. First, the attorney is permitted to ignore, or at least downplay, any legislative history that would argue against, or undercut, the desired tax results. Second, under a textualist approach, it is arguable that various well-accepted judicial doctrines, such as the business purpose doctrine, are suspect. At the extreme, a textualist might argue that these doctrines are the product of judicial activism and either should no longer be followed, or at a minimum should not be extended into new areas of the law. Tax shelter promoters have exploited the move towards textualism by designing transactions that comply with the letter of the law, but that generate results clearly never contemplated by Congress or the Treasury. Some promoters believe that the more detailed and complex the underlying law is, the more likely it is that a transaction complying with the letter of the law will be respected. One area in tax law that is particularly detailed and complex is Subchapter K, the partnership tax provisions. Subchapter K also has several special rules not otherwise available in the Internal Revenue Code. It is, therefore, not surprising that Subchapter K has become the vehicle of choice for a wide variety of abusive transactions. Transactions are designed so that a partnership is created or joined just to take advantage of these special rules (reverse engineered transactions). In an attempt to stem the tide, the IRS adopted a general anti-abuse rule for Subchapter K. This rule requires that the provisions of Subchapter K be interpreted consistent with the intent of subchapter K. Oversimplified, the regulations assert that there is an overall legislative intent underlying Subchapter K, and if a partnership is formed or availed of in connection with a transaction to substantially reduce federal taxes in a manner inconsistent with this intent, the transaction may be recast. The regulations make clear that for a transaction to pass muster, doctrines that originated with the judiciary, i.e., the requirements of a business purpose, economic substance, and substance over form, must be taken into account. In addition, the regulations require that the purposivist method of statutory interpretation be used to interpret Subchapter K. The anti-abuse regulations caused an unprecedented furor within the tax bar. They have been severely criticized by academics and practitioners alike on a variety of bases, the most damning of which is that Treasury lacked the authority to promulgate the rules and that therefore they are not valid. Indeed, it is fair to say that there is a general consensus that the partnership anti-abuse regulations are an extreme example of administrative overreaching. We disagree. Although we do not endorse all the policy choices in the anti-abuse regulations, we believe that they are not only valid, but suggest a way in which transactions that are the product of reverse engineering can and should be attacked, both within and without Subchapter K. Initially, it may seem inappropriate for Treasury to instruct the judiciary on how and when the courts should apply judicial doctrines and what tools they should use in interpreting statutes. After all, as every law student knows, [i]t is emphatically the province and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. Marbury v. Madison, 5 U.S. 137, 177 (1803). Where does Treasury get the authority to instruct a court as to which method of interpretation it should use to interpret a tax statute? On reflection, however, we believe that Treasury acted well within its authority under Chevron, U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837 (1984) and was simply filling a gap in the statute left by Congress. The judicial doctrines that are implicit in the intent of subchapter K were well-developed when Subchapter K was first enacted in 1954 and continue to be applied in a variety of contexts by the courts. At that time, however, it was not clear exactly how and when these doctrines should be applied in the context of Subchapter K. There is little doubt Congress could have clarified this issue by statute. It could have insisted that these doctrines (or variations thereof) be applied with full force, or it could have forbidden their application altogether. Congress, however, chose not to address this issue, leaving a gap in the statute. Under current administrative law principles, this silence constitutes an implied delegation of authority by Congress to Treasury to fill that gap. In addition to being valid, we also believe that, as a general proposition, it is sound tax policy to use broad standards to administer the tax law. Historically this had been accomplished by the courts through the use of these judicial doctrines. Although the ascendancy of textualism cast doubt on the continuing viability of the doctrines, Treasury eliminated that doubt by promulgating these regulations (if valid), and requiring lawyers and courts to consider the intent of subchapter K. This approach allows the IRS to use broad standards to administer the tax law in place of a collection of narrow rules that must be constantly changed in a hopeless attempt to keep pace with the latest tax gimmick. To assure proper consideration of these doctrines by tax advisors, we recommend that the IRS amend its standards for practice to require advisors opining on the validity of tax shelters to apply the doctrines to the specific facts of the tax shelter in their opinion letter.
BACKGROUND: Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a leading cause of disability worldwide. AIMS: To examine the: (a) 12-month prevalence of DSM-IV MDD; (b) proportion aware that they have a problem needing treatment and who want care; (c) proportion of the latter receiving treatment; and (d) proportion of such treatment meeting minimal standards. METHOD: Representative community household surveys from 21 countries as part of the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. RESULTS: Of 51 547 respondents, 4.6% met 12-month criteria for DSM-IV MDD and of these 56.7% reported needing treatment. Among those who recognised their need for treatment, most (71.1%) made at least one visit to a service provider. Among those who received treatment, only 41.0% received treatment that met minimal standards. This resulted in only 16.5% of all individuals with 12-month MDD receiving minimally adequate treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Only a minority of participants with MDD received minimally adequate treatment: 1 in 5 people in high-income and 1 in 27 in low-/lower-middle-income countries. Scaling up care for MDD requires fundamental transformations in community education and outreach, supply of treatment and quality of services. ; The work contained in this paper is carried out in conjunction with the World Health Organization World Mental Health (WMH) Survey Initiative, which is supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH; R01 MH070884), the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Pfizer Foundation, the US Public Health Service (R13-MH066849, R01-MH069864, and R01 DA016558), the Fogarty International Center (FIRCA R03-TW006481), the Pan American Health Organization, Eli Lilly and Company, Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical, GlaxoSmithKline, Sanofi Aventis and Bristol-Myers Squibb. We thank the staff of the WMH Data Collection and Data Analysis Coordination Centres for assistance with instrumentation, fieldwork and consultation on data analysis. None of the funders had any role in the design, analysis, interpretation of results or preparation of this paper. A complete list of all within-country and cross-national WMH publications can be found at http://www.hcp.med.harvard.edu/wmh/. The Argentina survey – Estudio Argentino de Epidemiología en Salud Mental (EASM) – was supported by a grant from the Argentinian Ministry of Health (Ministerio de Salud de la Nación). The Bulgarian Epidemiological Study of common mental disorders EPIBUL is supported by the Ministry of Health and the National Center for Public Health Protection. The Chinese World Mental Health Survey Initiative is supported by the Pfizer Foundation. The Colombian National Study of Mental Health (NSMH) is supported by the Ministry of Social Protection. The Mental Health Study Medellín – Colombia was carried out and supported jointly by the Center for Excellence on Research in Mental Health (CES University) and the Secretary of Health of Medellín. The ESEMeD project is funded by the European Commission (Contracts QLG5-1999-01042; SANCO 2004123 and EAHC 20081308), (the Piedmont Region (Italy)), Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain (FIS 00/0028), Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología, Spain (SAF 2000-158-CE), Departament de Salut, Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (CIBER CB06/02/0046, RETICS RD06/0011 REM-TAP), and other local agencies and by an unrestricted educational grant from GlaxoSmithKline. Implementation of the Iraq Mental Health Survey (IMHS) and data entry were carried out by the staff of the Iraqi MOH and MOP with direct support from the Iraqi IMHS team with funding from both the Japanese and European Funds through United Nations Development Group Iraq Trust Fund (UNDG ITF). The Israel National Health Survey is funded by the Ministry of Health with support from the Israel National Institute for Health Policy and Health Services Research and the National Insurance Institute of Israel. The World Mental Health Japan (WMHJ) Survey is supported by the Grant for Research on Psychiatric and Neurological Diseases and Mental Health (H13-SHOGAI-023, H14-TOKUBETSU-026, H16-KOKORO-013) from the Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. The Lebanese National Mental Health Survey (LEBANON) is supported by the Lebanese Ministry of Public Health, the WHO (Lebanon), National Institute of Health/Fogarty International Center (R03 TW006481-01), Sheikh Hamdan Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Award for Medical Sciences, anonymous private donations to IDRAAC, Lebanon, and unrestricted grants from AstraZeneca, Eli Lilly, GlaxoSmithKline, Hikma Pharmaceuticals, Janssen Cilag, Lundbeck, Novartis and Servier. The Mexican National Comorbidity Survey (MNCS) is supported by The National Institute of Psychiatry Ramon de la Fuente (INPRFMDIES 4280) and by the National Council on Science and Technology (CONACyT-G30544-H), with supplemental support from the PanAmerican Health Organization (PAHO). The Psychiatric Enquiry to General Population in Southeast Spain – Murcia (PEGASUS-Murcia) Project has been financed by the Regional Health Authorities of Murcia (Servicio Murciano de Salud and Consejería de Sanidad y Política Social) and Fundación para la Formación e Investigación Sanitarias (FFIS) of Murcia. The Nigerian Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing (NSMHW) is supported by the WHO (Geneva), the WHO (Nigeria), and the Federal Ministry of Health, Abuja, Nigeria. The Peruvian World Mental Health Study was funded by the National Institute of Health of the Ministry of Health of Peru. The Portuguese Mental Health Study was carried out by the Department of Mental Health, Faculty of Medical Sciences, NOVA University of Lisbon, with collaboration of the Portuguese Catholic University, and was funded by Champalimaud Foundation, Gulbenkian Foundation, Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) and Ministry of Health. The Romania WMH study projects 'Policies in Mental Health Area' and 'National Study regarding Mental Health and Services Use' were carried out by National School of Public Health & Health Services Management (former National Institute for Research & Development in Health, present National School of Public Health Management & Professional Development, Bucharest), with technical support of Metro Media Transilvania, the National Institute of Statistics – National Centre for Training in Statistics, SC. Cheyenne Services SRL, Statistics Netherlands and were funded by Ministry of Public Health (former Ministry of Health) with supplemental support of Eli Lilly Romania SRL. The São Paulo Megacity Mental Health Survey is supported by the State of São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) Thematic Project Grant03/00204-3. The Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development supports L.A. (CNPq Grant #307623/2013-0). The US National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R) is supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH; U01-MH60220) with supplemental support from the National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA), the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF; Grant 044708) and the John W. Alden Trust. G.T. is supported by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care South London at King's College London Foundation Trust. G.T. is supported by the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) Emerald project. This paper is an output of the PRogramme for Improving Mental health carE (PRIME). The material has been funded by UK aid from the UK Government, however, the views expressed do not necessarily reflect the UK Government's official policies. The research supported by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care South London at King's College London Foundation Trust. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. The authors acknowledge financial support from the Department of Health via the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre and Dementia Unit awarded to South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust in partnership with King's College London and King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the World Health Organization
The parallel epidemics of childhood asthma and obesity over the past few decades have spurred research into obesity as a risk factor for asthma. However, little is known regarding the role of asthma in obesity incidence. We examined whether early-onset asthma and related phenotypes are associated with the risk of developing obesity in childhood.This study includes 21 130 children born from 1990 to 2008 in Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, The Netherlands, Spain, Sweden and the UK. We followed non-obese children at 3-4 years of age for incident obesity up to 8 years of age. Physician-diagnosed asthma, wheezing and allergic rhinitis were assessed up to 3-4 years of age.Children with physician-diagnosed asthma had a higher risk for incident obesity than those without asthma (adjusted hazard ratio (aHR) 1.66, 95% CI 1.18-2.33). Children with active asthma (wheeze in the last 12 months and physician-diagnosed asthma) exhibited a higher risk for obesity (aHR 1.98, 95% CI 1.31-3.00) than those without wheeze and asthma. Persistent wheezing was associated with increased risk for incident obesity compared to never wheezers (aHR 1.51, 95% CI 1.08-2.09).Early-onset asthma and wheezing may contribute to an increased risk of developing obesity in later childhood. ; This work was partially supported by the Southern California Environmental Health Sciences Center (grant # P30ES007048) funded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences [PI Gilliland]. Dr. Contreras was supported by a grant from the NIH T32ES013678. MEDALL and CHICOS Projects: The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Community's Seventh Framework Program(Health–F2-grantagreements No. 261357 and 241604). Per cohort ABCD: Data of the Amsterdam Born Children and their Development cohort study used in this research was in part supported by funds from the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMw 40–00812-98–11010). The study sponsors had no role in study design, data analysis, interpretation of data, or writing of this report. BAMSE: We acknowledge all funding sources: The Swedish Research Council, The Swedish Heart and Lung Foundation, The Swedish Research Council for Working Life and Social Welfare, the Swedish Asthma and Allergy Association Research Foundation, The Swedish Research Council Formas, Stockholm County Council, and the European Commission's Seventh Framework 29 Program Me DALL under grant agreement No.261357. We thank all the children and their parents for participating in the BAMSE cohort and the nurses and other staff members working in the BAMSE project. EDEN: We acknowledge all the funding sources for the EDEN study: Foundation for medical research (FRM), National Agency for Research (ANR), National Institute for Research in Public health (IRESP: TGIR cohorte santé 2008 program), French Ministry of Health (DGS), French Ministry of Research, INSERM Bone and Joint Diseases National Research (PRO-A) and Human Nutrition National Research Programs, Paris–Sud University, Nestlé, French National Institute for Population Health Surveillance (InVS),French National Institute for Health Education (INPES), the European Union FP7programmes (FP7/2007-2013, HELIX, ESCAPE, ENRIECO, Medall projects), Diabetes National Research Program (through a collaboration with the French Association of Diabetic Patients (AFD)), French Agency for Environmental Health Safety (now ANSES), Mutuelle Générale de l'Education Nationale a complementary health insurance (MGEN),French national agency for food security, French speaking association for the study ofdiabetes and metabolism (ALFEDIAM).We acknowledge the commitment of the EDEN mother-child cohort study group: I.Annesi-Maesano, JY. Bernard, J. Botton, M.A. Charles, P. Dargent-Molina, B. de Lauzon-Guillain, P. Ducimetière, M. de Agostini, B. Foliguet, , A. Forhan, X. Fritel, A. Germa, V.Goua, R. Hankard, B. Heude, M. Kaminski, B. Larroque†, N. Lelong, J. Lepeule, G.Magnin, L. Marchand, C. Nabet, F. Pierre, R. Slama, M.J. Saurel-Cubizolles, M.Schweitzer, O. Thiebaugeorges.The Generation R Study:The Generation R study is made possible by financial support from the Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Erasmus University Rotterdam, the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMw), the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO), the Ministry of Health, Welfareand Sport and the Ministry of Youth and Families. The project received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (LIFECYCLE project, grant agreement no 733206; 2016), the European Research Council (ERC-2014-CoG-648916) and from cofunded ERA-Net on Biomarkers for Nutrition and Health (ERAHDHL), Horizon 2020 (grant agreement no 696295; 2017), ZonMW The Netherlands (no529051014; 2017), Science Foundation Ireland (no SFI/16/ERA-HDHL/3360), and the European Union (ALPHABET project).The researchers are independent from the funders. The study sponsors had no role in study design, data analysis, interpretation of data, or writing of this report. INMA: Data used for this research was provided by the INMA-Environment and Childhood Project (www.proyectoinma.org). This study was funded by grants from Instituto de Salud Carlos III (Red INMA G03/176 and CB06/02/0041), Spanish Ministry of Health (FIS-PIO41436, PI06/0867, PI081151, and FIS-FEDER 03/1615, 04/1112,04/1931, 05/1079, 05/1052, 06/1213, 07/0314 and 09/02647), Generalitat de Catalunya-CIRIT 1999SGR00241, the Conselleria de Sanitat Generalitat Valenciana, Department of Health of the Basque Government (2005111093 and 2009111069), the ProvincialGovernment of Gipuzkoa (DFG06/004 and DFG08/001).KOALA: The collection of the data from the KOALA Birth Cohort Study used in this analysis was financially supported by Friesland Foods (now Friesland Campina),Netherlands Asthma Foundation (grant numbers 3.2.07.022 and 3.2.03.48), Netherlands Heart Foundation (grant number 2014 T037, the Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (Zon Mw Prevention Program number 1.210-00-090), Triodos Foundation, Phoenix Foundation, Raphaël Foundation, Iona Foundation, Foundation forthe Advancement of Heilpedagogie, all in the Netherlands. MAS:The MAS birth cohort was funded by grants from the German Federal Ministry ofEducation and Research (BMBF; reference numbers 07015633, 07 ALE 27, 01EE9405/5,01EE9406) and the German Research Foundation (DFG; reference number KE 1462/2-1).PIAMA: The PIAMA study has been funded by The Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development; The Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research; The Netherlands Asthma fund; The Netherlands Ministry of Spatial Planning Housing, and the Environment; and The Netherlands Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport. RHEA: The Rhea project was financially supported by European projects (EU FP6-003-Food-3-NewGeneris -Contract No16320, EU FP6 STREP Hiwate -Contract No36224,EU FP7 ENV.2007.1.2.2.2. Project No 211250 Escape, EU FP7-2008-ENV-1.2.1.4 Envirogenomarkers Contract No226756, EU FP7-HEALTH-2009-single stage CHICOS Contract No241604, EU FP7 ENV.2008.1.2.1.6. Proposal No 226285 ENRIECO, EU-FP7,Proposal No 264357 MeDALL, EU- FP7-HEALTH-2012 Proposal No 308333 HELIX),and the Greek Ministry of Health (Program of Prevention of obesity and neurodevelopmental disorders in preschool children, in Heraklion district, Crete, Greece:2011-2014; "Rhea Plus": Prevention Program of Environmental Risk Factors for Reproductive Health, and Child Health: 2012-2015).ROBBIC: Data of the Rome cohort was in part supported byfunds from the Italian Ministry of Health (Programma speciale ex art. 12, comma 2, lettera b) del D. Lgs. 502/92,2001, 2003). We thank all the fields workers and the families for their contribution to thestudy. SWS: We thank the members of the Southampton Women's Survey Study group and the many participants in the SWS for their contribution to the study. The Southampton Women's Survey is supported by grants from the Medical Research Council, British Heart Foundation, Food Standards Agency, British Lung Foundation, Arthritis Research UK, NIHR Southampton Biomedical Research Centre, University of Southampton and University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, and the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013), project Early Nutrition under grant agreement n°289346.
On 2017 August 17 a binary neutron star coalescence candidate (later designated GW170817) with merger time 12:41:04 UTC was observed through gravitational waves by the Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo detectors. The Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor independently detected a gamma-ray burst (GRB 170817A) with a time delay of similar to 1.7 s with respect to the merger time. From the gravitational-wave signal, the source was initially localized to a sky region of 31 deg(2) at a luminosity distance of 40(-8)(+8) Mpc and with component masses consistent with neutron stars. The component masses were later measured to be in the range 0.86 to 2.26 M-circle dot. An extensive observing campaign was launched across the electromagnetic spectrum leading to the discovery of a bright optical transient (SSS17a, now with the IAU identification of AT 2017gfo) in NGC 4993 (at similar to 40 Mpc) less than 11 hours after the merger by the One-Meter, Two Hemisphere (1M2H) team using the 1 m Swope Telescope. The optical transient was independently detected by multiple teams within an hour. Subsequent observations targeted the object and its environment. Early ultraviolet observations revealed a blue transient that faded within 48 hours. Optical and infrared observations showed a redward evolution over similar to 10 days. Following early non-detections, X-ray and radio emission were discovered at the transient's position similar to 9 and similar to 16 days, respectively, after the merger. Both the X-ray and radio emission likely arise from a physical process that is distinct from the one that generates the UV/optical/near-infrared emission. No ultra-high-energy gamma-rays and no neutrino candidates consistent with the source were found in follow-up searches. These observations support the hypothesis that GW170817 was produced by the merger of two neutron stars in NGC4993 followed by a short gamma-ray burst (GRB 170817A) and a kilonova/macronova powered by the radioactive decay of r-process nuclei synthesized in the ejecta. ; Kavli Foundation; Danish National Research Foundation; Niels Bohr International Academy; DARK Cosmology Centre; NSF [AST-1518052, AST-141242, AST-1411763, AST-1714498, AST-1517649, PHY-1607291, AST-1412421, AST-1313484]; Gordon AMP; Betty Moore Foundation; Heising-Simons Foundation; Alfred P. Sloan Foundation; David and Lucile Packard Foundation; DNRF; UCMEXUS-CONACYT; NASA - Space Telescope Science Institute [HST-HF-51348.001, HST-HF-51373.001]; NASA [NAS5-26555, NNX15AE50G, NNX16AC22G, NAS5-00136, NNX08AR22G, NNX12AR65G, NNX14AM74G, NNX12AR55G, NNM13AA43C, NNM11AA01A, NNX15AE60G, PF6-170148, PF7-180162]; INAF; INFN; ASI [I/028/12/2]; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), France; Commissariat a l'energie atomique et aux energies alternatives (CEA), France; Commission Europeenne (FEDER), France; Commission Europeenne, France; Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), France; IdEx, France; Sorbonne Paris Cite, France [ANR-10-LABX-0023, ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02]; Labex OCEVU, France [ANR-11-LABX-0060]; A*MIDEX, France [ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02]; Region Ile-de-France (DIM-ACAV), France; Region Alsace (CPER), France; Region Provence-Alpes-Cite d'Azur, France; Departement du Var and Ville de La Seyne-sur-Mer, France; Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (BMBF), Germany; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Italy; Nederlandse organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (NWO), the Netherlands; Council of the President of the Russian Federation, Russia; National Authority for Scientific Research (ANCS), Romania; Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO): Plan Estatal de Investigacion (MINECO/FEDER), Spain [FPA2015-65150-C3-1-P, FPA2015-65150-C3-2-P, FPA2015-65150-C3-3-P]; Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence and MultiDark Consolider (MINECO), Spain; Prometeo program (Generalitat Valenciana), Spain; Grisolia program (Generalitat Valenciana), Spain; Ministry of Higher Education, Scientific Research and Professional Training, Morocco; National Basic Research Program (973 Program) of China [2013CB834901, 2013CB834900, 2013CB834903]; Chinese Polar Environment Comprehensive Investigation AMP; Assessment Program [CHINARE2016-02-03-05]; Tsinghua University; Nanjing University; Beijing Normal University; University of New South Wales; Texas AM University; 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National Science Foundation [0450696]; Grainger Foundation; Marie Curie-IRSES/EPLANET; European Particle Physics Latin American Network; European Union 7th Framework Program [PIRSES-2009-GA-246806]; European Union's Horizon research and innovation programme [646623]; UNESCO; Australian Research Council [FT150100099, FL15010014]; Australian Research Council; Australian Government; Australian Government (NCRIS); Western Australian and Australian Governments; National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics in 3D (ASTRO 3D) [CE170100013]; Spanish Ministry [AYA 2015-71718-R]; Junta de Andalucia Proyecto de Excelencia [TIC-2839]; National Research Foundation [NRF-2015R1A2A1A01006870, DGE-1144469]; Korea Basic Science Research Program [NRF2014R1A6A3A03057484, NRF-2015R1D1A4A01020961]; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (Mexico) through Laboratorios Nacionales Program (Mexico); Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA-CSIC, Spain); 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Wallenberg Foundation; Swedish Research Council; National Space Board (Sweden); INAF (Italy); CNES (France); DOE [DE-AC02-76SF00515]; Office of Naval Research [N00014-07-C0147]; National Science Foundation under University Radio Observatory [AST-1139963, AST-1139974]; ESO Telescopes at the Paranal Observatory [099.D-0382, 099.D-0622, 099.D-0191, 099.D-0116]; REM telescope at the ESO La Silla Observatory [35020]; Department of University and Research (MIUR); Italian Space Agency (ASI); Autonomous Region of Sardinia (RAS); National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF); BIC [114332KYSB20160007]; Hundred Talent Program; Chinese Academy of Sciences [KJZD-EW-M06]; National Natural Science Foundation of China [11673062]; Oversea Talent Program of Yunnan Province; STFC (Science and Technology Facilities Council); Slovenian Research Agency [P1-0188]; Sorbonne Paris Cite [ANR-10-LABX-0023, ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02]; JSPS [15H05437]; JST Consortia; GROWTH (Global Relay of Observatories Watching Transients Happen) - National Science Foundation under PIRE [1545949]; California Institute of Technology (USA); University of Maryland College Park (USA); University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee (USA); Texas Tech University (USA); San Diego State University (USA); Los Alamos National Laboratory (USA); Tokyo Institute of Technology (Japan); National Central University (Taiwan); Indian Institute of Astrophysics (India); Inter-University Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics (India); Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel); Oskar Klein Centre at Stockholm University (Sweden); Humboldt University (Germany); Liverpool John Moores University (UK); Planning and Budgeting Committee; Israel Science Foundation; Large Synoptic Survey Telescope Corporation; National Science Foundation CAREER [1455090]; ERC grant TReX; Naval Research Laboratory (NRL); NRL; Oxford Centre for Astrophysical Surveys; Hintze Family Charitable Foundation; Swedish Research Council (V.R.); Israel Science Foundation, Minerva, Israeli ministry of Science; US-Israel Binational Science Foundation; I-CORE of the Planning and Budgeting Committee; Swedish Research Council (VR) [2016 03657 3]; Swedish National Space Board [Dnr. 107/16]; Gravitational Radiation and Electromagnetic Astrophysical Transients (GREAT) - Swedish Research council (V.R.) [Dnr. 2016-06012]; Science and Engineering Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, India; Indo-US Science and Technology Foundation; US National Science Foundation (NSF); US Department of Energy Office of High-Energy Physics; Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program of Los Alamos National Laboratory; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACyT), Mexico [271051, 232656, 167281, 260378, 179588, 239762, 254964, 271737, 258865, 243290]; Red HAWC, Mexico; DGAPA-UNAM [RG100414, IN111315, IN111716-3, IA102715, 109916]; VIEP-BUAP; University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation; Institute of Geophysics, Planetary Physics, and Signatures at Los Alamos National Laboratory; Polish Science Centre [DEC-2014/13/B/ST9/945]; German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF); Max Planck Society; German Research Foundation (DFG); Alexander von Humboldt Foundation; Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft; French Ministry for Research; CNRS-IN2P3; Astroparticle Interdisciplinary Programme of the CNRS; U.K. Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC); IPNP of the Charles University; Czech Science Foundation; Polish National Science Centre; South African Department of Science and Technology; National Research Foundation; University of Namibia; National Commission on Research, Science and Technology of Namibia (NCRST); Innsbruck University; Austrian Science Fund (FWF); Austrian Federal Ministry for Science, Research and Economy; University of Adelaide; Japan Society for the Promotion of Science; University of Amsterdam; EGI Federation; China National Space Administration (CNSA); Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) [XDB23040400]; Ministry of Science and Technology of China (MOST) [2016YFA0400800]; U.S. National Science Foundation-Office of Polar Programs; U.S. National Science Foundation-Physics Division; Grid Laboratory of Wisconsin (GLOW) grid infrastructure at the University of Wisconsin-Madison; Open Science Grid (OSG) grid infrastructure; U.S. Department of Energy; National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center; Louisiana Optical Network Initiative (LONI) grid computing resources; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada; WestGrid and Compute/Calcul Canada; Swedish Research Council, Sweden; Swedish Polar Research Secretariat, Sweden; Swedish National Infrastructure for Computing (SNIC), Sweden; Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden; German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), Germany; Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Germany; Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics (HAP), Germany; Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association, Germany; Fund for Scientific Research (FNRS-FWO); FWO Odysseus programme; Flanders Institute; Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (Belspo); Marsden Fund, New Zealand; Japan Society for Promotion of Science (JSPS); Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), Switzerland; National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF); Villum Fonden, Denmark; Danish National Research Foundation (DNRF), Denmark; Russian Science Foundation [15-1230015, 14-22-00271]; Science and Education Ministry of Kazakhstan [0075/GF4]; RUSTAVELI [FR/379/6-300/14]; ESA Denmark; ESA France; ESA Germany; ESA Italy; ESA Switzerland; ESA Spain; ESA Russia; ESA USA; CEA; CNES; DLR; ESA; INTA; OSTC; ASI/INAF [2013-025-R.1]; German INTEGRAL through DLR [50 OG 1101]; Spanish MINECO/FEDER [ESP2015-65712-C5-1-R]; RFBR [16-29-13009-ofi-m]; JSPS KAKENHI [JP16H02183, JP15H02075, JP15H02069, JP26800103, JP25800103]; Inter-University Cooperation Program of the MEXT; NINS program; Toyota Foundation [D11-R-0830]; Mitsubishi Foundation; Yamada Science Foundation; Inoue Foundation for Science; National Research Foundation of South Africa; NRF [2017R1A3A3001362]; KASI [2017-1-830-03]; Israel Science Foundation [541/17]; Council of Scientific and Industrial Research of India; Department of Science and Technology, India; Science AMP; Engineering Research Board (SERB), India; Ministry of Human Resource Development, India; Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigacion; Vicepresidencia i Conselleria d'Innovacio Recerca i Turisme; Conselleria d'Educacio i Universitat del Govern de les Illes Balears; Conselleria d'Educacio Investigacio Cultura i Esport de la Generalitat Valenciana; National Science Centre of Poland; Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF); Russian Foundation for Basic Research; Russian Science Foundation; European Commission; European Regional Development Funds (ERDF); Royal Society; Scottish Funding Council; Scottish Universities Physics Alliance; Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA); Lyon Institute of Origins (LIO); National Research, Development and Innovation Office Hungary (NKFI); National Research Foundation of Korea; Industry Canada and Province of Ontario through Ministry of Economic Development and Innovation; Natural Science and Engineering Research Council Canada; Canadian Institute for Advanced Research; Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovations, and Communications; International Center for Theoretical Physics South American Institute for Fundamental Research (ICTP-SAIFR); Council of Hong Kong; National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC); Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS); Ministry of Science and Technology of China (MOST); Leverhulme Trust; Research Corporation; Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), Taiwan; RIKEN; MEXT; KAKENHI [JP 17H06362]; EVN [RP029]; European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme [653477]; ERC [647208]; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research through NWO VIDI [639.042.612-Nissanke]; NWO TOP [62002444-Nissanke]; VISIR [60.A-9392]; [MOST104-2923-M-008-004-MY5]; [MOST106-2112-M-008-007] ; (1M2H) We thank J. McIver for alerting us to the LVC circular. We thank J. Mulchaey (Carnegie Observatories director), L. Infante (Las Campanas Observatory director), and the entire Las Campanas staff for their extreme dedication, professionalism, and excitement, all of which were critical in the discovery of the first gravitational-wave optical counterpart and its host galaxy as well as the observations used in this study. We thank I. Thompson and the Carnegie Observatory Time Allocation Committee for approving the Swope Supernova Survey and scheduling our program. We thank the University of Copenhagen, DARK Cosmology Centre, and the Niels Bohr International Academy for hosting D.A.C., R.J.F., A.M.B., E.R., and M.R.S. during the discovery of GW170817/SSS17a. R.J.F., A.M.B., and E.R. were participating in the Kavli Summer Program in Astrophysics, "Astrophysics with gravitational wave detections." This program was supported by the the Kavli Foundation, Danish National Research Foundation, the Niels Bohr International Academy, and the DARK Cosmology Centre. The UCSC group is supported in part by NSF grant AST-1518052, the Gordon & Betty Moore Foundation, the Heising-Simons Foundation, generous donations from many individuals through a UCSC Giving Day grant, and from fellowships from the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation (R.J.F.), the David and Lucile Packard Foundation (R.J.F. and E.R.) and the Niels Bohr Professorship from the DNRF (E.R.). AMB acknowledges support from a UCMEXUS-CONACYT Doctoral Fellowship. Support for this work was provided by NASA through Hubble Fellowship grants HST-HF-51348.001 (B.J.S.) and HST-HF-51373.001 (M.R.D.) awarded by the Space Telescope Science Institute, which is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy, Inc., for NASA, under contract NAS5-26555. This paper includes data gathered with the 1 meter Swope and 6.5 meter Magellan Telescopes located at Las Campanas Observatory, Chile.r (AGILE) The AGILE Team thanks the ASI management, the technical staff at the ASI Malindi ground station, the technical support team at the ASI Space Science Data Center, and the Fucino AGILE Mission Operation Center. AGILE is an ASI space mission developed with programmatic support by INAF and INFN. We acknowledge partial support through the ASI grant No. I/028/12/2. We also thank INAF, Italian Institute of Astrophysics, and ASI, Italian Space Agency.r (ANTARES) The ANTARES Collaboration acknowledges the financial support of: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Commissariat a l'energie atomique et aux energies alternatives (CEA), Commission Europeenne (FEDER fund and Marie Curie Program), Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), IdEx program and UnivEarthS Labex program at Sorbonne Paris Cite (ANR-10-LABX-0023 and ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02), Labex OCEVU (ANR-11-LABX-0060) and the A*MIDEX project (ANR-11-IDEX-0001-02), Region Ile-de-France (DIM-ACAV), Region Alsace (contrat CPER), Region Provence-Alpes-Cite d'Azur, Departement du Var and Ville de La Seyne-sur-Mer, France; Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (BMBF), Germany; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), Italy; Nederlandse organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (NWO), the Netherlands; Council of the President of the Russian Federation for young scientists and leading scientific schools supporting grants, Russia; National Authority for Scientific Research (ANCS), Romania; Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad (MINECO): Plan Estatal de Investigacion (refs.; r r FPA2015-65150-C3-1-P, -2-P and -3-P; MINECO/FEDER), Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence and MultiDark Consolider (MINECO), and Prometeo and Grisolia programs (Generalitat Valenciana), Spain; Ministry of Higher Education, Scientific Research and Professional Training, Morocco. We also acknowledge the technical support of Ifremer, AIM and Foselev Marine for the sea operation and the CC-IN2P3 for the computing facilities.r (AST3) The AST3 project is supported by the National Basic Research Program (973 Program) of China (Grant Nos. 2013CB834901, 2013CB834900, 2013CB834903), and the Chinese Polar Environment Comprehensive Investigation & Assessment Program (grant No. CHINARE2016-02-03-05). The construction of the AST3 telescopes has received fundings from Tsinghua University, Nanjing University, Beijing Normal University, University of New South Wales, and Texas A&M University, the Australian Antarctic Division, and the National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy (NCRIS) of Australia. It has also received funding from Chinese Academy of Sciences through the Center for Astronomical Mega-Science and National Astronomical Observatory of China (NAOC).r (Auger) The successful installation, commissioning, and operation of the Pierre Auger Observatory would not have been possible without the strong commitment and effort from the technical and administrative staff in Malargue. We are very grateful to the following agencies and organizations for financial support: Argentina-Comision Nacional de Energia Atomica; Agencia Nacional de Promocion Cientifica y Tecnologica (ANPCyT); Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Tecnicas (CONICET); Gobierno de la Provincia de Mendoza; Municipalidad de Malargue; NDM Holdings and Valle Las Lenas; in gratitude for their continuing cooperation over land access; Australia-the Australian Research Council; Brazil-Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico (CNPq); Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos (FINEP); Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ); Sao Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) grant Nos. 2010/07359-6 and 1999/05404-3; Ministerio da Ciencia, Tecnologia, Inovacoes e Comunicacoes (MCTIC); Czech Republic-grant Nos. MSMT CR LG15014, LO1305, LM2015038 and CZ.02.1.01/0.0/0.0/16_013/0001402; France-Centre de Calcul IN2P3/CNRS; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS); Conseil Regional Ile-de-France; Departement Physique Nucleaire et Corpusculaire (PNC-IN2P3/CNRS); Departement Sciences de l'Univers (SDU-INSU/CNRS); Institut Lagrange de Paris (ILP) grant No. LABEX ANR-10-LABX-63 within the Investissements d'Avenir Programme Grant No. ANR-11-IDEX-0004-02; Germany-Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (BMBF); Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG); Finanzministerium Baden-Wurttemberg; Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics (HAP); Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft Deutscher Forschungszentren (HGF); Ministerium fur Innovation, Wissenschaft und Forschung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen; Ministerium fur Wissenschaft, Forschung und Kunst des Landes Baden-Wurttemberg; Italy-Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN); Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica (INAF); Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Universita e della Ricerca (MIUR); CETEMPS Center of Excellence; Ministero degli Affari Esteri (MAE); Mexico-Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACYT) No.; r r 167733; Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM); PAPIIT DGAPA-UNAM; The Netherlands - Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap; Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (NWO); Stichting voor Fundamenteel Onderzoek der Materie (FOM); Poland-National Centre for Research and Development, grant Nos. ERA-NET-ASPERA/01/11 and ERA-NET-ASPERA/02/11; National Science Centre, grant Nos. 2013/08/M/ST9/00322, 2013/08/M/ST9/00728, and HARMONIA 5-2013/10/M/ST9/00062, UMO-2016/22/M/ST9/00198; Portugal-Portuguese national funds and FEDER funds within Programa Operacional Factores de Competitividade through Fundacao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologia (COMPETE); Romania-Romanian Authority for Scientific Research ANCS; CNDI-UEFISCDI partnership projects grant Nos. 20/2012 and 194/2012 and PN 16 42 01 02; Slovenia-Slovenian Research Agency; Spain-Comunidad de Madrid; Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER) funds; Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad; Xunta de Galicia; European Community 7th Framework Program grant No. FP7-PEOPLE-2012-IEF-328826; USA-Department of Energy, Contract Nos. DE-AC02-07CH11359, DE-FR02-04ER41300, DE-FG02-99ER41107, and DE-SC0011689; National Science Foundation, grant No.r 0450696; The Grainger Foundation; Marie Curie-IRSES/EPLANET; European Particle Physics Latin American Network; European Union 7th Framework Program, grant No. PIRSES-2009-GA-246806; European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant No. 646623); and UNESCO.r (Australian Radio) T.M. acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council through grant FT150100099. S.O. acknowledges the Australian Research Council grant Laureate Fellowship FL15010014. D.L.K. and I.S.B. are additionally supported by NSF grant AST-141242. P.A.B. and the DFN team acknowledge the Australian Research Council for support under their Australian Laureate Fellowship scheme. The Australia Telescope Compact Array is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility, which is funded by the Australian Government for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. This scientific work makes use of the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory, operated by CSIRO. We acknowledge the Wajarri Yamatji people as the traditional owners of the Observatory site. Support for the operation of the MWA is provided by the Australian Government (NCRIS), under a contract to Curtin University administered by Astronomy Australia Limited. We acknowledge the Pawsey Supercomputing Centre, which is supported by the Western Australian and Australian Governments. The Australian SKA Pathfinder is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility, which is managed by CSIRO. Operation of ASKAP is funded by the Australian Government with support from the National Collaborative Research Infrastructure Strategy. ASKAP uses the resources of the Pawsey Supercomputing Centre. Establishment of ASKAP, the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory and the Pawsey Supercomputing Centre are initiatives of the Australian Government, with support from the Government of Western Australia and the Science and Industry Endowment Fund. Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics in 3D (ASTRO 3D) through project number CE170100013.r (Berger Time-Domain Group) The Berger Time-Domain Group at Harvard is supported in part by the NSF through grants AST-1411763 and AST-1714498, and by NASA through grants NNX15AE50G and NNX16AC22G.r (Bootes) A.J.C.T.; r r acknowledges support from the Spanish Ministry Project AYA 2015-71718-R (including FEDER funds) and Junta de Andalucia Proyecto de Excelencia TIC-2839. I.H.P. acknowledges the support of the National Research Foundation (NRF-2015R1A2A1A01006870). S.J. acknowledges the support of Korea Basic Science Research Program (NRF2014R1A6A3A03057484 and NRF-2015R1D1A4A01020961). The BOOTES-5/JGT observations were carried out at Observatorio Astronomico Nacional in San Pedro Martir (OAN-SPM, Mexico), operated by Instituto de Astronomia, UNAM and with support from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (Mexico) through the Laboratorios Nacionales Program (Mexico), Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA-CSIC, Spain) and Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU, South Korea). We also thank the staff of OAN-SPM for their support in carrying out the observations.r (CAASTRO) Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020. The national facility capability for SkyMapper has been funded through ARC LIEF grant LE130100104 from the Australian Research Council, awarded to the University of Sydney, the Australian National University, Swinburne University of Technology, the University of Queensland, the University of Western Australia, the University of Melbourne, Curtin University of Technology, Monash University, and the Australian Astronomical Observatory. SkyMapper is owned and operated by The Australian National University's Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics.r (CALET) The CALET team gratefully acknowledges support from NASA, ASI, JAXA, and MEXT KAKENHI grant numbers JP 17H06362, JP26220708, and JP17H02901.r (Chandra/McGill) This work was supported in part by Chandra Award Number GO7-18033X, issued by the Chandra X-ray Observatory Center, which is operated by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for and on behalf of the National Aeronautics Space Administration (NASA) under contract NAS8-03060. D.H., M.N., and J.J.R. acknowledge support from a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Discovery Grant and a Fonds de recherche du Quebec-Nature et Technologies (FRQNT) Nouveaux Chercheurs Grant. P.A.E. acknowledges UKSA support. J.A.K. acknowledges the support of NASA grant NAS5-00136. D.H. also acknowledges support from the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR).r (CZTI/AstroSat) CZTI is built by a TIFR-led consortium of institutes across India, including VSSC, ISAC, IUCAA, SAC, and PRL. The Indian Space Research Organisation funded, managed, and facilitated the project.r (DLT40) D.J.S. acknowledges support for the DLT40 program from NSF grant AST-1517649.r (EuroVLBI) The European VLBI Network is a joint facility of independent European, African, Asian, and North American radio astronomy institutes. Scientific results from data presented in this publication are derived from the following EVN project code: RP029. e-MERLIN is a National Facility operated by the University of Manchester at Jodrell Bank Observatory on behalf of STFC. The collaboration between LIGO/Virgo and EVN/e-MERLIN is part of a project that has received funding from the European Unions Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 653477.r (ePESSTO) We acknowledge ESO programs 199.D-0143 and 099.D-0376. PS1 and ATLAS are supported by NASA grants NNX08AR22G, NNX12AR65G, NNX14AM74G, and NNX12AR55G. We acknowledge the Leibniz-Prize to Prof. G.; r r Hasinger (DFG grant HA 1850/28-1), EU/FP7-ERC grants 291222, 615929, 647208, 725161, STFC grants ST/P000312/1 and ERF ST/M005348/1, ST/P000495/1. Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant No 702538. Polish NCN grant OPUS 2015/17/B/ST9/03167, Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation. PRIN-INAF 2014. David and Ellen Lee Prize Postdoctoral Fellowship at the California Institute of Technology. Alexander von Humboldt Sofja Kovalevskaja Award. Royal Society-Science Foundation Ireland Vilho, Yrjo and Kalle Vaisala Foundation. FONDECYT grant number 3160504. US NSF grant AST-1311862. Swedish Research Council and the Swedish Space Board. The Quantum Universe I-Core program, the ISF, BSF, and Kimmel award. IRC grant GOIPG/2017/1525. Australian Research Council CAASTRO CE110001020 and grant FT160100028. We acknowledge Millennium Science Initiative grant IC120009.r (Fermi-GBM) B.C., V.C., A.G., and W.S.P. gratefully acknowledge NASA funding through contract NNM13AA43C. M.S.B., R.H., P.J., C.A.M., S.P., R.D.P., M.S., and P.V. gratefully acknowledge NASA funding from cooperative agreement NNM11AA01A. E.B. is supported by an appointment to the NASA Postdoctoral Program at the Goddard Space Flight Center, administered by Universities Space Research Association under contract with NASA. D.K., C.A.W.H., C.M.H., and J.R. gratefully acknowledge NASA funding through the Fermi-GBM project. Support for the German contribution to GBM was provided by the Bundesministerium fur Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) via the Deutsches Zentrum fur Luft und Raumfahrt (DLR) under contract number 50 QV 0301. A.v.K. was supported by the Bundesministeriums fur Wirtschaft und Technologie (BMWi) through DLR grant 50 OG 1101. S.M.B. acknowledges support from Science Foundation Ireland under grant 12/IP/1288.r (Fermi-LAT) The Fermi-LAT Collaboration acknowledges support for LAT development, operation, and data analysis from NASA and DOE (United States), CEA/Irfu and IN2P3/CNRS (France), ASI and INFN (Italy), MEXT, KEK, and JAXA (Japan), and the K. A. Wallenberg Foundation, the Swedish Research Council and the National Space Board (Sweden). Science analysis support in the operations phase from INAF (Italy) and CNES (France) is also gratefully acknowledged. This work performed in part under DOE Contract DE-AC02-76SF00515.r (FRBSG) S.L.L. is supported by NSF grant PHY-1607291 (LIU). Construction of the LWA has been supported by the Office of Naval Research under Contract N00014-07-C0147. Support for operations and continuing development of the LWA1 is provided by the National Science Foundation under grants AST-1139963 and AST-1139974 of the University Radio Observatory program.r (GRAWITA) We acknowledge INAF for supporting the project "Gravitational Wave Astronomy with the first detections of adLIGO and adVIRGO experiments-GRAWITA" PI: E. Brocato. Observations are made with ESO Telescopes at the Paranal Observatory under programmes ID 099.D-0382 (PI: E. Pian), 099.D-0622 (PI: P. D'Avanzo), 099.D-0191 (PI: A. Grado), 099.D-0116 (PI: S. Covino) and with the REM telescope at the ESO La Silla Observatory under program ID 35020 (PI: S. Campana). We thank the ESO operation staff for excellent support of this program. The Sardinia Radio Telescope (SRT) is funded by the Department of University and Research (MIUR), the Italian Space Agency (ASI), and the Autonomous Region of Sardinia (RAS) and is operated as National Facility by the National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF). Z.J. is supported by the External Cooperation Program of BIC (number 114332KYSB20160007). J.M.; r r is supported by the Hundred Talent Program, the Major Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (KJZD-EW-M06), the National Natural Science Foundation of China 11673062, and the Oversea Talent Program of Yunnan Province. R.L.C. Starling, K.W., A.B.H., N.R.T., and C.G.M. are supported by the STFC (Science and Technology Facilities Council). D.K., acknowledges the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (P1-0188). S.K. and A.N.G. acknowledge support by grant DFG Kl 766/16-3. D.G. acknowledges the financial support of the UnivEarthS Labex program at Sorbonne Paris Cite (ANR-10-LABX-0023 and ANR-11-IDEX-0005-02). K.T. was supported by JSPS grant 15H05437 and by a JST Consortia grant.r (GROND) Part of the funding for GROND was generously granted from the Leibniz-Prize to Prof. G. Hasinger (DFG grant HA 1850/28-1). "We acknowledge the excellent help in obtaining GROND data from Angela Hempel, Markus Rabus and Regis Lachaume on La Silla."r (GROWTH, JAGWAR, Caltech-NRAO, TTU-NRAO, and NuSTAR) This work was supported by the GROWTH (Global Relay of Observatories Watching Transients Happen) project funded by the National Science Foundation under PIRE grant No. 1545949. GROWTH is a collaborative project among California Institute of Technology (USA), University of Maryland College Park (USA), University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee (USA), Texas Tech University (USA), San Diego State University (USA), Los Alamos National Laboratory (USA), Tokyo Institute of Technology (Japan), National Central University (Taiwan), Indian Institute of Astrophysics (India), Inter-University Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics (India), Weizmann Institute of Science (Israel), The Oskar Klein Centre at Stockholm University (Sweden), Humboldt University (Germany), Liverpool John Moores University (UK). A.H. acknowledges support by the I-Core Program of the Planning and Budgeting Committee and the Israel Science Foundation. T.M. acknowledges the support of the Australian Research Council through grant FT150100099. Parts of this research were conducted by the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for All-sky Astrophysics (CAASTRO), through project number CE110001020. The Australia Telescope Compact Array is part of the Australia Telescope National Facility which is funded by the Australian Government for operation as a National Facility managed by CSIRO. D.L.K. is additionally supported by NSF grant AST-1412421. A.A.M. is funded by the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope Corporation in support of the Data Science Fellowship Program. P.C.Y., C.C.N., and W.H.I. thank the support from grants MOST104-2923-M-008-004-MY5 and MOST106-2112-M-008-007. A.C. acknowledges support from the National Science Foundation CAREER award 1455090, "CAREER: Radio and gravitational-wave emission from the largest explosions since the Big Bang." T.P. acknowledges the support of Advanced ERC grant TReX. B.E.C. thanks SMARTS 1.3 m Queue Manager Bryndis Cruz for prompt scheduling of the SMARTS observations. Basic research in radio astronomy at the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) is funded by 6.1 Base funding. Construction and installation of VLITE was supported by NRL Sustainment Restoration and Maintenance funding. K.P.M.'s research is supported by the Oxford Centre for Astrophysical Surveys, which is funded through the Hintze Family Charitable Foundation. J.S. and A.G. are grateful for support from the Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation. GREAT is funded by the Swedish Research Council (V.R.). E.O.O.; r r is grateful for the support by grants from the Israel Science Foundation, Minerva, Israeli ministry of Science, the US-Israel Binational Science Foundation, and the I-CORE Program of the Planning and Budgeting Committee and The Israel Science Foundation. We thank the staff of the GMRT that made these observations possible. The GMRT is run by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. AYQH was supported by a National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under grant No. DGE-1144469. S.R. has been supported by the Swedish Research Council (VR) under grant number 2016 03657 3, by the Swedish National Space Board under grant number Dnr. 107/16 and by the research environment grant "Gravitational Radiation and Electromagnetic Astrophysical Transients (GREAT)" funded by the Swedish Research council (V.R.) under Dnr. 2016-06012.r We acknowledge the support of the Science and Engineering Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, India and the Indo-US Science and Technology Foundation for the GROWTH-India project.r (HAWC) We acknowledge the support from: the US National Science Foundation (NSF); the US Department of Energy Office of High-Energy Physics; the Laboratory Directed Research and Development (LDRD) program of Los Alamos National Laboratory; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia (CONACyT), Mexico (grants 271051, 232656, 167281, 260378, 179588, 239762, 254964, 271737, 258865, 243290); Red HAWC, Mexico; DGAPA-UNAM (grants RG100414, IN111315, IN111716-3, IA102715, 109916); VIEP-BUAP; the University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation; the Institute of Geophysics, Planetary Physics, and Signatures at Los Alamos National Laboratory; Polish Science Centre grant DEC-2014/13/B/ST9/945. We acknowledge the support of the Science and Engineering Research Board, Department of Science and Technology, India and the Indo-US Science and Technology Foundation for the GROWTH-India project.r (H.E.S.S.) The support of the Namibian authorities and of the University of Namibia in facilitating the construction and operation of H.E.S.S. is gratefully acknowledged, as is the support by the German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), the Max Planck Society, the German Research Foundation (DFG), the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation, the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, the French Ministry for Research, the CNRS-IN2P3 and the Astroparticle Interdisciplinary Programme of the CNRS, the U.K. Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), the IPNP of the Charles University, the Czech Science Foundation, the Polish National Science Centre, the South African Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation, the University of Namibia, the National Commission on Research, Science and Technology of Namibia (NCRST), the Innsbruck University, the Austrian Science Fund (FWF), and the Austrian Federal Ministry for Science, Research and Economy, the University of Adelaide and the Australian Research Council, the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science and by the University of Amsterdam. We appreciate the excellent work of the technical support staff in Berlin, Durham, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Palaiseau, Paris, Saclay, and in Namibia in the construction and operation of the equipment. This work benefited from services provided by the H.E.S.S. Virtual Organisation, supported by the national resource providers of the EGI Federation.; r r r (Insight-HXMT) The Insight-HXMT team acknowledges the support from the China National Space Administration (CNSA), the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS; grant No. XDB23040400), and the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (MOST; grant No. 2016YFA0400800).r (IceCube) We acknowledge the support from the following agencies: U.S. National Science Foundation-Office of Polar Programs, U.S. National Science Foundation-Physics Division, University of Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation, the Grid Laboratory of Wisconsin (GLOW) grid infrastructure at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, the Open Science Grid (OSG) grid infrastructure; U.S. Department of Energy, and National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center, the Louisiana Optical Network Initiative (LONI) grid computing resources; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, WestGrid and Compute/Calcul Canada; Swedish Research Council, Swedish Polar Research Secretariat, Swedish National Infrastructure for Computing (SNIC), and Knut and Alice Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden; German Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF), Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics (HAP), Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association, Germany; Fund for Scientific Research (FNRS-FWO), FWO Odysseus programme, Flanders Institute to encourage scientific and technological research in industry (IWT), Belgian Federal Science Policy Office (Belspo); Marsden Fund, New Zealand; Australian Research Council; Japan Society for Promotion of Science (JSPS); the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), Switzerland; National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF); Villum Fonden, Danish National Research Foundation (DNRF), Denmark.r (IKI-GW) A.S.P., A.A.V., E.D.M., and P.Y.u.M. acknowledge the support from the Russian Science Foundation (grant 15-1230015). V.A.K., A.V.K., and I.V.R. acknowledge the Science and Education Ministry of Kazakhstan (grant No. 0075/GF4). R.I. is grateful to the grant RUSTAVELI FR/379/6-300/14 for partial support. We acknowledge the excellent help in obtaining Chilescope data from Sergei Pogrebsskiy and Ivan Rubzov.r (INTEGRAL) This work is based on observations with INTEGRAL, an ESA project with instruments and science data center funded by ESA member states (especially the PI countries: Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Spain), and with the participation of Russia and the USA. The INTEGRAL SPI project has been completed under the responsibility and leadership of CNES. The SPI-ACS detector system has been provided by MPE Garching/Germany. The SPI team is grateful to ASI, CEA, CNES, DLR, ESA, INTA, NASA, and OSTC for their support. The Italian INTEGRAL team acknowledges the support of ASI/INAF agreement No. 2013-025-R.1. R.D. and A.v.K. acknowledge the German INTEGRAL support through DLR grant 50 OG 1101. A.L. and R.S. acknowledge the support from the Russian Science Foundation (grant 14-22-00271). A.D. is funded by Spanish MINECO/FEDER grant ESP2015-65712-C5-1-R.r (IPN) K.H. is grateful for support under NASA grant NNX15AE60G. R.L.A. and D.D.F. are grateful for support under RFBR grant 16-29-13009-ofi-m.; r r r (J-GEM) MEXT KAKENHI (JP17H06363, JP15H00788, JP24103003, JP10147214, JP10147207), JSPS KAKENHI (JP16H02183, JP15H02075, JP15H02069, JP26800103, JP25800103), Inter-University Cooperation Program of the MEXT, the NINS program for cross-disciplinary science study, the Toyota Foundation (D11-R-0830), the Mitsubishi Foundation, the Yamada Science Foundation, Inoue Foundation for Science, the National Research Foundation of South Africa.r (KU) The Korea-Uzbekistan Consortium team acknowledges the support from the NRF grant No. 2017R1A3A3001362, and the KASI grant 2017-1-830-03. This research has made use of the KMTNet system operated by KASI.r (Las Cumbres) Support for I. A. and J.B. was provided by NASA through the Einstein Fellowship Program, grants PF6-170148 and PF7-180162, respectively. D.A.H., C.M., and G.H. are supported by NSF grant AST-1313484. D.P. and D.M acknowledge support by Israel Science Foundation grant 541/17. This work makes use of observations from the LCO network.r (LIGO and Virgo) The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the United States National Science Foundation (NSF) for the construction and operation of the LIGO Laboratory and Advanced LIGO as well as the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) of the United Kingdom, the Max-Planck- Society (MPS), and the State of Niedersachsen/Germany for support of the construction of Advanced LIGO and construction and operation of the GEO600 detector. Additional support for advanced LIGO was provided by the Australian Research Council. The authors gratefully acknowledge the Italian Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN), the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and the Foundation for Fundamental Research on Matter supported by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research, for the construction and operation of the Virgo detector and the creation and support of the EGO consortium.; r r The authors also gratefully acknowledge research support from these agencies as well as by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research of India, the Department of Science and Technology, India, the Science & Engineering Research Board (SERB), India, the Ministry of Human Resource Development, India, the Spanish Agencia Estatal de Investigacion, the Vicepresidencia i Conselleria d'Innovacio Recerca i Turisme and the Conselleria d'Educacio i Universitat del Govern de les Illes Balears, the Conselleria d'Educacio Investigacio Cultura i Esport de la Generalitat Valenciana, the National Science Centre of Poland, the Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF), the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, the Russian Science Foundation, the European Commission, the European Regional Development Funds (ERDF), the Royal Society, the Scottish Funding Council, the Scottish Universities Physics Alliance, the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA), the Lyon Institute of Origins (LIO), the National Research, Development and Innovation Office Hungary (NKFI), the National Research Foundation of Korea, Industry Canada and the Province of Ontario through the Ministry of Economic Development and Innovation, the Natural Science and Engineering Research Council Canada, the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research, the Brazilian Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovations, and Communications, the International Center for Theoretical Physics South American Institute for Fundamental Research (ICTP-SAIFR), the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong, the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), the China National Space Administration (CNSA) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), the Ministry of Science and Technology of China (MOST), the Leverhulme Trust, the Research Corporation, the Ministry of Science and Technology (MOST), Taiwan and the Kavli Foundation. The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of the NSF, STFC, MPS, INFN, CNRS, and the State of Niedersachsen/Germany for provision of computational resources. The MAXI team acknowledges the support by JAXA, RIKEN, and MEXT KAKENHI grant number JP 17H06362. The National Radio Astronomy Observatory is a facility of the National Science Foundation operated under cooperative agreement by Associated Universities, Inc. The European VLBI Network is a joint facility of independent European, African, Asian, and North American radio astronomy institutes. Scientific results from data presented in this publication are derived from the following EVN project code: RP029.r e-MERLIN is a National Facility operated by the University of Manchester at Jodrell Bank Observatory on behalf of STFC. The collaboration between LIGO/Virgo and EVN/eMERLIN is part of a project that has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No. 653477. We thank Britt Griswold (NASA/GSFC) for graphic arts. P.G.J. acknowledges ERC-Consolidator grant No. 647208. We thank the GMRT staff for prompt scheduling of these observations. The GMRT is run by the National Center for Radio Astrophysics of the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research. INAF, Italian Institute of Astrophysics ASI, Italian Space Agency. This work is part of the research program Innovational Research Incentives Scheme (Vernieuwingsimpuls), which is financed by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research through the NWO VIDI grant No. 639.042.612-Nissanke and NWO TOP grant No. 62002444-Nissanke.; r r We thank ESO for granting full access to all the LVC MoU partners of the observations of GW170817 obtained with NACO and VISIR under the Observatory program 60.A-9392.
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Foreign policy mandarins have spent years fighting over what to make of former President Donald Trump. At heart, is he a hawk or a dove? Does he hope to be a new Nixon, capable of seeking detente with enemies despite (or even because of) his mean streak? Or perhaps a new Reagan, focused on achieving "peace through strength"?I might ask it a different way: Who cares? New political science research suggests that Trump's personal views are not the most important part of the puzzle. In short, it's the advisers, stupid. This may sound like received wisdom, but its implications are profound. Researchers created an unprecedented dataset of minutes from presidential meetings related to foreign policy during the Cold War. Using complex statistical methods, they found that the relative hawkishness of a president's advisers is a remarkably good predictor of whether a leader will make "conflictual decisions" regarding an adversary.The differences can be stark. If you assemble the most hawkish group of presidential advisers from the Cold War, the model predicts they would make six times as many aggressive choices as the least hawkish group. Over the course of a presidency, that could mean hundreds of extra moves liable to spark new conflicts or escalate simmering disputes."Who dominates the room [...] does seem to have a systematic effect" on whether presidents choose hawkish or dovish paths, said Tyler Jost, a professor at Brown University who co-led the project.Now, Trump has a unique opportunity. The new research finds that hawkishness is surprisingly consistent from administration to administration; in fact, it varies more within administrations than between them — a statistical testament to the power of the so-called foreign policy "blob." Perhaps more than any president in recent memory, Trump has the chance to ditch advocates of global primacy and hire proponents of a more restrained U.S. foreign policy.Indeed, the former president is spoiled for choice. Most candidates for posts in a new Trump administration now agree that Washington should shift its focus to Asia by pursuing real retrenchment in Europe and the Middle East. Sen. J.D. Vance (R-Ohio) — a close Trump ally and top vice presidential candidate — has slammed U.S. military adventurism, called for a negotiated settlement in Ukraine, and even voted in favor of removing U.S. troops from Syria in December.New think tanks have popped up to support this viewpoint, and some old conservative stalwarts have refashioned themselves as America Firsters who want to help shape a different, more populist vision of U.S. foreign policy. These groups are creating staffing pipelines for a new brand of conservative foreign policy, and the consequences of their investment could go far beyond 2024.The transition battleThe Heritage Foundation wants you to know that it's changed. Once a premier home for neocons and uber hawks, the eminence grise of conservative politics now loudly calls for the U.S. to pull back from the Middle East and Europe, all while railing against inefficient military spending.Heritage's shift reflects broader changes in the conservative movement dating back to Trump's first election in 2016. "The real America First foreign policy position recognizes that the last few decades were characterized by a series of blunders," argued Micah Meadowcroft, the research director at the conservative Center for Renewing America (CRA) and a former staffer in the Trump White House. "Our leadership class messed up badly" during the so-called unipolar moment by launching a global crusade against terrorism and ignoring China's rise, Meadowcroft told RS.Conservative realists hope that recognizing this shift will allow the U.S. to focus all of its attention on preparing for — and hopefully deterring — a war with China over Taiwan. "China remains the single greatest threat to American interests in the world today, and we just haven't been acting like it," said Alex Velez-Green, a former adviser to Sen. Josh Hawley (R-Mo.) now based at Heritage. "My view is that a new administration will really need to prioritize it."The key question is how to strike a balance between deterrence and provocation. Velez-Green draws on a "peace through strength" tradition exemplified by Elbridge Colby, a prominent China hawk who appears poised to get a major role in a new Trump administration. While all hope to avoid war, other realists have argued for a more conservative approach to Beijing's rise.Regardless of the reasons behind this broader shift, conservatives have made big investments in order to shape its path. The most influential effort is Heritage's Project 2025, an initiative that has raised millions of dollars to identify potential staffers for a second Trump administration and plan policies to help vault it back into the White House.For supporters of a more restrained foreign policy, Project 2025 has a lot to offer. While any Heritage program is bound to make up a big tent of conservative views, "the leadership of Project 2025 is a lot more aligned to a more Trumpian strain of America First, which is a more narrow, national-interest oriented idea," said Sumantra Maitra of the CRA, who has advised on the effort. Will Ruger, who Trump nominated as his ambassador to Afghanistan, welcomed Heritage's shift toward a "much more prudential approach to American foreign policy."But there are still some reasons to doubt Heritage's restraint bona fides. Project 2025's transition manifesto makes clear that the conservative tone setter is not quite ready to drop its commitment to fighting global terrorism and keeping down America's parochial enemies, however weak they may now be.Of course, Heritage is far from the only game in town. Its foreign policy team has often found common cause with the CRA, a right-wing think tank with restraint-oriented views on international affairs that Maitra said will be a "key player" in the planning for a second Trump term. Trump himself reportedly read and at least partially endorsed Maitra's CRA paper calling for a major down-sizing of the U.S. role in NATO.On the other side, traditional hawks at organizations like the American Enterprise Institute and the Hoover Institute continue to hold sway in both mainstream and conservative media, as Meadowcroft pointed out. But many prominent hard-line hawks — like one-time Trump adviser John Bolton — have had a sufficiently large break with the MAGA movement to make them persona non grata in any future Trump White House.The America First Policy Institute (AFPI) appears determined to split the difference. Like Heritage, AFPI has questioned the wisdom of continued U.S. aid to Ukraine and pushed hard for Europe to shoulder more of the burden of its own defense. But the startup policy outfit — created as something of a White House in waiting — has a bit of a neocon streak when it comes to the Middle East, with a particular focus on countering Iranian influence and supporting Israel.There is no love lost between Heritage and AFPI, as journalist Sam Adler-Bell recently noted in the New York Times. "A.F.P.I. partisans see Heritage as a latecomer to the Trump train, establishment wolves in 'America First' clothing," Adler-Bell wrote. "Some at Heritage see A.F.P.I. as a redoubt of precisely those unreliable Trump appointees — grifters and RINOs — who trade on their relationships with the president to ensure they can continue to run the show." This antipathy helps to explain why AFPI has a separate Trump staffing effort, known as the America First Transition Project.One should note, however, that the two don't always disagree. They share some staff and have both kept strong ties to more traditional foreign policy shops. Part of this stems from the fact that even the more dovish members of the GOP national security world are more hawkish on, say, the Middle East and Venezuela than hard-line realists. But, on balance, restrainers are more skeptical of AFPI than their old foes at Heritage.It remains unclear which side has Trump's ear. AFPI associates — including Fred Fleitz, Keith Kellogg, and John Ratcliffe — often show up on lists of current and potential future Trump advisers. He also reportedly consults with former Secretary of State Mike Pompeo and Sen. Tom Cotton (R-Ark.), who rank among the most hawkish figures in American politics. (Pompeo's habit of calling himself a "realist" is a particular point of frustration for many America Firsters.)But, as efforts like Project 2025 demonstrate, Trump will no longer be stuck with old-school options on every front. There are no hardcore restrainers known to be in the running for major roles, but the former president is reportedly considering Richard Grenell and Kash Patel — both of whom have a somewhat less interventionist streak — for top jobs in his administration. And, as just about everyone I spoke with noted, there's still plenty of time for other potential nominees to gain ground before the election."The bench is deeper, and therefore there are more folks to turn to if a president wants to go in a restraint direction," said Ruger.Trump 2.0Much of the planning for a second Trump administration revolves around staffing. This laser focus is a response to his first term, in which advisers and officials often took steps to block the implementation of the president's preferred policies.Take Syria. When Trump ordered that U.S. troops be withdrawn from the country in 2019, the move sparked an uproar among policy experts who argued that it would leave our Kurdish allies in the lurch. Jim Jeffrey — then the special envoy to Syria — persuaded Trump to leave a token force in the country but later revealed that "we were always playing shell games to not make clear to our leadership how many troops we had there."Trump world is looking to make sure that never happens again. Heritage wants a new administration to make sweeping personnel changes that would allow Trump to replace thousands of federal bureaucrats with more sympathetic cadres.This is both an opportunity and a challenge for restrainers. On the "challenge" side, Trump has increasingly signaled that he wants to use military force against Mexican cartels, a proposal that most realists reject as dangerous and counterproductive. And, as Jost of Brown University notes, presidents don't just select their advisers based on hawkishness. They have to make decisions about which advisers will appease which constituencies in their base, among other considerations. In Trump's case, loyalty to the president appears to be another key criterion.But loyalty to Trump doesn't get your nomination through Congress. For many top jobs, nominees will have to persuade the old-school hawks in the Senate that they won't change too much about the status quo. Restraint-oriented nominees will, however, get help from the growing group of young America Firsters on Capitol Hill, not to mention the changing of the guard symbolized by Sen. Mitch McConnell's (R-Ky.) decision to step down from leadership.It will be up to Trump to decide whether he picks less controversial candidates for these positions or simply relies on "acting" appointees, as he did at the end of his first term. The former president will have much more room to maneuver when it comes to the National Security Council, whose leaders don't require confirmation.These challenges aside, the decisions that Trump makes in a potential second term could have a massive, lasting impact on the direction of conservative foreign policy. To better understand how, a quick history lesson is in order.In 2007, Democratic foreign policy big wigs founded the Center for a New American Security (CNAS), a hawkish center-left think tank first conceived as a government in waiting for Hillary Clinton. When Barack Obama beat Clinton in the primaries, he made the fateful decision to soften his stance on the Iraq War and staff up his team with CNAS acolytes.The CNAS crew — in addition to Clinton herself — earned powerful roles in Obama's administration that allowed them to steer the president away from his anti-war rhetoric on the campaign trail. The result was a vicious or virtuous cycle, depending on where you stand. The more hawkish CNAS staffers got coveted government experience (and connections) that put weight behind their arguments. Once they left government, they took their place as the sages of liberal foreign policy, with many returning in 2020 to staff the Biden administration.Obama's decision may have been practical. The progressive foreign policy landscape was, and in many ways still is, short on funding and candidates for high-level jobs. But Trump has the virtue of a genuine choice. The former president probably won't reject staffers based on their hawkishness — but perhaps he should. Research suggests it just might prevent the next war before it happens.
ÖZETTürkiye'nin Avrupa Birliği macerası yıllardır sürmektedir. Bugün mü, yarın mı derken Avrupa Birliği üyeliği giderek uzayan bir konu gibi gözükmektedir. Yıllardır süren macera Türkiye'nin aday ülke olarak kabul edilmesiyle farklı bir boyut kazanmış, hiç olmayacakmış gibi gözüken, neredeyse umudun bittiği anda 'üyelik' yeniden gündeme gelmiştir. Lüksemburg Zirvesiyle Türkiye-AB ilişkileri kopma noktasına gelmiş, Helsinki zirvesiyle ilişkiler yeni bir boyut kazanmış, Türkiye'nin üyelik umutları artmıştır. Helsinki Zirvesi bu boyutuyla Türkiye açısından çok önemlidir. Türkiye'nin AB macerasında en önemli yapı taşlarından biri Helsinki Zirvesidir denilebilir. Türkiye'nin aday ülke olmasının AB üyesi ülkelerde yarattığı etki, bir yerde Türkiye'nin Avrupa nezdinde öneminide ortaya koymaktadır. Bu nedenle Avrupa medyasında Türkiye'yle ilgili haberler Türkiye'nin aday olmasının arkasındaki gerekçelerin bir nebze olsun anlaşılmasında faydalı olacaktır. Medyanın günümüz işlevlerini düşünürsek Helsinki Zirvesi öncesi ve sonrası Avrupa medyasının Türkiye'ye bakış açısı önem kazanmaktadır. Medya Türkiye'nin AB'ne aday olmasında birinci derecede etkilidir diye bir sav olamaz ancak medyanın Helsinki zirvesi öncesi ve sonrası yazdıkları, yayınladıkları zirveye etkisi olabilmiştir ama bu neticede belirleyici etki olmamıştır. Türkiye sonuç olarak Helsinki Zirvesiyle AB'ne aday olmuş ve üyelik süreci hızlanmıştır. Bu nedenle Helsinki zirvesinin önemi ve Avrupa medyasının zirveyle birlikte Türkiye'ye olan yaklaşımı bir medya çalışanı olarak ilgimi çekmiş ve bu konuda çalışma yapmaya teşvik etmiştir.ABSTRACTRepublic of Turkey was built in 1923 on a past of 700 years of relationship with Europe. The Ottoman Empire was almost the strongest country in the world .15.and 16.centuries were the centuries that the Ottoman Empire was the boss of the world. At these centuries Empire was at the most powerful point about army, economy and territory. Renaissance and Reforms were the turning points for the Europe. After that, the equilibrium in the world began to change.That equlibrium changed negatively for the Ottoman Empire.That equlibrium changed positively for Europe.Ottoman Empire could not realize the importance of Renaissance and Reforms. Because of this, Empire only watched the development of Europe and result of this, Empire could not develop itself and while Europe was developing itself, Ottoman Empire was becoming weaker day by day. It can be said that because of Renaissance and Reforms the power passed the Europe and basic of today's Europe was made up of at that time.Europe was developing itself and when the Ottoman Empire realized it, reformists moverments only tried to save the day.These were not long term movements. The reformists movements that were done by the Empire about army, economy and at other branches were depending on the reformists movements which the Europe had done. It can be said that Turkey's Europe adventure began with these movements. Administrative Reforms were first seen in 1839.The Reforms that were decleared at that time, were trying to make better the Empire's politic, economic life. And with these reforms social life was tried to be changed. It can be said that, that was the first step for the law government.That Reform was decleared at 3 November 1839 at Topkapı Palace. It was the turning point for the Ottoman Empire. It's aim was to renew old institutions and make more powerfull the authority of the center. These reforms helped to form new personnels for the formation of new military, judical, managerial system. Reforms included everybody's safe, justice. The most important aim of that was to prevent Europe's pressure on the Empire. Later in 1856 another reformist movement occured in the Empire. These reforms were completing the Reforms that were decleared in 1839. In 30 March 1856 Paris Agreement was signed.And the Reforms that were declared was one of the conditions of that Agreement. On the other hand the effect of foreign capital increased in the Empire and European countries gained more power about Empire's politic and economic life. It can be said that like other reforms which was made in 1839, also these Reforms could not become real in life. So it is clear that Reforms were not useful for Ottoman Empire. The Empire was taking the Reforms as an example which were done by Europe. But later on the Ottoman Empire began to do the things that Europe wanted from it to do. After first world war and after Turkish national war, with the formation of a new Republic, Turkey tried to take part in Europe. It became a national policy. The relation between Turkey and the Union began at 31 July 1959 with the application for being common partner member.But after 40 years of that application Turkey only could have a candidateship for the Union at the Helsinki Summit. The Helsimki Summit was very important for both sides and with the result of that Summit a new term began between Turkey and the Union. Nationalistic public opinion was only concerning with the result of that Summit. Genarally, the subjects that were discussed at the Summit took part at media according to the agenda of the Union countries. Turkey's candidateship almost took part in every press at the Union contries.Press of some countries gave more importance to Turkey's candidateship rather than other countries 's press. That was linked to their relations with Turkey. At this study, the approaches of media in the EU member states towards Turkey's candidateship before and after the Helsinki Summit will be written.Media is composed of radio, tv, and press. In this study press will be the basic point. Newspapers and magazines will be the source of the study. Radio and tv, other mass media will take less place rather than newspapers in this satudy. Important tv channels will be written which gave news about Turkey's candidateship. Basicly press of the Union countries that gave place to Turkey in their columns will be main source of this thesis. Turkey's being candidate was waited from the year 1959. With the Summit of Luxembourg in 1997, the Union made Turkey stay outside Europe and after that the relations between Turkey and the Union became very bad.The union turned back from it's wrong with the Helsinki Summit and Turkey was declared as a candidate country. Turkey's declearation of candidateship was an important development for the future of the country. That opened a new term between Turkey and the Union. The political and economic criteria ( called Copenhagen criteria ) that the Union wanted from Turkey became more important. Turkey had to give more importance to its relations with the EU. The momentum which gave rise to and which was generated by the Single European Act continued after its adoption. The Committee chaired by Jacques Delors on Economic and Monetary Union had presented a report in 1989 setting out a three-stage plan for reaching EMU. The European Council decided to hold an intergovernmental conference on the subject, and, significantly, to hold at the same time a second intergovernmental conference on political union. The relationship between the two intergovernmental conference's has been explained as,"The second intergovernmental Conference on Political Union did not have such a long gestation period: it was not indepently planned, but developed in response to the European Monetary Union decision. Key Community states thought it imperative to balance economic integration with political integration. An economically integrated Europe without a comparable political dimension seemed the antithesis of the Community ideal".On the basis of the intergovernmental conference negotiations, a draft Treaty was presented by the Luxembourg presidency of the European Council in 1991. After various revisions of this draft at the European Council meeting in December of that year, the Treaty on European Union was eventually agreed and signed in Maastricht in February 1992. (Corbett, 1993). After vigorous debates leading up to the ratification process in the various Member States, which revwaled a considerable amount of public disquiet and dissatisfaction with the Treaty and with the process of its negotiations, it was rejected by the Danish population in a national referandum. However, after several concessions were secured by the Danish Government and formalized in a decision of the Heads of State at the Edinburgh European Council in 1992, including the right not to participate in the third and final stage of European Monetary Union and not to take on the Presidency of the European Council when defence issues were involved, a second referendum yielded a narrow majority in favor of ratification. When the last obstacle-in the shape of a challenge before the German Federal Supreme Court to the Constitutionaly of ratification was cleared, the Treaty entered into force in November 1993.Undoubtetly, the popular profile of the Comunity has been raised more by the Maastricht debate than by any previous development in the Community's history, even though some would contend that the Single European Act, with its revival of qualified-majority voting, represented a more significant step for the Commınity in the process of integration. Perhaps, apart from the detailed commitment to full economic and monetary union, the most obvious feauture of the Treaty on European Union was the instituonal change it wrought, establishing a three-pillar structure for what was henceforth to be called the European Union, with the Communities as the first of these pillars. As noted above, the EEC Treaty was officially renamed the European Community Treaty. (Craig, p;27,1995) News of press reaches all of the world with the help of televisions. Satellite technology helped press to reach billions of people in the world. It can be said that technological development form of press is named "media" at the present time and it is very effective. Making up the public opinion, formation of agenda give the ability to press about effecting people and the politic life.At the present time the European Union developed itself verymuch and began to behave as "one" government. And its importance increased in the world. For Turkey it became more important to be the member of the Union.Helsinki Summit became very important for Turkey in 1999. It was almost the last chance for Turkey to be the member of the Union. and 2000 journalists worked during that Summit and with the help of technology they conveyed information about the Summit to billions of people. Before the Helsinki Summit,the public opinion in the countries of the Union was in favor of Turkey.It can be said that that public opinion could be effective on the policy of member governments about Turkey.This study includes generall approach of the press in the Union countries towards Turkey before and after the Helsinki Summit.The aim is to show the opinion of the member states towards Tutkey's candidateship.With that, it can be understood which countries really supported Turkey and which countries had to support Turkey.Countries generally behave according to the public opinion.Press is very active at the formation of public opinion.So the press of the Union countries might have a role about Turkey's candidateship.After the Helsinki Summit Turkish media gave more importance to the Union and almost everday there could be seen news about theUnion in the newspaper and televisions. At this study first of all, the background of the press is pointed out and with that developments of press in Europe exists.Historical background of communication,historical backgroun of the relations between Turkey and the Union.At this study newspapers will be the basic point. Newspapers which gave place to Turkey's candidateship at European countries are pointed out.The news that they gave about Turkey are shown at this study. Turkey's candidateship did not take place all of the newspapers in Europe.Lots of them gave place and amount of the news changed according to newspapers in the countries. At this study the aim was to reach important newspapers and magazines in Europe and in the United States that wrote something about Turkey's candidateship.In this study the news and articles that were written about Turkey's candidateship in newspapers and magazines are pointed out among the European and the United States press.The media of the EU countries were generally focused on Turkey's geopolitic importance and the importance of energy around Turkey. Ocalan's case was another subject that the press of the focused on. Some newspapers were writing positive things and some of them could write negative. Interest of the newspapers was different. It was changing from one to other one. Some of them were dealing with one specific subject about Turkey and others were dealing other subjects about Turkey. These subjects were generally about Ocalan's case importance of energy around Turkey and the importance of geopolitics of Turkey in the region. Press of Germany,Austria,Greece,Switzerland,France,England,Belgium,Fınland, Italy, Holland and the United States are included in this study. As it was written above newspapers and the magazines are important ones in their countries that were searched.And these are the countries that Turkey took place in their newspapers and magazines.
Part ten of an interview with Gloria Mulcahy and Marion Madonia. Topics include: Rumors about their father. The mafia's impact on the perception of Italian-Americans. How their father would like Fitchburg now. Fitchburg today. ; 1 SPEAKER 1: The only one problem with state was college, Fitchburg College. Did I call it the right name? I still call it Fitchburg State. SPEAKER 2: That's it, I think, Fitchburg State College. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, well let me, let me -- we used to call it State Teachers. Anyways, Jerry Lumbar, because he was State Representative also, and he was on the board of Fitchburg State College. SPEAKER 2: Mm-hmm. SPEAKER 1: And dad ran for State Rep, too. It was like one, one was half of the city; and then if you remember he had the other half of the city. Something like that. Yeah, I think so. But, yeah he, yeah he had -- yeah, because driving to Boston every day, that's, that's a lot. That's a lot. SPEAKER 2: So what do you think your father's hardest experience was? SPEAKER 1: Hardest experience? Losing? Do you think losing? Maybe losing, because he loved the city of Fitchburg, I don't know. What do you think, Glo? SPEAKER 3: Yeah, probably. SPEAKER 2: I feel like after losing, after pouring your heart out. SPEAKER 1: Yeah he did -- his whole heart. SPEAKER 3: Yeah, he was so disappointed because of who beat him, too. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. SPEAKER 3: Because he was supposedly a Communist also. SPEAKER 1: Right. SPEAKER 3: It was true, but people still went on and elected him. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, that's right. I forgot about that, yeah. SPEAKER 2: What is that person's name? SPEAKER 1: Headley Berney. SPEAKER 2: Headley Berney? SPEAKER 3: Yeah, yup. SPEAKER 1: That was [crosstalk – 00:01:40] to have someone beat you like that. 2 SPEAKER 3: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: [Unintelligible – 00:01:42] and it was, yeah [crosstalk – 00:01:47]. SPEAKER 3: And they had sent ledgers out saying that they had proved that he was a Communist. SPEAKER 1: Yes, right. SPEAKER 3: And yet they still voted for him. SPEAKER 1: Yeah the City of Fitchburg, yeah, right. Because now you can see the way people vote in this new generation that they, they had grown apart. Who was mayor then? I don't know if it was Bean or who; but I mean, Fitchburg was going downhill, and you know, because we don't have the right people running for office. I mean, you know, they weren't; but now maybe, now I hope so. But it was like people… SPEAKER 3: They… SPEAKER 1: Nowadays, it seems like they, do they really care? Like then, then it was like you really cared for the city and you took care of it. I mean, Fitchburg was in a better position, okay. That's the best thing to say. And our father made Fitchburg a better city to live in because it was in debt, as we [read], it was in debt before. SPEAKER 2: Mm-hmm. SPEAKER 1: This was a nice place for people to come to, and people -- then it went downhill because -- I mean he took off, he did things, the new man did things that were a disgrace because I was at city hall still, and I left. Because he, he used to say things that were wrong. We would be walking down the aisle or row, and he'd say, "Hey lady, your slip's hanging," or something, you know? And he was the mayor of Fitchburg, and it was like, "Oh, who voted for him?" It was a disgrace, and no one would admit it. And now that's what hurts, because I was at city hall and I left. I had to leave because… SPEAKER 2: You had to leave?3 SPEAKER 1: Yeah, I had to leave because he was obnoxious and he, you know… SPEAKER 2: Was it at the time when he lost that maybe he had to make some unpopular decisions? SPEAKER 1: Well, there might have been one thing. There was something that… I don't know something about the garage, or a club or something, I don't know. Wasn't it about [unintelligible – 00:03:47] or something? Was that… SPEAKER 3: [Unintelligible – 00:03:51] SPEAKER 1: I don't know, probably they thought -- and my father had -- it was all a lie because my father never took anything, money. That's what they thought. [Unintelligible – 00:04:00] paid him off or something. Oh, I know what it was. He had built, they had built that garage, building garage, and was there a bar next door to it? SPEAKER 3: It can't be that garage there. SPEAKER 1: No. SPEAKER 3: Was it the one down at the depot? I don't know. SPEAKER 1: I don't know, I can't recall. It was something and they thought that maybe he took something, or that he favored this thing, and I really can't remember. That's why I probably should have gone up to the, [unintelligible – 00:04:34] to weed out some things. SPEAKER 3: We were going to go. SPEAKER 1: You know, because when you get older you sort of put everything in the back. SPEAKER 2: I already know. [Laughter] SPEAKER 1: Oh, you do? SPEAKER 2: No, no I only mean about memory, that's all. SPEAKER 1: Oh, okay. I'm sorry. SPEAKER 2: No, that's all. SPEAKER 1: But you know what I mean about the -- we can't really say. Yeah, because I don't know. 4 SPEAKER 2: Was there ever talk of the mafia being involved? SPEAKER 1: No, no mafia in those days. No, nope. SPEAKER 2: No? SPEAKER 1: That was one thing. Yeah, because I know that's the big issue nowadays. SPEAKER 2: Yeah, nowadays. But no. [Crosstalk – 00:05:09] SPEAKER 1: No the mafia -- yeah, that was that. I know. How come, you think, because we… SPEAKER 2: Yeah, sometimes they used to be called the Black Hand. SPEAKER 1: Oh, the Black Hand. Yeah, I never heard of the Black Hand. The mafia, we always -- you heard of that, but we never talked about it here. SPEAKER 2: Yeah, mm-hmm. SPEAKER 1: Because one thing, Dad never did. When we, we talked about it, like my generation, in my past, with my ex, we talked about the mafia. And dad was alive then. SPEAKER 2: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: That's funny. But never, never when we were younger with my father. The mafia wasn't an issue. SPEAKER 2: So even now, is that more of the big city type thing? SPEAKER 1: Now, now, no. I think it's all around. [Laughter] SPEAKER 2: All around? Hmm… SPEAKER 1: I think the mafia, yeah. But I don't think that -- I mean, there's mafia, but we don't, you know, use it. SPEAKER 2: Mm-hmm. SPEAKER 1: Some days I'd like to. [Laughter] No I'm sorry. No, but Dad, no. That was one thing. No because [unintelligible – 00:06:04] Sicilians then, that was a big mafia thing. Oh my gosh. SPEAKER 3: Do you want more coffee? SPEAKER 1: Yeah, don't you want a cup of coffee?5 SPEAKER 2: I have a long [unintelligible – 00:06:15] … Is there anything; is there anything else that you'd like to share, or…? SPEAKER 1: I'm trying to think. About us or our father? SPEAKER 2: Anything. SPEAKER 1: About Italians? SPEAKER 2: Yeah. SPEAKER 1: I think Italians have come a long way. You know, they've really progressed. We know a lot of people that are Italian from Water Street that, that really do, that have their own business also. People really have come a long way, but -- and I think the mafia was in the past. I think we just like the movies of it. I know that they want to stop that, but… SPEAKER 2: Now do you feel strongly about that? Let's say the Sopranos, I don't know if you've heard of that? SPEAKER 1: Oh no, I don't watch it. I don't have HBO. We don't watch it. SPEAKER 2: Ah, a lot of people don't like… SPEAKER 1: No, yeah. SPEAKER 2: I mean if you're Italian. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, it's ruining the Italian image, and that's what -- because I know [unintelligible – 00:07:11] we're trying to stop, you've got to try and stop that because it's ruining our image. Because Italians are known to be mouthy, so… SPEAKER 2: Mm-hmm. SPEAKER 3: It's wrong. SPEAKER 1: No. Now let me tell you one thing though that happened is that my… in the paper, the newspaper, I know, it was in the newspaper, but we had nothing to do with it. In the newspaper, it had, it named the mafia in Sicily, the names. And of course, that's my marriage name that I'm using still even though I've been divorced. I'm really, you know, a Levanti. And that name, Medonia, was on there. 6 SPEAKER 2: Oh, wow. SPEAKER 1: I couldn't believe it. Someone brought it to me. SPEAKER 2: Your name? [Laughter] SPEAKER 1: Or my past name. I'm really Levanti-Medonia. SPEAKER 2: [Unintelligible – 00:08:05] SPEAKER 1: I should change that to Marian Levanti-Medonia. Yeah, because I'm divorced. I get that. No, there's nothing really… SPEAKER 2: Are the Medonias from Fitchburg? SPEAKER 1: No, they're from Sicily. The father… SPEAKER 2: Your father? SPEAKER 1: Yeah, he was originally from Fitchburg. Yeah. But there's an article in the Fitchburg book. SPEAKER 2: So actually… SPEAKER 1: --of the mafia people. SPEAKER 2: The Sons of Italy, there's actually a discussion about getting the word out there that Italians are not… SPEAKER 1: Yeah. Are not mafia and to try to -- we're trying to, you know, cut out some of the shows. But I like the mafia stories. I mean, it's in our heritage in one way, isn't it? I mean really. SPEAKER 2: Uh-huh. SPEAKER 1: I mean… SPEAKER 3: Gosh, it's lunch time, and I get breakfast about, you know… SPEAKER 2: Yeah, these things take a long time, especially when you have a lot to share. SPEAKER 1: Yeah, a lot. Maybe we can step out or something, but let's -- so I can add something. Go ahead. SPEAKER 2: So what types of things can you do at those [unintelligible - 00:09:17]? SPEAKER 1: Like they're saying, maybe we could, we could just spread the word, like write letters and tell the Representatives to vote against these things that are coming up. If there was something coming 7 out that they were going to do about the mafia, or making the movies about mafia. But I really don't know what we could do about it. I mean, the mafia is in every nationality. It's not just Italian, right? People all thought it was Italian… Oh you could have just handed that to me. SPEAKER 3: I know, I want the coffee, too. SPEAKER 1: Hand it to me. SPEAKER 3: [Unintelligible – 00:09:57] I was going to put a table cloth on, but I put that down right away. SPEAKER 2: Let me just ask you one more thing. SPEAKER 1: Yeah. SPEAKER 2: What do you think -- how do you think -- what would your father thing of Fitchburg now? SPEAKER 1: He'd be proud of it now, yeah. SPEAKER 2: Yeah? SPEAKER 1: He would be. He would be happy with what is happening now. Because Main Street, I think Main Street is starting to look very nice. SPEAKER 2: Mm-hmm. SPEAKER 1: And I think, I think our past mayor, she did a good job. SPEAKER 3: Right, right. I think Dan will do good, too. SPEAKER 1: And Dan will do well, too. But I think with Fitchburg State and [unintelligible – 00:10:42] to those, but now we… because life has changed in Fitchburg. It's not like the old days where we had paper mills and stuff. Now we have to get in new [differences] and different things, but I think being a college town is even nicer. But I think the Italians have done a lot for Fitchburg. But… I think he'd be happy, but then he'd be so upset knowing what happened, you know, September 11th. SPEAKER 2: Oh yeah. 8 SPEAKER 1: I don't think he could have ever imagined it happening. But like he was… politicians though, he would be more upset now because of what happened, you know. Because that's gone now, isn't it? Now that's all gone because of September 11th. You know, all the troubles that were going on… SPEAKER 2: In the federal government? SPEAKER 1: Yes. In both the President and Ducaucus when he… I think he changed. Things changed. SPEAKER 2: But before that he would have been upset? SPEAKER 1: Yeah, because I know just when he was dying -- who ran? Ducaucus ran for -- was it Ducaucus that ran, or who was it? SPEAKER 2: For President, or…? SPEAKER 1: Yeah, who ran for President? SPEAKER 2: Ducaucus. SPEAKER 1: Ducaucus, okay. It was -- remember there was Ducaucus and someone else, and something else came out. SPEAKER 2: I don't remember. SPEAKER 1: I can't remember. I had, I had thought about this before that -- because there was things going on about politicians that, little things that were going on, you know? SPEAKER 2: Oh. SPEAKER 1: So… But he… SPEAKER 2: You can eat. SPEAKER 3: [Unintelligible - 00:12:32]. SPEAKER 1: I should be helping you SPEAKER 2: No, it's all right. SPEAKER 1: [Unintelligible – 00:12:50] Fitchburg. I think he'd be happy with it. I think there's nothing wrong with Fitchburg now. It's come a long way, because it was going downhill. SPEAKER 2: Mm-hmm. SPEAKER 1: And you know… I put it there.9 SPEAKER 3: I should have put a placemat there. I had a table cloth to put up, but we sat down. SPEAKER 1: I should have put it down for you. Um, if you please. It's a new world, it's a new life, you know? You have to be… he's… SPEAKER 3: There's pumpkin bread. SPEAKER 2: No, no. Okay, thank you, that's fine. SPEAKER 3: I thought we were going to have it when you first came in. Sorry. SPEAKER 1: What do you think he'd think now, Daddy? What do you think he'd think of the city? He'd be happy, wouldn't he? SPEAKER 3: He'd be happy. Mm-hmm, I think so. SPEAKER 1: I don't know what else to say. My problem is, my problem is the last… 25 years, we've had sickness in the family. My mother, then my father [unintelligible – 00:14:10], so I'm trying to go beyond that. And it's hard, because to remember back when things were -- what you're doing now, which is great, you're helping us to bring this out to remember when things were, when there wasn't any sickness. But my father always got pneumonia every year. He was always in the hospital. SPEAKER 2: Mm-hmm. SPEAKER 3: [Unintelligible - 00:14:29]. SPEAKER 1: Happy, yeah. And especially with now with the new fire station, everything looks so nice now. I mean, now with the new buildings, oh my gosh and Fitchburg State. SPEAKER 2: I was really surprised about Fitchburg because I live in Worcester. SPEAKER 1: Oh. SPEAKER 2: And I never come out here. SPEAKER 1: Oh, okay. SPEAKER 3: So when you did you start coming Linda? SPEAKER 2: About September, I think. Late August. SPEAKER 1: Mm-hmm. SPEAKER 2: And I was really pleasantly surprised. It's really a nice, nice area.10 SPEAKER 1: It is. SPEAKER 2: I think you're right, Fitchburg State College offers a lot. SPEAKER 1: It offers a lot, and we -- see, before it was much smaller. And like my in-laws used to live right across from State College. SPEAKER 2: Ah. SPEAKER 1: On Moth Street, and they took their houses, then they're taking Snow Street, and that used to be like a dumping area from State College down to Main, and now it looks so nice. SPEAKER 2: Now what would that area have been called back then? Do you know? Was it called any particular area? SPEAKER 3: No. SPEAKER 1: I'm trying to think. No. SPEAKER 3: No, I don't think so. /AT/pa/mg/es
Full TextThe first law enacted in Canada to protect existing Aboriginal rights was section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.2 The first law in Canada to recognize the rights of non-human animals as anything other than property has yet to be enacted. The first Supreme Court of Canada (hereafter referred to as the Court) case to interpret section 35 was R. v. Sparrow.3 The 1990 case confirmed an Aboriginal right of the Musqueam peoples of British Columbia to fish for food, social and ceremonial purposes. Since this precedent-setting case, many similar claims have been brought before the courts by way of the fluctuating legal space created by s.35. Many of these cases have been about establishing rights to fish4, hunt5, and trap non-human animals (hereafter referred to as animals). The Court has developed, and continues to develop tests to determine the existence and scope of Aboriginal rights. These tests primarily embody cultural, political and, to a surprisingly lesser degree, legal forces. One of the principal problems with these tests is that they privilege, through the western philosophical lens, the interests of humans. Animals are, at best, the resources over which ownership is being contested. The Euro-centric legal conceptualization of animals as 'resources' over which ownership can be exerted is problematic for at least two reasons. First, the relegation of animals solely to a utilitarian role is antithetical to Indigenous-animal relationships and therefore demonstrates one of the fundamental ways the Canadian legal system is ill equipped to give adequate consideration to Indigenous law. Second, failure to consider animals' inherent value and agency in this context reproduces the human-animal and culture-nature binaries that are at the root of many of western Euro-centric society's inequities. This paper argues that Aboriginal peoples' relationships with animals are a necessary, integral and distinctive part of their cultures6 and, therefore, these relationships and the actors within them are entitled to the aegis of s.35. Through the legal protection of these relationships, animals will gain significant protection as a corollary benefit. If the Court were to protect the cultural relationships between animals and Aboriginal groups, a precondition would be acceptance of Indigenous legal systems. Thus, this paper gives a brief answer to the question, what are Indigenous legal systems and why are animals integral to them? The Anishinabe (also known Ojibwe or Chippewa) are Indigenous peoples who have historically lived in the Great Lakes region. The Bruce Peninsula on Lake Huron is home to the Cape Croker Indian Reserve, where the Chippewas of Nawash First Nation live. The people of this First Nation identify as Anishinabe. The Anishinabek case of Nanabush v. Deer is a law among these people and is used throughout the paper as an example of Indigenous-animal relationships. Making the significant assumption that s.35 has the capacity to recognize Indigenous law, the subsequent section of the paper asks why we should protect these relationships and how that protection should be achieved. Finally, the paper concludes that both the ability of s.35 to recognize Indigenous-animal relationships, and the judicial and political will to grant such recognition, are unlikely. Indigenous-animal relationships are integral to the distinctive culture of the Anishinabek, however the courts would be hesitant to allow such an uncertain and potentially far-reaching right. This is not surprising given that such a claim by both Indigenous and animal groups would challenge the foundations upon which the Canadian legal system is based. There are many sensitive issues inherent in this topic. It should be noted the author is not of Indigenous ancestry, but is making every effort to learn about and respect the Indigenous legal systems discussed. While this paper focuses on a number of Anishinabek laws; it is neither a complete analysis of these practices, nor one that can be transferred, without adaptation, to other peoples. Finally, Indigenous peoples and animal rights and Indigenous law scholars, such as Tom Regan and Mary Ellen Turpel-Lafond, respectively, may insist on an abolitionist approach to animal 'use' or reject the legitimacy of s.35 itself.7 These perspectives are worthy and necessary. This paper positions itself amongst these and other sources in order to reflect upon the timely and important issue of the legal status of Indigenous-animal relationships. I:WHAT ARE INDIGENOUS LEGAL SYSTEMS? The Law Commission of Canada defines a legal tradition as "a set of deeply rooted, historically conditioned attitudes about the nature of law, the role of law in the society and the polity, the proper organization and operation of a legal system, and the way law is or should be made, applied, studied, perfected and taught."8 Indigenous legal traditions fit this description. They are living systems of beliefs and practices, and have been recognized as such by the courts.9 Indigenous practices developed into systems of law that have guided communities in their governance, and in their relationships amongst their own and other cultures and with the Earth.10 These laws have developed through stories, historical events that may be viewed as 'cases,' and other lived experiences. Indigenous laws are generally non-prescriptive, non-adversarial and non-punitive and aim to promote respect and consensus, as well as close connection with the land, the Creator, and the community. Indigenous laws are a means through which vital knowledge of social order within the community is transmitted, revived and retained. After European 'settlement' the influence of Indigenous laws waned. This was due in part to the state's policies of assimilation, relocation and enfranchisement. 11 Despite these assaults, Indigenous legal systems have persevered; they continue to provide guidance to many communities, and are being revived and re-learned in others. For example, the Nisga'a's legal code, Ayuuk, guides their communities and strongly informs legislation enacted under the Nisga'a Final Agreement, the first modern treaty in British Columbia.12 The land and jurisdiction claims of the Wet'suwet'en and Gitxsan Nations ultimately resulted in the Court's decision in Delgamuukw,13 a landmark case that established the existence of Aboriginal title. The (overturned) BC Supreme Court's statement in Delgamuukw14 reveals two of the many challenges in demonstrating the validity of Indigenous laws: "what the Gitxsan and Wet'suwet'en witnesses[es] describe as law is really a most uncertain and highly flexible set of customs which are frequently not followed by the Indians [sic] themselves." The first challenge is that many laws are not in full practice, and therefore not as visible as they could be and once were. What the courts fail to acknowledge, however, is that the ongoing colonial project has served to stifle, extinguish and alter these laws. The second challenge is that the kind of law held and practiced by Indigenous peoples is quite foreign to most non-Indigenous people. Many Indigenous laws have animals as central figures. In Anishinabek traditional law, often the animals are the lawmakers15: they develop the legal principles and have agency as law givers. For instance, the Anishinabek case Nanabush v. Deer, Wolf , as outlined by Burrows, is imbued with legal principles, lessons on conduct and community governance, as well as 'offenses' and penalties. It is not a case that was adjudicated by an appointed judge in a courtroom, but rather one that has developed over time as a result of peoples' relationships with the Earth and its inhabitants. An abbreviated summary of the case hints at these legal lessons: Nanabush plays a trick on a deer and deliberately puts the deer in a vulnerable position. In that moment of vulnerability, Nanabush kills the deer and then roasts its body for dinner. While he is sleeping and waiting for the deer to be cooked, the Wolf people come by and take the deer. Nanabush wakes up hungry, and out of desperation transforms into a snake and eats the brains out of the deer head. Once full, he is stuck inside the head and transforms back into his original shape, but with the deer head still stuck on. He is then chased and nearly killed by hunters who mistake him for a real deer. This case is set within the legal context of the Anishinabek's treaty with deer. In signing the treaty, the people were reminded to respect beings in life and death and that gifts come when beings respect each other in interrelationships.16 Nanabush violated the rights of the deer and his peoples' treaty with the deer. He violated the laws by taking things through trickery, and by causing harm to those he owed respect. Because his actions were not in accordance with Anishinabek legal principles, he was punished: Nanabush lost the thing he was so desperately searching for, and he ended up nearly being killed. This case establishes two lessons. The first is that, like statutory and common law, with which Canadians are familiar, Indigenous law does not exist in isolation. Principles are devised based on multiple teachings, pre- vious rules and the application of these rules to facts. That there are myriad sources of Indigenous law suggests that the learning of Indigenous law would require substantial effort on the part of Canadian law-makers.17 The second is that animals hold an important place in Indigenous law, and those relationships with animals – and the whole 'natural' world – strongly inform the way they relate to the Earth. II: CAN CANADIAN LAW ACCEPT INDIGENOUS LEGAL SYSTEMS? If there were a right recognized under s.35 concerning the Indigenous-animal relationship, what would it look like? Courts develop legal tests to which the facts of each case are applied, theoretically creating a degree of predictability as to how a matter will be judged. Introduced in Sparrow, and more fully developed in Van der Peet, a 'test' for how to assess a valid Aboriginal right has been set out by the Court. Summarized, the test is: "in order to be an Aboriginal right an activity must be an element of a practice, custom or tradition integral to the distinctive culture of the Aboriginal group claiming the right."18 There are ten, differently weighted factors that a court will consider in making this assessment. The right being 'tested' in this discussion is the one exemplified in Nanabush v. Deer: the ability of Indigenous peoples to recognize and practice their laws, which govern relationships, including death, with deer and other animals. The courts have agreed that a generous, large and liberal construction should be given to Indigenous rights in order to give full effect to the constitutional recognition of the distinctiveness of Aboriginal culture. Still, it is the courts that hold the power to define rights as they conceive them best aligning with Canadian society19; this is one way that the Canadian state reproduces its systems of power over Indigenous peoples.20 The application of the Aboriginal right exemplified in Nanbush v. Deer to the Sparrow and Van der Peet tests would likely conclude that the Anishinabek do have an integral and distinctive relationship with animals. However, due to the significant discretion of the Court on a number of very subjective and politically sensitive factors, it is uncertain that the Nanabush v. Deer case would 'pass' Van der Peet's required ten factors.21 This is indicative of the structural restraints that s.35 imposes. 22 The questions it asks impair its ability to capture and respect the interrelationships inherent in Indigenous peoples' interactions with animals. For example, the Court will characterize hunting or fishing as solely subsistence, perhaps with a cultural element. Shin Imai contends these activities mean much more: "To many…subsistence is a means of reaffirming Aboriginal identity by passing on traditional knowledge to future generations. Subsistence in this sense moves beyond mere economics, encompassing the cultural, social and spiritual aspects for the communities."23 Scholar Kent McNeil concludes that: "regardless of the strengths of legal arguments in favour of Indigenous peoples, there are limits to how far the courts […] are willing to go to correct the injustices caused by colonialism and dispossession."24 It is often not the legal principles that determine outcomes, but rather the extent to which Indigenous rights can be reconciled with the history of settlement without disturbing the current economic and political structure of the dominant culture. III:WHY PROTECT THE ANIMAL-INDIGENOUS RELATIONSHIP? Legally protecting animal-Indigenous relationships offers symbiotic, mutually respectful benefits for animals and for the scope of Aboriginal rights that can be practiced. For instance, a protected relationship would have indirect benefits for animals' habitat and right to life: it would necessitate protecting the means necessary, such as governance of the land, for realization of the right. This could include greater conservation measures, more contiguous habitat, enforcement of endangered species laws, and, ideally, a greater awareness and appreciation by humans of animals and their needs. Critical studies scholars have developed the argument that minority groups should not be subject to culturally biased laws of the mainstream polity.24 Law professor Maneesha Deckha points out that animals, despite the central role they play in a lot of 'cultural defences,' have been excluded from our ethical consideration. Certainly, the role of animals has been absent in judicial consideration of Aboriginal rights.26 Including animals, Deckha argues, allows for a complete analysis of these cultural issues and avoids many of the anthropocentric attitudes inherent in Euro-centric legal traditions. In Jack and Charlie27 two Coast Salish men were charged with hunting deer out of season. They argued that they needed to kill a deer in order to have raw meat for an Aboriginal religious ceremony. The Court found that killing the deer was not part of the ceremony and that there was insufficient evidence to establish that raw meat was required. This is a case where a more nuanced consideration of the laws and relationships with animals would have resulted in a more just application of the (Canadian) law and prevented the reproduction of imperialist attitudes. A criticism that could be lodged against practicing these relationships is that they conflict with the liberty and life interests of animals.28 Theoretically, if Indigenous laws are given the legal and political room to fully operate, a balance between the liberty of animals and the cultural and legal rights of Indigenous peoples can be struck.29 Indeed, Indigenous peoples' cultural and legal concern for Earth is at its most rudimentary a concern for the land, which is at the heart of the challenge to the Canadian colonial system. If a negotiated treaty was reached, or anti-cruelty and conservation laws were assured in the Indigenous peoples' self government system, then Canadian anti-cruelty30 and conservation laws,31 the effectiveness of which are already questionable, could be displaced in recognition of Indigenous governance.32 Indigenous peoples in Canada were – and are, subject to imposed limitations – close to the environment in ways that can seem foreign to non-Indigenous people.33 For example, some origin stories and oral histories explain how boundaries between humans and animals are at times absent: Animal-human beings like raven, coyote and rabbit created them [humans] and other beings. People …acted with respect toward many animals in expectation of reciprocity; or expressed kinship or alliance with them in narratives, songs, poems, parables, performances, rituals, and material objects. 34 Furthering or reviving these relationships can advance the understanding of both Indigenous legal systems and animal rights theory. Some animal rights theorists struggle with how to explain the cultural construction of species difference: Indigenous relationships with animals are long standing, lived examples of a different cultural conception of how to relate to animals and also of an arguably healthy, minimally problematic way to approach the debate concerning the species divide.35 A key tenet of animal-Indigenous relationships is respect. Shepard Krech posits that Indigenous peoples are motivated to obtain the necessary resources and goals in 'proper' ways: many believe that animals return to the Earth to be killed, provided that hunters demonstrate proper respect.36 This demonstrates a spiritual connection, but there is also a concrete connection between Indigenous peoples and animals. In providing themselves with food and security, they 'manage' what Canadian law calls 'resources.'37 Because of the physical nature of these activities, and their practical similarity with modern 'resource management,' offering this as 'proof' of physical connection with animals and their habitat may be more successful than 'proving' a spiritual relationship. Finally, there are health reasons that make the Indigenous-animal relationship is important. Many cultures have come to depend on the nutrients they derive from particular hunted or fished animals. For example, nutrition and physical activity transitions related to hunting cycles have had negative impacts on individual and community health.38 This shows the multidimensionality of hunting, the significance of health, and, by extension, the need for animal 'resources' to be protected. IV: HOW SHOULD WE PROTECT THESE ABORIGINAL RIGHTS? If the Anishinabek and the deer 'win' the constitutional legal test ('against' the state) and establish a right to protect their relationships with animals, what, other than common law remedies,39 would follow? Below are ideas for legal measures that could be taken from the human or the animal perspective, or both, where benefits accrue to both parties. If animals had greater agency and legal status, their needs as species and as individuals could have a meaningful place in Canadian common and statutory law. In Nanabush v. Deer, this would mean that the deer would be given representation and that legal tests would need to be developed to determine the animals' rights and interests. Currently the courts support the view that animals can be treated under the law as any other inanimate item of property. Such a legal stance is inconsistent with a rational, common-sense view of animals,40 and certainly with Anishinabek legal principles discussed herein.41 There are ongoing theoretical debates that inform the practical questions of how animal equality would be achieved: none of these in isolation offers a complete solution, but combined they contribute to the long term goal. Barsh and James Sákéj Youngblood Henderson advocate an adoption of the reasoning in the Australian case Mabo v. Queensland,42 where whole Aboriginal legal systems were imported intact into the common law. Some principles that Canada should be following can also be drawn from international treaties that Canada has or should have signed on to.43 Another way to seek protection from the human perspective is through the freedom of religion and conscience section of the Charter. Professor John Borrows constructs a full argument for this, and cites its challenges, in Living Law on a Living Earth: Aboriginal Religion, Law and the Constitution.44 The strongest, but perhaps most legally improbable, way to protect the animal- Indigenous relationship is for Canada to recognize a third, Indigenous order of government (in addition to provincial and federal), where all three orders are equal and inform one another's laws. This way, Indigenous laws would have the legal space to fully function and be revived. Endowing Indigenous peoples with the right to govern their relationships would require a great acquiescence of power by governments and a commitment to the establishment and maintenance of healthy self-government in Indigenous communities. Louise Mandell offers some reasons why Canada should treat Aboriginal people in new ways, at least one of which is salient to the third order of government argument: To mend the [E]arth, which must be done, governments must reassess the information which the dominant culture has dismissed. Some of that valuable information is located in the oral histories of Aboriginal Peoples. This knowledge will become incorporated into decisions affecting the [E]arth's landscape when Aboriginal Peoples are equal partners in decisions affecting their territories.45 V: CONCLUSION A legal system that does not have to justify its existence or defend its worth is less vulnerable to challenges.46 While it can be concluded that s.35 has offered some legal space for Indigenous laws and practices, it is too deeply couched in Euro-centric legal traditions and the anthropocentric cultural assumptions that they carry. The most effective strategy for advancing Indigenous laws and culture, that would also endow many animals with greater agency, and relax the culture-nature, human-animal binaries, is the formal recognition of a third order of government. Lisa Chartrand explains that recognition of legal pluralism would be a mere affirmation of legal systems that exist, but which are stifled: "…this country is a multijuridical state, where the distinct laws and rules of three systems come together within the geographic boundaries of one political territory." 47 Revitalizing Indigenous legal systems is and will be a challenging undertaking. Indigenous communities must reclaim, define and understand their own traditions: "The loss of culture and traditions caused by the historic treatment of Aboriginal communities makes this a formidable challenge for some communities. Equally significant is the challenge for the Canadian state to create political and legal space to accommodate revitalized Indigenous legal traditions and Aboriginal law-making."48 The project of revitalizing Indigenous legal traditions requires the commitment of resources sufficient for the task, and transformative change to procedural and substantive law. The operation of these laws within, or in addition to, Canadian law would of course cause widespread, but worthwhile controversy. In Animal Bodies, Cultural Justice49 Deckha argues that an ethical relationship with the animal Other must be established in order realize cultural and animal rights. This paper explores and demonstrates the value in finding legal space where cultural pluralism and respect for animals can give rise to the practice of Indigenous laws and the revitalization of animal-Indigenous relationships. As Borrows writes: "Anishinabek law provides guidance about how to theorize, practice and order our association with the [E]arth, and could do so in a way that produces answers that are very different from those found in other sources."50 (see PDF for references)
