Suchergebnisse

ATTEMPTS MADE AT ORGANIZING POLISH STATE'S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BEFORE FOUNDATION OF THE POLISH GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTESummaryThe Polish Geological Institute was founded on April, 1919, barely within half a year after the recovery of independence of Poland. However, the first conceptions and attempts at organizing the geological survey within the territories of Poland date back to a considerably earlier period. In 1787, an article on this theme was published in the Warsaw monthly "Historical and Political Memories".The article was written by Józef Kromer, who took his doctor's degree at the Jagellonian University, and enjoyed even a title "king's land-surveyor in ordinary". He suggested in this article that a ,,Corps of miners-geophysicists" should have been created with the aid of the skilled officers in the Polish army. This suggested organization would have conducted field reconnaissance particularly, however, soil research, geologic-mining prospections, plotting of maps of useful mineral deposits; also collecting geological specimens for a special museum. The purpose of these investigations would have led to a more detailed reconnaissance of the natural resources of the country, and to the elaboration of better methods of their use.At that time, the project presented by Kromer was a precursory one in the geological surveys. However it was not met with, approbation, and the developing political situation stopped all the attempts at realizing the programme intended. Only more than 40 years later new steps were made to initiate the planned geological research in the Po1ish territories. In 1830 Ludwik Zejszner, appointed as a new professor in mineralogy at the Cracow University, presented a project of a complex natural research concentrated mainly on the geological investigations in the region of the Free City of Cracow. The investigations aimed at prospecting the geologica1 structure of the area, discovering useful mineral deposits, examining hydrogeological conditions, and plotting geologic maps. The research works would have been carried on by three professors employed at the Jagellonian University. Two of them were, however, completely inactive in this domain, whereas Zejszner, apart from his removal from the chair in 1833, for political reasons, executed, a great deal of the wilful research himself.Later on, in a period from 1858 to 1869, Zejszner acted as a civil-servant for special, tasks at the authorities of the so-called Polish Kingdom, a part of Poland incorporated, in the Russian empire. His tasks consisted mainly in plotting geologic maps of this province, and in conducting research and prospections for useful mineral deposits. His works, resembling tasks of a state geological survey, resulted in plotting 68 sheets of the geologic map of the Świętokrzyskie Mountains and their marginal area. Unfortunately, the originals of these sheets got lost during the World War II. The third conception, discussed in the present article, concerns a project of creating an establishment of Polish geological survey in the then Galicia, a part of Poland incorporated in XVIII C. in the Austrian territory. The project was presented in 1904 by Władysław Szajnocha, professor in geology at the Jagellonian University.Professor Szajnocha was a meritorious person for the development of Polish geology, and an outstanding organizer of the first Polish Department of Geology at the Jagellonian University. In addition to this, he was a co-author, of the Geological Atlas of Galicia, the organizer of the Polish Geological Society, and an associate of numerous scientific organizations. In a period from 1904 to 1909 efforts were made by him to organize a geological survey in Ga1icia. Unfortunately, these efforts, most probably due to the objections of the central authorities in Vienna, were not realized before the World War I.A fact that the motion-concerning the establishment of the Polish Geological Institute was tabled in the Polish Parliament by the peasants' and workers' deputies, coming from the former Galicia, proves that, the efforts of prof. Szajnocha tending towards the creation of the Polish geo1ogical survey, were entirely successful.

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The purposes of this thesis are to examine the strengths and weaknesses of the severance tax, to study the methods of administering the severance tax and to examine the severance tax history of Kansas. The arguments favoring a severance tax are presented in chapter II. These include the argument that natural resources are a gift of nature and should be shared by all the people, a severance tax would be compensating factor to the state for allowing individuals to enjoy the gifts of nature; a severance tax allows the state to participate in socially created values; producers have the ability to pay; other states have severance taxes; most profits are taken out of the state and a severance tax would hold some of these profits for the benefit of the people of the state; and the severance tax is easy to administer. The arguments against a severance tax are discussed in Chapter III. The arguments against a severance tax are that the severance tax would discriminate between the states, between the independent and major oil producers and between mineral industries of the state if enacted in Kansas; the state economy would suffer because of nonrenewal of wildcat oil leases; producers of marginal wells would be hurt if they had to pay a severance tax; the tax would drive the oil industry out of the state; oil and gas producers are already overtaxed; the tax would disrupt local taxing units in counties which have oil production; the tax will be passed on to the consumer; no account is taken of production expenses; and finally that some counties will pay and others will not. Chapter IV is devoted to the severance tax experience in Kansas. This chapter includes a history of severance tax proposal which have been introduced in the state legislature and a history of the work done by the State Legislative Council in dealing with a severance tax for Kansas. The Kansas severance tax law is presented, its revenue producing ability is discussed and the reasons for declaring it unconstitutional are given. The severance tax laws of states are discussed in Chapter V. A severance tax on oil is most widely used by the states which have severance tax laws. Other severance taxes include taxes on natural gas, taxes on mining and ores, taxes on timber, taxes on fish and oysters, taxes on sulphur, and taxes on sand, gravel and stone. Severance tax collections peaked at 388 million dollars in 1957, but fell to 376 million dollars in 1958. Finally in chapter VI an attempt is made to draw together some of the main findings which stem form the preceding chapters. The severance tax is increasing in popularity. At present twenty-eight states have some type of severance tax. When the arguments for and against a severance tax are given careful consideration, it is the conclusion of the writer that the arguments for outweigh those against. If Kansas legislators would work out a severance tax system which is in lieu of the ad valorem property taxes and one which provides for the exemption of marginal producers, it is the writer's opinion that it would be passed into law. The severance tax fits all the qualifications of a good tax such as ability to pay. It represents a just charge for the privilege of severing resources which are a heritage of the people. It is also easy to administer as well as representing a new source of revenue.

[SEPTEMBER 1896 - MAI 1906] [Anzeigen von Aufführungen des Landschaftlichen Theaters in Linz aus dem Vergnügungsanzeiger der "Tagespost" 1896-1927] (-) [September 1896 - Mai 1906] (1 / 1996 - Mai 1906) ( - ) Einband ( - ) I. Saison 1896 - 1897 (1.) 1. Zwei glückliche Tage. 2. Der Talisman. 3. Gebildete Menschen. (3.) 4. Das Bild der Signorelli. 5. Ein Rabenvater. 6. Die schöne Helena. (4.) 7. Die Zauberflöte. 8. Martha. 9. Die Schmetterlingsschlacht. (5.) 10. Martha. 11. Die Karlsschülerin. 12. Wettrennen. (6.) 13. Der Veilchenfreffer. 14. Der letzte Brief. 15. Carmen. 16. Der Meineidbauer. (7.) 17. Ouverture zur Oper "Mignon". Cavalleria rusticana. Ein Zündhölzchen zwischen zwei Feuer. 18. Die Orientreise. 19. Der Prophet. (8.) 20. Der Fechter von Ravenna. 21. Der Doppelhofbauer. 22. Der Widerspänstigen Zähmung. (9.) 23. Lolos Vater. 24. Die Hochzeit des Figaro. 25. Die Orientreise. (10.) 26. Dilettanten-Vorstellung. Eine Tasse Thee. 27. Yelva, die russische Waise. Die schöne Galathée. 28. Die Haubenlerche. (11.) 29. Circusleute. 30. Orpheus in der Unterwelt. 31. Circusleute. 32. Liebelei. (12.) 33. Aida. 34. Liebelei. Ein Zündhölzchen zweischen zwei Feuer. 35. Der Feldprediger. (13.) 36. Ein Böhm in Amerika. 37. Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor. 38. Die goldene Eva. (14.) 39. Wilhelm Tell. 40. Heimat. 41. Ein kecker Schnabel. (15.) 42. Der ledige Hof. 43. Othello, der Mohr von Venedig. 44. Der Evangelimann. 45. Die goldene Eva. (16.) 46. Trilby. 47. Die Zauberflöte. 48. Der Evangelimann. (17.) 49. Blaubart. 50. Der Heiratsschwindler. 51. Waldmeister. (18.) 52. Dinorah, oder: Die Wallfahrt nach Ploërmel. 53. Der Hüttenbesitzer (Le Maître de forges). 54. Mamsel Angot, die Tochter der Halle. (19.) 55. Der Nazi. 56. Das grobe Hemd. 57. Der Heiratsschwindler. 58. Die Zauberin am Stein. (20.) 59. Carmen. 60. Das grobe Hemd. 61. Die officielle Frau. 62. Aschenbrödel, oder: Der gläserne Pantoffel. (21.) 63. Der Richter von Zalamea. 64. Der Bajazzo (II Pagliacci). 65. Der Herr Ministerialdirector. 66. Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen. (22.) 67. Die Jüdin von Toldeo. 68. Künstlernamen. 69. Tata-Toto. (23.) 70. Trilby-Parodie (Tripstrilby). Ein toller Tag, oder: Ein einsamer Spatz. 71. Der Herr Expositus. 72. Bocksprünge. (24.) 73. Jägerblut. 74. 's Lieserl von Schliersee. 75. Die Wildschützen. (25.) 76. Königskinder. (26.) 77. Die Kreuzelschreiber. (26.) II. Saison 1897 - 1898 (27.) 1. Kabale und Liebe. 2. Ernani. 3. Vasantasena. (29.) 4. Mignon. 5. Mit Vergnügen. 6. Dorf und Stadt. (30.) 7. Der Carneval in Rom. 8. Gefallene Engel. 9. Margarethe (Faust). (31.) 10. Die Leibrente. 11. Hans Huckebein. 12. Heimchen am Herd. (32.) 13. Heimchen am Herd. 14. Das Käthchen von Heilbronn oder Die Feuerprobe. 15. Der Waffenschmied von Worms. (33.) 16. Heirat auf Probe. Die Chansannette. 17. Das Tschaperl. 18. Der Freischütz. (34.) 19. Die versunkene Glocke. 20. Max und Moritz. 21. Der verwunschene Prinz. Der Präsident. (35.) 22. Die kleinen Lämmer (Schäfchen) (Les petites brebis.) 23. Der Alpenkönig und der Menschenfeind. 24. Die kleinen Lämmer (Schäfchen). (Les petites brebis.) Die Zaubergeige. (36.) 25. Goldene Herzen. 26. Romeo und Julia. 27. Der G'wissenswurm. (37.) 28. Hänsel und Gretel. 29. Eine tolle Nacht. 30. Der Postillon von Lonjumeau. (38.) 31. Frou-Frou. 32. Die Entführung aus dem Serail. 33. Andrea. (39.) 34. Die Entführung aus dem Serail. 35. Die Großherzogin von Gerolstein. 36. 's Katherl. (40.) 37. Wildfeuer. 38. Die Chansonnette. 39. Der Salontiroler. (41.) 40. Der Struwelpeter. 41. Von Cesar. 42. Der Schelm vom Kahlenberg. (42.) 43. Eine tolle Nacht. 44. Der Betrogene Kadi. Flotte Bursche. (42.) 45. Königskinder. 46. Anonyme Briefe. 47. Die wilde Jagd. (44.) 48. Ihr Corporal. 49. Anonyme Briefe. 50. Renaissance. (45.) 51. Der Schlagring. 52. Der Hergottschnitzer von Ammergau. (46.) III. Saison 1898 - 1899 (47.) 1. Die Logenbrüder. 2. Ein Blitzmädel. 3. Der Königslieutenant. (49.) 4. Minna von Barnhelm oder Das Soldatenglück. 5. Ein Judas von anno neun. (50.) 6. Der Traum ein Leben. 7. Der Barbier von Sevilla. 8. Circusleute. (51.) 9. Hofgunst. 10. Mädchentraum. 11. Lohengrin. (52.) 12. Im weißen Rössl. 13. Die Räuber. 14. Im weißen Rössl. (52.) 15. Der Opernball. 16. Die Walküre. (54.) 17. König Ottokars Glück und Ende. 18. König Ottokars Glück und Ende. (55.) 19. Die Walküre. 20. Einer von der Burgmusik. 21. Das Erbe. (56.) 22. Die Walküre. 23. Die Walküre. 24. Die Regimentstochter. Die Schulreiterin. (57.) 25. Mutter Erde. 26. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. (58.) 27. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. 28. Der Pariser Taugenichts. (59.) 29. Der Bibliothekar. 30. Der Vogelhändler. 31. Der Raub der Sabinerinnen. (60.) 32. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. 33. Hofgunst. (61.) 34. Doctor Wespe. 35. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. 36. Ein deutscher Krieger. (62.) 37. Lügenmäulchen und Wahrheitsmündchen. 38. Der Troubadour (Il Trovatore). 39. Der Opernball. 40. Robinsons Eiland. (63.) 41. Pariser leben. 42. Der Vogelhändler. 43. Fuhrmann Heuschel. (64.) 44. Die Walküre. 45. Fuhrmann Heuschel. 46. Mutter Erde. (65.) 66. Die Afrikanerin. 48. Waldmeister. 49. Kosmos. (66.) 50. Die zweite Frau (The Second Mrs. Tanqueray). 51. Der Schlafwagen-Controlor. (67.) 52. Die zärtlichen Verwandten. 53. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. (68.) 54. Die Afrikareise. 55. Die sieben Schwaben. 56. Flitterwochen. (69.) 57. Der Protzenbauer von Tegernsee. 58. 's Haberfeldtreiben. 59. Der Amerika-Seppl. (70.) 60. (Wohltätigkeits-Akademie im landschaftlichen Theater.) (71.) IV. Saison 1899 - 1900 (73.) 1. Das Heiratsnest. 2. Mauerblümchen. 3. Die lieben Kinder. (75.) 4. Mauerblümchen. 5. Die Journalisten. 6. Hans. (76.) 7. Der Troubadour. 8. Der Schlafwagen-Controlor. 9. Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen. (77.) 10. Die Anna-Lise. 11. Die Jüdin. 12. Der lustige Krieg. (78.) 13. Faust. 14. Zaza. 15. Das vierte Gebot. (79.) 16. Zaza. 17. Undine. 18. Boccaccio. (80.) 19. Zaza. 20. Maria Stuart. (81.) 21. Tell. 22. 's Katherl. (82.) 23. Ewige Liebe. 24. Als ich wiederkam. 25. Hand und Herz. (83.) 26. Der Ring des Nibelungen. Das Rheingold. 27. Charleys Tante. (84.) 28. Hans. 29. Ungelöste Fragen. Des Löwen Erwachen. 30. Hoffmanns Erzählungen. (85.) 31. Der Ring des Nibelungen. Das Rheingold. 32. Hoffmanns Erzählungen. (86.) 33. Die Zauberflöte. 34. Der Ring der Nibelungen. Das Rheingold. (87.) 35. Der Bettelstudent. 36. Der Athlet. (88.) 37. Der kleine Zuckerbäcker. 38. Philippine Welser oder Die schöne Augsburgerin. 39. Cabale und Liebe. (89.) 40. Die Puppe. 41. Das Rheingold. (90.) 42. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. 43. Der Wildschütz. 44. Die Puppe. (91.) 45. Linzer Vereinsbrüder. 46. Das Rheingold. 47. Philemon und Baucis. (92.) 48. Der Sohn der Wildnis. 49. Der Freischütz. 50. Das Rheingold. (93.) 51. Schneewittchen und die Zwerge. 52. Goldfische. 53. Linzer Vereinsbrüder. (94.) 54. Der Evangelimann. 55. Die Puppe. 56. Die Geisha oder Die Geschichte eines japanischen Theehauses. (95.) 57. Die Kreuzelschreiber. 58. Othello. 59. Der Athlet. (96.) 60. Urania-Theater. 61. Der Mikado oder Ein Tag in Titipu. 62. Eine Musikstunde. La Sorpresa. - La Varietà. Sinfonia Cosmopolita. Ich heirate meine Tochter. (97.) 63. Eine ruhige Partei. Mansieur Herkules. Eine Musikstunde. - La Sorpresa. - Restaurant fin de sièole. - Sinfonia Cosmopolita. - Vorführung des Kinematographen (Bernardographen). 64. Die Puppe. 65. Der Freischütz. (98.) 66. Das fünfte Rad. 67. Des Meeres und der Liebe Wellen. 68. Der kleine Zuckerbäcker. (99.) 69. Frühling. 70. O diese Schwiegermütter. 71. Großstadtluft. (100.) 72. Zwei Wappen. 73. Um Haus und Hof. 74. Als ich wiederkam. (101.) 75. Dilettanten-Vorstellung. Lebende Bilder. Ehrung Bruckners. Aus der komischen Oper. Wiener Walzer. 76. 's Lieserl von Schliersee. (102.) 77. Almenrausch und Edelweiß. 78. D' Schatzgraber. (103.) V. Saison 1900 - 1901 (105.) 1. Gretes Glück. 2. Emilia Galotti. 3. Die Badesaison. (107.) 4. Festvorstellung. Ouverture zur Oper "Euryante". Der Kaisertag in Lohndorf. 5. Der Troubadour. (108.) 6. Abschied vom Regiment. Die Bildschnitzer. 7. Renaissance. (109.) 8. Prinz Methusalem. 9. Die Dame von Maxim. (110.) 10. Die Haubenlerche. 11. Der zerstreute Herr Professor. Unter falscher Flagge. 12. Die Jugend von heute. (111.) 13. Hamlet, Prinz von Dänemark. 14. Der Wunderknabe. 15. Die Verschwörung des Fiesco zu Genua. (112.) 16. Die Bildschnitzer. Cavalleria rusticana. 17. Wienerinnen. 18. Das vierte Gebot. (113.) 19. Der Barbier von Sevilla. 20. Eva. 21. Die Fledermaus. (114.) 22. Die sittliche Forderung. Die Bildschnitzer. Abschied vom Regiment. 23. Das Heimchen am Herd. 24. Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. (115.) 25. Die Prinzessin von Trapezunt. 26. Mutter Sorge. 27. Mutter Sorge. (116.) 28. Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. 29. Wienerinnen. (117.) 30. Der Freischütz. 31. Der Störenfried. 32. Eine reiche Frau. (118.) 33. Der Franzl. 34. Die Brautwerbung. (119.) 35. Flachsmann als Erzieher. 36. Die Stumme von Portici. 37. Flachsmann als Erzieher. (120.) 38. Donna Diana. 39. Wohltäter der Menschheit. 40. Die Landstreicher. (121.) 41. Linzer Drahrer. 42. Don Juan. 43. Das Glück im Winkel. (122.) 44. Rosenmontag. 45. Klein Rothkäppchen. (123.) 46. Der Verschwender. 47. Die Feldermaus. (124.) 48. Onkel Bräsig. 49. Die Landstreicher. (123. [125].) 50. Die Afrikanerin. 51. Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg. (126.) 52. Flachsmann als Erzieher. 53. Donna Juanita. 54. Coralie & Cie (127.) 55. Tannhäuser und der Sängerkrieg auf der Wartburg. 56. Die Puppe. 57. Ein armes Mädel. (128.) 58. Franz Benus. 59. Gasparone. (129.) 60. Coralie & Cie. 61. Drei Paar Schuhe. (130.) 62. Josef Lanner. 63. Die versunkene Glocke. 64. Orpheus in der Unterwelt. (131.) 65. "Ein Blick in die Tiefen des Meeres" 66., 67. Urania 7./8. V. 68. Frou-Frou. (132.) 69. Renaissance. 70. Hedda Gabler. (133.) VI. Saison 1901 - 1902 (135.) 1. Die rothe Robe. 2. Die Unehrlichen. Zu Befehl, Herr Lieutenant! 3. Die Herren Söhne. (137.) 4. Ein Fallissement. 5. Der Bettelstudent. (138.) 6. Lohengrin. 7. Die berühmte Frau. 8. Die Herren Söhne. (139.) 9. Der Schmetterling. 10. Die Zwillingsschwester. 11. Leontines Ehemänner (Les Maris de Leontine.) (140.) 12. Noth kennt kein Gebot. 13. Undine. 14. Der Freischütz. (141.) 15. Zwei glückliche Tage. 16. Der Hypochonder. 17. Der Evangelimann. (142.) 18. Der letzte Kreuzer. 19. Der Troubadour. 20. Maria Stuart. (143.) 21. Figaros Hochzeit. 22. Der neue Simson. 23. Leontines Ehemänner. (144.) 24. Rübezahl. 25. Der Krampus. 26. Der Ring des Nibelungen. Siegfried. (145.) 27. Ein toller Einfall. 28. Don Carlos. Infant von Spanien. 29. Der Jourfix. (146.) 30. Orpheus in der Unterwelt. 31. "Ein "braver" Ehemann oder Drah'n ma um und drah'n ma auf". 32. Der Opernball. (147.) 33. Bruder Martin. 34. Zu Befehl, Herr Lieutenant. Zwischen zwei Feuer. Ein Stündchen auf dem Comptoir. 35. Sein Doppelgänger. (148.) 36. Der Ring des Nibelungen. Die Walküre. 37. Im Zeichen des Kreuzes. 38. Czar und Zimmermann. (149.) 39. Der Star. 40. Goldfische. 41. Das süße Mädel. (150.) 42. Cavalleria rusticana. Der Bajazzo. 43. Kean oder Genie und Leidenschaft. (151.) 44. Mignon. (152.) 45. Liselott' 46. Galeotto. (153.) 47. Das süße Mädel. 48. Am Nikolotage. (154.) 49. Die Jüdin. 50. Die Schneeflocke. Liebelei. 51. (155.) 52. Alt-Heidelberg. 53. Der fliegende Holländer. (156.) 54. Marie oder Die Regimentstochter. 55. Die Landstreicher. (157.) 56. Die drei Wünsche. 57. Fra Diavolo. (158.) 58. Hänsel und Gretel. 59. Der Ring des Nibelungen. Das Rheingold. (159.) 60. Carmen. 61. Die Großstadtluft. 62. Die drei Wünsche. (160.) 63. Der Sängerkrieg auf der Wartburg. 64. Der Kaufmann von Venedig. (161.) 65. Der lustige Kuchelbäcker oder Der Mehlspeismacher Zweckerl oder: Ein Freund in der Noth. Hedwig, die Banditenbraut. Der Dorfbarbier. (162.) 66. Große musikalische Akademie. Franz Stelzhamer. Ballet-Vorstellung. Die Zaubergeige. Der Veilchentreffer. Die Feldermaus. Die Walküre. Der Sohn der Wildnis. (163.) 67. Der kleine Lord. Mein neuer Hut. 68. Das Mädel mit Talent. (164.) 69. Der Carneval in Rom. 70. Der kleine Mann. (165.) 71. Der Waldmeister. 72. Das süße Mädel. 73. Johannisfeuer. (166.) 74. Der Feldprediger. 75. Der Obersteiger. 76. Bürgermeister Bojer. (167.) 77. Weh' dem, der lügt! 78. Die goldene Eva. 79. Die schöne Millibäuerin vom Tegernsee. (168.) 80. Der Dorfbader. (169.) 81. Wiener Humor. Ein pensionierter Amstdiener. Vierzehn Tage im Arrest. Linzer Firmlinge. 82. Die Z'widerwurz'n. (170.) 83. Nora oder Ein Puppenheim. 84. Die Schulreiterin. (171.) Oleander und Angelmunde. (uncounted.) VII. Saison 1902 - 1903 (173.) Vom landschaftl. Theater in Linz. 1902. (175.) 1. Die Nibelungen. Der gehörnte Siegfried. Siegfrieds Tod. 2. Die Nibelungen. Kriemhilds Rache. (176.) 3. Die Zwillingsschwester. 4. Der Vogelhändler. 5. Aida. (177.) 6. Das Stiftungsfest. 7. Die Hochzeit von Valeni. 8. Der Freischütz. (178.) 9. Die Schmetterlingsschlacht. 10. Krieg im Frieden. 11. Aida. (179.) 12. Die Hoffnung. 13. Alt-Heidelberg. (180.) 14. Heilmar. 15. Die Ahnfrau. (181.) 16. Der Opernball. 17. Der Probekandidat. 18. Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor. (182.) 19. Boccaccio. 20. Der Kreuzwegstürmer. (183.) 21. Der Burengeneral. 22. Mignon. 23. Im bunten Rock. (184.) 24. Stelzhamer-Feier. 25. Die drei Wünsche. 26. Das süße Mädel. (185.) 27. Im bunten Rock. 28. Martha, oder Der Markt zu Richmond. 29. Philippine Welser. (186.) 30. Madame Sans-Gêne. 31. Das Krippenspiel von der glorreichen Geburt unseres Heilands. (187.) 32. Die Geisha oder die Geschichte eines japanischen Teehauses. 33. Ein Ehrenwort. 34. Das Aschenbrödel. (188.) 35. Die Puppe. 36. Norma. 37. Es lebe das Leben. (189.) 38. Der liebe Schatz. 39. Der Trompeter von Säkkingen. 40. Der Sängerkrieg auf der Wartburg. (190.) 41. Die Logenbücher. 42. Othello. 43. Der Waldmeister. (191.) 44. Die Einquartierung. 45. Othello. 46. Hofgunst. (192.) 47. Francillon. 48. Monna Vanna. 49. Der Gottlose. (193.) 50. Zehn Mädchen und kein Mann. 51. Die Puppenfee. 52. Rigoletto. 53. Der Probepfeil. (194.) 54. Die Afrikanerin. 55. Johannisfeuer. 56. Die versunkene Glocke. 57. Familie Schneck. (195.) 58. Angot, die Tochter der Halle. 59. Der Maskenball. (196.) 60. Hutmacher und Strumpfwirker oder Die Ahnfrau im Gemeindestadel. 61. Cosi fan tutte oder Die Schule der Liebenden. 62. Das große Licht. 63. Alessandro Stradella. (197.) 64. Die Wildente. 65. Der Pfarrer von Kirchfeld. 66. Die schöne Galathée. (198.) 67. Anno neun. Feenhände. 68. Stephan Fadinger. (199.) 69. Der Erbförster. 70. Bessere Menschen. Die Tochter. Zweierlei Tuch. 71. Jugend. (200.) 72. Der arme Heinrich. (201.) VIII. Saison 1903 - 1904 (203.) Theaternachricht. (203.) 1. Der blinde Passagier. 2. Der arme Jonathan. (204.) 3. Habsburg. 4. Lutti. 5. Der Rastelbinder. (205.) 6. Margarete. (Faust.) 7. Der Postillon von Lonjumeau. (206.) 8. Egmont. 9. Der Hochtourist. (207.) 10. Die Hugenotten. 11. Nacht und Morgen. (208.) 12. Nacht und Morgen. 13. Das Ewig-Weibliche. 14. Der Rastelbinder. 15. Cavalleria rusticana. Der Bajazzo. (209.) 16. Die Jugend von heute. 17. Der Kellermeister. (210.) 18. Wiener Blut. 19. Der Verschwender. 20. Der Strom. (211.) 21. Der Meineidbauer. 22. Götterdämmerung. (212.) 23. Der Herr Gemeinderat. 24. Die weiße Dame. 25. Die Tragödie des Menschen. (213.) 26. Die Tyrannei der Tränen. 27. Barfüßchen oder Die drei Männlein im Walde. (214.) 28. Der Kaufmann von Venedig. 29. Carmen. 30. Bruder Straubinger. (215.) 31. Queretaro. 32. Festvorstellung (216.) 33. Die Fee Caprice. 34. Robert der Teufel. 35. Sodoms Ende. (217.) 38. Der polnische Jude. 36. Der zündende Funke. (218.) 37. Er und seine Schwester. 39. Boccaccio. 40. Die schöne Helena. (219.) 41. Drei Paar Schuhe. 42. Frühlingslust. 43. Heißes Blut. (220.) 44. Figaros Hochzeit. 45. Zapfenstreich. (221.) 46. Die Einquartierung (Le billet de logement). 47. Die Journalisten. (222.) 48. Unter vier Augen. Der verwunschene Prinz. 49. Der Evangelimann. (223.) 50. Die Heimat. 51. Wiener Frauen. 52. Die Notbrücke. (224.) 53. Tonietta. 54. Bruder Straubinger. 55. Monna Vanna. (225.) 56. Seine Kammerjungfer. 57. Die Jakobsleiter. 58. Der Raub der Sabinerinnen. (226.) 59. Die Landstreicher. 60. Die Freunde. (227.) 61. Die drei Wünsche. 62. Zaza. (228.) 63. Fromont jun. und Risler sen. 64. Comtesse Guckerl. 65. Servus, Brzezina oder Indien in Wien. (229.) 66. Die tote Stadt. (230.) 67. Der Damenkrieg. (231.) Frühlingsluft. (232.) Pater Jakob. (233.) IX. Saison 1904 - 1905 (235.) Die Theaterspielzeit 1904/1905 wird von der Direktion Oskar Schramm und Karl Wallner am Samstag den 24. September mit der Neuheit "Der Meister", Komödie in drei Akten von Hermann Bahr, eröffnet werden. (235.) 1. Der Meister. 2. Der Veilchenfreffer. 3. Fidelio. (236.) 4. König Ottokars Glück und Ende. 5. Rose Bernd. 6. Orpheus in der Unterwelt. (237.) 7. Tannhäuser und der Sängerkrieg auf der Wartburg. 8. Das Veilchenmädel. 9. Wilhelm Tell. (238.) 10. Familie Schimek. 11. Zar und Zimmermann. (239.) 12. Die Glocken von Corneville. 13. Traviata. (240.) 14. Die 300 Tage. 15. s' Franzerl. (241.) 16. Götz von Berlichingen. (242.) 17. In der Sommerfrisch'n. (243.) 18. Cyrano von Bergerac. (243.) 19. Götz von Berlichingen. 20. Madame Sherry. 21. Die Ehre. (244.) 22. Ariel Acosta. 23. Madame Sherry. 24. Rosenmontag. (245.) 25. Fedora. 26. Der Wildschütz. 27. Die drei Tannen. (246.) 28. Rienzi der letzte der Tribunen. 29. Der Familientag. (247.) 30. Doktor Klaus. 31. Der Zigeunerbaron. 32. Bartel Turaser. (248.) 33. Traumulus. 34. Rienzi, der letzte der Tribunen. (249.) 35. Narciß. 36. Jung-Heidelberg. 37. Hänsel und Gretel. (250.) 38. Cavalleria rusticana. Bajazzo. 39. Pater Jakob. 40. Der Schlafwagen-Kontrollor. (251.) 41. Gyges und sein Ring. 42. Die Zauberflöte. 43. Die Herren Söhne. 44. Nachtasyl. (252.) 45. Der Evangelimann. 46. Maskerade. 47. Hoffmanns Erzählungen. (253.) 48. Zwei Wappen. 49. Der selige Toupinel. 50. Carmen. (254.) 51. Der Fremdenführer. 52. Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor. (255.) 53. Im weißen Rößl. 54. Die Gigerln von Wien. 55. Hoffmanns Erzählungen. (256.) 56. Fatinitza. 57. Der Trompeter von Säkkingen. 58. Wilhelm Tell. (257.) 59. Der Bann. 60. Des Teufels Antheil. (258.) 61. Turandot. (259.) 62. Die Zerstörung Trojas. (259.) Prinz Rosenroth und Prinzessin Lilienweiß oder Die bezauberte Lilie. Feenliebe und Ritterdumm oder Die beleidigte Rebelrose. (uncounted.) Ein Lustspiel. Die Dienstboten. (260.) X. Saison 1905 - 1906 (261.) Die Theaterspielzeit 1905/1906 wird von der Direktion Oskar Schramm und Karl Wallner am Samstag den 23. September mit dem Schauspiel "Morituri" von Hermann Sudermann eröffnet werden. (261.) 1. Morituri. 2. Cyprienne. (262.) 3. Ein nasses Abenteuer. 4. Figaros Hochzeit. (263.) 5. Maria Theresia. 6. Der Generalkonsul. 7. Helden. (264.) 8. Der Waffenschmied. 9. Prinz Methusalem. 10. Marie oder die Tochter des Regiments. 11. Ein Sommernachtstraum. (265.) 12. Orpheus in der Unterwelt. 13. Der Kilometerfresser. 14. Das Wäschermädel. (266.) 15. Die Ahnfrau. 16. Margarete (Faust). 17. Wiener Blut. (267.) 18. Die Jungfrau von Orleans. 19. Bruder Straubinger. (268.) 20. Wiener Blut. 21. Klein Dorrit. 22. Nora oder: Ein Puppenheim. (269.) 23. "Pufferl." 24. Die große Leidenschaft. (270.) 15. Pufferl. 26. "Pufferl." 27. Kettenglieder. (271.) 28. Am Tage des Gerichts. 29. Hans Heiling. (272.) 30. Die Brüder von St. Bernhard. 31. Hänsel und Gretel. 32. Die Schützenliesel. (273.) 33. Der Schwur der Treue. 34. Das süße Mädel. 35. Gummiradler. (274.) 36. Ninon von Lenclos. 37. Rigoletto. (275.) 38. Die Hugenotten. 39. Der Privatdozent. 40. Die Hochzeit von Valeni. (276.) 41. Frühlingsluft. 42. Johann Philipp Palm. (277.) 43. Die dritte Eskadron. 44. Der Barbier von Sevilla. 45. Gunther der Minnesänger. (278.) 46. Romeo und Julia. 47. Der Fall Clemenceau. 48. Das verwunschene Schloß. (279.) 49. Die Brüder von St. Bernhard. 50. Die Weber. (280.) 51. Josef und seine Brüder in Egypten. 52. Das Heiratsnest. (281.) 53. Die Logenbrüder. 54. Die lustigen Weiber von Windsor. 55. Mamselle Tourbillon. (282.) 56. Die Sittennote. 57. Die neugierigen Frauen. (283.) 58. Giroflé-Girofla 59. Carmen. (284.) 60. Der Meineidbauer. 61. Moschus. (285.) 62. Der Schätzmeister. 63. Genußmenschen. Die Sirene. Satisfaktion. (286.) 64. Das Käthchen von Heilbronn oder: Die Feuerprobe. 65. Drei Erlebnisse eines englischen Detektivs. (287.) 66. Die Schützenliesel. 67. Flachsmann als Erzieher. (288.) 68. Deutsche Bauern. (289.) Jubiläums-Wohltätigkeitsfest. (289.) Rückblick auf die Opernvorstellungen von 1896 angefangen. (291.) Einband (uncounted.) Einband (uncounted.)

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Issue 11.6 of the Review for Religious, 1952. ; A.M.D.G. Review for Religious NOVEMBER15, 19 5 2 Xavier the Catechist ¯ Anthony Perelra Communion of Saints ¯ " c.A. Herbs÷ OnRace Rela~tions . Gerald Kelly Address~fo Superiors . Pope Plus ×ll ¯ I 0,000 Gold Francs Or Life . Adam C, Ellis A Monument to M. Vincent . Jerome Breunig Questions and Answers Xavier Centenary Book Reviews Communications index for 19S2 VOLUME XI NUMBER RI::::Vi W FOR Ri .LIGIOUS VOLU1VIE XI NOVEMBER, 1952 NUMBER 6 CONTENTS ¯ XAVIER CENTENARY-~The Editors . 281 XAVIER THE CATECHIST--~Anthony Pereira, S.J . 282 A NEW INDULGENCED ASPIRATION . 290 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 290 THE COMMUNION OF SAINTS--C. A. Herbst, S.J . 291 FOR THE SOCIAL APOSTOLATE . 295 BOOKS--FOR NOTHING . ° . 295 NOTES ON RACE RELATIONS--Gerald Kelly, S.J . 296 TEN-YEAR INDEX . 300 10,000 GOLD FRANCS OR LIRE--Adam C. Ellis, S.J . 301 ADDRESS TO RELIGIOUS SUPERIORS--Pope Plus XII . 305 TO TEACHING SISTERS (A Quotation) . 308 COMMUNICATIONS ON INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS . 308 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS-- 28. Use of Income from Inheritance . '. . 309 29. Must Suggestions for General Chapter be Signed? . . 309 30. Mental Prayer during Second Mass . 310 31. Helping Younger Delegates at General Chapter . 310 32. When Do I Start Counting for my Golden Jubilee? . 311 33. Lay" Sisters and Class Distinction . 311 ¯ COMMUNICATION ON CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE . 312 SETS OF BACK NUMBERS . ' . . . 314 A MONUMENT TO MONSIEUR VINCENT--Jerome Breunig, S.J. 315 BOOK REVIEWS-- The Ignatian Way to God; Saint Therese and Suffering . 325 PROCEEDINGS OF CONGRESS OF RELIGIOUS . 327 BOOK NOTICES . 328 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS . 329 FAMILY COMMUNION CRUSADE . 332 ANNUAL INDEX FOR 1952 . 333 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, November, 1952. Vol. XI, No. 6. Published bi-monthly : January, March, May, July, September, and November at the College Press, 606 Harrison Street, Topeka, Kansas, by St. Mary's College, St. Marsy, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approbation. Entered as second class matter January 15, 1942 at the Post Office, Topeka, Kansas, under the act of March 3, 1879. Editorial Board i Jerome Breunig, S.J., Augustine G. Ellard, S.J., Adam C. Ellis, S.J., Gerald Kelly, S.J., Francis N. Korth, 8.J. Copyright, 1952, by Adam C. Ellis, S.J. Permission is hereby granted for quota-tions of reasonable length, provided due credit be given this review and the author. Subscription price: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U. S. A. Before writincj to us, please consult notice on Inside back cover. Xavier Cent:enary DECEMBER 2 will be the four hundredth anniversary of the .death of St. Francis Xavier. Since he is not only our own brother inChrist, but also one of the two principal patrons of the Society.of the-Propagation of ~he Faith' and a saint d'dmired and loved throughout the world, it Seems eminently fitting that we pay~. him some tribute in these pages. Ver'y.specially we desire to re-echo' the follow]ng~eulogy of the saint by His Excellency Dora dose da Costa Nunes, Archbishop of Goa and Damaun. and Patriarch of the East Indies, in his Pastoral Letter of February' 15, 1952: "Among so many missionaries, martyrs and saints Who have' .brought the Gospel to the East, none stands out as prominently as the Glorious Apostle. A beacon of.rare brilliance, he illumined with celestial br!ghtness these regions which were at the time involved in mystery and myth. Go where he might, he left in th~ souls of men a trail of light. No one crossed re.giqns so dFtensive in-order to sow ~he seed of the word of God. "Like th~ Doctor of the ~Gentiles, he stopped nowhere, nor did" ,'he establish himself permanently in any. place. His one aim was to prepare new s~ail and march, ahead, b1~zing'trails, raising new out-pqsts of~Christianity and firmly pla~ting the .Church, leaving ~to his co-workers the labour Of watering and he)ping to bear fruit the seed-he had cast in'the soulsof native peoples . ¯ "And yet it was not these qdalities [his missionary exploits] that conquered for him the glory that surrbunds his name. It was t'he rightful fame of his sanctity . Even before the Church .had canon-ized him, he was already canonized, in a manner of speaking, by the. King of Travaniore, who ordered a statue of him to be placed in a Hindu temple." . The Archbishop's words are quoted from The Clergy/"Monthl~! (published by the destiit Fathers, St. Mary's 'College, Kurseong, D.~.Ry., Indi/) for dune, 1952. Their entire number of The Gler~?~t Monthl~ is devotgd to St. Francis.X~vier. With the peimi,s-sion of tl~e editor, we are reprinting one of ~hearticles, "Xavier the, Catechist, by A. Pereira.,,S.d., in the present.number of 'REV.~EW FOR RELIGIOUS. In a subsequent number we shalloreprint an article "6n Xavier the missionary. THE EDITORS.:,. 281 Xavier !:he Ca!:echist: - A. Pereira, S.). -, FATHER B,ROU, S.J.~ in his life of Xavier, calls the Apostle of ¯ the East 'anincomparable catechist." His life and the" few w'riting~ he has left us prove beyond doubt th, at the title is in no way unmerited. We shall study the saint's"idea of ~atechizing, his catechisms, and his method of catechizing. A CATECHETICAL "MENTALITY" "The more universal a good workis, the more.divine." For this reason Ignatius and the Society from the very beginning considered catechizing as more important and necessary than .other ministries. In May, 1537, Ignatius and his companions resolved "that children should be tatighi Christian doctrine for the.space of an hour" a day. They confir,rned this resolution On the 11 tb of June of the same year: "It has been.~.decided,.by all, except Bobadilla, that the article about teaching children for a period of forty days and for an hour, as indi-cated above, should be made the object of a formal vow and oblige under mortal sin." The Formula of the Institute stresses the fol-lowing: "Let them'consider as especially entrusted to them the edu-cation of the children and the ig.norant in the Christian do~trine." Xavier h'ad imbibed the spirit of Ignatius and particularly hi~ esteem for. catechizing, for he wrote to the Flemish Father B, arzaeus: "That way of helping the people is better-which is the more uni-versal, for example preaching, catechizing, confessing." H~nce he did not want th~ Father-in-charge to shove the duty ofoteaching. catechism on others: "You yourself will take charge of teach"ing the prayers to lhe children of the Portuguese, to the slaves, men and women, and to the native Christians. Do not entrustthis,offic.e to others because the persons who see you doing this are much edified and morepeople, come tO listen and learn the Christian doctrine." The h0ur~0f santa doutrina was.sacred to him. How often do we read in his letters remarks'like this: "In the morning¯~ was teaching men, in the evening ~omen, in the afterndqn after dinner the chil-dren." Xavier, then, was not, as some have .styled him, "a mere meieor" flashing througfi the Fky aimlessly. He had a clear aiml Catechizing, ,he knew, was fundamental, so he consecrated the'best of his time and energy to this humbleand absorbing work: "This 282 XAVIER THE CATECHIST fruitful work on behalf of ~he children is'the important on~." Xavier's esteem for catechizing learnt from Ignatius was further enhaiaced by the circumstances of his mission. Pope Paul III, by his Pontifical Brief of 1540, sent Xavier as his legate to visit the islands of the Red Sea, of the Persian Gulf, of the Ocean (Indian Ocean?), also the provinces and places of India on either side of the Gange.s and the Cape of Good Hope. The Pope entrusted to him the mis-sioh' "to ~trengthen the Christians in their faith and to bri,ng tho~e .who did hot know i{, to know, practic_e, and keep.the.same faith." It Was the custom of the time to :administer baptism to pe0pleowhb knelt only the ess0ntials,-which were'forgotten after baptism for lack of continued and vigilant instruct, ion. The King of.Portugal insisted on nlaking Christians ("fazer muitos crist~os, fazer muita cristan-dade'.'), leavi~ag'to others the care of.instructing them. The first missionaries planted but "no watering was done." Ordinarily they stayed with the Portuguese colonists; hence "the Christians, as there is nobody to teach, them, do not know 'more than to say that.they. are Christians." But it was not safe for the priest to live in places. -where he could not get help from .the Portt~guese. In the Moro Island, for instance, Father Fern~o Vinager converted many.to'the faith but he was killed and the island was deprived of the only priest it had. , We should not forget that tl~e first Portuguese missionaries were laymen. Captains of flotillas, merchants, soldiers plaiited the cross and baptized in {he absence of priests, They had come to the East for "pepp0r and souls," but often more for pepper tharf souls. There are some exceptions, however. In 1'537 one of them, Antonio Galv~o, baptized many of the Moluccans, at their own request, and built a ~eminary. When Galv~o was relieved of.his.office, the semi-nary disappeared with him. The knowledge'of the Christian faith imparted by the soldiers, and merchants could not go very far. Much catechizing remained to be done, as Xavier keenly realized. HIS CATECHETICAL WRITINGS Many writers have tried to magnify Xavier by attributing to 'him the gift of tongues. No need for this. His personality stands out much greater if we se~ him as he was--a man of hard work. From his own letter~ we know how much labour it cost him to learn the languages and to compose his catechisms. "May it please God to give us speech!" We are amongst them like statues; they speak and chat about us and we, not understanding the language, remain quiet; 283 Review [o? Religio~s at'present we must be like children and qearn the language." _ ~ His'aim in @riting his .vhrious catechisms was to be useful to h~mself and to his fellow-missionaries, and to spread the faith in every'pos.~ible w.ay. His predecessors in the missiofi field did not try to learn the languages of~ the people. For Xavier this could not last. He learnt the essentials of our faith in their language and wrote them down.to help his memory. He wished to share with his brel~hren this 'st~cessfial method of catechizing. Whenever"h~ found ~that people could read, as in Japan, he distributed copies of his w~itings:. "This winter we shall busy ourselves with writing for the press a rather detailed exposition of the oarticles of the faith in Japa'nese. All the leading people know how .to read and write. As we cannot help all. in person, our faith may be spr.ead everywhere through printed catechisms . . ." At times he had. th(' prayers posted in the church .that all who.could read should' learn for themselves. His catechetical' writings are the, following: 1, Xavier's Catechisms. Xa~vier brought with him to India the 'Short Catechism' of John de BarroL This formed, the foundation of his catechetical teaching. His own Portuguese catechism, Doutrina., Christ8 (which was.printed in 1557 at the press of St. Paul's Col-lege; Goa), follows rather faithfully the text of de Barros, with a" few additional prayers composed by Xavier--he wanted the cate-chism" lesson to.be a prayer. During~ his four months'-stay in Tuticorin, with great labour and' the help 6f interpreters, he translated the most esser~tial parts (the Creed,-commandments, prayers, Confiteor.) int'o Tamil, for the use of the Paravas who were in such great need of instruction. It was not a masterpiece of literature as-Xavier hin~self recognized. ~He wrot'e to Father Mansilhas, his first companion among the Paravad, to point out. some corre'ctions. Father. Henrique Henriques, the at/thor of a Tamil grammar, found in it mistakes (atguns errog) and inaccuracies (mer~tiras) which he attributed to the carelessness of the interpreters: , While he stayed in Malacca, ir~ 1545~, he put intothe Malayan l~inguage "the Creed, with an exposition of the articles of the faith, the general confessidn, Pater noster, Ave Maria and the co'mmand-merits." It cost him much work, f6r "it is a .painful t~ing not to know the language." ¯ As soon as Xavier came to know Anjiro, the Japanese baptized in Goa as Paulo de Sarita F~, he made up his mind to translate the 284 XAVIER THE CATECHIST catechism~di~to d~panese. He, put his resolution into. effect with tl~e help ,of Paul, vchen h~ reached Kagoshima, the native place of Paul. He gave too much,credit to his helper. Hd could say of him, :' ,Anjiro knows hohz to write ~lapanese very well." But, as Father Valignano wrote late, r, "Paul was not a learned~man and though he tried his Best to translatel our ~doctrine into 3apanese, his work was very defec-tivel so~ much so that it was a cause of scoffing and ~idicule for the ,lapanese. !~ It neither expressed the truth which the Father was preaching.:nor was it .written in a way that their learned men could - read without l~ughter.'~ Paul was not a philosopher and Xavier was not a.linguist. In the~ circumstances more could not. be achieved;' Xavier bad to leave perfection to his successors. 2. Declaracao da Fd (Explanation of the faith). This is a.de-tailed explahation of the Creed. The catechism has laid the founda-tions. The Christians were prepared for" more substantial food. ¯ Xavier starts his explanation from the dreation of the world, and then ex!boses the history of the coming of Christ. He wrote this work whilein Ternate in 1546; in 1548 he asked the Tamilian secular priest Gaspar Coelho to translate it into Tamil. Later, with' the help 9f Anjiro, he put it 'into dapanese--another work of Paul's that was not a piecd of art. The Portugues~ text was printed in Goa, ¯ in 1557, together with Xavier's Portuguese catechism. .3. Ordem e regimento (Christian rule of life) is a manual o~ devotidns, the necessary complement of the catechism. Ithas morning and evening prayers taken from his ~atechism, the examen of conscience and various, other, prayers. There is a meditation on sin, mortal and venial, and even a method of hearing Mass for children. 0 - 4. Instruction/:or Catechists. To the Fathers working in India Xavier proposes a method of catechizing, the fruit.of his own experi-ence. From these pages we get a vivid picture of Xavier's own cate-chism classes. Descriptions of hi~ method are also found in a number of his letters. HIS METHOD ¯ Xavier;s ~catechetical method can bd reduced to four points: natural meansl supernatural means, use of lay-helpers, and .the prin-ciple of adaptation. Natural Means "There is nothing in the mind that was not first in the senses,'" philosophy teaches us. The p,edagog~ of the senses plays a great part. 285 , in Xavier s method. ' Ret:iew'~or Reli'gious~ ¯ - His' classes: began With. a processibnfand con.~intied.as,a li~;ing, difilogu.e. ~ procession! 'rich' and. poor, chil- .d~n"dnd grown-ups, went in p~oces~ion' to th*e church. In" Goa', fiS Xavier~himsel'f writes, morethhn 300 childr~nt00k par~. On Sign-days the' church overflowed With people. The Para~vfis did not g0~ fishing on Sundays; in th~ n~orning they came t6 Mass~ and in the evening "there was a great reunion of all-the inhabitan~ "of,.the .~,il"-i lage, men and Women, "young and*' old, to recite .th'e prayers in thei~ langBag~. They ~how great p!~asure a'nd come With.al~icrity.'; .His class w'~s a living 'dialogue. The catechist did. not do 'all'the ialking~ Everybody was awake 'to what was h~ppening: "My brethre,n," he asked," "do you believe that "this our God,is the. only . true God?" They all replied: "Web~lieve.'". His teiiching was a lesson thatentered the soul by various sonses~ .The eyes'were cau.gbt by the ,ver~ fervor and, enthusiasm of the Santo Padre, th~ ears by the holy ~s'ong~, the.unariimou~resp6nse~ andthe clear repetition¯ of the formulae. India'ns for centuries were singing their Puranas. Xavier disc0ve.red ihat singin'g was"the thi~ng for the people of.the- East. In Goa, the custom introduced by Xavier was to be followed byhis'successors. In~ 1578 Father Francis Pasio ,wrote that he ha~l witnessed childreri singing the Christian doctrine" "in a bright and devout melody.'[ They sang it both in Portuguese and- Konkani. F~ther Barzaeus, who followed Xavier's method, closely, ¯wrote the following: "Children go about the street singing the Christian doc-trine: even the Moors go through ~he streets, singing the doctrine heard from ihe boys: in the name'of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost." Xavier himself gives testimony to what hap-pened in T~ernate: "It is.a reason to give thanks to Our Lord for the fruits which God obtained by imprintii~g in the hearts of His. crea-tures: canticles of His praise and honor, in a people recently converted¯ to His faith. It is customary'in Maluco, to Hear the boys in-the squares, the women and the girls day'and night in their houses, the workmen in the fields, the fishermen on the sea,. singing not~friv- Olous songs, but holy canticles as the Credo, Pater Noster, Ave Maria, ¯ the commandments, works'of mercy, and, the general confesSion.and . many other prayers." Xavier's class was a kind of drama where everybody~had to play his part.~ 'Raising the bandsor, extending' them, placing /hem on the breast-whilst s'aying "I believe," looking up to heaven . "these simple gestures k.ept the people active and intere,sted in. the class.~ ¯ ,- . 286 gi?acei''~ Fiai~15 i~ a gift of God~ih~r~fore it' is "tO' be bbt~ined b~ " prayer. CateChism~ class for Xavier ~vas,; d~i!(f0~,afi'~ exerciSe~:{~f prayer.~ Fie b~gan i~ with pr~yer, mingled it .w!thPr~er, and 'e~' .it With 'p~ayer.~ BefOre explaining a'comm~fidhaent, Xavier and :,audience a~ked Our:.Ladyfor.th~. grace, of unders(ahding. A~ the e6d . of hi~ explanation' 'thcy'~k.ed pard0n~' for pa~t faults 'agai~ist ti~ cbmmand,m~ent expl~'ifl'ed~' The cla~s "erid¢'d witfiI' prayer: "Let ia's sa~r ~even Paters an, d sev.en Ayes in honour of th~ Holy° Ghost that may help us, :to believe"fi~mly'wha~the holy¯ Catholic~ f~aith teaches fis." Somebody may object dsat" ~0rnmon :pr~yers."e~isily be.come mere ga.bbling. Xavier fg.restalled "the d~hger by alterh~iting' coin-moil and private., praye.r. "~The Paie~ and Ave'shduld be recited by everybody silently;)" He wanted to accustoin ::tl~em to personal, ,p, rayer. ¯ ¯ ¯ " ~. ¯ Lay-apostles . Xavier had expected hel~ from Et~rop~. ~et he realized their, even so, Parava laymen were indispen.sable.for the conversion and training of the .Paravas. He. thus. forestalled.6Ur pre~ent-da)i lay-apostolate in'.his Organization of the catechists." .In ,the v!llages he ~ Visite,d, l~e"left a copy of his Tamil catechi'sm' and-~ommisSioned a Christian,¯ the kanakapi'llei,, 'to instruct the people, The kan~akapiliei was~.0rdinarily.the-headmari of the village. :.:Xa~,ier wanted to ap, proach the :masses through th~ 'leaders., .~ ' ~ ,' . '" The kanakapillbi¯ (cat~chist~s) producedwonderful fruits. The~ represented the Father "in.his absence, report, ed_ abuses, inquired about impediments .for marriage, proclaimed the banns. "Father Francis in-stituted the .order of kanakapillei whith exists o°h this coast and" i~ has contributed so ~m'uch to the g'lory, of God and:the good of souls: He taught them the form or the rite of baptisin, hi enjoined on them to baptize~n case of necessity, to provide for urgen~ 'needs. Even today, they take care of the" Church, they are l~ke sacristans; they baptize without ~eremonieS, when it.is iargent; .they teach Christian doctririe ~twice a day, to the boys in the. morning and to the gi~lsfin~ the eve= ning, in Latin and in the language of (he 'counf~y"-; thus wrote Teixeira, one df the first historians df .Xavier: Of c0urs.e, the Para-v ¯as did not¯ under.sta~id.Latinbu, t' w l S" a"t ',. X" awer wished wasto accu's-tom them little,by little to tak~ean active'part in thelff~rgy.' The , 2:87 A.- PEREIRA. ~ " . Rt-~ie~ for Religi'ods organization of the kanakal~illei produced wonderful fruit even cdn-turies later. Father;Pi.er, re Martin wrote in 1700:~ "On,e of the things ~at. con~t.ri.bute ,too.st. t.o .make this Christianity so remarkable among others is the.diligence with which the small,est children areo,taught Chrfftian doctrine. This ho'l~y~ustpm has been kept inviolably the times of St. FranCis Xavier. He. was ,convince'd that the faitfi .would strik~ ~oots in the heaits Of' the inhabitants, if from a tender age. ~. h e y . were well" "i n"structed. " The k~n,akapille~! s.aved the faith among the P.aiav~as during the.time of the. pei'secution and in the ab-sence of pri.e.sts. ~. . . The support of the catechists v~as. one Of the great preoccupa-tions of Xavier. He.wrote to Father Mansilhas to obtain help from the giceioy.ThePa,ravas were.paying 400 gold pardaos "for the, slippers of the Queen of Portugal.r'. Xavier wrote to her to relin-. quish the "slipper money", for the benefit of the catechis.ts, remarking jocosely that the best slippers would be the children saved with that money. These would carry her to heaven. Another origin~al ~trait bf Xavier's method is.his h~bit of associ- - ating to his work Goan, Tamilian, .Travancorian, and Malsyan children. First of all:he believed in "the power of their interces-sion." He himself prayed to the children who died after he. had baptized them. He insisted with Father Mansilhas to make the chil-dren pray for .his intentions. Then he.made them share in his active apostolgte. He taugh~ them the prayers that. they, in their turn, might teachthem at home. "For a month I taught' them the prayers, enjoining on the boys to teach what'they-bad learnt in the school to their parents and to all the members of.the house and.neighbours." The children took to it with enthusiasm. They taught ,the prayers-in a pleasant way, for they "sang them," .They prgv~d their zeal in other ways. "They reprehend their parents,: when.they see tfiem practi~ing idol.arty . they come to inform me when such things are 'done . They burn the idols to. ashes." They. were bold enough to challenge the pagans: "they fight with the paga.ns"., and. Barzaeus wrote: "The.boys dis-cuss with the Moors and tell them that the~ cannot be saved, with-out baptism." . . , Xavier shared with the children even the power of. ~iracles. People called on him right and left. It.was.impossible for him to attend, to all: "So many., came to, cal_l me to their .houses to say some .prayers over.the, sick: ~.r .- and since it was not in_ my power~ to deny ¯288 November, 1952 XAV-IER THE CATECHIST such a holy'request. I halve settled the ma~tter in. a Way to.satisfy. all: I have brdered the boys who know .the p~ayers t6' go to the homes' 0f.'the sick and to gather all tl~e nhembers ~of the" hoi~se find tl~e neighbors: a~d to "say together the Credo ovdr and. over.again, telling the sick man to have faith, that he may be cured; and then ~he o~her' prayers. ThuS,,by'the. faith of the,members~of the house of the neighbors, and. o~ the si~k th~mselve,s, God Our" Lord g~anted many favours to the sick, rest6rin~ to them corporal andspiritual 'health. God has ihown great mercy to the ailing: He ~alied them tlJrough sickness, and as it were by forc~ He brought them to the faith." Adaptation 0 A last trait of Xavier's method, is his care to adapt himself to the people ofdifferent'temperam.ents and places. For Goa and t.h.e other Portuguese fo~ts he made himself a catechist a preacher, and a theo-logian. , For these places he requeste.d theolog!ans an.d.preachers." For the Paravas he made l~imself a goqd catechist:' .No need of much learning here: "The persons who hav'e no talent for preaching and confessions., would do much service in these parts'to the infi-dels if they had the corporal and spiritual force~, because there is no need of letters . let them be fit for many corporal works." Among the Japanese, Xavier became both'h ~atechist and 'a. savant. From the very beginning he spent time ahd ene'rgy to trans-late his more developed work, A Declaracao "da Fd, into.Japanese~=He wanted learned meii for Japa, n. ~ But Xavier pra~tlsed "adaptation" above all in his moral approach to the.pedple he had to deal with. T-he Indians easily over-look any imperfection in a priest except impatience. A priest, accord-ing to the Indian mentality, shouldbe a mirr6r of God's serenity. People came to'Xavier at odd hours ~ind children left him no'respite even f6r meals: yet. he never showed the slightest impatience: "When I reached the plac~ the children did not allow ine either to say mY office, or eat, or rest before I taught them some prayers," He wrote to Father Mansilhas: "Pray God to give you much patidnce ;to deal with this'pebple"; and in another letter: '.'L- ea~rn to bear their weak-nesses with patience, reflecting that if they are not good' now, they will be so some day." "I entreat you very much never, on an~r ac-count, to lose your temper with these troublesome people: and When ~ou have much.work and cannot satisfy alL .console yourself by. doing what you can. ~lways'bear with these, pe'6ple ~ith great 289" patience; but. if in:.som'e ¯case. kindness' doe~" not succeed., then~practlse that work'of mercy which"says,'tl-iou wilt chastise himwho'deserv~s to be chastised/" And to Fatl~er Barzaeus he wr0t~:."With this people of ,India',' much is.accomplished by exhortation,~ and nothing by force." ~ ¯ ' Xavier knew that mutUhl love .between the catechist and the pupils makes'his tea'c.hing m6re acceptable. He wrote'.to his c0m-panions bn the Fishery Coast: "Try. with all your might to make y6urself loved by'this people because if you are loved by them, you willpiod~ce much more fruit than if yoh are~ disliked by them. Again, I recommend you to take pains to make yourself loved by the people." It is worth noting ~he stress the saint lays ',not so much ¯ on' themis~sic~nary iovingth~ people but on the j~e6ple loving the" miss!ona,ry.~' People's love for the missionary will be an index of his lpve and devotiori to t~em. Love made up for . Xavier's d~fi-, ciencies, in the l~nguage, for example. It was one of the factors that made of him "ari incomparable catechist." A NEW INDULGENCED ASPIRATION By reason of special faculties granted to it by Our Holy Father, Pope Plus XII. ¯ the Sacred Penitentiary grants to all the faithful who have pidusly'recited th.e invo-cation, "Lord,° teach us to pray/,'" the following indulgences:' (1) a partial¯ indul' genre of three hundred~ ¯ days; (2) .a, plenar~ indulgence,¯ under the usual conditions, tb be gaine~l once a ~nth, if~this inyocation has been piously recited daily through-out ah entire month (April 30,. 195T, Acta Ap. 8edis,~1952, p. 389).' " Our readers will dovcell to'r~meml~er that Canon 928, § 2 states that "unles~ the contrary is expressly indicated, a partial indulgence may be gained a numbdr of times ada, y as, of~en-as the good work is repe~ted." Since the decree of the S:Peni-t. e, ntiary, contains no limiting clause, the partial indulgence of 30"0 days may be gained a.s~ often as the invoc.ation given above is repeated with a contrite, heart. ANTHONY., ~, PEREIRA. ," . ,was.,.°rdained. . a priest on November,, 11 of., the present, . year at.S't" Mary's theologate., Kurs.eong. India:~he is a':Goan.a.nd~ belongs to. the Mission of Goa. ~. A. HERBST is'bn the faculty of St. Mary's College. St. Marys, Kansas. AD~}C'i.~'~,"IS,"G~'I~.ALD KEL, L~.' a~i JEROME BREUNIG~'are members o~'the edi,," tbriai'.board of the"REV[E~" FO~. RELIGIOUS.~ ~ ~'; ~ ~" 290 The Commumon 0t: Sa'int s BELIEVE in the Holy Ghos~ the,.holy'Catholic Church. the Communion of Saints.'" Holy'Mo.ther .Church must think this doctrineof the Communion of Saints very important, and must want her children to bear it clearly in mind, and ~o'think.o.f i~ very ofte.n, since it appears so explicitly.in" the short profe~ion of faith we call the Apostles' Creed. The Church does because. Christ. ,. did., H~ came to found a kingdom to, which, all do Or can belong, the just find the unjust and the poor. and the unfortunate,.'~nd in which the little ones are the favorites. The. angels belong, too, and " r~joic'e when even,one sinful brother does penance. In the perfect prayer we pray as the members bf a family: our Father, give us, for-give us, l'ehd us not into temptation. " St.'Peter s~ys: "'You are a .chosen generation, a kingly priesthood, a ,holy nation, a purchase.d people . (you) are now the people bf God" ('I Peter 2:9-10). St.'Paul says: "You are all the children of God" (Gal. 3, 26). And St. 3ohn: "That which we have seen and heard, we declare unto you, that you also may have fellowship with us, and our fellowship may be with the Father, and with his Son desus. Christ" (I dohn I,. 3). ' "T'he Communion of saints is ~he spiritual solidarity ~vht~h binds together the faith.f, ul on earth, the souls in purgatory, and the saints in heaven.,.The participants, in that solidarity are called saints'by reason of their destination and of their partaking of the fruits of the redemption." (Catholic Encgclopedia, s.v.) The church triumphant in heaven, su~ering in purgatory, fighting on earth, constitute one church, .one society, 6he- family. The chfirch triumphant, suffering, fighting are as three orders'of the same society, three battle-lines of the same army, three branches of the same vine, three limbs of the same mighty ~ree. Christ communkates Hi~ merits to each irfdividual and there is in turn a mutual interchange of °good ottices between each "saint." "The Corn .m.union of Saims compr, ises, and is made fruitful, by, three great vital,.movements. A.stream of, ardent love flows from the Chu,ch;.Triumpha, nt to the members of Christ on earth, and thence returns, i.n,.c.9~ntless rushing brooks to the" blessed in heaven. A similar tratiic of lo~e takes place l~etween 291 t C. A~ HERBST, , ~ Review'for Religious the members of the,Church Stlffering and the Churchl Militant. And thirdly that same communion operates between the several ~members of. the Church Militant, producing those fruitful,!centres of life whereby th~ earthly fellowship is continually renewed.',~ '(Karl Adam, Tb~ Spirit of Catholicism, 115.) We on earth belong to the church militant. ~re must fight. We. are soldiers. We are sealed to this by ,the sacrament of confirmation ".through whithwe receive the Holy. Ghost to make us strong and perfect Christians and soldiers of Jesus Christ." In th~ ceremonies of the administration of this. sacrament the bishop gives us a slight blow on the cheek to remind us that we must be ready to suffer any-thing, even death, for the sake of Christ. Even a little child is a soldier in.the church on earth. We are soldiers in the church mili-tant, but soldiers without guile, without., malice, weak even, and foolish like God, "for the foolishness of God is wiser than men; and the weakness 6f God, is stronger than men~" (I Cor. 1 ~25). We, are invincibly armed With the eight-fold blessing of the beatitudes: poor. in spirit, meek, clean of heart, merciful; we mournl hunger and .thirst after justice, are peacemakers, suffer per, secution for justice' sake. , We fight with spiritual weapons, especially with prayer. -We .pray for one another here on ~arth. "Give us this day .our .daily bread, and forgive us ou_r trespasses as we forgive those who trespass against us, and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil. Amen.". We pray for one another that we may save our souls, for our father and mother and those dear to us, and for a sick friend. ask for favors and for .the conversion of sinners. We pray at Mass and ¯ offer it "for all those present and for allfaithful Christihns," for the holy father and the .bishop by name, and pause to make a special prayer'for the., living. It would be but belaboring the obviousto dwell at length on the intercession of the "saints" here on earth for one another and on the wonderful fruits that.comer from their, good offices in behalf of one another. T.he church' suffering ~s in purgatory, where the souls of, ~he just not yet fully ptlrified are cleansed. Nothing defiled can ~nter heaven. We cai~ help them. The Council of Trent teaches that "there .is a purgatory and that the souls detained .there are: helped by the suffrag,es of the faithful and most of all by the acceptable sacrifice Of the altar" (Decretum de purgatorio). So we follow them with our prayegs. We are still bound to them by the bond of love, by the bond of Christian charity, which is the blood-stream that vivifies 292 November, 1"952, THE COMMUNION O~ SAINTS the communion of ¯saints. Even death cannot break-that bond. "Love is stronger than death." "Charity never falleth away: whether pr6phecies shall be made void, or tongues shall cease, or knowledge shall be destroyed" (I Cot.' 13:8). "Charity which' is the.bond uniting the members of the Church.extends no~.0nly~to the living but also to the dead who die in chari~y. For charity, which is the life of the soul, even as the soul is the life of the body. does not cease." (S. Thom., Suppl.,,q. 71, a. 2.) "It is the'refore a hply and wholesome tl'iought to pray for the dead, othat they may be 16os'ed from their sins" (II Mach. 12:46). This has always been the mind of holy. l~other Church for all .her children, an~ today, as for alm6st two thousand years, ther~ fails f~rom the lips of countless millions the plea! "Eternal rest grant unt~ them, O Lord. and let perpetual light shine Upon them. May they. rest in peace. Amen." The poor souls can pray. of course. In fact. they have nothing else to do but be occup.ied with holy thoughts and desires. ""They thank, they sing the mercies of the Saviour. but always, with a back-. ward-looking towards past, sins. They petition,.but for others, and for themselves only that others may be inspired' by God to pray for them." " (3ugie, Purgatorg, 660 Gratitude would seem to demand that they pray for their benefactors. They are truly poor souls because they can do.little to help themselves and because they must suffer so much, but they g'do not forget, us, and:they will render us good for good. Not c6ntentmerely to. receive, they give. They give that which, the most miserable can .al~ays give. ~They give pra~/er.'" (Ibid., 72.) And since charity must be, mutual in the communion of saints as.elsewhere and the blessed interced~ for the souls in put-, gatory, these "repay the good offices of Heaven by ceaseless prais.e." Many think that ,Jesus and Mary and the saints and angel~ visit purgatory. After all, it is the vestibule of heaven. The guardian angels it seems, are especially at home there. St. Mary Magdalene de Pazzi and St. Margaret Mary saw them there. Cardina! Newman pictures one bidding adieu to a soul there. - "Farewell, but not for ever! brother dear, Be brave and patient on thy bed of sorrow; S~wiftly shall pass the night of trial here, ' And I will come and.w~ke thee on the morrow." (Dream of Gerontius., 899-902). ~ith th'e m6rrow comes the dawn of eternal day. The, chur~fi .293 C. A. HERBST Review for Religi~u~ ,shffering passes into the church triumphant. God's children, mili-tant on earth, suffering in purgatory, ¯have c6me home to heaven. The Council of Trent commands that Catholics be taught that "the saints reigning with Christ ,offer their prayers to God for men, and that it is good and useful earnestl~r to invoke them: that their'prayers and powerful aid be sought to~ obtain benefits from God through His Sbn Jesus Christ Our Lord, Who alone is our Redeemer and our Saviour." (Decretum de invocatione Sanctorum.). The many saints assigned by the Church to ~ach day of the year to intercede for fis indicates how fictiv'ely we should be in communion with them. Each of us has his patron saint. ~ We pray to'them and to Mary, the queen of all the saint~, and to our guardian angels. And they pray for us. "And the smoke of the incense of the prayers of the saints ascended , up before Go.d from the hand of the angel" (Apoc. 8:4). How many graces and favors and miracles even they have obtained for u§ we shall never know till we meet them face to face. It is probable, too, ~hat the blessed can efficaciously intercede~for the souls in purga-tory. The elect might very well owe a'debt of gratitude to a sofil in purgatory for some service rendered on earth. And a patron~saint to whom we had great devotion on earth will hardly abandoh us when " We get to purgatory. The communion of saints is a most consoling doctrine. It takes the sting from death, that most~ final and dev~astating ~of events. 'Holy Mother Church insists that on .the day of a holy. person's death we are "celebratin'g ?/is birthday" into heaven, l~ather, mother, brother, sister 'are born ifito eternal life. They hive simply gone'. home. That is what they were" born for. They have left the lowest degreeof the Church, the church militant, and have entered a higher, the church suffering, where they are confirmed in grace and'charity, where eternal life is infallibly.insured to them, and where there is also great joy. Soon the3~ will pass gloriously into the church tri-umphant. We have not lost them but gained them. They are waiting for us there. They ar~ watching over us, praying for us. They love us more now than they ever could on earth; We\are dearer to them now than ever; they can help us far more now. When we pass. into the church suffering their ~rayers will not ceas~ until we come home with them. That will be a wonderful reunion. We shall'never be ¯ separated again. "'Commu6ion of S.aints--what a glad and blessed light illumines it!' It is the hidden treasure, the secret joy of the Catholic.' When 294 November, 1952 THE COMMUNI~)N OF SAINTS he thinks on the Communion of Saints his heart is enlarged. He pass?s out of the solitariness of here and of there, of ye.sterday tomorrow, of I and thou, and he is enfolded in an unspeakably intimate communion of spirit and of life, far. surpassing his n~eds and dearest wishes, with'all those great.ones whom the grace of God hasforged from the refractory stuff bf our humanity and raised' to His height, to participation in His being. Here are no limitations of space and time. Froth out of the remote ages of the past, from civi- .lizations and countries of which the memory is now only faintly echoed in legend, the saints pass into his presence, and call him ~brother, and enfold him with their love. The Catholic is never alone." (Karl Adam, The Spirit of Catholicism, 139, 140.) FOR THE SOCIAL APOSTOLATE Catholics Speak on Race Relations, by Rev. Danid M. Cantwell, is a valuable handbook of quotations on interracial justice and charity. 64 pages, with a good index to the qd~tations, Price: 25 cents each for orders of less than fifty; gener-ous reductions for larger orders. Order from: Fides Publishers, 21 W. Superior, Chi.cago 10, Illinois. Social Thought of the American Hierarchy, b~y Wilfrid Parsons, S.d., is a con-cise, easy-to-read, 24-page summary'of the social teaching of our American Bish-ops. It outlines their constructive teaching on such things as unions, industry councils, rent, human relations, .public morality, divorce, censorship, and family life. Price: 25 cents each; graduated reductions for orders of more than five. Order from: Social O~rder, 3655 West Pine'Boulevard, St. Louis 8, Missouri. S'ocial Order, the recent!y-founded publication of the Institute of Socia~ Order, now' announces special rates for two- and three-year subscriptions.- It is pubiished monthly, except duly and August, and it is 6f invaluable assistance to all.who are engaged in, or otherwise interested in, the social apostolate. "Price: $4.00, one year; $6.00, two years: and $7.50, three years. Order from:.Social Order, 3655 West Pine Boulevard, St. Louis 8, MiSsouri. BOOKS~FOR NOTHINg? We have been asked about a new "crusade," the purpose of which is to stock tee community libraries with new books--~-" for almost nothing. The scheme is too complicated to describe in detail, but it seems to come to' this: you send out one new book, add your name to, a circulating list, and eventually you will get 256 new books. The ide.a seems to be that ever~tone who~ sends out the~ one. new~ book will get 256 in return. We'are not versed in the higher forms of mathematics, but according to our simple arithmetic, this adds up-~o magic. 295 .No!:es on.Race Relat:ions Gerald Kelly, S.J. =~'HE Most Reverend Astone-Chich.ester, S.J., Vicar Apostolic of ~' Salisbury, in Southern Rhodesia,~presents an excellent analysis 0 of the "Problem of Race Relations" and its proper solution, in The South" African Ctergg Reoiew, for ~:ebruary, August, and No: vember, 1951. For the future of Africa, and indeed for the whole world, he s~¢s, there must be a solution to the race problem which is just to everyone. ~ InAfrica, the problem is intiniatel~, associated with its tremen-dous resources which are so badly needed by the rest of the world. To develop these resources native labor must be used. This calls for. bettering the health conditions of the native populations, .and this cannot be done without education. Education in turn leads to de-mands for better economic .position, and this. will call for a better political standing. If the political standing is not given, the result will be discontent and strife. In his various articles Bishop Chichester develops the points men- .tioned above; I~hen he outlines first a false, then a true, solution ~to the race. problem. The false s91ution'is one that does not recognize the intrinsic value of the non-European as a true human .b.eing; that sub, sfitutes the utilitarian 1~rinlip.le of. "enlightened self-interest" for the rational and Christian principle of mutual sympathy and respect; and that uses religion, as a mere tool for conveniently settling human problems. The third article outlines the prindples on which the true solu-tion mus['be based. For the most part. these principlds are but a re-statement of basic human rights and duties;, but the last. principle is somewhat unusualand might be .a subject of meditation for ~11 of "It is through God's providence that diverse races and varieties human beings come into this world, each of them intended tO add its peculi~ir goodness to the w0rld. T.herefore we ought,_ as a duty to God, to look at-the good qualitie.s in others and tq.praise them, the more partic, ularly as'~they are different from our own)' Bishop Chichester then~ ~oes on to show that Euiope~ns and ¯ non-E~ropeaia~ in. Africa are interdependent: first, materiallyl because 296 " - ~' NOTES ON RACE RELATIONS the European need~,the~.African labor and the African ne~ds "the ~ European's knowledge, of technique and. his m.achiner)i: and also spirituall'y. "The Afri,can," he iays, '.'needs the integrity, .self-control, sense of responsibility which is the'i~heritance of a sound 'Eurgpean tradition. But the European needstheAfrican, and can learn cheerfulness, p'atience ,and humility from him." Toward the end of his third article, the Bishop returns to the question of "racial superiority"--the false attitude on which no satisfactory sdlution Of race problems can be based. No matter how . seemingly affable or even generous the white man is, he will never ' solve the race problem unless he tre~ats the non-white With ge'nuin~ respect, a respect built on the consciousness o~ personal dignity. This ds aptly brought out by the following words of a Nigerian African: ¯ "Some Europeans wonder why: the hitherto ignorant African w~6m thdy. have bedn kind enough t9 educate soon takes up ,a hostile. attitude towards them. It is not due to ingratitude; it is not due to failure to'~ealize wh~t difference for thd bdtter his contact With the European has made for him. In many cases it is the reiult of wounded bon0r. This may be a personal opinion; but a close exam, ination Will reveal that it lies.beneath many racial prbblems today." Another s~atethent on Race Relations, issued by all the Arch-bishops and Bishops of South Africa, is published in The Catholic Mind, September, 1952, pp~ 572-76. The entire statement is well worth, reading. .The point that impressed me as~ most interesting in. 'tills statement is. the Bishops' realistic facing .of.t,laeir problem by dis-tinguishing between essential human "rights, and what they ca!! secondary rights. The first category includes:' "the right-to life, ~'dignity, sustenance, worshil3, to the integrity~ use and normal devel-opment of ¯faculties, to ~vork and the frt~it of work, to private owner-ship Of property, to sojourn and' movemen'f, to marriage and the procreation and education of childrdn,:'t0 assoCiation with one's.fel-low- men." The Bishops insist that no one should be deprived of th~ ,exercise of these rights:" . By secondary rights the statement means such things as partici-pation in political and social life. Non-Europeans who are fitted for such participatioh are entitled to it. But the Bishops admit that large numbers of the non-Europeans are not yet sufficiently developed for-this~ kind 6f equality, arid the duty of the Europeans in this case is to help t15em in thi~ cultural development. What do our own Bishops say about tl~e race problem? One GERALD.KELLY . . . ~ Review [or Religious .who is interested in the answer to this question will do well t~con, suit Catholics Speak on Race¯ Relations, by Father Daniel M. Cant-well. In this little 'booklet of ~xce~dingly quotable quotations Father Cantwell has sixty-t';vo statements by Popes and various members of the 'hierarchy. Thirty-seven of these are made¯ by our own hierarchy. Representative of the latter are such brief pointed remarks as these: "Among the saints there is no distinction of race or color" (Car-dinal Stritch) ; ".The race of which it is our duty to be conscious is the entire human race" (Archbishop Cushing); "Is it not Catholic doctrine that when a brother is excluded,¯ re-jected, segregated, it is Christ Who is insulted and humiliated?" (Archbishop Lucey) ; "I doubt very much whether in the field of jbb discrimination we can educate unless we also legislate" (Bishop Haas on FEPC) ; and '-'Jim Crowism in the Mystical Body of Christ is a disgraceful anomaly" (Bishop Shiel). Father Cantwell's booklet is not limited to episcopal statements; it also contains apt quotations from priests, Sisters, laymen, Catholic papers, and°so forth. It is divided into four parts. The first part concerns the fundamental truths of the unity and equality among men. The second refers to human rights: life, work, living family wage, economic freedom, ~education~ housing, neighborhood peace, esteem and honor, marriage, and ~ or~hip of God. The third part concerns various viola.tions bf. these basic rights; ;ind the fourth part deals with positive ways of promoting interracial justice. It is a very valuable booklet, a. re~al "must" for all who are interested in the great cause Of interracial justice and amity. For details about¯ the price, see page 295 qn'thi~ number of' the Revietv. Foremos.t.amQng the race problems in the United States is the so-called Negro problem. On this problem, the annual statement of our hierarchy, issued November 1 i, 1943, contains the .following directive: "In the Providence of God there are among us millionsof fell~w citizens of the Negro race. We owe to these fellow citizens, who have contributed so largely to the development of our country, and for whose welfare history imposes on us a ¯special Obligation of jus-tice, to see. that~ they have in fact the rights which are given them in 298 November, 1952 N~)TES ON RACE RELATIONS our Constitution. This means not only political' equality, but also fair economic and educational opportunities,.a just share', in public welfare projec'ts, good housing without exploitation, and a full chance for the social development of theirrace." (Cf. Huber, Our Bishops Speak, p. 118.) Social Order, .for February, 1952, contains an analysis if a re-port on family incomes for the year 1949. It is interesting to read some of the items of this report in the light of the Bishops' statem+nt lust°quoted. For inst~ince, 10.4 per cent ofth~ white families had incomes under $1,000:~ whereas 30.9 per cent of the non-white fami-lies were in this bracket. 13'.7 percent of the white families' .incomes were between $1,000 aiad $1,999: whereas 28.6 per cent.of the non- . white families fell within these limits. "For incomes from $2,000 to1 $2,999, there were 20.5 per cent of the white families, and 22.1 per cent of the nbn-white. Finally, as regards incomes exceeding $3,000 (the or~lgt bracket, incidentally, which includes income thai would correspond with Catholic teaching on the family living wage), 55.4 pqr cent of the white families attained this level, as against 18.4 per cent of the non-white families. Pessimistic though these comparative statistics are from the l~oint of view of interracial j~ustice, the economic picture is not entirely Without brightness, at least asregards Negro employment. "Fortune, for July, 1952, has an article entitled "Negro Employment: A Progress Report," b.y John A. Davis, which shows' that ~luring the last decade the Negroes in our country have made coiasiderable gains in employment. But these gains, says l~Ir. Davis, "were possible only through FEPC. They cannot continue without further legis-lation." This agrees with the opinion of Bishop Haas, previously quoted in these notes. All of us, no doubt, would prefer some kind of voluntary program of fair employment practices. We would prefer "education" to "legislation"--but actual facts show that it is not a sirhple matter of "either-or"; we need both'the education and the legislation. Mr. Davis's report shows that legislation has ac-tually produced good results where a plan of Voluntary action was ineffective. A'ccording to him, the recent gains in Negro employ-ment are largely attributable to the fact tha't in eleven states and twenty-two .cities, embracing sixty million people, business is now operating under some kind of Fair Emp19Yment Practice laws. In'"The Church Segregated" (The Priest, July, 1952), 2ohn Richards sees the segregation policy as practiced within th~ Church 299 GERALD K~LLY ,~" through the eyes of a Catholic Negro f~riend. This friend refuses to contribute to a drive for'a .new "colored'.' cburch'because be says he,' does not approve of segregated churches. He resents the fact t~at som~.Cat.holic schools willingly take Protestant white pupils, but exclud~ col6red' Catholic children. He believes that state laws requiring segregated education do not apply, to Catholic schools; 'and even if they did apply the Church should be the first.to Oppose such laws. He is ~distressed when priests join the Knigh~ts of Columbus, because he says that in his locality the Knights of Columbus is.a lily, White organiza'tion: an~ if "the Negro parishioners are not good enough for the local council, then the local council is not good enough for the pastor of these parishioners." Also, he sees no'valid reason for referring to the segregated colored parishas the Negro mis~ sion; nor any~more reason for efitering "Negro""in the Baptisma! ¯ register than there is for noting "black hair." , "Theqntegration of Negroes in Catholic parishes, in the South would drive lukewarm Catholics away from the Church." This rationalization leavesdohn'Richards' friend cold---oi', to shift the figure of 0speech, it makes him hot. The Church's insistence on ~the. di;cine" law regarding birth control_ and divorce drives lukewarm Catholics away; too but the doct~:ine is not watered down nor the practice of virtue mitigated for their sakes. Why should :the .policy be different regarding the inherent injustice of the segregation policy? To all the friend'~ omplaints, I say "Amen." At its best racial segre'gatio.n isan ugly thing: practiced in any' specifically Catholic institution it is at its worst. And this brings me back to Father Cantwell s little booklet, tothe following quotation from a pastorai letter'of Bishop Vincent Waters, of Raleigh,,N~C.': : " "To believe ~hat one race or nation.is superior to another in the Churcl~, or before God, is heresy and should be condemned. ~'"Equal ,rights are.accorded, .therefdre, 'to,every race and every " nationality in afiy Catholic churc~h, and within the church building itself eyeryone is given ~he privilege to sit or kneel wherever he de-sireS, and to approach the Sacraments Without any regard to race or. ~ nationality. ; . "Pastor~ are responsible for the observance of this practice." TEN-YEAR INDEX More cbpies 9f the Ten Year Index of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS (1947.- l~95.!)~oare still available at one dollar per copy. Kindly enclose payment with the oider from REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, S12 Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas. ° 300 qo,ooo Francs "or Lire Adam C. Ellis, S.~I. AS SUPREME ~ administrator' and steward of. all church prop-erty (canon. 1518) the Roman Pontiff has the duty of regu-lating the' administration of all prop~erty owned by moral persons in the Church (dioceses, parishes, religious houses, and the !ike). ,Just as the state regulates the, civil corporations which it brings into existence and safeguards their financial'transactions, so the Code of ~Canon Law contains many prescriptions regarding the property of moral.persons in the Church. One of the most important of.these.is~the limitation put upon such moral persons with"regard to the alienation of property and the incurring of debts. Law of the Code Canon 1532 lays down a general law for all moral .persons in the Church, limiting their power to alienate property'to the sum of 30,000 life or francs, and canon 1538 extends this limitation to the incurring of debts: canon 534.applies both .these" general laws to religious moral persons (institutes, provinces,, hofises) .and protects it With other detailed requirements: These canons requir.e the permis' sign of the Holy See in order to alienate property or to borrow mon.ey when the sum involved excdeds 30,000 francs or 1ire. When the Code of Canon Law was published in 1917, canon~st~ almost unanimously interpreted "'30,000 francs or life" according to the gold standard which then prevailed in Europe. As far back as 1865, Belgium, France, Italy, and Switzerland had established the Latin Monetary Union in which it was agreed that all four coun-tries" were to issue coins of equal foim. weighf, and value (gold con-tent) to be equally usable in all four countries. According to thi~ gold standard, fran.cs: whether Belgian~ French, or Swiss were truly equal both among themselves and to the Italian lir~ Hence the com-mon reference througho.ut the canons of the Code to "francs o? 1ire." Most.of the couniries of Europe followed the standard of the Latin Monetary Union in ,oract~'ce. Some had coins of the same value as the franc or lira, others of equivalent value. Thus in 1917 ;the- 301 ADAM C, ELLIS i~et~iew for Religion,. ~0,000 francs or life of the cknons regarding alienation or ~he in-curring of debts were evaInated as follows: 30,000 Belgian francs French francs STcciss francs Italian fire Spanish pesetas Bulg.arian leva Greek drachmas Serbian din~rs 24;000 English shillings (1,200 pounds) 24,000 German marks 27,000 Au~strian crowns 6,000 U.S. dollars 6,000 Canadian dollars While all the coin-s listed in the first column above had an actual gold value Of $.193, forpractical purposes they were e~caluated at'5 to the dollar, and thhs the sum of $6,000 was arrived at for the united States and Canada. The EngliSh shilling and the German mark were evaluated at 4 to the dollar. The,Roman Curia never formally declared that "30,000 francs Or life" were to :be taken as gold francs or life. Nevertheless, in practice, the Sacred Congregations of Religious, for the Propagation of the Faith, and of the Eastern Church, and the Sacred Consistorial Congregation permitted their clients to interpret these sums on the basis of gold, and f0r the United States and Canada it wasc6m-monly held that one did not need to get the permission of the. H01y See for an Jalienation or for a loan unless the sum involved exceeded $6,000 in gold. : Two world wars within a period of twenty-five years disrupted the moneta_ry systems of the nations of the world. In our own country, on January 31; 1934, the 'American gold dollar was devaluated from 100 cents to .5906 cents. Hence a 100 cent gold dollar was worth $1.692 of the present 59 cent dollars. As a mat-ter of ~act, all. gold currency had to be turned over to'the U.S. gov-ernment, and. no 59 cent dollars were ever coined. However, at that time,,it was estimated that henceforth the 30,000 lire or fra.ncs of theCode corresponded to !0,000 of the 59 cent dollars, and that one needed permission from the Holy See for aliena.tions and loans only When the transaction exceeded 10,000 present day. dollars. In Europe, especially in Latin countries,¯ currency 10st its prewar ~alue and i~ was difficult to determine jus~t what the equivalent bf the 30.2 November, ~1952 :' 10,000 GOLD FRANCS OR LIRE" .30:000 francs, or'fire was in th~ paper money .of the day. ~s a result' some persons went to the. extreme of never asking the permis-sion Of the Holy See. for alienations and loans. To remedy the' situ-ation, at least for the religious of Italy, the Sacred Congregation of Religious recently required that PermiSsion had to be" obtained for alienations and loans whenever the'amount in~,olved exceeded one million fire. - - The New Decree Finally, to provide a general re.medy for the situation, the Sac~d Consistorial Congregation issued the following decree on July 113, 1951: Since~he'change~in value o-~ "both metal and paper mon'ey has created particular'di~culties in certain place~ regarding the applica-tion of the pre.scription of canons 534, .§ I and 1532, § I, 2° of the Code of Cadon Law,. the Holy See has been requested "tO. establish'a suitable norm. Wherefore, having considered" the matter carefulhj, His .Holiness, Plus XII by Divine Providencb Pope, has kindly v6uchsafed to ¯ determine by this Decree of the Sacred Consistorial C~ngregation that, as long a~ present conditions last and subject to. the will of the Holy See, recourse must be had to the same Apostolic See whenever {here is question of a sum of money which exceeds ten thousand gold francs or life. There can be no doubt about the" fact that, for. the present least, the Holy See has taken the gold st~ndard"as~a norm 'for.the amount of money rcqui~ing the consent of the Holy See for aliena'- tion of church property and for tile incurring of debts. Our present problem is to translate."10,000 gold francs or. lire" into. modern paper currency. The most obvious way would be to take $2000 gold dollars of 1914 to a bank and ask that they be converted into present day dol-lars. The banker probably would call the police, Since it is against the law for: a private citizen to have gold cdin in' hi's possess~ign. But supposing the banker were a kindly soul and forbore tutning",one over to the law,-he would be allowed by law to give only .$2~000 paper dollars in e~change for the gold. " :: ¯ Another w, ay would b~ to (ake 10,000 gold. frhncs and .get .,the value in actual Belgian ~Sr French francs, and th.en.redute it to presen,t day dollars. F.atber f~mile Berg}i, S.J. (Revue des Communaut~s Re, ligieuses, 1951, p. 166), tells us that at.the end of.World War. IEin. ¯. : 303 ADAM C, ELLIS 1945 it w'as estimated.that ~he 30,000,francs for Which one needed aft indult fromthe Holy"See r.epresen, t.ed from,900,000 tO 1,000,000 actual Belgian f~ancs. Sirice tl~e recent decree now requires recourse for l(J~000 gold tirancs, this would amount to one third the sum .give~ above,-that is, to at iea~t 300,000 Belgian francs,-and'to 2,200.~300 French francs ~es16ectively. Reducing these sums. to American dollars ~t the cfirrent rate of ~xdhange, we get a minimum of $6,000 at 50 Belgian ~rancs" to the dollar, and $6,285 ';it 350 -French francs to the dollar. ':Father' Joseph Creusen, S.J. (Revue des ,Communaut~s Reti-gieuse~, 1952, p.-66), c~lls attention to the fact that the term "gold franc" may mean either the purchasing po.wer of the gold kilo; or its worth on the official exchange, or on the free market. He prefers to assess the value of the gold franc on th.e basis of its buying power immediately before World War I in 1914, but does.not tell uswha~ this would be in terms of present day dollars. ~ Finally, Father George Jarlot, S.2.,,a professor~at the Institute of Social S~iences of the Gregorian University, Rome, informs us that th~ pu~rchasing power of 10.000 gold francs in 1914 was equal to about $7,000 in American money.today (Periodica, 1952. p. 156), ¯ This is also th~ sum arrived at as the equivalent of the "10,000 gold francs,or life" bit other Roman canonists, according to private infor-mation received by the writer. , ~. Conc'lusion: Father A. Guttierez, C.]k,I.F. (Commentaridm pro Rbligiosis, 1951, 258), w~hile not" hazarding,ar~ opinion Of his own as to the value of "10,000 gold francs or lire" thinks it would be desirabl'e to have the Holy See determine-the equivalent for each ¯ country. Until this is done, we.may safely follow Jarlot's opinion a~nd~ consider 7,000 present day dollars as the equivalent of the 10,000 goldfrancs or life set as the norm by the iecent decree of- the S~c'red Consistorial Congregation. Whenever. therefore,-there is que'stion of'the hlien~tion of property or of the incurring 6f a debt, thd'value of which exceeds $7',000, the permission of the Holy See must.b~ obtained in order that the transaction may be valid. We take this occasion" to remind our readers that the permission nec~essary may now be obtained from Hi.~ Excellency, the Apostolic Delegate in~ ,Washihgton, D.C., ~vhen the sum involved does not exceed a half. .million gold dollarS;~ pr6vided the other conditions prescribed by .the la~v a~re fulfilled. (See Bou~caren, Canon Law Di'gest, Supplement 1948;,I3.~.131, under i:anon 858). ~ 304 Address ot: PoPe Pius XII .Religious Superiors [Tl~is address was given tO the supekiors genera! of institutes of geligious4women. on Se~teraber 15, 1952, at the conclusion of their first international congress.] . ELOVED daughters, We extend Our fatherly greeting tb you, who have come in such large numbers 'to the~ International Congress of Superiors General of O~ders and congregatisris of,' Women, and who, at the endof your labors, on th~ ¯point of putting into.effect the results.of your deliberations, have come't0, ask of.Us , the blessing of the Vicar of Christ. When the Sacred Congregation of Religious proposed calling this ,Congress to Us, Wefelt obliged to think'it over. An enterprise o'f in'ternation~il scope such as this always demands a considera.ble. penditure of time, money, and effort. Nevertheless, We had to acknowledge its necessity or, at least, its Usefulness~ Indeed, We felt OUrselves obliged td ~,ield before the solidity of the reasons pre-. sented; and the imposing assemblage~ which We have before Our eyes, your countenances, your entire appearance tell-Us that great good ~¢iI1 has been at work these days. ~ Yes, beloved' daughters, the echoes of the Congress which follow i~s conclusion hav~ proclaimed how-seriously you regard the service of God and flow desirous yos are of .spendin.g yourselves for your religious families and for the Church. With this. in view, you hop~e to receive fiom .Us a word of consolation, 6f eficouragement, and of direction. " Just one" year ago, We t~:eated in detail a series of questions. to~iching on ~he prog.ress of teaching orders and congregations and their adaptation to present conditions. Some, if not mos~, of thi~ in-structions We gave on that occasion hold equally true for all -other religio~s congregations. The experiences of the year .which has elapsdd urge Us to draw your attention to the directives which¯ We formulated at that time. We ask you to conform to them cousage-ously when your sisters and yot~r own experience tell you that. the time has come tO take intelligent account of aspects of contemporary life. We have,, moreover', a very special .reason for .speakin~ to you. You know that orders of wom~n are now facing a very grave crisis. We refer to the decline in .the number of vocations. Most assuredly,. POPE PlUS XII ' Reoiew for Reli~lions this crisis has not touched all countries. Even .where it has raged, its iritensity is not e.verywhere l~he same. 'tSut right now in one group of Euroi~ean countrie~ it i~ alarm, ing. In one region, where twenty years ago the religious life of women was in full flower the number 'of vocations has dropl~ed to half. And yet in times past serious diffi-culties impeded the vocations of girls, whereas iia Our day external ~onditions seem to 'impel them thither and there' would seem to be a iaeed for guarding against imag!ne.d x, ocations. We do not intend a detailed discussion of this crisis which is causing Us such deep anxiety. Another occasion will furnish. Us . with the opportunity~ Tod~y We wish only to address those, b~ they priests'or laymen, preachers, speakers, or Writers, who hax, encit a word c~f aigproval or of praise for viriginity pledged to Christ; who, for year~, in spite of admonitions by the Church; ~nd contrary;' to her mind', have accorded marriage an essential superiority 6ver the virginal state; w15o even go so far as to present marriage as the only rfieans capable of assuring.the development and natural perfection of human personality. Th~se who speak and write thus mu'st take. cognizance of their responsibility to God and to the Church. must reckon them amongst those chiefly responsible for a state of affairs of which We cannot speak without sadness. When, through-outth~ Christian world'.ahd everywhere else. there, re-ech0 at)veals ' for Catholic sisters, it is quite ordinary to be com't~elled reluctantly to give one negative answer after another. Yes, even long;sthnding . establishments--hospitals and educational institutions must be closed from time. to time--all because vocations do not eqtial the " needs. As for yourselves. "h~r'e are Our recommendations. With voca-tions in their present critical state, see to it that the religious habits, the manner of life, or the asceticism of your religious families do not form a barriei or a'cause of failure in vocations. We speak of c'ertain usage~ which, while they once had meaniog in another cultural milieu, are meaninbless'today, and in which' a truly good and cou-rageous girl would find only obstacles'to, her vocation',, In "Oul statement of last year We gave various examples 6f this. To repeat briefly on the question of clothing: the religious habit must always express consecration to Christ; that is what everyone expects and desires. Bu( the habit should alsb conform to modern demands and correspond to the :ne~ds of hygiene. We could not fail to express.Our satisfacti6ff--when, in the.course of. the year, We lsaw that sortie con-" 306 November, 1952 " ADDRESS TO RELIGIOUS SUPERIORS gregations had already put some of these ideas into practice. In a word, in these things that are not essential, adapt .yourselves as far as reason and well-ordered chhrit% advise. This said, We propose to you, beloved daughters, two matters with Our most earnest commendation: ~ 1) A motherl~t spirit as regards the direction of your sisters. It is undoubtedly true, as psychology claims, that a woman vested with authority does not succeed so easily as a man in measuring and bal- ~ancing strictness with kindness. All the more¯ reason fcir ~cultivating your maternal feelings. Convince yourselves that the vows have re-quired a great sacrifice from your sisters, as from yourselves. They have renounced family, the happiness of marriage, and the intimacy ¯ of the home--a sacrifice of. much value, of decided importance for the apostolate of the Church, but a sacrifice all the same. Those of your sisters whose spirit is nobldst and most refined feel this separation most keenly. The words of Christ, "He who puts his hand to the plow and then .looks back is not fit for the Kingdom of God," find complete and, even today, unreserved application here. "But the brder must replace the family as far as possible; and you, 'the superiors gen-eral, are called up.on first and foremost to breathe into the community life of your sisters tile spirit of family affection. Also, you yourselves must be maternal in yo, ur external attitude, in_ your written and spoken words, even if, at times', you ha'~e to exercise self-control; above all, be thus in your inner thoughts, in your ,judgments, and, as far as possible, in your feelings. Every day ask Mary, the Mother off Jesus and our Mother, to teach you to be motherly. 2) The formation o~ ~tour sisters for the v~ork and .the task which is incumbent upon them. Here let there .be no parsimony; take a broad and generous view. Be it a question of education, pedagogy, the care of the sick, artistic or other activities, the sister ought to 'entertain this conviction: "My superior is making pos'sible for me a fotmatibn which wlill put me on an equal footing withmy colleagues in the world." Make it possible also for them, and g!ve them the.means, to keep their profession, al .knowledge and training up to date. On this point We have also elaborated dr/ring the past ¯ year. We repeat it in order to underline the importance of this re-quirement. for the interior pea~e and foi the work of your sisters. "'" You come, beloved daughters, from all parts of th~ world, Prom near and far. Tell your sisters that We thank them for their prayer, 307 "POPE PIUS XII of ~vbich We have snch great need; 'for their good exampl'e~ Which helps" powerfull~ to confirm so many.Cath01ics in their faith and to lead to the Church ~o many who do not belong to it; for their work in the service of 3iouth, the sick and the poor, in tl~e missions, in so many other w, ays~ all of which are so valuable for the growth and strengthening of the reign of ~lest~s Christ over souls. Tell ~our sis-ters. that'We give~ them all Our affectibn; that their concerns are Our'. concerns~ .their joys Our joys; tha.t, above;all, We wish for them the two-fold strength of courage and of, patience in the work of their own perfection and in the apostolote which their' Divine Master and Spouse has assigned them. As a token of Our patqrnal, benevolence ~nd a pledg~ of- the tri-umphant grace and love of ~the Divine Heart; We grant you, beloved daughters, for you.rselves, your ~isters, and your worksl Our Apostolic Benedktion. ADDRESS TO TEACHING SISTERS NOTE: The exhortation to the first international Congress of Teaching Sisters (September 15. 1951) to which the Holy Father refers in the foregoing address is i~ublished: in The Catholic Mind, ,June. 1952, pp. 376-80. The .following are a.mong the p.ei~tinent passages: ~ . "'The religious habit: choose it in such a way that it becomes the expression of inward naturalness, of simplicity and spiritual mfdes'ty. , Thus.it will e~dify every-one, even modern young, people . : "Followed in letter and spirit, your const~tut,0ns, too, facilitate and bring the Sister all she needs and must do in our time to be a good teacher and educator. This also ~applies to purely mechanical matters. In many "countries today, for example, even Sisters "use bic~ycles.when their work~demands it. At first¯ this was something' 'entirely new, though not against the Rule. It ispossible that some details of the school schedules, certain¯ reguiations---simple applicatifns of the" Rule--:-certain cus-toms. which were, perhaps, in harmony with past .conditions but which today° merely hinder educational work, must be adapted, to new circumstanc:s. Let supe-riors and~the general chapter prb~eed in this matter conscientiously, .with.foresight, prudence and cour.age and, where the case demands, let them not fail to submit the proposed changes to. competent ecclesiastical authorities." COMMUNICATIONS ON INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS Superiors and ,others who were privileged to attend the International Congress of Superiors General of Orders and Congregations of Women in Rome would 'do a great service~to our readers by sending their 0bservatio~s .on the congress. 308. ues ons and Answers M~'y a religious have the interest on his i~herifance? Suppose amounts to $300 a year: may he use this amount for Masses, hls'relatlves, or fo'r charlfy?. A religious~with: sole,mn yows loses all right to own, so there ~an be question here.only of a religious With. a simple, vow 6f poverty. He.ma.y .not.have the interest on his,inheritance, because canon 569, § 1 explicitly obliges every novice before taking first vows, to give away the usufruct or annual income deriving from his perso.nal pr6perty, unless the constitutions provide otherwise. The novice is free to give his annual incorn~ (interest on money, stocks, .bond~, rents from real estate; and the like) tO any. person., physical or moral, v~hom.he Nay choose; but h~ is forbidden to use it for himself, or to distribute it himself annually. The whole tenbr of the history of this canon is to the effect that the beneficiary.of the income :is .to .b~ determined upon once for all. Should the beneficiary die, another person may be appointed in his place; but in order to change the beneficiary determined upon at the'time of first profession, the per-mission of the superio.r is required unless the constit~utions provide otherwise (canon 580,.§ 3). We ~ave been invited to s~nd in our requests and compla~infs which will be proposed to the general chapter to be held within the n~xt 'three months. Are we obliged to slcjn our.names to these suggestions, or wili it be sufflclentto give them to on~e of the .delegates to the general chap-ter. and s.ay that these a~'e the requests of a.number~ of rellgious? Unless the constitutions or ~ustom require .that such requests or complaints must be signed, they need not be signed. Usually .they. a.re given to one of the delegates to the gen.er~al chapter who, in turn, at the proper time, turns them in to the special committee appointed for the purpose of screenin, g such requests and' complaints. Those that are considered worthy of the attention of the general chapter are pro-- posed to it in. due time during the chapter of affairs.,. At the end of thechapter, before a vote to adjourn is taken, any delegate may ask that a request or complain.t whichhas been turned, in but has. not - been submitted to the general chapter should now be read, and the 309 QUESt'IONS AND ANSWERS ,7 chapter will then vote first.on Whether the request or complaint is to be considered or not. If it is rejected, that is the end of the matter. If the majority vote is .for }onsidering it, it will then be considered in the same Way as the other requests or complaints, which were already, submitted to the general'ch.apter, ~30~- ~ By ou~" constifutlons We are directed to make one hour of~menfal prayer each day. In some of our houses it frequently happens .that .the Community Mass follows the first half hour.~of prayerJ The second half hodrwill then be made after thanksgiving, during which a second =Mass is sometimes said. Is attendance at this second Mass considered as fulfill;ncj the obligation of the Constitutions? In ma.ny religious communities it is customary for the communit~r to assist at the Mass of a ~isiting priest, usually .on a voluntary basis. There "does not seem to be any objection" to performing one's, spirit-ual duties, such as meditation, rosary, and the like during this second Mass. " Review for Religio~s " We are to have our general, chapter in January. " Is it proper for older delegates to ins~'ru~÷ ÷he youncjer Sis~'ers how ~'o 'vo~'e, "l-ha~" names of capable Sisters to them? " It is highly, improper for the Older delegates to instruct the younger Sisters how to vote in chapter. This is expressly forbidden by canon 507, § 2 which .states: "All must abstain f~om seeking votes either directly.or indirectly for themselves or for.others.':; What is allo'wed by certain c6nstitutions, and should be used with moderation, is to question other members, of the cl'iapter regarding the abilities of certain Sisters who have passive 'voice, that is,° are eligible for office. This should be done in a specific manner, for in-stance; by asking: "Is Sister N.N. firm in her manner of operating, does she ~aye good judgment, is she patient, kind, and the like" rather than ask: :'Do yo9 think Sister N.N. would make a good superior. One might ~sk a Sister who is very well acquainted with the indi~ vidual .in question: "Do you know of any serious.imp.erfection on th~ part of Sister N. N.' which would prevent her from being a good superior?" However, the Sisters of. tl'ie chapter thus in.terrogated are to answer tt~e questions proposed to them, and not offer any general advice not asked for. 3i0 November, 19~ 2 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Is the gblden jubilee in religion counted from date of entrance Or of first profession? There are no regulations in canon law re.garding this matter. Each institute follows its own custom. We l~hink, that, all things. coiisidered, tl~e jubilee shot]ld be counted from-the dal~e" o'f entrance intothe novitiate, since that is the first official step ~f dedication in religion to Christ's service. From" a practical viewpoint; fift~i years is a lon~ period of time, and should begin to run as soon" as possible afte'r" entranc~dnto religion, that is,' from the day of entrance into the novitiate. Cor~stitutions/requiring l~hat the gol.den jubilee be counted from the first temporary"prof.ession, or even frbm per.petu~l profession, may be changed by the proper authority, provided that'a majority 6f the members assembled in g~neral chapter request such a change~ Customs regard!rig the golden jubilee may be changed by'a majority ; ote of the chapte.r Without referring the matter to any higher authority. --33m What is the mind of the Church regarding Sisters "of |he second class," that is, lay Sisters?. Does this not savor of class distinction? Certainly the cl~ss of lay Sisters and Brothers savors of class dis-tinction. However, before condemning the Church for introducing such a distinction; it will be well to recall"that th~ Church take~ so-cial conditions as she finds them and seeks to better thefia gradually, Up t6 the begifining of the twentieth century, ~he only opportunity of bettering their condition was offered to the youth of the poorer classes oi~ Europe by the Chufchin the ranks of her clergy .an'd reli-giou. s. In modern times when the world has become more alert to social justice, and the opportunity to re~eiv~ 'an educati'on has become m6re common, the Church will readily grar~t permissi6n to abolish the class of lay Brothers and Sisters. This is especially true in the case of non'-dlerical i:ongrega.ti6ns of Sisters or Brothers only. The permi~- sioia, may be had for the. as~ing~ l~ovided that a ma'jori~r of the riaem-bers'of the gen.eral chapter reqfies~th~ Hbly See f6t it. In the case of a diocesan dongr~gatiohl ~he 16"c~il 6rdinary can gr~an~ the, p~rmissii3fi: 3il -ommunica ions Reverend Fathers: -It was nice to find an ar~ticle about the National Congress for Re-ligious in the REVIEW, as I had been looking for something in print about it." I had looked in.vain in several periodicals and papers, but with the "exception of The Santa Fe Register, I found notl4ing. I was privileged to be one of the few contemplative ieligious )resent. Another abbess from our monastery in Cleveland was there and a few other cloistered religious. The Congress for Religious was a most impressive and unique gathering, uniting as it did in one purpose, one endeavor, the. supe-riors of many religious orders of men and women. It would be impossible, .without a "record, to even hazard a guess at the number of Orders and Cong'regations that were represented. ¯ All the papers which were read and the discussions, etc. at the session for religious women, wdre compreheniive and manifested deep study and Understanding of the subjects treated. There was not enough time in the three days of the Congress to discuss thoroughly the subjects" chose~a or to cover more subjects. There were also the special sessions.~vhich proved very satisfactory, but some ~loubled up on others, so that only too often it was impossible not to miss one for another, both being conducted at the same time in differdnt buildings. That the subject of "prayer in the li~e of a religious" was com-pletely omitted seemed regrettable to.me. The priest ( I do not re-member .who h~ was) who brought up the subject of the contempla-tive life, and its having so great "an attraction for the youth of our day, left the subject woefully unfinished. That there is a great influx of vocations among the Trappists is evident, and leads one to hope that the future .will prove them to have really been true vocations. However, I do 'n0k believe the youth of our day in general shows a greater attraction for thecontemplative life than those of the past. There is a moderately larger number of v6cations in our day than in the past: but not in proportion to our increasing~populi~ti0n. In fact, taking' into consideration the fact that our Catholic population, our schools, colleges, etc. have vastly increased in the past 40 y'ears, the number of vocations to the contemplative Orders have not increased in prOportion. .: The statement which was made about the typical temptation Of 312 COMMUNICATIONS the active, and contemplative.religious is, I dare Say, not true. ¯ While active religious very often do 'long fo5 more timd for prayer, and the more fervent they are, the m6re they desire ~his.,-it is not.true ~hat the . temptation of the contemplative is to do more. No one but a cbn-templgtive. sh0uld make a statement touching so deeply the contem-plative soul, The contemplativ.e does r~ot feel that she dods not do ,enough, but that she does not pray enough, and .this~ after living many years the cloistered contemplative life. I ihould have liked to speak on the subject, but the paper had already gone over its allotted time, a'nd the subject could not be handled in a few sho~t sentences. " A life.of prayer does not comprise only the hours.allotted .to that _exercise, be it vocal in the recitation of the. Divir~e Office or mental, but it covers every hour of the day. Monastic work is prescribed by the Church for all c0nte~platives, notas a rest or cessation from prayer,, but as a means for uninterrupte.d, continuation of interior prayer. The contemplative knows that until her life is perfected by degrees in this uninterrupted interior p.rayer, not indeed a torturing of_the mind, but a silent, peaceful, interior communing.with Gbd in love, sbehas not yet attaiiaed to anyt~h~ng like, ~/high degree of that which she has set herself to fetich. Any woik, be it manuaLlabor or' simple domestic duties, be it of the literary or artist.ic, type, which fills in the tifiae befGeen the'hours of prayer.proper, must always be for the contemplative but a continuation of that interior union with God ¯ which was begun in her prayer before the Blessed Sacrament. Prhyer is not one department and .work another. The work of the contem-plative is as valuable as her prayer, and her prayers as. valuable, as her work. Her temptation is not to do more, but to fed dissatisfied that. that her life is not a mord uninterrupted union and converse with her' Di~vine Spouse, the striving for the perfection of this.~being her one aim. There is an unseen world which to her is very real. The inci-dents of daily-life are mereaccidentals which are. of valud or~ly so far' as they can purchase for her more p~rfect union with God. This unseen world is as real to her as the things she can ~each out and touch, and touching it she can make every action of hers Prayer. I am speaking o£ pra~er,~ -not pra~/ers. The Di~cine Office, thoughoit is a vocal prayer, can yet give to the. contemplative, one of the most valuable occasions of the day for interior prayer, when her soul can remain in closest union with God, reaching 0ut'to Him in: loving, peaceful attention, whether she understands and grasps the meahing 313 COMMUNICATIONS. Reoieto for Religious of the wor'ds or not. o,. - .-. , . . ¯ ~ .The contemplati_ve:life should not be giamorized. This gives ¯ young people a mere admiration of it or a passing fervor at learning of its grandeur, which is not a vocation, Only too o, ften postulants applying have a mistaken idea of the contemplative life. picturing it as a quiet restful going to prayer and enjoying its peaceful hours.with little else to do. This is not what the contemplative life demands. It is a life of prayer indeed, but.united with the self-effacement and self-abnegation necessary to bring the soul to a detachment from ~elf and self-love, which alone can lead to higher union of the'soul With God. This is not a pleasant process if it is to lead to solid growth in holi- ¯ ness. It is not what enriches us but what effaces us that leads to union with God. But,'neither should we suppose that the, way is all darkness and strewn with thorns. The soul also comes to stretches of light and joy when she stands very.close to the Divinity to which she is wedded. Our Lord is ever a loving Spou.se who will not be outdone in generosity. Much more can be s~iid on the.subject, but I wrote this much be-cause I felt an explanatign was due since ,you .repeated the statement in the REVIEW which was made on the floor at the,Congress, and I feel it has given an incorrect impression. There isAlready a great deal written about the contemplative life Which should be reviewed or corrected. The trouble is few contemplatives write,and what is writ-ten is too often merely theoretical by those who have not lived the enclosed contemplative life. SISTER M. IMMACULATA, P.C. (Abbess) SETS OF BACK NUMBERS AVAILABLE To :meet the numerous requests for back numbers the following ligt has .been prepared. It contains the number of complete sets available.for the different years, together with the prices. The price of the REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS was rai~ed to $3.00. in 1951. ' " Sets at $2.00 Sets at $3.00 1945 " 8sets 1951 . 17.0sets 1948 ., . 87sets 1952 . ~. 130~ets 1949 . . 115 sets ' 1'950. . . . 75 sets ~ ~" Please order from the. business. ot~ce: REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, 606 Harrison, Top~.ka, Karisas. 314 A =h onument: t:o Vincen!: Jerdme Breunig, TH]~ recent Uook, Saints for Now, edited by Clare Boothe Luce, has two articles on St. John of the Cross and none on St. Vin-cent de Paul. Yet Vincent de Paul is pre-emin, e.ntly a modern saint, a "saint for now." In Social Action (July, 1952, p. 135) J. Correia-Afonso writes.: "Vincent.de Paul is indeed a modern saint, not chronologically., but as one of the first of his contemporaries to understand the new times ushered in by the R~naissance, and to consider them with a just and sympathetic discrimination; one of the earliest too to observe and to seek a practical solution for the social questign, which in" its different aspects has beiome the problem of our own days." (Social.Action is a'periodical published monthly by the Indian Institute of Social Order, St. Vincent St.,Poona 1, India.). The "omnipresence" of the Daughters of Charity; (more. than 40,000 strong) in the cities of the world, the numerous Vihcentian seminaries, the De Paul hospitals and schools, as well as the other congregations, associations, and works of charity that derive directly from or were inspired I~y St. Vincent may have rendered the saint too' obvious to be singled out. Recent tributes to the ~ipostle of charity are not wanting. The realistic'spiritual grandeur of the film, "Mon-sieur Vindent," is a notable instance. But the monument, "more lasting than bronze"is the fifteen-volume ~ork of Pierre Coste, C.M. This includes eight volumes o~ Correspondence, four of Con&fences; and a three-volume Life and Works of St. Vincent de Paul. The work is translated by'Joseph Leonard, C.M. The last seven volumes mentioned above were published, by the Newman Press during the present year. (See page 325 for prices, etc.) THE LIFE AND.WORKS OF ST. VINCENT DE PAUL Reviewing Pierre Coste's biography in the Month when the book first appeared in the early thir.ties, Archbishop Goodier "wrote: "He has already given.to us, ig eight volumes, the saint's correspondence; he has now published in three volumes more, ~ study of the saint and his l,i e which is not likely ever to be superseded,. It is a masterpiece of research, 6f eruditionSand in ~he full-length portrait of SL Vin-cent de Paul which it~ depicts; si~aringhim in nothing, "~s the saint himself would not want to be spared,_, it allows u's to watch this Very -315 ~" JEROME BREUNIG Re~'ie~ for Religious ¯ human being, if ever there.was one, grow¯ into one of the most glori-ous heroes this world has ever produced, the pride alike of man and of .the Church, one of those in whose canonization the veriest pagan must rejoice." , The biography can be divided into three sections that are not co-terminus with the three volumes. First is traced the early-life 6f the s~int.ahd the first beginnings of the associations he founded. Then, in turn; follc;ws a detailed study of the growth and expansion of each. The third section treats.of his work at the French court, his. efforts against Jansenism, and his care of'the Visitation" Order after the ~dea'th of St. Francis de Sales: gives summary studies of his sanc-tity, his daily order, and the like: and concludes with. an account of his d~ath, beatification, and canonization. The r~al drama and challenge of Vincent de Paul's long life (1581-1660) is h~ightened rather thin dimmed by the careful ex-cision of legends such as the story of his exchanging places with the galley slave. The meager record of the early years is sufficient to m- .dica~e the initial struggle of a gifted poor boy who had to "work his~ way thiough college" by teaching boys. Not in accord with the pre- ¯ scriptions of Trent, Vincent was ordaified at twenty years of age. Providence .afforded realistic post-ordinatio~ training. The youfig priest.was ~capttired by Moors and sold int6 slavery in'Tunis. It was almost tq¢o years before he escaped to France. ~ The. turning point from mediocre to high sanctity seems to have been Vincent's promis~ to consecrate the rest of hi~ life to theservice of the'poor. Shortly afterwards when the Master of'the Paris M~nt gave him a personal gift of 15,000 livres, the dedicated priest gave the entire sum to the Charity Hb~lSitai on the very next day. Whether.pastor of Clichy or Chatillons, chaplain t6"the De Gondi Family or to the Queen, Vincent de Paul fulfilled his promise to help the po.0r.Whenever he recognized a serious need., whether spiritual or material, he tried a realistic approach, often not particularly orig-inal, experimented, made recommendations, and finally outlined pro-cedure~ .that would meet the difficulty. The Congregation of t~e Mission "The establishment of the Congregation of the. Mission is the result of the sermon at Folleville:' it sprang from it as the tree does from the seed" (I, 70). This mission sermon givdn on the feast of the Conversion of St. P~ul ,and exhorting the. yillager.s to make a 316 November, 1952 MONUMENT TO M. VINCENT general confession, was so abundantl¢ blessed that it.clearly under-lined the need to provide for thousarids bf similar missions and a congregation¯ of priests specially dedicated'to g!ving them. Incompetence and worse among the clergy of France~was another problem Vincent helped solve. First he prov!ded retreats for priests and ordin~nds. Hd saw, however,¯that a more radical remedy Was needed. Adequate seminary training had to be provided. -The Con-gregation of the Mission undertook and is continuing these special-ized sacred works for th~ sa'nctification of the clergy. Relief for the poor began in the same simple.manner. "On a cei-taifi Sunday, 'just as I was vesting,to say Mass, a person came to tell me that, in an isolated house a quarter of.a league away. the whole family lay ill, so'that not a single ond of them could come to the as-sistance of the others, and they were in Such dire straits as cannot be ,,expressed. ,It moved me to the depths of my heart. I did not fail to speak feelingly about them during the sermon, and God, touching the, hearts of those who were listening, caused them all to be moved to compassion for the poor afflicted people. "After dinner, a meeting was held in/the house of a good lady in the town to see what help could 15e given and every single one of. those present was quite~prepared to go and see them. to console them ,by talking to them and'to help them to the best of their ability." (I, 82.) The care of this familj, led to the care of'.others. After three months experience St. Vindent formed" an association to be called the Confraternity, of Charity. Its members were to be known fis the Servant~ of the Poor or of Charity. "It was to have desus Christ as its patron and its rriotto was to be: Blessed are the merciful as my Father is merciful} or, Come, ye bles'sed of my Fat'tier and possess the Kingdom prepared fo? you from the beginning of th~ world, for I was hungry and ge gave me to eat, I was sick and you visitbd me; for what you have done to theleast of thesq, {you have done unto me.'" (I, 83.) The Daughters of Charity Again,,this' confraternity became the model for similar ones,¯, From them developed the group known as the .Ladies ofCharity" who gave generously of time and money to h~lp the .poor. As the work of these groups expanded, it .became¯ clear that a permanent group of Full time dedicated nurses and teachers was indispensable. With the help of, Louise de Marillac, a "Lady of Charity." Vincent ' 317 ,JEROME BREUNIG Reoiet~ for Religious de° Paul established the Daughters of Ch, arity. This new congregation marked a great innovation in the reli-gidus iife. "The Daughters of Charity wdre not, like the members of ¯ :other communities of women, confined to "their homes; they were perfectly free t6 walk about the streets, and this was even a duty in-~ asmuch as their functions called them to leave their houses and enter. those of the poor. 'Your monasteries,' St. Vincent said to them, 'are the houses of ~he sickf ybur cell, a hired room; your chapel, the " parish church; your cloister., the streets of the city; your enclosure, obedience; your grille, the fear of God; your veil, holy modesty!' " .(I, 345.) The. Vincentians (C.M.) and the. Datighters of Charity are the largest but not the.only religious families Vincent founded. He suC-ceeded St. Francis de Sales as d~rector of the Visitation Order an~ helped found the institutes of th~ Daughters of Providence, the Daughters of the Cross, and the Daughters of the Holy Family. These congregations helped car.ry on the ~far-flung spiritual and cor-poral works of.mercy that were first initiated by M. Vincent. The Fou'ndlings Artists like to depic~ St. Vincent trtidging through slum areas leading one child by the hand and carrying another. They are not, drawing ~maginary scenes. In a diary kept by one of the Sisters at La Couche we read:. "3anuary 22, M. Vincent a~rived about eleven o'clock at night;, he brought us two childrea; o_ne may be six days old, the other is older. The poor little things were crying. The Lady Superioress has handed them over to the nurses. ~ . . ~' "'February 7. It i~ very, cold. M. Vincent paid a visit to our community; this holy man is always on foot. The Superioress asked ¯ him to rest, but he hurried off at once (o his little childiefi. It is marvellous to listen to his beautiful words of kindness and consola- ¯ tion. These little creatures listen to him as to.a father. Oh! what does not this kind, good Monsieur Vincent deserve! ';I have seen his tears flow ~oday. One of our little ones died. 'It is an angel now,' he explaiiaed, 'but it is very ha~d not to see it any more.' " (II, 263- 4.) An appeal of Vincent to the Ladies of Charity is recorded: "And no~; Ladies, s.ympathy and charity induced you to ad.opt these poor little creatures as ~?our children; yo.u have been their mothers ac-cording to Divine Grace ever .since their mothers aceording to nature 318 Novemb~r~ 1952 MONUM.ENT TO I~I.VINCEN'~ abarid~ned them. Cease to be their mothe.rs and become their judges; theirlife and death, i~ in your h~nds; I am i~ow abo~t to collect yoflf votes: the time has come to pronounce-their sentence and to ascertain whe.ther~ you desire any longer to be merciful tO them. They will live, if you charitably take care of them, and on the other l~and, they will die and infallibly perishif you abandon therfii experience does.- not allow you to think otherwise." (II, 222.) Chaplain for the Galle~ts "Nothing could give a bettei picture of hell than the hulks.[of the galley slaves] at Marseilles," wrote a biographer (I, 117). Into these tombs for the living, .Vincent went as an angel and consoler. His own experience as. a prisoner and a slave helped him to use his positior~ as chaplain-general of the galleys, to which General De Gondl bad appointed him, to alleviate the conditions of'the convicts. At Vincent's bidding, the Bishop of Paris sent a pastoral letter asking alms to prepare better quarters for the prisoners. The sp!ritual .minis.try among tl~e prisoners was not neglected: sacraments were ad-ministered and missions were sometimes arranged for them. The apostle of charity ektended his care to .other. needy classes besides foundlings and .prisoners. The sick poor in the over-crowded hospitals, orphans, the insane, fallen woinen, he.lpless beg-gars, and others were to. share the warmth of his contagious charity. A separate. ~tory is the relief woik of Vincent, that almost beggared the Parisian benefactors, to assist the provinces of Lorraine, Picardy, Champagne, and L'Ile,-de-France when they were torn by maraud-ing armies in the wars of the Fronde. Saving assistance was also provided for the Irish refugees who fled to France" during Oliver Cromwell's ~eign of terror. Spiritual Works Among the reforms in the spiritual apostolate that Vincent helpedpromote was punctu, ring the pompous, empty eloquence that ¯ had. become quite widespread.' Sentences like the following were commonplace: "I am about to grasp the intoxicating chalice, replete ¯ with SO much excellence, to replenish .your hearts through the orifices of Yourears." "May the gentle zephyrs of the Holy Spirit. waft the, .'sails o'f my thoughts.over the sea of this great audience to lead and bring it safely to a fair haven." (II, 206). Vincent promoted sim-plicit~ y, in form and tone. "Motives, nature, and means, all set out simply and cl.early--sucb is Saint Vincent's 'little method!' " (I!, 319 JEROME BREUNIG " ReuietuforReligious 217).He had no use for bitter sarcasm. "Bitterness "has never served.any 6ther purpos'e'than to embitter" (II, 218). Of greater impoFtance was his clear.standagainst heresy. ".The Jansei~iSts have never forgiven Saint Vincent for the pr6minent pait which he played in ~ecuring-the condemnation of their' doctrines" (III, .180). Vincent's sound faith, arid Cath01ic sefise kept him clear of this heres@ that won so many of his coun,trymen. Mqre-. over, his influential position at the French court enabled himo.to help expose the false doctrine in his bwn .country. A loy.al son. df the Church, he was also instrumental in ¯h~lping bring the matter to Rome where the heresy Was oflicially condemned. THE CONFERENCES OF ST. VIN'CEN~ DE PAUL The multifarious good works of Vincent de Paul ¯might give the impression that he was merely a man of action. The Conferences, in four v01um~s, modify this impres.sion by revealing the inner.spir-ituality which was the mainspring of the exterior activity. Not having a" Wire-rec, ording machin'e or even the Gregg short-hand method, the first Daughters of Charity pieced together what they heard, sometimes with the help. of Monsieur' Vincent's memor-andum. Of all the conferences Vincent gave duriiag aperiod of about 25 years (1634:1660), only 120 have been preserved. The handwriting ot~St. Louise de Marillac is recognized in twenty of" th~ transcriptions. Fragmentary and occasional as they are, the con-., ferenCes reveal an. inspiring and unmistakably high spirituality. It must be remembdred that When these conferences were given the Sis-ters were simply an association of layw0men who did not live in" a convent but usually in hired rooms in the particular parish wheie they worked. " " The "'Method" in the Conferences.° An interesting and, perhaps in some meagure, imitable feature of Vincent de Paul's conferences was the method. The Sisters were not ~nly .informed.when the conference was to be held, but they were told .what the subject matter was to'be.° Besides, the~ were to be prepared to give their own thoughts and to iinswer questions on th~ subject. The first time the method was introdiaced iff recorded:. '"In the t~ompany. "Sir, disunion seems to me to be like a building that is falling ddwn~ . . . JERk)ME BREUNIG Revie~,'for Religious (~ Another Sister said : "'Union is an image of tb~ most ~Ble~sed' .~rihity which is made up 6f three dlvme Persons, United.:b.y love. I~ we are thoroughly well united; we shall all be ,of one will and in complete harmony. Disunion, on the contrary, gives us a picture of hell, where the dem~ns live in perpetual discord and hate." ,(I, 87- Thus'each of. the group added to the conferende. These "conver-sati0ns" ai ~iven in the' Con(erences may stem toopat and perhaps too:good to some modern readers. This mhybe due to the editing. The idea seems to be a sound ont. After hearing the members and answering any questions, Monsieur Vincent would give a fuller treat-ment of ttie subject. The conferences were not monologues an'd fulfill the real meaning of the word conference, a meeting of minds. Inspiring scenes such as the following happened more than once. "The Sister who spoke on the good use of admonitions added: 'Recently .I.was so proud that, when my attention was called to a fault by _one of my Sisters of whom I had asked charity, I manifested displeasure. I. very l~umbly'ask pardon for having done ~o and als6, Sister, I'ask.for yours, who p.e?formed this act of charity towa'rds me.' At these words, the other Sister knelt down and said: 'It is I, Sister, who ask your forgiveness. I did not admon'ish you as I should have done, foi there were others present.' " (I, xv.) The Co£tent "" P~re Coste summarizes the content of the conferences in his troduction to the work. ;'His addresses chiefly dealt withthe voca-tion of Daughters of Cha)ity; their functions; thepoor, the sick, the foundlings; their daily exercises: rising, prayer, their general and par-ticular rules; the Christian virtues and those ¯which .go to make up. the spirit of the Company: simplicity, charity, humility, mortifica-tion, loVe~of work; the" frequentation of the Sacraments; Confession and Communion. Scandal, temptations, envy, admonitions, and the Jubile~ were also subjects of excellent conferences. He devoted several conferences to the virtues of deceased Sisters, and Sisters who were sent to the. proviricds were not allowed to.depart~ithout a few words of advice. The elections of officials .was'~ilso an occasion for a biief address. The. choice of subject was dictated by circumstances~ the needs of the Company, and the suggestions of St. Louise de 322 . November, -1952 MON~IMENT TO M. VINCENT rillac." (I, xii.) , St. Vincent had much to say about prayer. "Pray'er is th~ soul of our souls--that is to say, that what the soul is to the body, prayer is to the soul . The soul without prayer isalmost like a body without a soul, in what concerns the service of God; .it is without feeling, movement,, and has only worldly and earthly de-sires. I may also add that prayer is like a mirror in which the soul ¯ can see all its stains and disfigurements; it notds what renders it dis-pleasing to God; it arranges itself sb that it may be conformable to Him in all things." (II, 49.) Very practically, Vincent associates success in prayeb with re-tiring on time, getting enough sleep, and mostly with prompt rising. "Risi,ng is the first act of fidelity we render to God:. ~. the rest of the day. is determined by rising in the morning. Befiev~ me, there is no us~ in fighting with your pillow; you are always bound to lose" (iI, 22). "If sleeping during prayer becomes a habit, then one should, in order to get rid of it, stand upright, kiss the floor, or renew one's attention from time to time because, if we do not remedy this bad habit, it will return daily. Ar.e you not aware that there is a devil whose business Jr'is to put people to sleep when the~ are at " Pra.ger?" (I, 29.) ¯ He also suggests the use of pictures of Our Lord and .the saints as a help durifig prayer. Spiritual reading as a help to prayer is highly commended. "You must never fail to find time to read a chapter'of some devout book; it is very .easy and most necessary, for, as in the morning you" speak to God when at prayer, so God speaks to you when you read. If you wish your prayer to be heard by God, listen to God when you read. Theie is no. les.s' happiness and profit in list~ning to God than there is in speaking to Him. Hence, I strongly recommend you not to fail to do so, as far as you can and, if possible, to spend a little time in prayer afterwards." (I, 105.) The most difficult mortification is proposed to the Sisters. "Mor-tification is. also necessary, Sisters, if you are to endure the little suf-ferings that are bound to crop up in the course of your' exercises, and. the complaint.s tba.t those poor people may make about you. When .~he gentlemen in charge of the wounded pay them a visit, they may perhaps hear complaints about you; the wounded may tell them that you have not looked after them, that you ldft them all alone from morning until go6dness knows what hour. Very well, Sisters, ~ll that must be endured without complaining; do not seek to justify 323 JEROME BREUNIG yourselves, oh! no, never!" (IIL~ 3.) "The last means of loving God continually, and for ever ismsuffefifi~:' ~o suffer sicknesses, if God sends them; to suffer calumny, if we are unjustly .attacked; to suffer interi.orly the trials God sends us to test our fidelity''~ (II, .105) A witness to much deterioration in religious life,-Vincent was opposed to the'~ very Shadow of la'~ity. "The third thing-which.- causes.us to lose the love of our "vocation is-~-I shall not say im-p6rity, 6h! no, never, b.y~G6d's grace h:is this sin, even been men-tioned-- but merely' a certain sort of unrestrain.ed liberty. On~ is quite, pleased to meet men; one. is not a bit disturbed at listening to them.; one replies to and.,.enters into conversation, with them, even with one's'confessors apart from confession; on'e passes th~ timd in .speaking of matter~ that are neither necessary nor urgent, but just tO keep up a conversatmn. (II, 89.) F rstDaugbter ot: Charity" Among the finest conferences are those which treat of. the lives the first members.' .Here is "an abbreviated account of the. "First ' Daughter.of Charity": "Margaret Nas'eau, of Suresnes, was the first Sister who had the happiness of pointing out the road to our other Sisters," both in the education of. young girls and in nursing the sick,° although she had no other ma~ter: or mistress but'God. She w~is a poor, uneducated cow-herd. Moved by a powerful inspiration from Heaven, the idea occu'rred to h'~r that she would instruct children and so she bought an alphabet but, as she cduld not go to school for in-struction, ~he went and._asked the parish priest or curate tJ3 tell her what were the first four letteks, of the, alphabet. On another occasion, she asked what¯were the next four, and so on for the rest. Afte/~, Wards, whilst she minde~l her cows, she studied her lesson . "She afterwards made up her ~mind to go from village to village instructing the young . It was xiery .remarkable that she und~rto01~ all this withotit money or any other help save that of Divine Provi-dence.': She often fasted for whole days, and dwelt in .places bf which nothing remained but the walls. The harddr she worked at t~eachiJ~g the children, the more th~ ~village folk laughed at and' calumniated her. Her zeal gre~w more ardent . She provided for the education of some young men who had not the means of doing so . These ybung men are now good priests. Finally, when she learned" that there was a Confraternity of Charit~y'ifl Paris for the sick poor, she went- there moved by a desire 324 November, 1952 BOOK REVIEWS to be employed in this work, and although, she ~reatly desired to cc;ntinue instructing the young, nevertheless she laid aside this char-itable. work to take'up that of nursing the sick poor, which she be-lieved to be more perfect and charitable. This was, indeed, the will of. God, for He intended her to be the first Daughter of Charity and servant of the sick poor in the city of Paris. She attracted .to the work other gikls whom she ha'd helped to detach from all earthly vanities and to embrace a devout life. " . She Was most patient and never complained. Everybody loved be~ because ther.el was nothing' in her that was not lovable. Her charity was ~o great that she died from sharing her bed with a poor plague-stricken girl.". (I, 71-3.) THE LIFE AND WORKS OF ST. VINCENT DE PAUL. By Pierre Coste, C.M. Translated by Joseph Leonard, C.M. Pages' in Volumes: I, xxiii -f- 608; II, xi-]- 500; III, xii -]- 563. Newman Press, Westmin-ster, Maryland, 19S2. Three-vohme set, $1S.00. .CONFERENCES OF ST. VINCENT DE PAUL TO THE SISTERS ,OF CHARITY. Edited by Pierre Coste, C.M. Translated by Joseph Leonard, C.M. P~acjes'in Volumes; I,xxii -1- 322; II, vi -~ 310; III, vl -f-, 317; IV, xi -b 340. Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland, 19S2. Four-volume set, $16.00. For comment on these volumes see the article, "A Monument to Monsieur Vincent," beginning on page 315. THE IGNATIAN WAY TO GOD. By Alexander Brou, S.J. Translated by William J. Young, S.J. Pp. xii-1- 156. The Bruce Publishing Com-pany, Milwaukee, 19S2. $3.7S. This'exposition of the spirituality of St. Ignatius was written by Father Brou mainly to disprove a charge that Ignatian spirituality is "rigid and excessively methodical." He begins his work with a briel/ study of St. Ignatius himself and his directives on' prayer to his young Society, and,goes on from there to show that the spirituality of St. Ignatius is in all essentials that of the Spiritual Exercises. The purpose of the latter is to prepare one to seek the will of God and, having~found it, to embrace it. And ¯prayer for St. Ignati6s has the. same end. Father Btou says: "Prayer, according to St. Ignatii~s, is. 325 BOOK REVIEWS~ ' . Revi~w'f~or Religious a'combination of personal activity and of surrender to the inspira-tionof God, of method and of liberty," all of Which points he provesfrom the-bobk of the Exercises. ~ "Intriguing chapters in the development are: "The Exercises and the Graces. of P'rayerl . Id'quod ; olo," in the' Spiritual Exercises:, "The Men"formed to great hdliness by the SpiritUal Exercises; and, finally, in an Appendix, "The Liturgical Life and'the Spirituality of St. Ignatius!' a refutation of the fancied opposition between Igna-tian Spirituality and the Litfirgical Movement. A shcond App~ndi~ contains the~ following." "A D.e.scription of the Spirituality of St.~ Ig-natius," "The Holy See and the Exercisesof St. Ignatius," "The Method of St. Ignatius j and those of Louis of Granada and of' St. Francis de Sales," which shows the striking similarity between ¯ them. Each chapter of this excellent treatment of Ignatian Spirituality is bulw~rkdd by abundant references to sources,, collected in a special section in,the back of the book so that anyone ~ho wishes to.inves-tigate the subject more.deeplyhas start'ing leads for doing so. ~ -~.' ~UBREY 3. REID, S.J. SAINT THERESE AND SUFFERING. By Abb& C~ombes. Translated from the French Edition by Msgr. P; E. Haileff. Pp. rift -k 130. P./.Kene-dy &iSo.ns, Ne~v York, 1951. $2.S0. '" '.'Shadow on the Earth" mea.nt human sufferings'in the'fine bo.ok of.the same title by Owen Francis .Dudley, And anyone .wh, o i~ s.uffering.or~ has suffered kno~3vs that suffering.i~ truly a heavy shadow coming betv~een God .and us and putting our faith in Him to. a.severe test. We think'somewhat as follows: "God is all powerful. and He:loves me: And my, needis ov.erwhelming. Why doesn't'He help me?" TO any and all .who are asking a question of this kind, we strongly recommend Saint Th3rb'se and Suffering by Abb~ Combes. The author undertakes to make known St. Th~r~se's attitude to-wards sufferin~ as revealed in her own words and acti.ons.' "Tl~e Carmelite Saint of Lisieux is shown to be a sufferer from her earliest days. From.her First Holy Communidn she begins to welcome ¯ suffering and even to'find mysterious happiness in it. From then on suffering meant to her the price, she had to ,pay, to love Our I~ord greatly and to win souls from hell for Him. ' . , But.finally Th~r~se-tells us that she;~ .no longer desires ~.uffe.rings,i 326 November;,.195?_ ¢, BOOK REVIEWS but ':'the perfect accomplishment of the will 6f God~in my so~l." However, the Will of God for her is further sufferings, .indeed her great~st cross of suffering, for from the beginning of April, 1896, tintil:her death on September 30, 1897, she endured almost without break or respite severe trials of her faith in God's Goodness, and in her belief in heaven: see~rfiingly all her prayers went unanswered and the ravages of the disease' which would bring about her death were causing her intense physical, pain. And so St. Th~r~se died, as did her Savior, on the cross--b~ut how quickly came the Shower of Roses which proved that Th~r~se was,"living h~r heaven in doing good on earth," as she had promised. ° Now what do. we learn from St. Th~r~se about suffering? One point we surely notice is thai suffering did not in any degree distort her character. Suffer greatly though she did, St. Th~r~se will always. be one of the most lovable, attractive, and "inspiring Of the saints. In her life We learn" again the old truth that suffering is often a most precious gift of God. It merits His love. It helps to save souls. It gives~im something very special for which He can reward "us in heaven. Then most important of all. for us, as for Th&~se, as even fo,r the Son of God Himself. the rock bottom reason for accepting suffer; ing and bearing it patiefitly is that'it is God's will for us. And this too is the very heart of Th&~se's "Little Wa~r to God" in all things to trust ourselves to God With complete confidence in His love for us.AUBREY ,J. REID, S.,J. 0 PROCEEDINGS OF .CONGRESS OF RELIGIOUS The proceedings of the Firs~ National CongreSS of Religious held at the Uni-versity of N6tre Dame, August~, 1952, are being published under the title. Relioidus, Community,Life in the United States, in two separate books, one for the men's ses-sion and "one for the Sisters' session. A cloth bound copy of- ehch book of approxi-mately 300 pages is being'sold for $2.50. If you ~,ish to participate in the lim-ited first, printing, which is promised before Christmas. order promptly from: ,~Th.e ¯ Paulist Press. 401 West 59th ,Street, NeW-York 19; New York. ! "327 BOOI~'NOTICE~ ReviOw [or.I~etiOious . ,- ",'- ' BOOK'N6TICES" Thd'Dominicafi Nuns of'Cdr-pus Christi Mbnast~ery, Menlo Park, . California deserve thanks for translating so competently the book" KINSHIPS by Reverend ~ntonin S~rti]langes, O.P. In it you will find 76 brief chapters well suited to" induce- deeper,~spiritual insight and enthusiasm. Several chapters, though their exact number varies, have been grouped beneath the following gefieral subjects: ~od's, Presence, His Providence, Union with God, Love for G0d,Lo;e for .Self, Lovd for Others, the Apostolate. Sometimes a single parggraph, occasion-a! ly¯ one brief sentence, will make you pause tb'pofider and to pray. (New York: McMullen Books Inc.,,195~. Pp. v + 234. $2.95.) BE YE ~RFECT by David L. Greenstock, ~s a treatment, both scientific and devotional, of Christian perfection and various aspects of it. Much is made, for instance, of th~ distinction between essen- Hal perfectiofi, that is, being in the state of grace, and accidental per: fection, ulterior degrees of grace and virtue. The former is possible to all and ought to Be attained by all; how much farther one~n~o depefids upo~ the particular providence, of God. Those wno'nave a fair knowledge of the spiritual life would not learn much by reading this work, and people who are looking for an inffoduction would' d0 well to seek it in other books. This one is confusing rather than informative, and it is more ap~ to leave one comforted and contented wlth'mediocrity in virtue than to stimulate one to great'efforts. (St. Louis;.B. Herder Book Co., ¯1.'952. Pp. 362. $5.00.) A capable author with an attractive subject should produce a ¯ g0°~l biography. This formula works effectively in Katherine Bur-ton's THE TABLE OF THE KING, the story of Emmelie. Tavernier Gan~elin, Foundress bf tl~e Sisters of Charity of Providence. The words that w~re later inscribed on the coat of arms of the first Provi-dence Asile, "The Charity of Christ urget,h us," were' almost miracu-lously operative in Emmeli~ from her ~arly childhood, whe~ she used to distribute alms for her mother. As a girl still in her teens, she had a room set apart in the house where she fed the poor at "the table of the King"mherself do!ng the cooking, serving, .and ~lish-washing. Th'rough sorrow over the successive loss of her husband andthree small children she learned fhe practical need of trust in DivineProvi-dence; and this¯ trust was deepened and broadened when the bare cup-board of her first Old Ladies' Home was repeatedly replenished in an unforeseen manner. It is not strange that God should choose such a 328 November, 1957. BOOK ANNoUNcEMENTS woman to found an ifistitute w_h.oie function is Charity and Whose principle of growth is unbounded trust in Providence. (New o~or, k: McMullen Books, Inc., 1952.) "Come North as ~oon as possible!" These were th'e words Bishop Midge to M6tber Xavier, foundress.of the Sisters of Charity of Leavenworth. COME NORTH is the exciting story of Ann Ross of Methodisi~ Parentage--her father was a harsh, unforgiving Method-ist preacher who disowned th~ daughte~r after she ran away to the convent. Sister Julia Gilmore, S.C.L., is to be congratulated for the very readable account of the spiritual 'and spatial odyssey of the ~oundress of her own flourishing~'ongregation. There0is hardly a dull page in the entire book, from .the account of the birth of Ann Ross in 1813 to that graphic account of the '.'aged itinerant revival-jsti' who drove up to the St. Mary Female Institute near Leaven-worth, Kansas. All unknown to himself, this circuit rifler had come to the Academy founded by his own sister who many years ago had run away from home. to enter a convent.The book ends thus: "Two Sisters walked with him to the c~metery~where he saw the plain white marker that reads: Mother Xavier.Ross Died April 2, 1895 Aged 82 years." '(New York: McMullen Books, Inc., 1951. Pp. 310. $3.50.) , , ' o Book ANNOUNCEMENTS [For the most part, these notices are.purely descriptive, based on acursory exam-ination' of the books listed.] ¯ AMERICA PRESS, 70 E. 45th St., New York, 17, New York. The State and Religious Education. By Robert C. Hartnett, 'and Anthony T. Bouscaren. On recent SupremL, Court decisions, D~: Conant, and the California tax exemption case: Pamphlet, $.25. BRUCE .PUBLISHING CO., 400 Broadway, Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. Life Begins With Eooe. By E.Boyd Barrett. "With a suc-cinctness that pierces: so.phisticotion and a depth of conviction that commands, the author summarizes this Imitation o: Christ for mod-erns: keep''your promises, keep your temper, keep oyour~mouth shut, keep you~r heart warm

Telegrams exchanged between Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles and the following people: private citizens, Military staff, the Workers Commission of the Nation's Graphic Shops, the Alliance of Agents of Publishing, Commanders of the Military Zone, Mayors, the Association of Garbanzo Growers, Consul Roberto Pesqueira, Governors, the National Bank of Agricultural Credit Ltd., Mexican Builders, S.S. de R.L. the Nogales Brewery, Presidents of Municipal Committees for the National Revolutionary Party, Senators, and the Secretary of the Interior B.A. Eduardo Vasconcelos. The aforementioned telegrams concern a request for employment in the telegraph, Rodolfo Elías Calles' stay in Tehaucán, Puebla, endoserment of Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles' work for the advance of the country, a request to help with the permanency in a job, information about Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles' health status, congratulatory greetings to Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles on his appointment as Secretary of Finance, requests for appointments, requesting recommendations for employment, a notice about the prosecution of a thief, confirming the shipping of the óbolo [economic contribution to the church], requesting a battalion for Zacatlán, Puebla, a request for supporting the exportation of beans, reply of acknowledgement on received messages, a request for papers submission to rice export, a request for money wire, confirming the substitution of Zone Commanders, information about the conformation of the Association of Rice Growers of Morelos, a request for budget advance to mining work, information of the social peace in Chiapas, shipping of donations to the school of Medicine, information about the victims in Tampico, a request to sign the contract with the Nogales Brewery, report on the ordinary meeting sessions in Tlaxcala, requesting Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles' pictures, information about a conflict between a contractor and the workers organization at the Drainage works in Veracruz, a request for data of the project of young children's protection, requesting money wire for Architect J. López Moctezuma, reports of appointments with Soledad González, Congratulatory greetings on Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles' birthday, election conflict in Veracruz and Campeche, shipping of medicines, José Mijares Palencia's report on his visit to Canada, report on the possibility to repair the railways between El Mante and the Guerrero Station, requesting if Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles knew about the matter related to the National Chamber of Agriculture from the Comarca Lagunera, information about the price of gauze, information about the cyclone damages in Querétaro, shipping of a pair of glasses to Gen. Plutarco Elías Calles, shipping of train passes to victims of natural disasters, report about the material and personal damages of the victims in Tampico. / Telegramas entre el Gral. PEC, particulares, Militares, Comisión de Obreros de los Talleres Gráficos de la Nación, Alianza de Agentes de Publicaciones, Comandantes de Zona Militar, Presidentes Municipales, Asociación Productores de Garbanzo, Cónsul Roberto Pesqueira, Gobernadores, Banco Nacional de Crédito Agrícola, S.A.; Constructores Mexicanos, S.C. de R.L.; Cervecería Nogales, Presidentes de Comités Municipales del Partido Nacional Revolucionario, Senadores y Secretario de Gobernación Lic. Eduardo Vasconcelos, acerca de: solicitud de empleado de Telégrafos, estadía de Rodolfo Elías Calles en Tehuacán, Pue., adhesiones por labor realizada por el Gral. PEC en favor del país, solicitud de ayuda para permanencia en empleo, reportes sobre estado de salud del Gral. PEC, felicitaciones por nombramiento de Secretario de Hacienda del Gral. PEC, solicitudes de audiencia, solicitudes de recomendación para empleo, notificación de ajusticiamiento de ratero, notificación de envío de óbolo, solicitud de batallón para Zacatlán, Pue.; solicitud de ayuda para exportación de frijol, respuestas de enterado a mensajes anteriores, solicitud de envío de documentación para exportación de arroz, solicitud de envío de fondos, notificación de sustitución de comandantes de zona, informes sobre constitución de Asociación Arrocera de Morelos, solicitud de anticipo de dinero para participación en minería, informe sobre paz social en Chiapas, envío de donativos para la Escuela de Medicina, notificación sobre damnificados en Tampico, solicitud de ayuda para firma de contrato con Cervecería Nogales, informe sobre celebración de sesiones ordinarias en Tlaxcala, solicitud de fotografías del Gral. PEC, informes sobre conflicto surgido entre contratista y organización obrera por obras de drenaje en Veracruz, solicitud de datos para proyecto protección infancia, solicitud de envío de dinero al Arq. J. López Moctezuma, informes de audiencia con Soledad González, felicitaciones por onomástico del Gral. PEC, conflicto electoral en Veracruz y Campeche, envío de medicinas, informe de José Mijares Palencia sobre visita a Canadá, informe sobre la posibilidad de reparación de vías entre el Mante y Estación Guerrero, solicitud de informe sobre si el Gral. PEC se enteró de asunto de la Cámara Agrícola Nacional de la Comarca Lagunera, informe sobre precio de gasa, informe sobre desastres por ciclón en Querétaro, envío de anteojos al Gral. PEC, envío de pasajes de ferrocarril a damnificados, informe sobre condiciones materiales y humanas de los damnificados en Tampico.

On December 4, Venezuelan voters reportedly approved a referendum to annex Essequibo, a Florida-sized portion of neighboring Guyana. On December 5, president Nicolas Maduro ordered his government to "immediately" explore and exploit the oil, gas and mines in the disputed region. But by December 15, a military conflict between the two countries had ostensibly been avoided, for now. So what happened?The status of EssequiboThe modern history of the Essequibo dispute began in 1814, when Great Britain assumed control of the future British Guyana (including Essequibo) via a treaty with the Dutch. For the rest of the century, Britain and the newly independent Venezuelan state filed competing claims to the region, largely either in favor of or against the Schomburgk line, a territorial boundary drawn in service of the British. Once gold was discovered there, these claims became increasingly aggressive, and the parties agreed to submit to an international tribunal (with the United States representing Venezuela).The 1899 tribunal awarded British Guyana more than 90% of the territory and every gold mine. Venezuela criticized the ruling, and many Venezuelans believe the decision was the result of collusion between the Russian and British delegations. Earlier this year, Maduro said, "Our [Essequibo] has been de facto occupied by the British Empire and its heirs and they have destroyed the area."Over the years, the intensity of the dispute has ebbed and flowed. In 1958, Venezuelan dictator Marcos Perez Jimenez planned an invasion of Essequibo before he was ultimately overthrown, and Venezuela continued to insist into the 1960s that the 1899 tribunal's ruling was null and void (owing to the alleged collusion). In 1966, Guyana was granted its independence, shortly after that year's Geneva Agreement between its colonial ruler and Venezuela. This accord is essentially a temporary agreement to come to a permanent solution, stating that, should the two parties fail to resolve the border dispute peacefully, "they shall refer the decision as to the means of settlement to an appropriate international organ upon which they both agree or, failing agreement on this point, to the secretary-general of the United Nations." It is likewise important to note that while the document recognizes Venezuela's position that the 1899 ruling was null and void, it does not endorse it, and therefore the territorial status quo remains.In the wake of the mid-2010s discovery of massive offshore oil deposits in Guyanese waters, the Maduro regime has pursued a revanchist line. In addition to the referendum, his government has instructed the state oil company PDVSA to begin planning the extraction of oil in Essequibo, directed the legislature to nullify offshore oil contracts granted by Guyana, and increased its military presence along the disputed border.In response, Guyana has fortified security ties with Brazil and the United States. The two parties are closer to conflict than they have been in years.Reasons for skepticismThe specter of Essequibo looms large in Venezuela. The region is marked in red in school textbooks as the "zone in reclamation," and Venezuela's claims resonate with much of the country's population. Even the opposition primary's victor, Maria Corina Machado, posted, "We Venezuelans know that Essequibo belongs to Venezuela and we are determined to defend it," while attacking the Maduro government for its insufficient devotion to the cause of annexing Essequibo.
Yet there are sound reasons to believe a full-scale invasion is not imminent. The chief indication is the timing of this latest escalation. The referendum was announced prior to the opposition primary. The opposition, though divided on whether the referendum should occur (an alternative, supported by Guyana's President Irfaan Ali and some of the Venezuelan opposition, was to let the claim go before the International Court of Justice, where the UN said it should go), overwhelmingly supports the Venezuelan claim to Essequibo. With a general election on the docket in 2024 and an unpopular Maduro presiding over precarious economic conditions, Maduro was likely using this crisis to rally nationalists around his platform, divide the opposition, and brand them as puppets of foreign interests.
Furthermore, Maduro might not want to mess with what appears to be an improved reputational standing in the region. Despite what many see as Washington's failed "maximum pressure" regime change campaign, governments are increasingly more willing to engage with Venezuela. In Brazil (which shares a border with both Guyana and Venezuela), President Lula da Silva supported Caracas's aspiration to join the BRICS grouping.
Meanwhile, Colombian President Gustavo Petro hosted negotiations to resolve the Venezuelan political crisis and partnered with Maduro to achieve ceasefires with Colombia's armed groups. Even the United States forged an agreement with Venezuela to lift some oil sanctions in return for political concessions, and Washington is permitting Chevron to again pump Venezuelan oil. Venezuela is no longer the pariah it was, and Maduro has survived several overlapping challenges to his rule. It would not stand to reason that he would jeopardize his standing at home and abroad over Guyana.
At the same time, many of the governments willing to engage with Venezuela have a stake in avoiding war. Prodding from Brazil, Colombia, and Caribbean states encouraged both parties to come to the table for negotiations in St. Vincent on December 14, which produced a mutual agreement not to use force, a commitment to establishing a joint commission to address Essequibo-related issues, and a framework for future negotiations in Brazil. While not a permanent solution, this could defuse tensions for a period of time.
Brazil's interests in regional integration and UN Security Council permanent member status have guided its stance, which has combined military deployments and calls for negotiations in response to Maduro's calls to annex the disputed territory. The Caribbean Community has backed Guyana despite receiving energy subsidies from Venezuela for years. Finally, China, which has taken a neutral position on the dispute and has strong relations with both countries, has a vested interest in preventing a war, given its national oil company's 25 percent stake in the ExxonMobil-led consortium controlling the Stabroek oil fields, located just offshore of Essequibo.
Then there is the question of capability. Venezuela's military would initially be better equipped than Guyana's, with more than 100,000 men, 600 armored vehicles, 200 main battle tanks, 100 combat capable planes, and dozens of helicopters, in comparison to Guyana's 4,000-5,000 active personnel. However, the Venezuelan military suffers from corruption, mismanagement, and desertions, which have hindered its performance. Namely, the tanks Venezuela sent to the Colombian border during a standoff in 2008 failed to make a difference, as poor maintenance rendered many of their gun sights inoperable. Lack of maintenance and parts reportedly have left much of their air force currently grounded.Even if Maduro were able to garner the requisite soldiers, a Venezuelan incursion would have to navigate jungles and swampland, as well as overcome the inherent advantage of the defense. There are no roads from Venezuela into Essequibo (rendering even well-maintained tanks useless), and sustaining a military presence in the country would prove a challenge given the terrain and the military's state of disrepair.Role of the United StatesSo far, U.S. officials "have yet to see the sort of activity along the border they would expect if Maduro intended to launch an imminent, full-scale invasion." But should one occur, Washington should not intervene militarily. An American intervention would lend credence to Venezuelan propaganda that claims the conflict is the product of Western imperialists and ExxonMobil. It could also, as was the case in Libya, morph into a regime change campaign in a country where Washington's recent track record of picking winners and losers is abysmal.
Finally, there are few American interests at stake in the jungle of Guyana, so sending forces to the region would endanger them for little geopolitical gain.While a Venezuelan invasion would be a tragedy for the people of Guyana, it is also an unlikely outcome in the near term, as well as one that should not be countered by the United States joining the war.

"Kto grze rozumie, może śmiele sadzić,A kto nie świadom, lepiej się poradzić.Tablica naprzód malowana będzie,Tę pól sześćdziesiąt i cztery zasiędzie.Pola się czarne z białymi mieszają,Te się owymi wzajem przesadzają.W tym placu wojska położą się obie,A po dwu rzędu wezmą przeciw sobie." "Der Kenner möge kühn am Spieltisch sitzen,Der Laie aber soll die Ohren spitzen.Zuerst das Spielbrett: Scheckig aufgebracht,Sind vierundsechzig Felder, acht mal acht.Die schwarzen Felder mühn sich mit den weißen,Gleichfarbne fremde Paare zu zerreißen. Und diesen Platz beziehen Armeen,Die sich in Doppelreihen entgegenstehn."[1]Als der große polnische Dichter Jan Kochanowski im 16. Jahrhundert diese Zeilen für sein Werk "Das Schachspiel" (Szachy) dichtete, ahnte er sicherlich nicht, dass gut 450 Jahre später einer seiner Landsmänner seine Armeen auf den 64 Feldern so gut führen würde, dass er um die Krone des Schachs mitspielen kann. Jan-Krzysztof Duda, 23 Jahre jung, Schachgroßmeister aus Wieliczka im Süden Polens, gelang es jedoch nicht nur, im vergangenen Jahr den FIDE World Cup zu gewinnen, ein vom Weltschachverband FIDE organisiertes und äußerst hochkarätig besetztes Turnier. Er sicherte sich durch diesen Erfolg auch als erster Pole überhaupt einen Platz im Kandidatenturnier 2022, dem Wettkampf, bei dem der Herausforderer des aktuellen Weltmeisters, Magnus Carlsen, ermittelt wird. Ebenjenen Carlsen konnte Duda im Halbfinale des World Cups besiegen und erntete dafür viel Bewunderung in der Schachwelt. Seitdem genießt er auch in Polen große Popularität, bekam einen Orden von Staatspräsident Andrzej Duda verliehen und wurde zum Sportler des Jahres 2021 gewählt. Jan-Krzysztof Duda, 2018Der Erfolg Dudas markiert den bisher größten Erfolg des polnischen Schachs seit dem Zweiten Weltkrieg, das nach vielen Jahren wieder in der Weltspitze angekommen ist. Dabei liegt die Betonung bewusst auf 'wieder', denn Polen gehörte in den Jahren vor dem Zweiten Weltkrieg zu den stärksten Schachnationen der Welt. Im Jahre 1930 gewann die polnische "Bombenmannschaft", wie sie von der deutschen Presse bezeichnet wurde, die Schacholympiade in Hamburg und ließ große Schachnationen wie Ungarn, Deutschland oder Österreich hinter sich. Nur 15 Jahre später, am Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs, lag das polnische Schach am Boden, seine Strukturen durch die deutsche Besatzung zerstört, seine besten Köpfe entweder ermordet oder aus Polen vertrieben. Das Schachspiel, das aus Indien stammt, fand im frühen Mittelalter seinen Weg über die Iberische Halbinsel sowie Russland nach Europa. In Deutschland ist es bereits im 11. Jahrhundert bekannt und wird z.B. schon im Versepos Ruodlieb erwähnt.[2] Für Polen nimmt man an, dass Schach in der Regierungszeit von Bolesław III. Krzywousty seinen Weg ins Land fand.[3]Im 19. Jahrhundert fand Schach seinen Weg vom Adel in die bürgerliche Gesellschaft. Es etablierte sich in den Kaffeehäusern Wiens, Londons oder Berlins, in denen Schach, nicht selten um Geld, gespielt und weiterentwickelt wurde. Aus diesem "Kaffeehausschach" geht das organisierte Schach hervor. In Deutschland wurden in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jahrhunderts die ersten Vereine gegründet, in Polen geschah dies einige Jahrzehnte später. Manche der damals gegründeten Vereine bestehen bis heute, etwa die Berliner Schachgesellschaft 1827 Eckbauer, der Hamburger Schachklub von 1830 oder der Münchener Schachklub 1836. 1876 wurde im damals zu Preußen gehörenden Posen der erste Schachklub auf heute polnischem Boden gegründet. Bis zum Ende des Jahrhunderts folgten noch Krakau, Lemberg und Warschau. Wie groß und wichtig ein Verein war, hing oft von einem Meister ab, der sich dort niedergelassen hatte. In Posen war dieser Meister Johann Hermann Zukertort, der hier in den 1860er Jahren ein reges Schachleben organisierte. Zukertort, in Lublin geboren, war am Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts einer der stärksten Schachspieler. Er lebte in Polen, Deutschland und Großbritannien und spielte 1886 sogar ein WM-Match, das er jedoch verlor.[4] In Deutschland war Breslau neben Berlin das zweite große schachliche Zentrum, was an der Person Adolf Anderssen lag. Anderssen, ein Lehrer aus Breslau, war der wohl beste Schachspieler des 19. Jahrhunderts. Er gilt als der erste inoffizielle Weltmeister, da es damals noch keine organisierten WM-Kämpfe gab, er aber das erste internationale Schachturnier der Geschichte 1851 in London gewinnen konnte. Anderssen spielte während dieses Turniers eine der großartigsten Partien der Schachgeschichte, die heute als "Unsterbliche Partie" bekannt ist. Neben seiner aktiven Karriere war ihm die Gründung eines gesamtdeutschen Schachbundes ein großes Anliegen, was 1877 schließlich gelang. Der Deutsche Schachbund besteht bis heute. Während sich polnische und deutsche Schachmeister im 19. Jahrhundert in ihrer Spielstärke nicht sonderlich unterschieden, war Schach in Deutschland weitaus stärker organisiert als in Polen. Der Grund dafür lag in der territorialen Integrität Deutschlands, während es zur gleichen Zeit aufgrund der Teilungen Polens gar keinen eigenen Staat gab. So blieb Schach in Polen lange Zeit auf Kaffeehäuser und einzelne Vereine beschränkt, während sich in Deutschland ein lebendiges Vereinsleben mit zahlreichen Mitgliedern entwickelte.[5]Zu Beginn des 20. Jahrhunderts florierte Schach in Deutschland. Die Vereine und Mitgliederzahlen wuchsen und Meister wie Fritz Sämisch, Kurt Richter oder Siegbert Tarrasch errangen Erfolge auf internationaler Ebene.[6] Über allen thronte in diesen Jahrzehnten Emanuel Lasker, Deutschlands bislang einziger Schachweltmeister. Diesen Titel hielt er jedoch länger als jeder andere in der Geschichte, nämlich stolze 27 Jahre (1894-1921). Lasker wurde 1868 in Berlinchen in der Mark Brandenburg geboren, das heute die Kleinstadt Barlinek in Polen ist. Auch für ihn begann seine Schachlaufbahn in einem Berliner Kaffeehaus, von wo aus er seinen Siegeszug in die Schachwelt startete. Doch im Zuge der Machtergreifung der Nationalsozialisten verließ er Deutschland und verbrachte die Jahre bis zu seinem Tod 1941 im Ausland.[7] Während der nationalsozialistischen Herrschaft durchlebte das Schach in Deutschland eine sehr schwierige Zeit. Es wurde zum Instrument nationalsozialistischer Ideologie umfunktioniert, wurde für Kriegspropaganda benutzt und sollte zur Erziehung einer sogenannten "Volksgemeinschaft" dienen. Dazu wurde der Großdeutsche Schachbund gegründet und der bis dato agierende Deutsche Schachbund diesem untergeordnet. Sogleich begann die Unterdrückung jüdischer Schachspieler. Auch während des Zweiten Weltkrieges wurde Schach zu Propagandazwecken genutzt, besonders von Hans Frank, der im von ihm geleiteten Generalgouvernement zwischen 1940 und 1944 internationale Schachturniere veranstaltete.[8]In Polen, das nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg seine Unabhängigkeit wiedererlangt hatte, blühte das Schachspiel auf und erlebte bis 1939 die erfolgreichste Phase in seiner Geschichte. Dabei kam ihm zugute, dass es mit Kazimierz Sosnkowski, einem ranghohen General, und Józef Piłsudski, Marschall und Ikone der polnischen Unabhängigkeit, zwei Unterstützer auf oberster Staatsebene für sich gewinnen konnte. Besonders Piłsudski galt als großer Schachenthusiast und setzte sich sehr für die Entwicklung des Schachs in Polen ein.[9] Darüber hinaus betrat im 20. Jahrhundert eine Reihe großer polnischer Schachspieler die Bühne, allen voran Akiba Rubinstein. Dieser gilt als der größte Schachspieler Polens. Rubinstein wurde 1882 in der kleinen Stadt Stawiski im heutigen nordöstlichen Polen in eine arme jüdische Familie geboren. Sein Siegeszug in die höchsten Höhen des Schachs begann im Schachklub von Lodz, wo er mit 19 Jahren hingezogen war. Seine Erfolge stellten 1914 ein WM-Match Lasker-Rubinstein in Aussicht, das jedoch aufgrund des Ausbruchs des Ersten Weltkrieges nicht stattfinden konnte.[10] Akiba Rubinstein (rechts) während einer Partie mit Efim Bogoljubov, 1925Polen war in den Jahrzehnten vor dem Zweiten Weltkrieg ein Powerhouse des Schachs und konnte 1930 seine bis dato größte Erfolge in seiner Schachgeschichte einfahren. Die goldene Generation um Akiba Rubinstein, Ksawery Tartakower, Dawid Przepiórka, Kazimierz Makarczyk und Paulin Frydman gewann die 3. Schacholympiade, die in Hamburg ausgetragen wurde. Deutschland belegte in diesem Turnier den dritten Rang. Die Schacholympiade ist der bedeutendste Mannschaftswettbewerb im Schach, an der alle namhaften Meister teilnehmen. Polens von Rubinstein angeführtes Team wurde aufgrund seiner starken Leistung von der deutschen Presse als "Bombenmannschaft" bezeichnet. Nur fünf Jahre später durfte Polen seine erste und bisher einzige Schacholympiade ausrichten, die in Warschau mit Teilnehmerrekord ausgetragen wurde.[11] Urkunde für den Krakauer Schachspieler Bogdan Śliwazum Sieg eines Turniers, das während der deutschenBesatzung ausgetragen wurdeMit dem deutschen Einmarsch in Polen 1939 fand die goldene Zeit des polnischen Schachs ihr jähes Ende. Der Kriegsbeginn unterbrach die laufende Schacholympiade in Buenos Aires, was einigen polnischen Schachspielern das Leben rettete, da sie nach der Olympiade nicht nach Polen zurückkehrten. Dies bedeutete jedoch einen herben Verlust für das polnische Schach, das dadurch Spieler wie etwa Mieczysław Najdorf verlor, der als Mosze Mendel Najdorf in Polen geboren worden war und nach dem Krieg als Miguel Najdorf viele Partien für Argentinien ausfocht.[12] In Polen kam das Schach fast komplett zum Erliegen, obwohl es vereinzelte geheime Turniere während der Besatzung gab. Das Schlimmste jedoch war der Verlust etlicher Meister und Funktionäre, die während der Nazi-Herrschaft über Polen oder im Holocaust ums Leben kamen. Exemplarisch dafür steht das tragische Schicksal von Dawid Przepiórka, dem Goldmedaillengewinner von 1930, der 1940 während der Massenerschießungen von Palmiry getötet wurde.[13] Mieczysław (Miguel) NajdorfWie schlimm das polnische Schach während der deutschen Besatzung gelitten hatte, zeigt sich auch in der Zeit, die Polen nach dem Krieg gebraucht hat, um im Schach wieder an die Weltspitze zu kommen. Erst in den letzten Jahren ist nach langen Jahren der Jugend- und Aufbauarbeit eine neue große polnische Schachgeneration im Anmarsch, welche von Jan-Krzysztof Duda angeführt wird. In der Bundesrepublik sowie in der DDR war Schach auch nach dem Krieg populär und verbreitet. Großmeister wie Wolfgang Unzicker, Robert Hübner oder Wolfgang Uhlmann spielten auf oberstem Niveau. Aktuell fehlt es in Deutschland an einem absoluten Spitzenspieler. Doch mit dem erst 17-jährigen Vincent Keymer gibt es auch hier ein junges Talent mit Chancen, nach ganz oben zu kommen. Im Frauenschach sind Polen und Deutschland gleich stark einzuschätzen und zählen zur erweiterten Weltspitze.Im Allgemeinen erlebt Schach gerade einen Boom und erlebt besonders seit Beginn der Pandemie großen Zulauf. Es bleibt für die Zukunft nur zu hoffen, dass sich das königliche Spiel in Polen und Deutschland weiter ausbreiten und viele weitere Menschen in seinen Bann ziehen wird. Dann könnte gelten, was Jan Kochanowski schon im 16. Jahrhundert vorgeschwebt hatte: "Wszakoż ją przedsię radzi przeczytali, A dla ćwiczenia zawżdy szachy grali." "Sogleich sitzt jeder unter seinem Dach An einen Tisch und spielt zur Übung Schach[.]"[14]
[1] Jan Kochanowski: Das Schachspiel. Szachy. Aus dem Polnischen von Thomas Daiber. Berlin 2011, S. 12f.


[2] Ruodlieb wurde in der ersten Hälfte des 11. Jahrhunderts auf Latein vom Mönch Fruomund vom Tegernsee verfasst. Vgl.: Jerzy Giżycki: Z Szachami przez Wieki i Kraje. Warszawa 1984, S. 19.


[3] Ebenda. S. 29.


[4] Vgl. Władysław Litmanowicz; Jerzy Giżycki: Schachy od A do Z. N-Z. Warszawa 1987, S. 1363ff.


[5] Zu den Schachklubs Posen und Warschau siehe: Andrzej Kwilecki: Szachy w Poznaniu. Poznań 1990; Tadeusz Wolsza: Od "Honoratki" do Wierzbowej. Życie szachowe w Warszawie w latach 1829-1939. Warszawa 2020; Zu Adolf Anderssen und dem Deutschen Schachbund, siehe: Alfred Die: Schach in Deutschland. Festbuch aus Anlaß des hundertjährigen Bestehens des Deutschen Schachbundes e.V. 1877-1977. Düsseldorf 1977.


[6] Zu Tarrasch, der auch aus Breslau stammt vgl.: Diel 1977, S. 54-57.


[7] Zu Emanuel Lasker vgl. Diel 1977, S. 58-62.


[8] Zum Schach im Dritten Reich vgl.: Bernadette Edtmaier: Schach im "Dritten Reich", in: Rainer Buland (u.a., Hrsg.): Das Gästebuch der Schachweltmeisterschaft 1934 in Deutschland. Wien 2014.


[9] Vgl. Wolsza 2020, S. 176f.


[10] Zu Akiba Rubinstein vgl.: Litmanowicz, Giżycki 1987, S. 1045-1048; Stefan Gawlikowski: Arcymistrzowie. Złota era polskich szachów. Warszawa 2016, S. 27-49.


[11] Zur Schacholympiade 1930 vgl.: Gawlikowski 2016, S. 17-26; Zur Olympiade 1930 und weiteren Olympiaden dieser Zeit vgl: Stanisław Gawlikowski: Olimpady Szachowe 1924-1974. Warszawa 1978.


[12] Zu Najdorf vgl. Gawlikowski 2016, S. 135-150.


[13] Zu Przepiórka vgl. Gawlikowski 2016, S. 75-105; zu Schachspielern, die Opfer des Holocaust wurden vgl. ebd. S. 179-184.


[14] Kochanowski 2011, S. 14f.

Le courant l'archidiocèse orthodoxe d'Accra, au Ghana, appartient au patriarcat orthodoxe grec d'Alexandrie et de toute l'Afrique. Les premières paroisses ghanéennes de cet archidiocèse ouest-africain trouvent leur origine à une église indépendante africaine (AIC) commencée dans la colonie britannique de la Côte de l'Or en 1932. Connue sous le nom d'Église universelle africaine (ou Église d'Ebibirpim), elle a été fondée par un évêque local non canonique du nom de Kwamin Ntsetse Bresi-Ando (1884-1970). Extrêmement motivé pour assurer l'émancipation complète de l'Africain dans tous les domaines de la vie, l'évêque a lancé un programme à multiples facettes. Partout sur la Côte de l'Or et les terres voisines d'Asante, il a fondé 67 églises, 21 écoles, un séminaire et une énorme entreprise commerciale d'exportation de cacao dans l'espace de 10 ans - de 1932 à 1942. Le thème de l'émancipation de son église, sa politique d'africanisation et son programme de rapatriement afro-américain « Back-to-Africa » a attiré de nombreux habitants, ce qui en fait un mouvement à croissance rapide. L'échec de son aspect rapatriement et son incapacité d'assurer l'émancipation politique a été remplacée par une vision spiritualisée de l'indépendance lorsque Bresi-Ando a été consacré comme « patriarche catholique orthodoxe autocéphale » à Londres en 1935 par un episcopus vagans appartenant à la succession Vilatte du (faux) mouvement « vieux catholique » qui prétendait avoir des liens avec les jacobites indiennes du patriarcat syriaque oriental orthodoxe d'Antioche. Croyant qu'il avait découvert la véritable ancienne Église orthodoxe, Bresi-Ando se considérait comme un « patriarche » pour tous les Africains et il a changé le nom de son église à l'Église universelle africaine (orthodoxe-catholique). Adoptant l'ancienne polémique ecclésiastique monophysite, il se considérait comme libéré du christianisme colonial européen occidental. Pas reconnu par l'Église Orthodoxe grecque (« Eastern Orthodox ») ou par les orthodoxes orientaux (« Coptic, Jacobite ») comme canoniques, après sa mort, l'église orpheline de Bresi-Ando a été reçue dans le patriarcat orthodoxe grec d'Alexandrie en 1982, devenant ainsi la fondation du courant l'archidiocèse d'Accra. La question de recherche de cette thèse cherche à déterminer s'il est possible de trouver une perspective globale qui unifierait tous les facteurs apparemment disparates de la vie compliquée de cet homme complexe. Bresi-Ando avait-il une vision sous-jacente qui a guidé toutes les différentes étapes et transitions de sa vie, qu'elles soient théologiques, ecclésiologiques, commerciales, politiques, sociales, culturelles ou éducatives? L'hypothèse est que le panafricanisme était sa vision directrice. C'est la « clé » pour comprendre l'évêque, ses objectifs, ses rêves, ses actions et comment tout cela a aidé à préparer providentiellement le terrain pour l'avenir de l'église orthodoxe grec dans le Ghana moderne. Afin de tester cette hypothèse, un arrière-plan historique et ecclésiastique complet en sept niveaux est établi sur lequel est posée la biographie complète de l'évêque. Bresi-Ando suit l'enseignement et les exemples de plusieurs grands panafricanistes: Edward Blyden, W. E. B. Du Bois, Casely Hayford, Marcus Garvey et Laura Kofey. On fait valoir que Bresi-Ando était un panafricaniste qui a été constamment guidé par les principes panafricains parce que des preuves ont été fournies montrant comment il a synthétisé l'ensemble de divers concepts panafricains dans cinq catégories spécifiques: socioculturel, religieux, éducatif, commercial et politique. Bresi-Ando a utilisé les idéaux panafricains tels que ceux de « la race noire », de « l'unification, l'autonomisation, la libération », de « l'internationalisme noir », des « spectacles éthiopiens », de « l'africanisation », de « l'éthiopianisme », « les églises indépendantes africaines », de « l'émancipation » dans toutes les domaines de la vie, « le rapatriement », du « commerce appartenant aux noirs » et la synthèse d'une dénomination religieuse noire avec « l'internationalisme noir » et l'idéologie du « rapatriement ». La conclusion de cette thèse est que Bresi-Ando avait une vision panafricaine dans toutes ses actions de vie. Donc, les travaux préparatoires qui ont amené à la fondation de l'actuel archidiocèse orthodoxe grec d'Accra était en grande partie le résultat de la motivation panafricaniste d'un homme d'église africaine qui voulait à la fois une expression indépendante et africaine du christianisme authentique de l'Église primitive dans son pays d'origine. ; Abstract : The modern-day Orthodox Archdiocese of Accra, Ghana, belongs to the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria and All Africa. The first Ghanaian parishes within this West African archdiocese trace their origin to an African independent church (AIC) begun in the British Crown Colony of the Gold Coast in 1932. Known as the African Universal Church (or Ebibirpim Church), it was started by a local uncanonical bishop named Kwamin Ntsetse Bresi-Ando (1884- 1970). Extremely motivated to provide complete emancipation for the African in every area of life, the bishop launched a multi-faceted program. All across the Gold Coast and the neighboring Asante lands he started 67 churches, 21 schools, a seminary, and a huge cocoa-exporting commercial enterprise within a period of 10 years—from 1932 to 1942. His church's emancipation theme, its Africanization policy, and its Afro-American "Back-to-Africa" repatriation program attracted many locals, making it a fast-growing movement. The failure of its repatriation aspect and its inability to secure political emancipation was replaced with a spiritualized vision of independence when Bresi-Ando was consecrated as an "autocephalous Orthodox Catholic Patriarch" in London in 1935 by an episcopus vagans belonging to the Vilatte succession of the (fake) "Old Catholic" movement who claimed connection to the Indian Jacobites of the Oriental Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch. Believing that he had discovered the true ancient Orthodox Church, Bresi-Ando declared himself to be a "Patriarch" for all Africans and he changed the name of his AIC to the African Universal (Orthodox-Catholic) Church. Adopting the ancient Monophysite ecclesiastical polemic, he considered himself to be liberated from Western colonial European Christianity. Not recognized by either the Orientals or the Eastern Orthodox as canonical, after his death Bresi-Ando's orphaned "Orthodox Catholic" church was received into the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria in 1982, becoming the foundation for the presentday Archdiocese of Accra. The research question of this thesis seeks to determine if a global perspective can be found that would unify all the seemingly disparate factors of the intricate life of this complex man. Did Bresi-Ando have an underlying vision that guided all of his different steps and transitions in life, whether they were theological, ecclesiological, commercial, political, social, cultural, or educational? The hypothesis is that Pan-Africanism was his guiding vision. It is the "key" to understand the bishop, his goals, his dreams, his actions, and how all of these providentially helped prepare the ground for the future Eastern Orthodox Church in modern-day Ghana. In order to test the hypothesis, a complete seven-layered historical and ecclesiastical background is established, over which is laid the full biography of the bishop. Bresi-Ando is seen following the teaching and examples of several great Pan-Africanists: Edward Blyden, W. E. B. Du Bois, Casely Hayford, Marcus Garvey, and Laura Kofey. It is argued that Bresi-Ando was a Pan-Africanist who was consistently guided by Pan-African principles because evidence is provided showing how he synthesized together various Pan-African concepts within five specific categories: socio-cultural, religious, educational, commercial, and political. Bresi-Ando utilized the Pan-African ideals of "blackness", "unification, empowerment, liberation," "black internationalism," "Ethiopian spectacles," "Africanization", "Ethiopianism", "African Independent Churches," "Emancipation" in all areas of life, "repatriation", "black-owned commerce," and the synthesis of a black religious denomination with "black internationalism" and "repatriation" ideology. The thesis research conclusion is that episcopus vagans "Patriarch" BresiAndo had a Pan-Africanist determination in all his life actions. Therefore, the preparatory groundwork that led to the founding of the present-day Eastern Orthodox Archdiocese of Accra was largely the result of the Pan-Africanist motivation of an African churchman who wanted both an independent and African expression of authentic Early Church Christianity in his homeland.

Early childhood development (PAUD) is a fundamental investment that is included in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Previous research has shown that ECD investment in Indonesia, and its financial governance remains a challenging issue. Through a qualitative approach to a case study method design, this study aims to examine the state of PAUD financial management in Panggungharjo Village, Yogyakarta. This study uses in-depth interviews and desk research as data collection techniques. The instrument was developed from the SABER-ECD World Bank Assessment and ECD Financial Profiling Tools. The results showed that PAUD financial management in established villages had innovative financing, budget management and institutional development resulted in a blueprint for managing PAUD financing in other villages in Indonesia. Important policy objectives in all aspects, including the legal framework, cross-sectoral coordination, program coverage, coverage, equity, data availability, quality standards, and compliance with standards, the vision of financing early childhood development will be more achievable for future research. Keywords:Early Childhood, Financial Governance, Village References: Alatas, H., Brinkman, S., Chang, M. C., Hadiyati, T., Hartono, D., Hasan, A., Hyson, M., Jung, H., Kinnell, A., Pradhan, M., & Roesli, R. (2013). Early childhood education and development services in Indonesia. In Education in Indonesia (pp. 82–108). Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. Ambang.Yudanto. (2019). Analisis Kepemimpinan Transformasional Kepala Desa dalam Pengelolaan Badan Usaha Milik Desa: Studi Kasus Bumdes Panggung Lestari, Bantul [Analysis of Village Head Transformational Leadership in Village Owned Enterprise Management: A Case Study of Bumdes Panggung Lestari, Bantul]. 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(2013). Early childhood education and development in poor villages of Indonesia: Strong foundations, later success. World Bank. Istiqomah, L. (2016). Tiga Pilar Kebijakan Pemerintah dalam Pembinaan PAUD. Golden Age [Three Pillars of Government Policy in Early Childhood Education. Golden Age]: Jurnal Ilmiah Tumbuh Kembang Anak Usia Dini. Jeffrey, D. S., & Guido, S. T. (2014). Financing Sustainable Development: Implementing the SDGs through Effective Investment Strategies and Partnerships. Sustainable Development Solutions Network. Juniar, T. (n.d.). Efektivitas Program Kartu Jakarta Pintar (KIP) Dan Manfaatnya Dalam Meningkatkan Kesejahteraan Sosial Di SDN Bintaro 08 Pagi Jakarta Selatan [The Effectiveness of the Jakarta Smart Card (KIP) Program and Its Benefits in Improving Social Welfare at SDN Bintaro 08 Pagi South Jakarta]. Repository.Uinjkt.Ac.Id. Klees, S. J., Ginsburg, M., Anwar, H., Robbins, M. B., Bloom, H., Busacca, C., Corwith, A., Decoster, B., Fiore, A., Gasior, S., Le, H. M., Primo, L. H., & Reedy, T. D. (2020). The World Bank's SABER: A Critical Analysis. Comparative Education Review. https://doi.org/10.1086/706757 Kurniawati, S., Suryadarma, D., Bima, L., & Yusrina, A. (2018). Education in Indonesia: A white elephant? Journal of Southeast Asian Economies, 35(2), 185–199. https://doi.org/10.1355/ae35-2e Magnuson, K., & Duncan, G. J. (2016). Can early childhood interventions decrease inequality of economic opportunity? Rsf, 2(2), 123–141. https://doi.org/10.7758/rsf.2016.2.2.05 Mizwar Hasyim, N. (2019). Peningkatan Kemandirian Desa Panggungharjo Melalui Komunikasi Pembangunan [Increasing the Independence of Panggungharjo Village through Development Communication]. Jurnal Pemberdayaan Masyarakat: Media Pemikiran Dan Dakwah Pembangunan, 3(2), 352–376. https://doi.org/10.14421/jpm.2019.032-06 Nakajima, N., Hasan, A., Jung, H., Kinnell, A., Maika, A., & Pradhan, M. (2021). Built to Last: Sustainability of Early Childhood Education Services in Rural Indonesia. Journal of Development Studies, 57(10), 1593–1612. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2021.1873283 National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine. (2018). Transforming the Financing of Early Care and Education. In Transforming the Financing of Early Care and Education. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/24984 Penner, E. K., Rochmes, J., Liu, J., Solanki, S. M., & Loeb, S. (2019). Differing views of equity: How prospective educators perceive their role in closing achievement gaps. Rsf, 5(3), 103–127. https://doi.org/10.7758/RSF.2019.5.3.06 Pratama, R. N., & Pambudi, A. (2017). Kinerja Badan Usaha Milik Desa Panggung Lestari dalam Meningkatkan Pendapatan Asli Desa di Desa Panggungharjon Kecamatan Sewon Kabupaten Bantul [Performance of Panggung Lestari Village-Owned Enterprises in Increasing Village Original Income in Panggungharjon Village, Sewon District, Bantul Regency]. Adinegara. Sayre, R. K., Devercelli, A. E., Neuman, M. J., & Wodon, Q. (2015). Investing in Early Childhood Development: Review of the World Bank's Recent Experience. In Investing in Early Childhood Development: Review of the World Bank's Recent Experience. https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0403-8 Scheerens, J. (2015). School Effectiveness Research. In International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences: Second Edition (Second Edition, Vol. 21). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.92080-4 Suryadarma, D., & Jones, G. W. (2013). Education in Indonesia. Education in Indonesia, 39(3), 1–278. The World Bank. (2013). What Matters Most for Early Childhood Development: A Framework Paper. Systems Approach for Better Education Results (SABER) Working Paper Series, 4–59. Vegas, E., & Santibanez, L. (2009). The Promise of Early Childhood Development in Latin America. 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The changeover of the ruling of the modern Ukrainian territory between East and West had lasted for around 800 years beginning from the Mongol-Tatar invasion. It was that time when Batu Khan defeated Ancient Rus that the present territory of Ukraine came under complete and absolute ruling of the Tatar East. In the 16th century as a part of Lithuania Ukraine was included into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and then passed under the rule of the Polish magnates, under the yoke of the Western Polish civilization. In 1569 the Union of Lublin was signed that formalized the accession of the Ukrainian territory to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In the period from the 10th to the 19th centuries there was no such state as Ukraine on the world political map. In the 10th century some part of the territory of present Ukraine was taken by Kievan Rus, in the 13th century — by Golden Horde, in the 14th-15th centuries — by Lithuania, Golden Horde and Russia. In the next centuries the territory of Ukraine was controlled by the Ottoman Empire, Poland and Russia. And only in 1918 the state of Ukraine appeared on the political map.Single Soviet Ukraine created by Bolsheviks did not present any internal cultural and language unity as it was always shared by different empires being the hostile and irreconcilable centers of force in Europe — the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Russian Empire and Austro-Hungarian Empire.In 1917-1920 about dozens of different republics were established in the territory of Ukraine. They were isolated within the borders of their formations. Accordingly, it may be said that in 1917-1920 Ukraine presented a mosaic of different formations which were often formed due to ambitions of some scoundrels and political adventurers striving to get to power and to become the leader of a state. But only the tough policy of Bolsheviks aimed to prevent the disintegration process permitted Ukraine to preserve its territory. After its election the Supreme Council started preparation of the Draft Declaration of Ukraine State Sovereignty simultaneously with the Draft Law on Ukraine State Sovereignty. Both drafts were considered in May 1990. After their discussion it was decided to develop the Draft Declaration of State Sovereignty.On July 16, 1990 the Ukrainian Parliament after long discussions adopted the Declaration on State Sovereignty of Ukraine by majority voting. This declaration which did not change and substitute the Constitution of Ukrainian SSR became a very important document for establishment of the Ukrainian statehood having laid the basis for the future Constitution of Ukraine.The concept of the new Constitution of Ukraine envisaged the establishment of the presidential republic. As a result, in June 1991 the laws «On Establishment of the Office of President of Ukrainian SSR with Making Alterations and Additions in the Constitution», «On President of Ukrainian SSR" and "On Election of President of Ukrainian SSR». The office of president was established to strengthen the vertical of executive power and to make it in the future independent of executive power of union bodies. The law assigned broad authorities to the president. Thus, the president acquired the right to cancel the decisions of the USSR bodies of executive power in the territory of Ukrainian SSR if they contradicted its constitution.By mid-1991 the legislative base was created in Ukraine which, in fact, made it an independent state as the laws adopted in 1990 and in the first half of 1991 brought out Ukraine from subordination to the USSR powers. The single economic, political and military space of the USSR practically ceased to exist. By this time Ukraine subordinated only nominally to union authorities. On August 24 the Extraordinary Meeting of Supreme Rada passed the Act on Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. That time it was also decided to conduct on December 01 the republican referendum to confirm the Act of Independence. This was done with a view to demonstrate to the union authorities that the Ukrainian people were endeavoring to become independent, thus, making legitimate the Act of Independence. After becoming independent in 1991 Ukraine entered the new stage of its development. The regional system of Ukraine revealed two clear poles — Donbass and Galichina which determined the country's development for decades ahead. ; Изменения территории современной Украины между Востоком и Западом тянется уже почти 800 лет — со времен монголо-татарского нашествия. Именно тогда после уничтожения ханом Батыем Древней Руси современная территория Украины оказалась под полным и безраздельным правлением татарского Востока. В XVI веке в составе Литвы Украина была включена в Речь Посполитую и перешла в подчинение к польским магнатам, попав под гнет западно-польской цивилизации. В 1569 году была подписана Люблинская уния, результатом которой стало присоединение украинских земель к Речи Посполитой.Если брать отрезок времени с X по XIX век, то такого государства, как Украина, на политической карте мира не существовало. На части территории нынешней Украины в X веке была Киевская Русь, в XIII веке — Золотая Орда, в XIV–XV веках — Литовское государство, Золотая Орда и Россия. В последующие столетия территория Украины находилась под контролем Оттоманской империи, Польши, России. И лишь в 1918 году на политической карте появилось государство Украина.Созданная большевиками единая советская Украина не представляла собой внутреннего культурно-языкового единства, поскольку всегда была разделена между разными империями, являвшимися враждебными и непримиримыми центрами силы в Европе, — Речью Посполитой, Российской и Австро-Венгерской империями.В период 1917–1920 годов на территории Украины было образовано около десятка разных республик. Все они предполагали обособление в границах тех территорий, которые охватывали новые образования. В соответствии с этим можно говорить о том, что территория Украины периода 1917–1920 годов представляла собой мозаику различных образований, которые зачастую были результатом амбиций отдельных проходимцев и политических авантюристов, желающих получить в свои руки власть и провозгласить себя руководителем государства. Лишь жесткая политика большевиков, направленная на то, чтобы не допустить разбегания земель, позволила Украине сохранить свою территорию.После своего избрания Верховный Совет приступил к разработке проекта Декларации о государственном суверенитете Украины. Одновременно разрабатывался проект закона о государственном суверенитете Украины. Оба проекта — закона и декларации — были рассмотрены в мае 1990 года. После их обсуждения было принято решение о разработке проекта в виде Декларации о государственном суверенитете.16 июля 1990 года украинский парламент после длительного обсуждения подавляющим большинством принял Декларацию о государственном суверенитете Украины. Декларация, которая не меняла и не заменяла собой Конституцию УССР, стала важным документом в становлении украинской государственности, заложив основы будущей Конституции Украины.Концепция новой Конституции Украины предусматривала создание президентской республики. В итоге в июне 1991 года были приняты законы «Об учреждении поста президента Украинской ССР и внесении изменений и дополнений в конституцию», «О президенте Украинской ССР» и «О выборах президента Украинской ССР». Учреждение поста президента было направлено на усиление вертикали исполнительной власти, чтобы в перспективе сделать ее независимой от исполнительной власти союзных органов. Закон наделял президента широкими полномочиями. Например, он обладал правом останавливать действия решений органов исполнительной власти СССР на территории Украинской ССР, если они противоречили ее конституции.К середине 1991 года на Украине была создана законодательная база, которая фактически делала ее самостоятельным государством, поскольку законы, принятые в 1990 году и в первой половине 1991 года, практически вывели Украину из подчинения органов власти СССР. Единое экономическое, политическое и военное пространство СССР фактически было разрушено. К этому периоду времени Украина лишь номинально подчинялась союзным органам власти.24 августа на внеочередной сессии Верховной рады был принят Акт провозглашения независимости Украины. Тогда же было принято решение о проведении 1 декабря республиканского референдума, который должен был подтвердить Акт провозглашения независимости. Расчет был сделан на то, чтобы продемонстрировать союзным властям стремление к независимости украинского населения, тем самым придав Акту провозглашения независимости легитимность.После обретения независимости в 1991 году начался новый этап развития Украины. В региональной системе Украины проявилось два четких полюса — Донбасс и Галичина, которые определили развитие страны на последующие десятилетия.

The Arctic is experiencing rapidly warming conditions, increasing predator abundance, and diminishing population cycles of keystone species such as lemmings. However, it is still not known how many Arctic animals will respond to a changing climate with altered trophic interactions. We studied clutch size, incubation duration and nest survival of 17 taxa of Arctic-breeding shorebirds at 16 field sites over 7years. We predicted that physiological benefits of higher temperatures and earlier snowmelt would increase reproductive effort and nest survival, and we expected increasing predator abundance and decreasing abundance of alternative prey (arvicoline rodents) to have a negative effect on reproduction. Although we observed wide ranges of conditions during our study, we found no effects of covariates on reproductive traits in 12 of 17 taxa. In the remaining taxa, most relationships agreed with our predictions. Earlier snowmelt increased the probability of laying a full clutch from 0.61 to 0.91 for Western Sandpipers, and shortened incubation by 1.42days for arcticola Dunlin and 0.77days for Red Phalaropes. Higher temperatures increased the probability of a full clutch from 0.60 to 0.93 for Western Sandpipers and from 0.76 to 0.97 for Red-necked Phalaropes, and increased daily nest survival rates from 0.9634 to 0.9890 for Semipalmated Sandpipers and 0.9546 to 0.9880 for Western Sandpipers. Higher abundance of predators (foxes) reduced daily nest survival rates only in Western Sandpipers (0.9821-0.9031). In contrast to our predictions, the probability of a full clutch was lowest (0.83) for Semipalmated Sandpipers at moderate abundance of alternative prey, rather than low abundance (0.90). Our findings suggest that in the short-term, climate warming may have neutral or positive effects on the nesting cycle of most Arctic-breeding shorebirds. ; National Fish and Wildlife Foundation [2010-0061-015, 2011-0032-014, 0801.12.032731, 0801.13.041129]; Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Act [F11AP01040, F12AP00734, F13APO535, 4073]; Arctic Goose Joint Venture; Arctic National Wildlife Refuge; BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc.; Bureau of Land Management; Canada Fund for InnovationCanada Foundation for Innovation; Canada Research ChairsCanada Research Chairs; Cape Krusenstern National Monument grant; Centre for Wildlife Ecology at Simon Fraser University; Churchill Northern Studies Centre; Cornell University Graduate School Mellon Grant; Ducks Unlimited Canada; Environment and Climate Change Canada; FQRNT (Quebec)FQRNT; Government of Nunavut; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada; Kansas State University; Kresge Foundation; Liz Claiborne and Art Ortenberg Foundation; Manomet Center for Conservation Sciences; Mississippi Flyway Council; Murie Science and Learning Center grants; National Fish and Wildlife Foundation; National Park Service; National Science Foundation (Office of Polar Programs Grant) [ARC-1023396]; National Science Foundation (Doctoral Dissertation Improvement Grant)National Science Foundation (NSF) [1110444]; Natural Resources Canada (Polar Continental Shelf Program); Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of CanadaNatural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada; Northern Studies Training Program; Selawik National Wildlife Refuge; Trust for Mutual Understanding; Universite du Quebec a Rimouski; University of Alaska Fairbanks; University of Colorado Denver; University of Missouri Columbia; University of Moncton; US Fish and Wildlife Service (Migratory Bird Management Division, Survey, Monitoring and Assessment Program); US Fish and Wildlife Service (Alaska National Wildlife Refuge System's Challenge Cost Share Program); US Fish and Wildlife Service (Avian Influenza Health and Influenza programmes); US Geological Survey (USGS) (Changing Arctic Ecosystem Initiative, Wildlife Program of the USGS Ecosystem Mission Area); W. Garfield Weston Foundation; Alaska Department of Fish and Game ; E.L.W compiled the field data, designed and performed the statistical analyses and wrote the manuscript. B.K.S. assisted with design of analyses and preparation of the manuscript. R.B.L., S.C.B. and H.R.G. led development of standardized field protocols and coordinated field work. B.K.S., R.B.L., S.C.B., H.R.G. and all other authors, who are listed in alphabetical order, designed and conducted the field studies, contributed to interpreting the results and assisted with editing the manuscript. Major support for the ASDN was provided by the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation (grants 2010-0061-015, 2011-0032-014, 0801.12.032731 and 0801.13.041129), the Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Act (grants F11AP01040, F12AP00734 and F13APO535) and the Arctic Landscape Conservation Cooperative. Additional funding for participating field sites was provided by: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, Arctic Goose Joint Venture, Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc., Bureau of Land Management, Canada Fund for Innovation, Canada Research Chairs, Cape Krusenstern National Monument grant, Centre for Wildlife Ecology at Simon Fraser University, Churchill Northern Studies Centre, Cornell University Graduate School Mellon Grant, Ducks Unlimited Canada, Environment and Climate Change Canada, FQRNT (Quebec), Government of Nunavut, Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada, Kansas State University, Kresge Foundation, Liz Claiborne and Art Ortenberg Foundation, Manomet Center for Conservation Sciences, Mississippi Flyway Council, Murie Science and Learning Center grants, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, National Park Service, National Science Foundation (Office of Polar Programs Grant ARC-1023396 and Doctoral Dissertation Improvement Grant 1110444), Natural Resources Canada (Polar Continental Shelf Program), Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (Discovery Grant and Northern Supplement), Neotropical Migratory Bird Conservation Act (grant 4073), Northern Studies Training Program, Selawik National Wildlife Refuge, Trust for Mutual Understanding, Universite du Quebec a Rimouski, University of Alaska Fairbanks, University of Colorado Denver, University of Missouri Columbia, University of Moncton, US Fish and Wildlife Service (Migratory Bird Management Division, Survey, Monitoring and Assessment Program, Alaska National Wildlife Refuge System's Challenge Cost Share Program and Avian Influenza Health and Influenza programmes), US Geological Survey (USGS) (Changing Arctic Ecosystem Initiative, Wildlife Program of the USGS Ecosystem Mission Area), and the W. Garfield Weston Foundation. Logistical support was provided by Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Barrow Arctic Science Consortium, BP Exploration (Alaska) Inc., Kinross Gold Corporation, Umiaq LLC, Selawik National Wildlife Refuge (USFWS), ConocoPhillips Alaska Inc., Cape Krusenstern National Monument (National Park Service) and Sirmilik National Park (Parks Canada). We thank local communities and landowners, including the Ukpeagvik Inupiat Corporation, the people of the Inuvialuit Settlement Region, Sitnasuak Native Corporation, the Kuukpik Corporation and the North Slope Borough for permitting us to conduct research on their lands.; Animal handling, marking and monitoring procedures were approved by Environment and Climate Change Canada, Government of Nunavut, Kansas State University, National Park Service, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, University of Alaska Fairbanks, University of Moncton, US Fish & Wildlife Service and US Geological Survey. All applicable international, national and institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals were followed. We thank A. Tygart for assistance in compiling JAGS for use on the Beocat supercomputer at Kansas State University, D. Payer and S. Freeman for their work at Canning River, and H. Meltofte, P. Battley, B. Ross, J. Sutton, L. Martin and the Sandercock lab for comments on earlier drafts of the manuscript. We thank the many field assistants who were involved in data collection, especially field crew leaders K. Bennet, M. Burrell, J. Cunningham, E. D'Astous, S. Carvey, A. Doll, L. Pirie Dominix, K. Gold, A. Gottesman, K. Grond, P. Herzog, B. Hill, D. Hodgkinson, A. J. Johnson, D. Pavlik, M. Peck, L. Pollock, S. Sapora, B. Schwarz, F. Smith, H. M. Specht, M. VanderHeyden, B. M. Walker and B. Wilkinson. The findings and conclusions in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily represent the views of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. Any use of trade names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the US Government. ; Public domain authored by a U.S. government employee

Este Trabajo final de maestría da un viaje por el tiempo de tres vías de comunicación terrestres en el Occidente antioqueño. De estas tres vías que son conocidas como el Camino del Virrey, la Vieja Carretera al Mar y la Nueva Carretera al Mar, se busca que las dos primeras se reconozcan como parte del patrimonio cultural de la región y nacional. Para el reconocimiento de vías patrimoniales se da un recorrido histórico de la proyección y construcción de las mismas, desde la época prehispánica, pasando por la colonial hasta llegar a la republicana, y hoy desde el siglo XXI. Además de episodios históricos, y las relaciones con las sociedades indígenas y mestizas, también la determinación del territorio, que intentan hacer las distintas legislaciones, están presentes en este estudio de un camino y dos carreteras en el occidente antioqueño ; Abstract: This final work with emphasis in deepening, of the Master in Urban - Regional Studies, is oriented to present some investigations that until now have been carried out on the study of a socio - spatial phenomenon, as they are mainly a way and a way of terrestrial and specific communication within certain temporalities. From this inquiry, and the personal analysis of these communication routes in the department of Antioquia, from urban and regional environments, accompanied by the study of some primary and secondary sources considered thus within the discipline of history, is that it is proposed the deepening presented below. From the discipline of history the study is mainly made of two terrestrial ways of communication, and one last way in a more general way, its emergence, planning, history and socio - economic interests, which allowed and allow the appropriation of geography, and also the permanence or modification of the routes and roles of these routes. The objectives of the work are, first, to reaffirm the unquestionable presence of history as a discipline in the study of territorial planning. As part of the secondary objectives, the aim is to teach the appropriation of the territory at different times through the tracing and use of paths that became paths, and then became roads. Another secondary objective is to indicate why the west of the department of Antioquia was chosen for the projection and use of these terrestrial communication routes. The third objective is to point out how the legislation that has been made over time on these routes was and has been, from the time of the colony to the present. A fourth objective, which can be considered basic for the appropriation and significance of these roads over time, is the study of the location of these roads as part of the cultural heritage of the country. At different times, for different routes, from strategic, political and material interests were built and used the so-called the Way of the Viceroy, the Old Road to the Sea and the New Road to the Sea or the Way to the West The development of the work is divided into five chapters, with their respective subdivisions. The first of them, Theoretical Framework, has two subdivisions, where the history of the roads is developed in a context more than the universal ancient history and the pre-Hispanic era, later it is centered more on Colombia and Antioquia. These subdivisions are named The paths in history and development and The communication routes in Colombia and in Antioquia through history. In the second chapter, the Methodology, presents the type of sources from which the information used in the construction of this Work was extracted. Also the type of reading that was given to this information, and its orientation, which would be the study of communication routes in the department. In the third chapter, From the Way of the Viceroy to the ways of modernity, the so-called Way of the Viceroy is analyzed in different historical periods. Through history and territory, a reading is made from pre-Hispanic times to the present, of geography, uses, economy, connections, debates, policies, roles, journey and current events. aroused around the Way of the Viceroy. In this chapter we try to demonstrate how the pre-Hispanic roads allowed the conservation of the work and the vestiges of the indigenous communities, the materials that they used for their construction and the roles that they maintained in some moments of the prehispanic era. There is also the general description of the geography of the Department of Antioquia, and the justification, therefore, of special conditions in the landscape that led to these communities the abundant and relatively easy encounter of metals, such as gold, and minerals, as salt, and the use of prehispanic roads in pursuit of these. This chapter takes a tour of the reading that the Europeans made of the roads in these territories. It is important to emphasize this interpretation or perception, because because of it, we know part of the farthest past of our indigenous communities and their customs. In the presentation of the prehispanic roads, among them, and on which a large part of this work is centered, is the Way of the Viceroy, which can be taken as a forerunner of the routes that, in the attempt of a modernization of the country, would connect later to two populated points such as Medellín and Santa Fe de Antioquia. The recognition of the pre-Hispanic roads raises an inquiry and staging of questions about the confirmation or denial of pre-Hispanic roads in Latin America, Colombia, and more specifically in this department of Antioquia. It is also almost a reference to a debate in which some authors, from their work, accept or reject these ways and their elaboration by indigenous people. In this same chapter we find the staging of terrestrial communication roads, or roads, in the periods of the conquest, colony and the first eras of the Republic. Situation in which many times the attention is called by the imposed necessity of exploitation of the mines in the department, this more by the economic and power interests of the Old Continent, than by the ceremonial ritual with which our ancestors used this brilliant and golden metal. In the fourth chapter, The Western Ways in the Country Interconnection and Globalization, two communication routes are studied, the Old Road to the Sea and the New Road to the Sea or the Way to the West. The geography that accompanies these two roads, the roles they have had over time, the journeys, their legal status, and the responsibility that represents being part of a national project rather than a regional or local, is what is studied of them. The attempt of modernization and the one of the inclusion of the country in the globalization makes that roads are constructed in the Republic, this serves to draw the attention on socio - economic factors and of interconnection of a territory in the time, and that is why They can raise interests about the study of the discipline of history in the planning of these communication routes. The previous chapters lead us to raise the relevance of two roads, such as the Way of the Viceroy and the Old Road to the Sea, as part of the nation's cultural heritage. The fifth chapter. The Ways of Heritage, a continuity of stories and meanings over time, is the journey through historical justifications, Colombian legislation, including POTs at different times, and some regional and local measures, the need to recognize, value and sustain these roads as cultural heritage in Colombia. Cultural tourism is also suggested as a possible strategy to recognize and safeguard these roads. Finally, there are the Conclusions of the work, and the Annexes where you can find some more specific developments, tables with important information, legislation on roads, key locations and periodization of roles. The texts that result in this work of deepening are accompanied by images or maps, where these journeys are exposed at different times, and some particularities of them ; Maestría

Andreeva recently discussed several "challenges for research in poor countries" (Andreeva, 2012). Below is a list of some of these challenges and my comments. For many public health studies in low- or middle-income countries, population surveys are the only affordable means of data collection. Population surveys are valuable sources of health information. For example, surveys have estimated the prevalence, severity, and treatment of mental disorders in various countries, including Ukraine (WHO, 2004). But population surveys can be very expensive, so alternative approaches to data collection should not be overlooked. Some other methods are case control studies, ecologic studies, and qualitative research designs such as focus groups. A case control design was used by Donetsk State Medical University to investigate contraceptive practices and factors behind contraceptive preferences of Ukrainian women (Mogilevkina, 2003). For a case control study of diphtheria vaccine efficacy in Ukraine, demographic and vaccination data were gathered from health center records (Tsu, 2000). Focus group methods were used by the Ukraine Institute for Public Health Policy and others to investigate the obstacles to antiretroviral therapy perceived by HIV-infected injection drug users (Mimiaga, 2010) and in a separate study on the topics of everyday understanding of health and the factors influencing it (Abbott, 2006). Another challenge faced by survey scientists is related to the validity of self-reported data. Validity is central to all research. According to Bonita et al (2006, page 57), "A study is valid if its results correspond to the truth." Self-reports can be satisfactory data sources if investigators take sufficient care in their design and use (Schaeffer, 2003). For example, before conducting health surveys in low and middle-income countries with questionnaires that were developed for use in high-income countries, researchers may first want to use focus group interview methods to gauge what the survey questions mean to people in the target countries (Kitzinger, 1995). If necessary, focus groups can be used to help researchers to modify question wording appropriately. In any case, for many health measures, it is difficult to think of an alternative to self-reports. The recent finding that fewer teenagers in the United States are driving after drinking, for example, comes from risk behavior data collected from thousands of high school students through national surveys (Shults, 2012). Due to high subscription fees, many researchers in low- and medium income countries lack access to necessary literature. This is a serious obstacle but it has a partial, temporary solution. In 2002 the Access to Research in Health Programme (HINARI) was established by the World Health Organization in partnership with major publishers (http://www.who.int/hinari/en/ accessed 4 Oct 2012). This venture provides free or low cost online access to the major journals in biomedical and related social sciences to local, not-for-profit institutions in developing countries. Some 8,500 journals and 7000 e-books (in 30 different languages) are now available to health institutions in more than 100 countries. To move access to global knowledge beyond HINARI, an international team of editors, researchers, and authors has proposed that WHO take the lead in championing the goal of "health information for all" (Godlee, et al., 2004). Besides HINARI, researchers in some developing countries have gained access to scientific literature through partnerships with foreign researchers as, for example, in projects supported by the Fogarty International Center of the US National Institutes of Health (http://www.fic.nih.gov, accessed 4 Oct 2012). For persons interested in tobacco control, an inventory of financial and structural resources to support global tobacco control research and research capacity in developing countries is available (Lando, et al., 2005). Many decisions in low and middle income countries are still opinion-based. Alas this is also all too often the case in the US and Europe. For example, little policy has developed in response to the growing threat from climate change to the health and the environment. The process from the discovery of scientific knowledge to its effects on human behavior is usually long and unpredictable. Current epidemiology training focuses on epidemiologic methods, with little attention on how the science of epidemiology is translated into effective health policy (Brownson, 1998, page 377). Actually, research findings always have some degree of uncertainty, and policy choices depend on many social, cultural, and economic factors, including people's opinions and beliefs. Fortunately, expert guidance is available on ways to communicate research findings to the public and policymakers that increase the chance that good science will result in good public health (Nelson, 2011; Remington, et al., 2011; Brownson, et al., 2011). A somewhat contrary view is that researchers are not responsible for the translation of their findings into public policy and should enter the political fray cautiously (Rothman & Poole, 1985). The golden standard of studies generating such evidence is randomized controlled trials. Bonita et al (2006, page 95) distinguish between various study designs by ranking their ability to provide evidence for causality between an exposure and a disease: "strong" for randomized controlled trials, "moderate" for cohort and case-control studies, and "weak" for cross-sectional and ecological studies. However, Steven N Goodman of Stanford University and Gerald J Dal Pan of the US Food and Drug Administration, speakers at the 2012 American College of Epidemiology Annual Meeting, indicated that the traditional hierarchy of scientific evidence may be too simple. They argued that experiments have more limits than generally appreciated, and evidence from observational studies can also be "golden".In any case, research conclusions have historically lacked widespread credibility in the scientific community until they have been confirmed by multiple studies using different study designs in different populations. They consider this as public health surveillance rather than data for testing research hypotheses about effects of the intended policy measures. I would agree that some surveys, such as the tobacco prevalence survey in several eastern European countries, including Ukraine (Andreeva, et al., 2010), are a type of public health surveillance. However, such data collection activities differ from traditional disease surveillance systems that detect and investigate new cases of notifiable diseases, including tuberculosis, measles, and others (Bonita, et al., 2006). For several decades, the US Agency for International Development has funded the Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) that collect nationally-representative household data for a wide range of monitoring and evaluation indicators on population, health, and nutrition (http://measuredhs.com/accessed 3 Oct 2012). These surveys have been completed in Ukraine and a half dozen other countries of the former Soviet Union, and all DHS countries, especially ones with repeated surveys, have results that can be assessed with relevance to a health policy. I am reluctant to classify prevalence surveys as "descriptive" or "analytic" without more information about the specific survey. In the US, the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveys--conducted annually in the 50 states with coordination and support from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention--have been used for both description and analysis. Smart people from poor countries will definitely benefit from considerate reviews of their studies by more experienced researchers. A core principle of global health is that the knowledge and experience of every country, regardless of income level, is required for truly effective public health science and action. Journals have a mission, and they will publish work from any country if it fits their mission. Some journals explicitly invite submissions from developing countries including papers from authors whose mother language is not English. On the other hand, journals have major limits (Nordstrom, 2008). To protect their resources, they routinely reject some manuscripts without circulating them for external review because the editor determines they have little chance of acceptance. Most journals have no paid staff, and most peer reviewers are volunteers. An editor of one western journal has candidly discussed the challenges and opportunities of reviewing and publishing research manuscripts from developing countries (Malone, 2012).