Notre travail poursuivait deux objectifs essentiels: mettre au point d'une part un système de collecte et d'analyse d'observations compatible avec l'activité journalière du praticien et, à partir de la banque de données ainsi constituée procéder d'autre part à une étude comparée chez la vache laitière et viandeuse, de l'influence des facteurs individuels et d'environnement sur les pathologies puerpérales et du post-partum ainsi que sur la fertilité et la fécondité. La première partie de notre travail (Chapitre 1: Introduction générale) a été dévolue à une analyse exhaustive au travers des données de la littérature des facteurs responsables des problèmes de reproduction. Ils peuvent se répartir en deux catégories: les facteurs individuels d'une part et les facteurs collectifs d'autres part. Au nombre des premiers il faut citer l'âge, la génétique, le niveau de production laitière, le type de vêlage, la gémellité, la mortalité périnatale, la rétention placentaire, la fièvre vitulaire, l'involution cervicale et utérine, les infectioins du tractus génital et l'activité ovarienne au cours du postpartum. A l'inverse les facteurs collectifs font davantage référence au troupeau qu'à l'individu. Ils concernent le choix d'une politique de première insémination, la détection des chaleurs, le moment de l'insémination, la nutrition, la saison, le type de stabulation, la taille des troupeaux et les caractéristiques sociologiques de l'éleveur. Cette revue de la littérature nous a permis de constater la grande diversité des effets observés à l'encontre des facteurs étudiés d'une part et le manque habituel d'harmonisation concernant les méthodes d'évaluation de ces effets. Deux chapitres de notre travail ont été consacrés à la présentation du logiciel de gestion de la reproduction GARBO. Celui-ci comprend deux aspects différents au demeurant complémentaires. Le premier plus propédeutique est basé sur le suivi mensuel de reproduction (Chapitre 2). Le second plus analytique comporte l'analyse mensuelle mais surtout annuelle des performances et pathologies de la reproduction (Chapitre 3). Au travers de différentes listes d'intervention, le programme assure le suivi sanitaire et zootechnique de chaque individu femelle depuis l'âge de 14 mois ou depuis son dernier vêlage jusqu'à la confirmation de la gestation ou de la réforme. Il contribue ce faisant à réduire les périodes de non reproduction. Parce qu'il fournit au vétérinaire une anamnèse physiologique, pathologique et thérapeutique, il lui permet d'affiner son diagnostic et de prendre en connaissance de cause une décision thérapeutique appropriée. Le programme a déjà fait l'objet de nombreuses améliorations, fruit de son expérimentation sur le terrain. Puisqu'il ne peut y avoir de gestion sans quantification, l'évaluation des performances de reproduction représente le second aspect au demeurant essentiel d'une démarche préventive de la reproduction. D'une manière générale, nous avons cherché à optimiser et à actualiser au maximum les données disponibles au sein de chaque troupeau. La mise au point d'un bilan de reproduction a été illustrée par la comparaison des performances enregistrées en 1992 dans 3 systèmes d'élevage, le premier ne comportant que des animaux viandeux allaitants de race Blanc Bleu Belge (n = 20). le second (n = 45) que des animaux laitiers de race Holstein Frisonne ou Pie Rouge et le troisième (n = 39) qualifié de mixte rassemblant des animaux viandeux traits ou allaitants de race Blanc Bleu Belge et des animaux de race laitière. Cette étude comparative est la première du genre et peut servir de référence au clinicien pour l'interprétation des performances de troupeau de sa clientèle. Cette étude comparée nous a permis d'identifier plusieurs faits. Quelle que soit la spéculation, les exploitations présentent de larges différences dans les performances moyennes de reproduction. Cette observation traduit vraisemblablement davantage les capacités différentes des éleveurs à gérer leur potentiel de reproduction que les différences liées à la race ou au type de production laitière ou viandeuse. Elle se trouve confirmée par le fait qu'au sein de chaque spéculation, certains troupeaux atteignent pour les différents paramètres étudiés, les valeurs considérées comme optimales. La fécondité des génisses exprimé par l'âge du premier vêlage est comparable quel que soit le type de spéculation allaitante (28 mois), mixte (29 mois) ou laitière (29 mois). Moyennant le respect de certains conditions sanitaires et nutritionnelles, il apparaît que la race viandeuse Blanc Bleu Belge est aussi précoce que les races laitières. La fécondité des vaches exprimée par le délai nécessaire à l'obtention d'une gestation est meilleure dans les troupeaux laitiers (111 jours) qu'allaitants (125 jours), les troupeaux mixtes présentant une situation intermédiaire (117 jours). Ce fait résulte essentiellement d'une première insémination plus tardive dans les troupeaux allaitants (84 jours) que mixtes (76 jours) ou laitiers (73 jours), suite à une période d'anoestrus plus prolongée identifiée indirectement par l'intervalle entre le vêlage et la première chaleur détectée par l'éleveur et respectivement égale en moyenne à 79, 67 et 59 jours dans les troupeaux allaitants, mixtes et laitiers. En effet, les trois spéculations présentent une fertilité comparable qu'elle soit exprimée par le pourcentage de gestation en première insémination (45 %) ou par le nombre d'inséminations nécessaires à l'obtention d'une gestation (troupeaux allaitants: 2.4, mixtes: 2.5 et laitiers: 2.3). La qualité de la détection des chaleurs caractérise les trois types de spéculation. Enfin, les troupeaux laitiers présentent une fréquence plus élevée de pathologies puerpérales (rétention placentaire et fièvre vitulaire) et du post-partum (métrites, kystes ovariens) que les élevages allaitants ou mixtes). Dans le chapitre 4, nous avons cherché à décrire la fréquence des pathologies puerpérales et du postpartum et à en identifier les facteurs de risque individuels ou d'environnement chez la vache viandeuse et laitière. Ont ainsi été étudiées la rétention placentaire, la fièvre vitulaire, l'involution utérine, les infections utérines et les kystes ovariens. Les valeurs fréquentielles observées (Tableau 59) sont les premières du genre pour les conditions d'élevage que nous connaissons. A ce titre, elles ont valeur de référence. Les pathologies puerpérales telles que la rétention placentaire et la fièvre vitulaire sont plus fréquentes chez la vache laitière que chez la vache viandeuse. La vache laitière se caractérise par ailleurs par une plus grande fréquence de retard d'involution utérine et de kystes ovariens que la vache viandeuse. L'infection du tractus génital constitue la pathologie dominante et sa manifeste avec la même fréquence dans les deux spéculations. D'une manière générale, la proportion de vaches atteintes par une ou plusieurs pathologies est plus élevée dans la spéculation laitière que viandeuse. TABLEAU 76 : FRÉQUENCE COMPARÉE DES PATHOLOGIES PUERPÉRALES ET DU POST-PARTUM CHEZ LA VACHE LAITIÈRE ET CHEZ LA VACHE VIANDEUSE. Pathologies Laitier Viandeux % n % n Rétention placentaire 4.4 7367 3.5 12235 Fièvre vitulaire 4.4 7367 0.05 12235 Retard d'involution utérine 21-50 jours 18.7 3690 13.9 6042 Infections du tractus génital Post-partum 36.5 4856 29.0 6084 21-50 jours 19.4 2791 19.4 3847 Kystes ovariens Post-partum 16.5 3363 6.9 4746 21-50 jours 9.5 3168 2.9 5155 Une fois quantifiée la fréquence des pathologies dans les deux spéculations, nous avons cherché à en identifier les facteurs de risque par la méthode des Odds Ratio et de la régression logistique. Certains se sont avérés être communs aux deux spéculations pour une pathologie donnée. Ainsi, l'âge de l'animal contribue à augmenter le risque de rétention placentaire et de retard d'involution utérine, la réduction de la longueur de la gestation celui de la rétention placentaire et la césarienne celui de l'infection utérine. De même, la gémellité augmente le risque de rétention placentaire et d'infection du tractus génital alors que la rétention placentaire et le retard d'involution utérine favorisent l'infection du tractus génital dont la présence augmente le risque de retard d'involution utérine. A l'inverse, nous avons constaté un effet plus spécifique de certains facteurs en fonction de la spéculation surtout en ce qui concerne la rétention placentaire et la fièvre vitulaire chez la vache laitière ce qui laisse en présumer une pathogénie commune. La saison du vêlage influence davantage le risque d'une pathologie chez la vache laitière que chez la vache viandeuse. Ce fait reflète peut-être l'effet indirect de la production laitière à l'origine d'un métabolisme différent. Sur le plan pratique, il est intéressant de distinguer deux types de facteurs. Les uns sont davantage inhérents à l'animal. Ils sont par conséquent moins directement modifiables . Qualifiés de "marqueurs de risque", ils concernent le numéro de lactation, la longueur de la gestation, le nombre de veaux et la saison du vêlage. D'autres peuvent davantage être considérés comme des "facteurs de risque "proprement dit dans la mesure ou ils peuvent faire l'objet d'une attitude préventive ou curative de la part du vétérinaire. Ainsi chez la vache viandeuse le recours à la césarienne sera préféré au vêlage réalisé par traction pour diminuer la fréquence du retard d'involution utérine. Un suivi thérapeutique anti-infectieux de cette intervention chirurgicale ainsi que de la rétention placentaire sera de nature à diminuer la fréquence des infections du tractus génital et à favoriser la qualité de l'involution utérine. Chez la vache laitière, la prévention de la fièvre vitulaire et une meilleure détection du vêlage contribueront à réduire l'incidence de la rétention placentaire directement ou indirectement par la diminution de la mortalité néonatale. Ce faisant, le risque d'infection utérine sera réduit et ainsi la fréquence du retard d'involution utérine s'en trouvera diminué ce qui contribuera à réduire le risque de kystes ovariens. Le chapitre 5 a été consacré à l'étude comparée chez la vache laitière et viandeuse de la fertilité et de la fécondité ainsi que de leurs facteurs de risque individuels ou d'environnement. La fertilité et la fécondité ont été analysées respectivement par le pourcentage de gestation en première insémination et par l'intervalle entre le vêlage et l'insémination fécondante. Les pathologies puerpérales et du post-partum étudiées exercent d'une manière générale peu d'effet direct sur ces deux paramètres. En effet, chez la vache laitière, le pourcentage de gestation en première insémination ne se trouve diminué que par la rétention placentaire et par la présence d'une infection du tractus génital 41 à 50 jours après le vêlage tandis que la fièvre vitulaire est la seule pathologie à avoir une influence négative sur l'intervalle entre le vêlage et l'insémination fécondante. Il faut sans doute voir dans cette constatation l'effet positif exercé indirectement par la mise en place d'un suivi mensuel de reproduction. Celui-ci offre en effet au praticien la possibilité d'un dépistage et par conséquent d'un traitement précoce des pathologies rencontrées. Par ailleurs, il est possible que ces pathologies contribuent davantage à augmenter le risque de réforme de l'animal que celui d'infertilité ou d'infécondité. Au vu de notre étude, l'amélioration du pourcentage de gestation en première insémination constitue une priorité essentielle chez la vache laitière mais plus encore chez la vache viandeuse. Elle peut être espérée chez la première en évitant le recours à la césarienne, en prévenant la rétention placentaire qui prédispose aux infections du tractus génital, en évitant d'inséminer l'animal avant le 50ème jour du post-partum et en agissant sur les facteurs susceptibles de réduire l'anoestrus du postpartum Chez la vache viandeuse de race Blanc Bleu belge, la césarienne constitue un "mal nécessaire". La réduction de la fertilité qu'elle entraîne est le prix à payer mais non un obstacle à la politique de sélection viandeuse de plus en plus intensive menée dans cette spéculation. Le recours à des conditions optimales pour sa réalisation qu'elles soient de nature chirurgicales ou hygiéniques doit permettre de réduire les complications péritonéales et par conséquent à améliorer le pourcentage de gestation en première insémination. Nos résultats nous incitent par ailleurs à postposer après le 70ème jour du post-partum le moment de la première insémination chez la vache viandeuse et à ne pas recommander l'utilisation de spirales vaginales pour l'induction de la première chaleur après le vêlage. Sans doute, il serait intéressant d'étudier l'impact de solutions alternatives telles que la politique d'un sevrage précoce sur la réapparition rapide d'une activité ovarienne après le vêlage, facteur pouvant contribuer à réduire l'utilisation de traitements inducteurs. L'influence des variables antérieures est pratiquement nulle dans les deux spéculations à l'exception toutefois de la fièvre vitulaire chez la vache laitière. Cette observation devrait inciter le praticien a tenir compte du passé métabolique de l'animal pour décider du traitement préventif des animaux à risque.
SUMMARYThe results of the present investigation can be summed up under six points:
The officials themselves, to a great extent, had to formulate the problems they were to solve.The general train of thought has been that the goals the administration carries into effect are presented in such a way that the administration's task consists of solving problems which are already formulated. This description is not applicable to the administrative organization under investigation. Although very precise definitions could be set up of technically rationalised agriculture, the problems which the administration had to solve were not completely formulated. Rationalization could occur in several ways — there was room for a number of productivity models. The agronomists themselves took part in formulating the problems they were to solve. They could take the dlemands for the administration's decisions for granted, as Smitt did, or try to increase the demand by establishing voluntary associations and other modernizing mechanisms. The definition of the problems took place under the influence of the official's "private" aims and social identifications.The appropriate procedures selected for the ratiionalization work altered according to the social values it was based upon, aned the agronomists chose the productivity models which were in accordance with their general social attitudes. In the same way, the conflicts in which the agricultural administration was involved were caused not by disagreement over the technical efficiency of the measures but by the evaluation of the social consequences of the different methods. The roles of the employees were not given but the employees themselves to a greater or lesser extent took part in forming them.The description of the administration's positions and roles as given is not applicable to the administrative organization we have examined. The officials' freedom of choice during the structuring of the role varied according to the clientele the agronomists decided to work with. The structuring of the roles took place in accordance with the official's "private" aims and social identifications.It was Smitt's "private" aim to build up a bureaucratic organization recruited from officials with a strong professional orientation, and these roles functioned best when the organization served a high status clientele. Conversely, the officials working with lower status clientele developed roles with a strong element of agitation. The structuring of the roles took place in close connection with the structuring of the problems.The roles Smitt evolved suited the problems which in his opinion ought to be solved. They appeared to be both the least expensive and most labor‐saving because they were based upon a division of labor between clientele and employees. The clientele provided capital and motivation, the organization knowledge and modern production equipment. Everything points to Smitt being blind to the connections which can arise between rationalization and social discrimination. His considerations concerning efficiency were that most of the work which technical rationalization involved could be transferred to the clientele. If the organization was relieved of the task of motivating the clients, it could achieve more without increasing costs.When in the last half of the 1880's this notion of economy was put into a wider social perspective it was easy to demonstrate that this sort of rationalization in fact involved a tremendous waste of public means. Srnitt's methods were, without doubt, labor‐saving from a narrow organizational point of view, but meaningless when seen in consideration of the need for an urgent modernization, which required great social support among the farmers if the new co‐operative efforts were to survive. The motivating task, which Smitt had rationalized away, became the centre of the organizations' activity.This shows not only how meaningless narrow efficiency considerations can be, but also how purposeless it can be to build up a wealth of knowledge about public administration without at the same time increasing our knowledge of the society in which the administration functions. The structuring of the organization's problems and roles took place in accordance with traits of the political system.The agronomists' freedom in structuring their problems and roles varied not only from situation to situation but also over a period of time. Smitt's freedom of action became curtailed during the last half of the 18803, and the reduction was connected with the new types of demands and support and with the administrative system's reactions to these alterations. While "in‐puts" and the system's inner processes at first pulled together, they were later in conflict. The low adaptability evoked external adjustment mechanisms which deprived the administrative system of initiative and responsibility, weakened its technical authority and widened its political obligation. An additional explanation — which, it is true, cannot be tried out without bringing in material of much larger proportions — is the assertion that the changes in the role‐structure were also a link in a general re‐arrangement of the relationship between the Storting, government and administration.An alteration took place in the distribution of initiative, responsibility, obligation and authority in the relations between the director of agriculture and the political authorities. These changes can be described in relation to two ideal types of distribution patterns. We have mapped out one movement in the direction of a bureaucracy which has initiative, responsibility and authority and is strongly Committed to the cause. Conversely, the other movement goes in the direction of an ideal type where the bureaucarcy is deprived of initiative and responsibility, where it is under strong obligation to political authority and its professional authority is weak.These findings can be generalized by connecting them with the bureaucracy model sketched out by Eisenstadt. The core of this model is the tensions between the need for a relatively autonomous bureaucracy and the need for a bureaucracy which is under control of the environment wherein it functions. By giving the bureaucracy an area where it can work relatively independently one ensures that the officials have a strong goal orientation but, at the same time, one risks losing control over the values the bureaucracy implements. By putting the bureaucracy under strict control, one has greater chance of deciding which goals are implemented, but one also risks the bureaucracy becoming impotent and formalistic. (Eisenstadt, 1958, pp. 100–103; Bendix, 1949, p. 12).The tensions between the needs for autonomy and independence have to do with the basic principle of bureaucratic organization:; that the officials do not own the means of administration. Morroe Berger has shown how the needs are built‐in in the bureaucratic organization: the organization is hierarchial, and at the same time every official has been given his own area where he rules with a varying degree of independence. (Berger, 1957, p, 49) We shall maintain that the tensions between these two needs are expressed in continually changing distributions of initiative, responsibility, obligation and professional authority.An autonomous bureaucracy is rich in initiative, it takes the responsibility for its own decisions, it is committed to its cause and the decisions can be easily legitimated by the official's technical competence. A dependent bureaucracy takes less initiative, outwardly others carry the responsibility for its decisions, it is not committed to a cause and the professional legitimacy of its decisions is weak. Because both needs cannot be completely satisfied simultaneously, there will always be tensions between them. The distribution of the components is not very stable and will change over time. Consequently, there is a basic lack of stability in the role relationships between the administration and political authority and the bureaucratic roles are being constantly redefined in one or the other direction in step with more far‐reaching changes in the political system.The increase of Smitt's dependence upon the political authorities occured during a period when the Storting increased its influence. We will call this a political contraction process, characterised by drawing together initiative, responsibility and obligation‐potential in the Storting. A bureaucratic role developed which stressed the official's loyalty, his ability to conform according to the politician's changing aims, his abilities as "the good counsel".These tendencies stand strongly opposed to a development which has occurred in Norway after the Second World War, and which in many ways had for its object the spreading of intiative, responsibility, professional authority and a weaker obligation to the political authorities outwardly and down through the administrative organization. A period where bureaucratic roles of this kind develop and where tendencies are also expressed in the formal organization, we will call a detraction process.These movements which succeed each other in time, have bearing upon the officials' role‐learning. Director Smitt was taught to take the initiative, to accept criticism, to be strictly responsible to his profession and to expect that great consideration would be given to his professional skill. When he was drawn into a contraction process it was difficult for him to follow. The opposite would be the case of the official who had his role‐learning in a contraction period ‐he would not find it so easy to adapt himself to the role expectations met in a detraction process. On account of these upheavals in the official's role the picture of the ideal official in one period will resemble the distorted picture of an official in another period. The enterprising, responsibility conscious and cause‐committed official would be an ideal in a detraction period but a frightening picture in a contraction period.The theory of political contraction‐ and detraction processes has therefore certain consequences for the accumulation of verified knowledge of bureaucratic behaviour, for the building up of a systematic theory of bureaucracy. It does not dismiss the possibility of making general assertions concerning bureaucratic behadour, but it stresses the need for cultural references for specification of time and place. In the words of Lasswell and Kaplan: "Empirical significance requires that the propositions of social science, rather than affirming unqualifiedly universal invariances, state relations between variables assuming different magnitudes in different social contexts. To omit this context is not to universalize the proposition, but rather to hide its particularized reference to the situations characteristic of our own culture." (Lasswell and Kaplan, 1958, p. XXI)This says, among other things, that one cannot generalize about bureaucratic organizations from intra‐bureaucratic data alone. Assertions that the bureaucracy will attract persons who wish to take responsibility or assertions to the opposite, that the bureaucracy will attract persons who wish to escape from responsibility, can both be confirmed and denied, because bureaucratic organization in a contraction process will appeal to people who wish to avoid responsibility while the same administration in a detraction process will attract the responsibility conscious and enterprising. Neither can it be generally said that officials in a bureaucratic organization will strive after independence or "power". The opposite can be the case, all depending upon the pattern of distribution between administration and political authorities. The officials' independence will change with time, in step with social changes.The greater part of common sense‐notions concerning bureaucratic behaviour are contradictory and this is not remarkable, the prebstige of popular wisdom rests entirely upon its probability to provide a proverb to suit every occasion. (Krech and Crutchfield, 1948, p. 41) Meanwhile, the same applies to many social science hypotheses and findings concerning bureaucratic behaviour; their area of validity has not been limited by data concerning the system‐situations in which the administrative organizations have worked. The official's behaviour cannot be explained by studies of internal administrative processes alone. The official's position will be defined by the expectations of the clientele in the widest sense — the public, press, associations and political authorities, i.e. the society with which the official comes into contact. These expectations move with the alterations in society and in the political system.
Issue 17.2 of the Review for Religious, 1958. ; A. M. D. G. Review for Religious MARCH 15, 1958 Teaching Brothers . Pope Plus XII Religious and Psychotherapy . Richard P. Vaughan A Sense of Balance . Robert W. Gleason Pattern for Religious Life . Da.ie~ J. M. Ca~aha. The Might of ~ood . c. A. I-lerbst Summer Sessions Book Reviews Communications (~uestions and Answers Roman Documents about: Movies, Radio, Television Seminarians and Religious The Role of the Laity VOLUME 17 NUMBER 2 RI::VII:::W FOR RI::LIGIOUS VOLUME 17 MARCH, 1958 NUMBER 2 CONTI::NTS THE HOLY SEE AND TEACHING BROTHERS . 65 SUMMER SESSIONS . 72 RELIGIOUS AND PSYCHOTHERAPY-- Richard P. Vaughan, S.J . 73 A SENSE OF BALANCE~Robert W. Gleason, S.J . 83 COMMUNICATIONS . 90 OUR CONTRIBUTORS . 90 THE PERFECT PATTERN FOR RELIGIOUS LIFEm Daniel J. M. Callahan, s.J . ' . 91 THE MIGHT OF GOD--C. A. Herbst, S.J . 97 SURVEY OF ROMAN DOCUMENTS~R. lq. Smith, S.J . 101 BOOK REVIEWS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS: Editor: Bernard A. Hausmann, S.J. West Baden College West Baden Springs, Indiana . 112 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS: 7. Sisters Overworked . 121 8. Elimination of Silence .¯ . 122 9. Illegitimacy and the Office of Local Superior . 123 10. True Meaning of Tradition in the Religious Life .124 11. General Councilor as Treasurer General . 126 12. Unsuitable Spiritual Reading . 127 REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, March, 1958. Vol. 17, No. 2. Published bi-monthly by The Queen's Work, 3115 South Grand Blvd., St. Louis 18, Mo. Edited by the Jesuit Fathers of St. Mary's College, St. Marys, Kansas, with ecclesiastical approval. Second class mail privilege authorized at St. Louis, Mo. Editorial Board: Augustine G. Ellard, S.J.; Gerald Kelly, S.J.; Henry Willmering, S.J. Literary Editor: Robert F. Weiss, S.J. Copyright, 1958, by The Queen's Work. Subscription price in U.S.A. and Canada: 3 dollars a year; 50 cents a copy. Printed in U.S.A. Please send all renewals and new subscriptions to: Review for Religious, 3115 South Grand Boulevard. St. Louis 18. Missouri. The Holy See and Teaching Bro!:hers A LETTER BY Pope Plus XII, dated March 31, 1954, and addressed to Cardizial Valeri, prefect of the Sacred Congre-gation of Religious, discussed the nature and dignity of the teaching brothers' vocation. The official Latin text of this letter is in Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 46 (1954), 202-5. Several English translations have appeared in our country. C, ornmen-tarium .pro religiosis, 33 (1954), 150-61, published the Latin text, with some annotations by Father A. Guti~rrez, C.M.F., and some interesting background. According to the Commentariurn, the procurators general of~i~!ght institutes of teaching brothers have the custom of meet-ing.~.' in Rome and discussing their mutual problems. The insti-tutes are: Christian Brothers; Christian Brothers of Ireland; Marists; Marianists; Brothers of Christian Instruction mel; Brothers of the Sacred Heart; Brothers of St. Gabriel; and the Xaverian Brothers. The main point discussed in their meeting in the spring of 1953 was the problem of vocations to their institutes, and especially the very delicate problem of mis-understanding by the clergy. Deeply concerned about this prob-lem, the procurators general de.cided to ask His Holiness for an official statement concerning the nature, .dignity, and value the teaching brothers' vocation and apostolate. Thus, with the approval of their own superiors and of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, they addressed a letter to the Pope. The French text of their letter, dated October 15, 1953, is given, in. the Commentarium /~ro religiosis. The Annotations Since Father Guti~rrez' remarks serve as a so~rt of brief commentary on the papal letter, the Gommenlarium publishes them immediately after the letter. It seems better for our 65 TEACHING BROTHERS Review for Religious purpose, however, to incorporate his principal points into this introductory background material because this will help to appre-ciate the' content of the papal letter, as well as of the letter addressed to the Pope by the procurators general. The principal points stressed by Father Guti~rrez are these: (1) The teaching brothers are religious in the full sense of canon law. (2) They have a special divine vocation, which is approved and specially protected by the Church. (3) Their apostolate of teaching is given to them by the Church itself; and the Church recognizes this apostolate as a higher call than Catholic Action. (4) The object of this apostolate is to form good men, good Catholics, and leaders; and this is accomplished not only by having excellent schools and teaching methods, but also and especially by teaching Christian doctrine and morality. (5) Since the pontifical institutes of brothers have received from the Holy See a commission to teach religion, they have a .right to exercise this apostolate within the limits of canon law. (6) One sign of the fruitfulness of the brothers' apostolate of teach-ing is the number oi: ecclesiastical vocations among their alumni. On the last point, Father Guti~rrez gives some interesting statistics concerning seven it~stitutes of teaching brothers with a total professed membeiship of 31,006. Of their former pupils who were still living in 19~3, there were 10 cardinals, 218 bishops, 31,938 priests, and 11,398 seminarians. I. Letter of the Procurators General Most Holy Father: The undersigned procurators general of eight institutes of teaching brothers lay at the feet of Your Holiness their respect-ful homage as loyal and obedient sons; and, in full agreement with the officials of the Sacred Congregation of Religious, they beg you graciously to consider a problem which their superiors are now making efforts to solve, that is, the misunderstanding by certain members of the clergy of the usefulness and canonical 66 TEACHING BROTHERS status of our vocation as lay religious men engaged in the teach-ing apostolate. Recalling the provisions of canon law (c. 107), Your Holi-ness declared to the religious' assembled in an international congress at the end of the Holy Year, I950, that "Between the two states--clerical and lay--which .constitute the Church, there falls the religious state." As religious with simple vows, our profession places us in the humblest category of the religious state. We are religious in so ~ar as we tend toward the perfection of charity by the practice of the ~three vows of the state of per-fection; we are laymen inasmuch as we have deliberately offered to God our sacrifice of~th_e priestly dignity and of the spiritual privileges which priests enjoy in order to concentrate all our activity on one apostolate alone: the Christian education of youth. This apostolate wa~ entrusted to us by the Holy Church. It is "a tedious work and a thankless task,''~ as Your Holiness pointed out when speaking to the m~sters of the French uni-versities on April 10, 1950; -But divine Providence. has con-tinually blessed such work and has rewarded it with the most noble of harvests through the priestly and religious vocations which spring up in our schools. "It is an unassailable fact that the number of p~iestly voca-tions is, if not the only criterion, at least one of the surest criterions for measuring the strength and fruitfulness of a Catholic school or of any Catholic educational institution." This is the judgment Your Holiness pronounced on May 28, 1951, at an audience marking the fifth centenary of the College Marc-antonio Colonna. The statistics on this subject which we have. the honor submitting to Your Holiness are based on the most recent research and are of such a nature as to console the heart of the Holy Father by showing in just what proportion the labors 6¸7 TEACHING BROTHERS Review for R~ligious teaching brothers contribute to the increase of the clergy through-ou~. the entire world. These results would be even more noteworthy if the nu-merical growth of our own institutes permitted us to answer all the appeals we are constantly receiving for the further expan-sion of our present works and for ventures into new fields of apostolic endeavor. We here touch upon the unfortunate problem which we wish to bring to the attention of Your Holiness. In many places our recruiting is hindered and the perseverance of those whom we do recruit is jeopardized by the misunderstanding or the opposition of certain members of the clergy. These ecclesi-astics are ignorant, or appear to be ignorant, of the canonical status of our vocation as well as of the mission which the Church, by its approbation of our institutes, has confided to us. In Appendix No. 2 0f this petition, we recount to Your Holiness some of the fallacious arguments disseminated against ui and some of the methods used in certain regions to turn young men away from our novitiates or to direct toward the clerical state some of our own religious even though already bound by perpetual profession. We thought, Most Holy Father, that a word from the Chair of Truth would-be most helpful to us in our efforts to refute these fallacies, to break down the prejudices which they engender, to encourage and guide souls of good will somewhat confused by these false ideas. The recent yearly congress of the Union of Teaching Brothers held at Paris--the report of which we beg you to receive as a humble testimony of our loyalty--seemed an appro-priate occasion for addressing the present petition to Your Holiness. Confident of the gracious welcome it will receive from the head of Christendom and the father of all religious and implor-ing your blessing, very respectfully we profess ourselves once 68 March, 1958 TEACHING BROTHERS more Your Holiness's most humble and obedient sonsR. ome, October 15, 1953. II. Letter of Pius XlI to Cardinal Valeri Beloved Son, Health and Apostolic Benediction: The procurators general of eight religious institutes of brothers, whose special mission is the instruction and education of youth, have presented Us with an official report of the annual meeting of the French provinces of their institutes, held last year at Paris, in order to inform Us of what had been accom-plished there and what they hope to accomplish in the future. At the same time, they besought Us in a submissive and respect-ful spirit to give them paternal instruction and to point out to them the best means to increase their numbers and to achieve the happiest results in their recruitment of vocations. That is what We gladly do in succinct form by means of this letter. And in the first place, We congratulate them very much, because We know with what zealous and untiring will these brothers are fulfilling the mission confided to them, a mission that can be of the greatest assistance to the Church, to the family, and to civil society itself. Indeed, their work is of great importance. Boys and young men are the blossoming hope of the future. And the course of events in the years ahead will depend especially upon those young men who are.instructed in the liberal arts and every type of discipline, so that they may assume the direction not only of their private affairs but also of public matters. If their minds are illumined by the light of the gospel, if their wills are formed by Christian principles and fortified by divine grace, then we may hope that a new gen-eration of youth will era"" t, appily triumph over the difficulties, beil -esently assail us a:ad which by its I e can establish a better and health. It is Our grent c~. ~nat these religious institutes are laboring to that end, guided by those wise rules 69 TEACHING BROTHERS Review for Religious which their founders have bequeathed to their respective insti-tutes as a sacred inheritance. We desire that they perform this task not only ~vith the greatest alertness, diligence, and devotion, but also animated by ~that supernatural spirit by which human efforts can flourish and bring forth salutary fruits. And specif-ically We wish that they strive to imbue the youth confided to them with a doctrine that is not only certain and free from all error, but which also takes account of those special arts and prodesses which the present age has introduced into each of the disciplines. But what is most !mportant is this, that they draw super-natural strength from their religious life, which they ought most intensively to live, by which they may form to Christian virtue the students committed to their care, as the mission confided to them by the Church demands. For if this virtue were relegated to a subordinate position or neglected entirely, 'neitl~er literary nor any other type of human knowledge would be able to estab-lish their lives in rectitude. In fact, these merely human attain-ments° can become effective instruments of "evil and unhappiness, especially at the age "which~ is as wax, so easily can it be fashioned to evil" (Horace, De arte l~Oetlca, 163). Therefore, let them watch over the minds and souls of their pupils; let them have a profound understanding of youth-ful indifference, of its hidden motivations, of its deep-seated drives, of its inner unrest and distress, and let them wisely guide them. Let them act with vigor to drive away at once and with the utmost determination, those false principles which are a threat to virtue, to avert every dange~ that-can tarnish the brightness of- their souls, and to so order all things about them that while the mind is being illumined by truth, the will may be tightly and courageously controlled and moved to embrace all that is good. While these religious brothers know that the education of youth is the art of arts and the science of sciences, they know, 70 March, 1958 TEACHING BROTHERS too, that they can do all these things with the divine aid, for which they pray, mindful of the word of the Apostle of the Gentiles: "I can do all things in Him who strengthenth Me" (Phil. 4:13). Therefore, let them cultivate their own piety as much as they can, as is only right for those who, although not called to the religious priesthood, yet have been admitted to the lay form of the religious life (c. 488, 4). Such a religious institute, although~ composed almost entirely of those who by God's special calling have renounced the dignity of the priest-hood and the consolations that flow therefrom, is all the same held in high honor by 'the Church and is of the gr.eatest assist-ance to the sacred ministry by the Christian formation of youth. On a previous occasion we turned our attention to this subject, saying: "The religious state is in no sense reserved to either the one or the other of the two types which by divine right exist in the Church, since not only the clergy but likewise the laity can be religious" (Allocution to the meeting of re-ligious orders held at Rome, AAS, 1951, p. 28). And by the very fact that the Church has endowed laymen with this dignity and status, it is quite plainly signified to all that each part this holy militia can labor, and very ~ffectively, both for its own salvation and that of others, according to the special canonical rules and norms by which each is regulated. Wherefore, let no one lack esteem for the members these institutes because they do rmt embrace the priesthood, or think that their apostolate is less fruitful. Moreover, it is afact well known to Us that they gladly encourage the youths com-mitted to their care for instruction and education to embrace the priesthood when it seems that" divine, grace is calling them. Nor is there any lack of instances of their former pupils who now adorn the ranks of the episcopate and even the Sacred College of Cardinals. These religious institutes merit and de-serve Our praise and that of the whole Church; they deserve, also, the good will of the bishops ~and" the ~ clergy, since they give them their fullest support, not o.nly in providing a fitting 71 TEACHING BROTHERS education for youth, but also in cultivating the vocations oi~ those students whom divine grace attracts to the sacred priest-hood. Therefore, let them hold to the way upon whichthey have entered, their vigor increasing day by day; and one with the other religious orders and congregations to whom this work has been confided, let them devote themselves to the instructior~ and education of youth with peaceful an~d willing souls. As a pledge of the divine help, which" we implore for them with earnest prayer, and as a testimony of Our personal benevo-lence, we lovingly impart the apostolic blessing to you, Our beloved son, and to each of the superiors of these institutes, to their subjects and to their pupils. Given at Rome, at St. Peter's, on the 31st day of the month of March, of the year 1954, the sixteenth year of Our pontificate. SUMMER SESSIONS [EDITORS' NOTE: The deadlinefor summer-session announcements to be included in our May number was March 1. Since the May number is the last one to be published before the summer sessions begin, it will be useless to send us further announcements for 1958. We wish to take this occasion to make one candid remark. In our November, 1957, number, page 32~, we outlined several specifications to be observed in draw-ing up summer-session announcements. Most deans who sent us announcements either completely or partially ignored these specifications. May we suggest that someone who reads this magazine might call his or her dean's attention to this?] St. Louis University will feature an institute in liturgical music: Gre~gorian Chant and Polyphony, June 9-13. During the six-week summer session, June 17 to July 25, there will be graduate courses .in the Theology .of the Mystical Body and in Moral and Ascetical Theology, together with undergraduate courses in Sacred Scripture, Divine Grace and Corporate Christianity, and in other topics. For further details write to: Department of Religion, St. Louis University, St. Louis 3, Missouri. Registration for the summer session at St. Bonaventure Uni-versity will take place on June 30. Classes will extend from July 1 until August 7. Special attention is called to the School of Sacred Services for the sisters. The purpose of this program is to afford teaching sisterhoods an opportunity of broaderiing and deepening their knowledge of religion and of acquiring a scientific and scholarly (Continued on page 81 ) 72 Religious and Psycho!:herapy Richard P. Vaughan, ~.J. THE PAST TWO decades have seen an ever-increasing awareness of the p~esence of mental illness in our midst. Newspapers and magazines have served as media to educate the public. As a result, the person who previously had been ac-cepted by his family and friends as "just naturally odd" is looked upon as mentally disturbed and in need of psychiatric care. The usual treatment of twenty or thirty years ago, which consisted of relegating the peculiar member of the family to the back of the house or excusing his presence by an embarrassing wink, has to a great extent given way to the realization that the emotion-ally and mentally ill can be helped only by adequate psychiatric treatment: Within the cloister and the convent, however, this changing attitude has been slow to make its appearance. Many superiors recognize signs of mental disorder in one or more ot: ¯ their subjects, but they are hesitant even to consider the pos-sibility of psychiatric aid. In general, they will exhaust every other possible source-of assistance before they will send the subject to a psychiatrist. If one stops to analyze this distrust, a number of reasons come to mind. Sources of Negative Attitudes In the first place, this negative attitude toward psychiatry is partially due to the historic role of the priest. From the earliest days of the Church, the clergy have been the accepted pastors of souls. The very notion of pastor implies a duty to guide and direct. Since there was no other source of profes-sional guidance until quite recently, the full burden of this duty fell upon the shoulders of the priest. It became the accepted practice for the faithful to seek his help when confronted with the vexing problems of phobias or compulsions as well as in their strivings toward spiritual perfection. As a matter of fact, many looked upon these purely psychological disorders as spiri-tual difficulties. 73 RICHARD P. VAUGHAN Review [or Religious This attitude has persisted uniil our own day. It is espe-cially prevalent among priests, brothers, and sisters. Even though experiende has shown that most prie.sts are not equipped to deal with pathological emotional disturbances, many religious cling to the outdated view that the priest should be the sole ~source of assistance. They are convinced that spiritual guidance and the frequent reception of the sacraments are the best remedies for neurotic disordeks. Psychiatric care is deemed necessary only in those cases where the individual can no longer live in the religious community. A further source of antagonism is tl~e materialistic and anti-religious philosophy held by some of the most important psy-chiatrists. Foremost among these is Sigrnund Freud, who. has done more to shape psychiatric thought than any other individual. Unfortunately, most rdligious have heard only of Freud's errors. They have made no attempt to understand his valuable contribu-tions to the science of treating the mentally ill or to sort out his scientific findings from a biased and i'rreligious philosophy, which came as an after-thought. They summarily dismiss Freud's works on the false assumption that their sole topic is sex in its basest form. This view has led to a condemnation of the scien-tific as well as the philosophical teachings of Freud. Since most psychiatrists are Freudian to a degree, a distrust for the whole profession has resulted. Finally, there are the often-quoted examples of seemingly immoral advice given by some psychiatrists. One of the traits of the mentally ill is a resistance to treatment. It sometimes hap-pens that this resistance takes the form of trying to undermine the reputation ot~ the therapist. If this can be successfully ac-complished, the neurotic feels justified in discontinuing treatment. Thus, he sometimes either consciously or unconsciously misin-terprets the words of the psychotherapist. This misinterpreta-tion gives rise to some of the stories of immoral suggestions offered during 'the sessions ot: therapy. Of course, it cannot be 0 74 Marck, 1958 RELIGIOUS AND PSYCHOTHERAPY said that this is true in every instance.~ Undoubtedly, thereare genuine cases of psychiatrists advocating sinful actions. Such advice does not, however, constitute good therapy. It is not the function 0~ the psychotherapist to make moral judgments 'for his patients. It is rather a sign of incompetence. However, just as there is a certain amount of incompetence in the other branches of medicine, so too we should expect it in psychiatry. We do not condone such incompetence, but look forward to the day when it will be eliminated. The s01ution to the problem is not to ~ondemn the whole .profession, but to know the qualifications of the psychotherapist to whom we refer a patient. Church's Position As can r~eadily be seen, the three above-mentioned sources of hostility toward psychiatry as a medium for treating mental illness are the product of personal attitudes and personal ex-perience. They in no way express the official view of the Church. Up to a few y~ars ago, the Church had not as yet officially indicated her position in regard ~o psychiatry. She prudently and cautiously waited before making any statement. The nega-tive views that were prevalent among Catholics some ten or fifteen years ago simpIy reflected the personal attitudes of a large percentage of the clergy. In 1953 th~ Holy Father, Pius XI.I, at the Fifth Congress of Psyhotherapy and Clinical Psychology concluded his address to the delegates with these words: "Further-more, be assured that the Church follows your research and your medical practice with warm interest and best wishes. You work on a terrain that is very difficult. Your activity, however, is capable of achieving precious results .for medicine, for the~ knowledge of souls in general, for the religious dispositions of man and for their development. May providence and divine grace light your path!" These words represent an official statement of the Church. They certainly indidate anything but a negative and hostile attitude toward the arduous work oi: the psycho.therapist. 75 RICHARD P. VAUGHAN Review for Religious Types of Psychiatry In general, therapy for the mentally ill takes two forms: one which is strictly medical and one which is psychological. The medical approach makes use of such means as brain surgery, electric shock tre~i~ment, and the use of drugs. This approach is entirely in the hands of medical specialists. The second ap-proach, which is called psychotherapy, makes use of a continuing series of interviews. This latter approach is not limited exclu-sively to the medical profession. At present, not only psychia-trists but also psychologists and psychiatric social workers are practicing psychotherapy. In a number 0f instances, the mem-bers of the latter two professions practice psychotherapy under the supervision of a psychiatrist, because of the physical impli-cations involved in many cases of mental illness. With those who are so seriously ill that little personal con-tact can be established, the purely medical techniques are used until such a time as psychotherapy can be profitable. With the less seriously disturbed, some psychiatrists make use of a com-bination of psychotherapy anddrugs, while others look upon drugs as a crutch and prefer to depend entirely upon psycho-therapy. It is this latter type of treatment toward which numer-ous religious are so antagonistic. If the only technique used by psychiatry were the administration of drugs or surgery, there would probably be much less oppogition to it. Psychotherapy If one surveys the history of mankind, it becomes apparent that a type of psychotherapy has been practiced for centuries. It seems safe to say that people have always had problems that they were unable to solve without the help of others, and these problems disturbed their emotional equilibrium in" varying de-grees of seriousness. The writings of ancient Greece and Rome tell of troubled individuals seeking advice and aid from the wise and learned. From the very beginnings of the Church, people brought their troubles and problems to the priest. In past 76 RELIGIOUS AND PSYCHOTHERAPY generations, most had a dlose friend with whom they could dis-cuss their most intimate affairs. The help derived from these above-mentioned sources came not only from the advice given by the friend, priest, or learned counselor, but also from the relationship that was established through numerous sessions of conversation and from the insight into the problem that the disturbed party g~ined through the very act of talking about it. However, because of a lack of knowledge and skill in deal-ing with human emotions and feelings, those consulted fre-quently found themseives at a loss to help those who sought their assistance. With the development of scientific methods in psychiatry, men discovered that they could apply the results of their in-vestigations to the emotionally and mentally ill and thus aid those who had previously been immune to all known sources of help. In this manner, psychotherapy, as it is known today, was born. One practices scientific psychotherapy when he car~ analyze an emotional disorder and then during the course of his dealings with the afflicted person apply the psychological techniques that are the product of fifty years of clinical experi-ence and research. The good therapist must have learning, skill, and experience. Basically, therefore, psychotherapy is nothing more than the age-old practice of aiding others through communication, but now built upon a scientific foundation. It has the added factor that the therapist has a psychological knowledge and skill which his predecessor lacked. Morality and Psychotherapy Since religious men and women are by no means free from emotional and mental disorders, the development of psycho-therapy should have offered a welcome solution to a very vexing and persistent problem. However, owing to the previously mentioned factors, a negative and hostile attitude arose among religious toward the whole movement. As a result of this at-titude, today when a religious superior is faced with the necessity of seeking psychiatric help for a subject, he frequently hesitates 77 RICHARD P. VAUGHAN Review for Religious for a "considerable length of time, questioning the advisability of such a step. Because of the seemingly close connection between religion, morality, and psychiatry, the superior sees in psycho-therapy a potential danger to the faith and religious vocation of the subject. Psychiatric aid has, therefore, become in most instances a last resort. For the most part, this attitude is built upon a false notion of the nature of psychiatric treatment. The treatment of mental illness pertains to the science of medidine. Just as there are specialists in the fields of surgery, obstetrics, and internal medicine, so too there are specialists in the area of mental disease. The specialist in this branch of medicine is the psychiatrist. His training, which consists of three years of concentrated study and work with the mentally ill over and beyond his general course in medicine, adequately equips the psychiatrist to treat the mentally ill. His auxiliaries, the psychologiit and psychiatric social worker, likewise have an in- ¯ tensive training; but the orientation of their studies restricts their activity to psychotherapy and diagnostic testing. The religious who .is psychotic or neurotic is just as sick as the religious with a heart or stomach disorder. And he is just as much in need of treatment. He, therefore, has an equal righ~ to the specialized services of those who have been trained to treat his particular disorder. In all probability, unless he does obtain this specialized care, his condition will grow progressively worse. In view of this fact, the emotionally afflicted priest, brother, or sister is certainly justified in making a request for psychiatric care. And in those cases where the mentally ill are unable to make such a request because of their disorder, superiors have the obligation to see that these sick religious obtain specialized treatment. We are all bound to preserve our life and health. Severe mental diseases sometimes hasten death, and in almost every instance undermine physical health. More-over, mental health is equally as important as physical health for happy and efficient living. The superior, therefore, who disregards the condition of a severely neurotic or psychotic sub- 78 March, 1958 RELIGIOUS AND PSYCHOTHERAPY ject because of an erroneous prejudice against psychiatric treat-ment works a gross injustice upon the afflicted religious. Any Psychiatrist? Granted that a religious is given permission to seek psy-chiatric treatme.nt, the next problem that presents itself deals with the particular therapist to whom the religious is sent. In brief, should a priest, brother, or sister seek the services of any psychiatrist? Obviously, some psychiatrists have a'better reputa-tion than others, just as some heart specialists have a better repu-tation than others. Thus, it seems needless to say that religious should seek out the best possible psychiatric treatment available in the area. This means that the therapist should be competent in his profession.One of the foremost characteristics of a com-petent psychiatrist, in addition to knowledge and skill, is a deep understanding and respect for the person of his patient. These two factors result in a relationship between the patient and the therapist that becomes the cornerstone of successful treatment. Understanding and respect naturally include an appreciation of the religious and moral convictions of the patient, since these are an integral part of'his ipersonality. Thus, contrary to the thinking of a number of priests and sisters, the competent psychiatrist does not try to undermine the faith and moral principles of his patient but rather accepts these convictions. He knows that he has had no specialized training in religion and morality which would qualify him as an authority in these areas, Furthermore, he looks upon these areas as foreign to his "function as a professional man. Should a religious problem arise with a patient, he sends the patient to a specialist; namely, the priest who is a trained theologian. Thus, any conflict that might arise between morality and psychiatry is the product of incompetency rather than the natural outcome of the psychotherapeutic process. A Catholic Psychiatrist? One of the questions which is most frequently asked is whether a Catholic should seek the services of a Catholic psy- 79 RICHARD P. VAUGHAN Review for Religious chiatrist in preference to those of a non-Catholic. This question is especially pertinent when one is dealing with a religious who is in. need of psychotherapy. If there is a choice between two psychiatrists who are equally skilled, but one is a Catholic and the other is notl then it would seem that the better choice would be ~he Catholic. The reason for such a choice does not rest upon moral issues, but rather upon the need for full under-standing of the patient. A Catholic psychiatrist is in a much 'better position to understand the religious life and all its implications than the non-Catholic. Thus he is more likely to be able to offer greater assistance to the mentally-ill religious. However, it sometimes happens that a particular non-Catholic psychiatrist has a deep interest in priests, brothers, and nuns and, as a result, has spent considerable time and effort in trying to gain an appreciation of the religious life. In such instances, it may well be that the non-Catholic psychiatrist is equally as well equipped to treat the religious as the Catholic psychiatrist. It should also be noted that the fact that a psychiatrist is a Catholic does not mean that he is a good psychiatrist and capable of treating religious. Some Catholics have little understanding of or sym-pathy for the religious life. In those few cases where religious and moral problems are deeply interwoven with the neurotic co.ndition, the Catholic psychiatrist who is well versed in his faith is in a considerably better position to help the religious patient than the non-Catholic, because he has a better understanding of what his patient is trying to convey to him. It is needless to say that in these instances the priest with training in psychotherapy is in a unique position. Unfortunately, however, there are very few priests who have sufficient skill and experience in psychotherapy. In the majority of psychological problems found among religious, however, faith and mo.rality play a relatively minor role. Generally speaking, the roots of the disorder spring from those periods of life which preceded entrance into the convent 80 March, 1958 RELIGIOUS AND PSYCHOTHERAPY or cloister. The conflicts" and problems that have to be faced are of such a nature as to be experienced by any patient, re-gardless of faith or walk of life. In these instances, psycho-therapy aims at helping religious get at the source of the neurosis and then change the patterns of thinking and feeling that pro-duce the condition. Thus, for many emotionally disturbed religious the non-Catholic psychiatrist who has some under-standing of the religious life is adequately equipped to handle treatment. Conclusion The pr~actice of psychotherapy is a rapidly developing method of treating mental illness. Because of certain negative attitudes and a lack of understanding, many religious hesitate to make use of it or turn to ~t only as a last resort. As a result, numerous priests, brothers, and sisters needlessly continue to suffer untold anguish from the various forms of mental and emotional illness. In as much as mental and emotional dis-turbances disrupt the whole personality and hinder advance in the spiritual life, this usually unfounded distrust of psychiatry is in all likelihood damaging the growth of the religious 'spit:it in our country. Summer Sessions (Continued from page 72) understanding of the teaching of the Church. Further information will be gladly supplied by the Director of Admissions, St. Bona-venture University, Olean, New York. The Theology Department of Mai'quette University will offer two non-credit summer institdtes from June 30 to July 12. An institute on canon law for religious will be conducted by Father Francis N. Korth, S.J., J,C.D., a specialized lecturer and consultant in canon law. The institute will provid~ a thorough course in the current church law for religious. Although the lectures are designed especially for superiors, mistresses of novices, councilors, bursars, and others engaged in administrative or governing functions," other religious would profit from the course. These lectures will be held in the mornings. In the afternoons an institute on prayer will be 81 SUMMER SESSIONS conducted by Father Vincent P. McCorry, s.J, author, professor, and spiritual director. The purpose of the institute is strictly prac-tical: to provide for an interested group such exposition and direction as will enable the individual religious to practice mental prayer with greater fidelity and profit. Campus housing for the institute par-tidipants will be the new Schroeder Hall. For further information write: Director of Summer Institutes, Marquette University, Mil-waukee 3, Wisconsin. Graduate courses in theology leading to the Master of Arts degree will also be offered. The two introductory courses i:or those students entering the graduate theology program are: Fundamental Theology which will be taught by Father Bernard .L Cooke, S.J'., S.T.D., of Marquette University, and the Church of Christ to be conducted by Father Cyril O. Vollert, s.J., S.T.D., professor of theology at St. Mary's, Kansas. For advanced students, The Unity and Trinity of God will 'be taught by Father John J. Walsh, s.J., S~T.D., of Weston College, Weston, Massachusetts; and Father R. A. F. MacKenzie, S.J., S.S.D., of the Jesuit Seminary, Toronto, Canada, will conduct the course on Special Topics in Scripture. For further information about the program write to: The Graduate School, Marquette University, Milwaukee 3, Wisconsin. In the Canadian capital, the Pontifical Catholic University of Ottawa offers courses in its summer school, July 2 to August 6, leadin~ to the degree of Master of Arts in Sacred Studies. The curriculum stresses the kerygmatic presentation ot: theology. It is planned particularly to meet the needs of sisters and brothers teach-ing religion, and of novice mistresses or others giving religious or spiritual instrudtion. These courses are also open to students work-ing toward other degrees. The summer school offers a separate series of courses in sacred studies in which the language of instruc-tion is French. For the sacred studies prospectus and the complete summer school announcement, write: Reverend Gerard Cloutier, O.M.I., Director of the Summer School, or Reverend Maurice Giroux, O.M.I., Head of the Department of Sacred Studies, University of Ottawa, Ottawa 2, Canada. Immaculate Heart College, Los Angeles, California, will open a iix-week summer session on June 24. An extensive liberal arts program leading to the Bachelor of Arts and Master of Arts degrees will be supplemented by workshops in art, drama, language arts, and library science. T[fe curriculum of undergraduate courses lead-ing to a Certificate in Theology will be continued this summer. The Immaculate" Heart Graduate School will ina~ugurate a new depart-ment of religious education, offering a major ia theology and minors in Sacred Scripture or church history. Elective courses will be given in Catholic Social Thought and Liturgy. Designed especially to prepare teachers of religion ~•or high school and college, this program .is open to those who hold a Bachelor of Arts degree from an accredited college (with a major in any field) and. have sufficient (Continued on page 128) 82 A Sense Balance Robert ~X/. Gleasonr S.J. IT IS CHARACTERISTIC of Christian doctrine to maintain the delicate balance between extremes. Moreover, without los-ing hold of any aspect of a" complex truth, the Church unites all its elements in a synthesis that throws light on each of them. And the Christian himself is often called upon to do something of the same sort in his spiritual life. He has to tread a careful path between attitudes which are apparently opposed, though each of them reflects some truth. This di~i-culty is sometimes experienced when the Christian soul ap-proaches the antinomy between the natural and the supernatural or between what we migh't call the accent of optimism and the accent of pessimism in Christianity. For both currents, opti-mism and pessimism, have played an historic role in Christian thinking; and both seem destined to be with us for ~quite awhile. Each of these perspectives is capable of dangerous exaggeration', ~for Pelagianism is an overblown optimism and Jansenism is pessimism run riot. As an examl61e of a thoroughly unchristian pessimism, we might point to those words of the French novelist Andr~ Gide: "Commandments of God you have embittered my soul; com-mandments of God you have rendered my soul sick; will you never draw a limit? Will you go on forever forbidding new things? Is all that I have thirsted for as beautiful on earth, forbidden, punishable? Commandments of God you have poisone.d my soul." Gide was a tortured personality, even to the end of his life; and in these lines we can perhaps glimpse a reason for his unhappiness. For they reveal a fundamentally unchristian point of view, a thoroughly pessimistic point of view that perfectly reflects his Calvinistic background. In striking contrast to those lines are two sentences from St. John's Gospel which are almost startling in their optimism. 83 ROBERT W. GLEASON Review for Religious In the tenth chapter of that Gospel, Christ the Lord, the Alpha and Omega of truth, gives us a summary of His plat-form. "I am come that you may have life and have it more abundantly." In this direct utterance Christ enuntiates a posi-tion of relative optimism. He explains the purpose of His existence as Incarnate Word, both God and Man, and He explains it in terms of an increase of life---an optimistic point 'of view, surely. He put it in other words at other times, but they all come down to the same thing in the end. He also said: "Those who are well have no need of a doctor; I am come to the sick." And He said: "I am come to rescue all that which was in the act of perishing." But perhaps the clearest expression of His purpose is that simple declaration: am come that you may have life and have more of it." In that one line Christ compressed the whole spirit of what we might call Christian optimism. It has taken philosophers and theologians a good many years to unravel some of the implica-tions of the program summed up in these few words. God has planned a new life for us; He has planned to expand, to increase our capacity for living beyond any capacity we might have dreamed of. In fact, He has planned for us an entirely new grade of life~-known as the life of sanctifying grace. The story of Christ's coming we usually call the Gospels; and the Gospels, the e.vangels,are the great and good news, the announcement of the definitive victory of this new life over death, over sin, and over Satan. As the whole of human history unfolds before us centered in this momentous figure of Christ in whom God wrote the definitive chapter of the history of our salvation, we cannot but feel the optimistic position in which we Christians of these latter days find ourselves. The victory belongs to the Christian; that is the meaning of Christ. The victory over death, sin, and Satan is ours. Is ours, we must say, not will be ours, for Christ, our Victory, already exists. We have conquered in Him; and 84 Ma~'ch, 1958 A SENSE OF BALANCE the victory is ours for we ,are not separated from the conquering hero, rather we are closely united by physico-mystical ~bonds to Him who has the victory, who won it on Calvary. There is one of our race and family, one of .us, crowned with victory in the glory of the Trinity in heaven. And His victory i.s ours for He did not enter into it as an isolated individual alone, but as the Head of the Body, His Church, .of which we are mem-bers. The Head of the great column o.f humanity to which we belong has already entered upon His triumph; and, if we but remain united to Him, our victory too is assured and inevitable. After the conquest which was Calvary, then, there is really no place in the Christian life for a depressed pessimism. There is no place for a spirit of defeatism. There is no place for a small-spirited, mean-spirited mentality. We are the victors al-ready, and ours is a ~spirit of optimism. Despite this, life still has its dangers and its difficulties. The roses did not lose their thorns on Easter day. Because this is true, the Christian must be realistic about the dangers ~nd the difficulties of life. His traditional asceticism, maintained in a spirit of optimism, will preserve him from both'. But at bottom there still remain two fundamentally opposed ways of looking at life. One we have labeled pessimistic, and Gide's words exemplify it. The other we may call optimistic, and the words of St. John are its charter. The pessimistic attitude is negative. It is a depressed view 6f things ifi wh~ich the vic-torious Redemption which has already taken place appears to be forgotten. It might seem a~ though such an attitude could never creep into authentically Christian li~es, yet, since error is al-ways possible, even for the well-intentioned, such negati~,e at-titudes have not been entirely unknown even among earne'st Christians. It is surprisingly easy t6 drift into these" dangerous waters, particularly if one's theological perspectives are' awry. This will be clear if we think for a moment on the rigfi't and the wro_ng understandings of certain religious realities. 85 ROBERT W. GLEASON Review fo~" Religious Consider, for example, the way in which these two classes of souls, the negative and the positive, approach the great mystery of God. The negative ~oul will light at once upon certain isolated texts from Scripture and come up with a picture of God as a hard Master who reaps where He did not sow, who lies hidden in the shadows of our life, always prepared to fall upon us in a moment of surprise and seize us in some misdoing or sin. The God of these people is a hard God, ready at any moment to drag out the account books and show us our deficits, not omitting the idle words. Alas, if God takes to playing the mathematician, how few of us can endure. For as the De Pro/undis puts it: "Lord, if you take to numbering our in-iquities, who ot: us shall survive?" ,. The attitude of the op.timistic Christian, on the other hand, is quite different. He knows that God is the absolute Lord and Master, the unapproachably holy and just one, the transcendent, the totally.other. But He also recalls God's recorded definition of Himself, "For God is love." St. John gives Us this phrase, and St. John was neither pietistic nor particularly poetic. He was an excellent theologian, the best in this respect of all the evangelists; and his definition is inspired. God' is indeed a just God, but He is als0 a justifying God. He justifies us irz His sight by the free, undeserved gift of His grace. He is indeed a demanding God--"I am a jealous God"--but He is never hard, uncomprehending, or cruel. He is very demanding, and His demands are ever-increasing. But they all go in the same direction. For they all rgquire us to accept more from Him. God insists that we prepare ourselves, with His help, to receive His floods of generosity. He asks us, to be sure, for ~more--more acceptance, more readiness to receive the new gifts He has laid up for us. His demaads are the demands of one who loves, not the demands of a suspicious bank auditor. We see somewhat the same contrasts if we look at the way these two classes of souls regard man himself. For ~he 86 March, 1958 A SENSE OF BALANCE pessimistic soul, man is essentially/ a spoiled creature, a ruined, unbalanced creature all too heavily laden with the effects of original sin. Evil seems so often triumphant in him. Hell is always just around the corner. Satan appears to 'be the real victor in this world, and man is his victim. Man is a poor thing; his nature is fallen. The phrase "fallen human nature" is repeated even with a certain relish. Fallen indeed, but fallen and redeemed, replies the Christian soul. We cannot underrate the Redemption of Christ our God. Satan is not triumphant. His back was broken on a certain hill outside Jerusalem, and the victory of Christ is written large for all to see who have eyes to.look upon a crusifix. Man is no .ruined, spoiled .creature, half-demon and victim of his own determinisms. He is the spoils of the victory of Christ. He is the prize of the Redemption, won in the sweat and the blood and the tears of Calvary and valued at a great price, bought with no blood of oxen or goats, but with the blood of Him who is God. In. the center of :all creation stands Jesus Christ, and with Him stands man. We two, He and I, are members of the same race, members of the same family. Where sin did abound now grace does superabound. Grace it is which replaces sin at baptism and raises us to the heights of quasi-equality, where we can claim the friendship of the God of the Old and the New Testaments. We Christians are a family with a great tradition. We are wounded but remade and more marvelously remade, for God does not do a poor patchwork job when He repairs us. In our family we have legions of martyrs, men like us. We have legions of virgins, men like us. We have legions of con-lessors in our family, and t.hey have all put their merits at our disposal for this is only normal in a loving family. When we turn trrom the question of the meaning of God and of man to the third great problem of the spiritual life, the 87 ROBERT W. GLEASON Review for Religion,s meaning of creatures, we find the same two contrasting attitudes. For the negative, pessimistic soul creatures are all deformed, twisted beings with little value or meaning in themselves. They are only tenuous beings serving us as instruments. In general they are things to be feared, for they are all traps for the unwary soul. They all conspire to ensnare man and to destroy him. But the genuine Christian insight discovers in creatures.a meaning, and a dignity of their own; for they, too, are mirrors of God. The sacred humanity of our Lord is a creature; and, if it is a net, it is a net designed to catch and save us--that I may be caught by Christ, says St. Paul. The wine at Mass and the water at baptism and the oi! of 'confirmation . . . all are creatures. We live in a sacramental universe in which all crea-tures speak of God. For they are the means God has given us to form us as His children. They are called by" a wise and ancient writer "our viaticum," our sustenance during this period when we are on the way. It is on creatures that we practice our apprenticeship in the art of loving God. They do demand of us a wise, lucid, and generous choice; but they 'are not evil. We learn much about loving God from our use of them--a use that can take many forms from contemplation to absention. Creatures always have a role to play in our lives, and we cannot forget that we too have a role to play in theirs. We have to reconsecrate them to God and rededicate them to Christ, the Center and Owner of all cre~turedom. We have to bless them by our use and stamp them with the image of the risen Lord. Does not the Church write special blessings for such shiny new creatures as typewriters and fountain pens? In doing so she resp'onds to the age-old appeal of creaturedom for its redemption. For the very material world about us groans for the day of its liberation, and we are called upon to extend to it the effects of the Redemption.~ 88 March, 1958 ASENSE OF BALANCE Of course, with such different conceptions of the world, the two classes of souls we have been envisaging will regard the moral or spiritual life in very different lights. For the negative soul the moral life is a long battle, a series of prohibitions, an ever-expanding Decalogue that is purely negative. Above all, one must be on his guard to do nothing to .anger a God who is always ready for anger. Do nothing that can be punished . . and there is almost nothing that is not tainted in some fashion, and so punishable. Such a view, replies the truer Christian, is essentially in. adequate. The moral life consists above all in living, in doing something, in being something. It consists in life and an expansion of our divinized life so that we may live for God and gro.w in love and make our talents fructify. Virtues ire not negative dispositions but positive .dispositions. And prime among all the don'ts on that list is the one great and transcendently great do. "Thou shalt Love the Lord thy God." The spiritual life is not one long escapism. It is not a flight from life. It is a positive living of love for God and my neighbor. The Christian soul's apostrophe would run quite differently from Gide's. "Commandments of God," the Christian would say, "you are all so many-signposts on 'the road toward the lasting city; you point out the road to love and of developing life to foolish humanity. And if I but read you right, you are all so many declarations of love on the part of God for me. Commandments of God, you indicate and you preserve all that life has to offer that is beautiful and worthy of search. Without you beauty would dry up from the face of a scorched earth." The pessimist has an unrealistic view of God and the world, for he lives as though the Redemption had an incomplete efficacy. The realism of the Christian's optimism takes into account both his own weakness and the power of God who has conquered the world. The pessimist's view is an incomplete view and an incomplete truth; it needs to be completed with 89 COMMUNICATIONS a real assent to the truth of the Redemption, gloriously accom-plished. For an incomplete truth is a half-truth, and a half-truth is nearly as dangerous as a lie. Communica!:ions More on Delayed Vocations (See REVIEW Fog RELIGIOUS, May', 1957, page 154) Reveiend Fathers: The Congregation of Handmaids of the Sacred Heart of Jesus professes a special worship of reparation to the Sacred Heart of Jesus, above all in the Blessed Sacrament. This spirit of reparation is concentrated in daily adoration before the Blessed Sacrament exposed, and offered in an active apostolate in the education of youth, retreat work, catechetical instruction, and foreign missions. The spiritual training is based on the rules of St. Ignatius. The Handmaids have some sixty houses throughout the world. The mother house is in Rome. Mission work has taken 'root both in South America and in Japan. A future field of work is opening up in India. The foundress of the congregation, Blessed Raphaela Mary oic the Sacred Heart, was beatified in 1952, only twenty-seven years after her death. Her process of canonization is now,going on. Candidates are accepted up to the age of thirty. Those who wish to dedicate themselv'es to domestic work are accepted up to the age of thirty-eight. We accept widows. Our novitiate is located in Haverford, Pennsylvania. Private retreats, may be made there by a candidate to decide her vocation. Mother Maria Angelica Iq'an, A.C~J. Handmaids of the Sacred Heart of Jesus 700 East Church Lan~ Philadelphia 44, Pennsylvania OUR CONTRIBUTORS RICHARD P. VAUGHAN, an assistant professor of psychology at the University of San Francisdo and a staff member of the McAuley Clinic, St. Mary's Hospital, is currently engaged, in psychotherapy with religious men and women. ROBERT W. GLEASON is a professor of dogmatic theology in the Graduate School of Fordham University, New York. DANIEL J. M. CALLAHAN is professor of ascetical and mystical theology at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland. C. A, HERBST is now a missionary in Seoul, Korea. 9O The Pert:ec(: Pa!:l:ern t:or Religious Lit:e Daniel J. M. Callahan, S.J. DIVINE REVELATION assures us of our elevation to the supernatural state and of'the o.rganism which equips us for life and action on that superhuman level. The question immediately presents itself: Who will inspire us to respond to God's .beneficence and supply the pattern for such a life? God predestines us to be, not creatures only, but His children through adoption and heirs of His beatitude. ~Voblesse oblige; rank has its obligations; nobility of station demands nobility of con-duct. As God's children we should resemble our Father in our conduct no less than in our nature, and such is the injunction placed on us by Christ: "~ou therefore are to be perfect, even as your heavenly Father is perfect" (Matt. 5:48) and resumed by St. Paul in his letter to the Ephesians (5:1): "Be you, there-fore, imitators of God, as very dear children and walk in love, as Christ also loved us." To imitate God we must first know Him, and this is one reason why He has manifested I-Iimself to us. in His Son and through His Son. It is by means of the Incarnation that the Son has revealed to us the Father. Christ, the incarnate Son of the Father, is God brought within human reach under a human expression, and in Him and through Him we know the Father. In reply to Philip's request: "Lord, show us the Father and it is enough for us," Jesus said to him, "Have I been so l~ng a time with you, and you have riot knowa Me? t~hilip, he who sees Me, sees also the Father . . . I am in the Fathe.r and the Father in Me" (John 14:8 ft.). To know and imitate God, we have only to know and imitate H~s Son, who i~ the expression at once divine and human of the perfec-tions of the Father. Jesus is perfect God and perfect, man, and under both aspects He is the ideal for every one, for religious most of all. 91 DANIEL J. M. CALLAHAN Review for Religio~ts He is the natural Son of Go,d, and it is His divine sonship that is the primary type or pattern of our divine adoption. Our filiation is a participation of His eternal filiation; through Him and from Him we share in divine grace, are in reality God's children and partake of His life. Such is to be the fundamental characteristic of our likeness to Jesus, the indispensable requisite for our sanctity. Unless we possess sanctifying grace, we are dead spiritually; and all that we can do is of no strict merit entitling us to our everlasting inheritance. We shall be coheirs with Christ only if we are His brethren through habitual grace. Here it may not be amiss to examine our appraisement of sanctifying grace, our prudence in safeguarding it, and our diligencd in its increment in our souls. Do we ~ippreciate its embellishing effects and how unlovely and helpless we are with-out it? Mortal sin alone despoils us of this precious treasure; and, because we are subject to temptation from within and from without, it is expedient, at least occasionally, to probe our atti-tude to sin, to the frailties and perhaps unmortified passions that induce it, and to the constructive measures to be adopted. Growth is the law of life, and it is through the cultivation of the theological and moral virtues that we are to fortify and expand our supernatural life. . Every least good action per-formed with the requisite intention by one in the state of grace, as well as every sacrament worthily received, effects in us an iricrease in grace and in all the infused virtues. Christ is in truth a perfect man, and in this He is for us the attractive and accessible model of all holiness. In an in-comparable degree" He practiced all the virtues compatible with His condition. He did not have faith in God, for this theo-logcal virtue exists only in a soul which does not enjoy the immediate vision of God, a vision that was Christ's privilege from the mbment of the Incarnation. He did, however, have that submission of will inherent in faith, that reverence and adoration of God the supreme truth that imparts to faith its excellence. Neither did Christ possess the virtue of hope in the proper sense, 92 March, 1958 PATTERN FOR RELIGIOUS LIFE since the function of this 'virtue is to enable us to ddsire and'to expect the possession of God and the means necessary for its attainment. Only in the sense that Christ could desire and expect the glorification of His body and the accidental honor that would accrue to Him after the Resurrection, could He have hope. Charity He possessed and practiced to a supreme degree: the purest love of the Father and of His adopted children in-undated His soul and motivated His activities. Love unites the wills of the lovers, fusing them into oneness of desire and con-duct. Christ's first act in entering into the world was one of ardent love: "Behold I come . . . to do Thy will, O God" (Matt. 10:7), and His subsequent life was the prolongation of His initial sacrifice: "Of Myself I do nothing He who sent Me is with Me; He has not left Me alone, because I do always the things that are pleasing to Him" (John 8:26 ft.). Our Blessed Lord's soul was adorned with all the moral vir-tues: humility, meekness, kindness, patience, prudence, jus-tice, temperance, chastity, fortitude, zeal, each in its own per-fection. His every least action glorified and eulogized His Father, and was the object of the latter's complacency, as voiced by Himself: "This is My beloved Son in whom I am ~ell pleased" (Matt. 3:17), a proclamation which covered everymome.nt and every deed of Christ's life. His actions as man, while in them-selves human, were divine in their principle, for there was in Him only one person, a divine person, performing all in union with the Father and in the most complete dependence on the divinity and therefore confdrring on the Father infinite glory. Religious, obligated by their state to strive for perfection, have need of an ideal, of a perfect pattern to be realized in their lives. Mere human beings are too imperfect. God in His divine nature seems too distant from us and beyond our repro-duction. The God-man is the consummate ideal for all, at all times, for childhood, youth, maturity; for the hidden, public, apostolic, and suffering life. There is no phase of human life' which He does not exemplify, illustrate, adorn, and enoble. 93 DANIEL J. i~I. CALLAHAN Review fo~" Religious Far from resembling the cold blueprint of the architect or the lifeless page of our favorite author, Jesus is always the most attractive and appealing man who lived in circumstances similar to our own; and, while He enlightens our mind, He awakens love and emulation in the will, meanwhile offering the necessary strength and the assurance of ultimate success. In our endeavor to fashion a Christlike character, obviously there is need of intelligent interpretation. As we turn over the pages of our New Testament, often we read of deeds that were the outcome of superhuman power and clearly beyond us. However, even in such instances we can fall back on the spirit and motive of these achievements. Christ used His infinite ¯ power, not for His selfish aggrandizement, but for the honor of the Father and the benefit of souls--a procedure within our finite reach and sedulously to be duplicaked. In our attempt to imitate Christ we are constrained by the nature of the case to reduce His traits to terms of human capability. We cannot, for instance, forgive sins against God; but we can pardon offences against self. We are unable immediately to cure the sick, but we can alleviate their sufferings by sympathy and kind-ness. We may not be permitted to spend the night on the mountain in prayer with Jesus, but we can cultivate the spirit of communion with God amidst our activities throughout the day and pray with attention when we do pray. We may not be in a position to teach with authority, but we can say a salutary word of instruction and counsel when occasion offers. We may not hope to die for mankind, but we can sacrifice our-selves for the convenience and happiness of our fellow religious. 'We are not called on to undergo the scourging and the crown-ing with thorns, but we are expected to endure a little pain or accept a humiliation without becoming ill-tempered and render-ing others miserable. We cannot redeem the world from sin, but we can exercise zeal in promoting the fruits of the redemp-tion by shunning sins ourselves and prudently doing what may be feasible to draw our neighbor to a better life. Thus, every- 94 March, 1958 PATTERN FOR RELIGIOUS LIFE where we can reduce our Lord's example to the humbler terms of ordinary life; and, out of the result, together with appropriate precepts from His moral teaching, we can construct for our-selves an ideal which, ever haunting our minds, is to be pon-dered and realized, or at least aspired to systematically in shap-ing our lives. "A Christian is another Christ" applies with' additional force to every religious. These have dedicated their lives to Jesus in order to share through sanctifying grace in His divine filiation and to reproduce by their virtues the features of His asceticism. To ambition a career so sublime, far frora being presumption, is God's eternal design for them and His sincere will Jesus said: "I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father but through Me" (John 14:6). Such is the pattern faith proposes to us, truly transcendent and yet easy of access, since through grace we share in the divine filiation of Christ and our activity is supernaturalized. Clearly we keep our personality, remaining by nature merely human creatures. Our union with God, however intimate, is accidental, not substantial; but it in-creases in perfection the more the autonomy of our personality, in the order of activity, is effaced before the divine. If we "desire to intensify our intimacy to the extent that nothing interposes between God and us, we are to renounce not only sin and willfdl imperfection, but moreover we are to despoil ourselves of our personality in so far as it obstructs perfect union. It is such an obstacle when our self-will, our inordinate self-love, our suscepti-bilities lead us to think and to behave otherwise than in accord-ance with the divine will. The habitual attitude of soul which wills to keep in everything the proprietorship of its activities seri-ously hampers familiarity with God. We must, therefore, bring our personality to a complete capitulation before Him and make Him the supreme, mover of our thoughts, volitions, words, and actions, entire life. Only when we have divested ourselves of our excessive attachment to self and to other creatures, in order to surrender ourselves to God in absolute dependence on His good 95 DANIEL J. M. CA~LAHAN pleasure, shall we have attained to the perfect imitation of Christ and be able to say with St. Paul: "It is now no longer I that live, but Chrisf lives in me. And the life that I now live in the flesh, I live in the faith of the Son of God who loved me and gave Himself up for me. I do not cast away the grace of God" (Gal. 2:20-21). And we should apply to ourselves his plea to the Romans (12:.I): "I exhort you therefore brethren, by the mercy of God, to present your bodies as a sacrifice, living, holy, pleasing to God, your spiritual se~rvice. And be not conformed to this world, but be transformed in the newness of your mind, that you may discern what is the good and the acceptable and the perfect will of God." Christ is the head of the Mystical Body of which we are the members, and there should be identity of life and conduct in both. He has merited for us the courage and strength ¯ requisite; and divine revelation assures us that with Him, in Him, and through Him we are competent to travel the one and only way to the Father. Our persevering endeavor consequently should be to know Christ more thoroughly and more intimately through prayer, study, and our manner of life: "He who has My command-ments and keeps them, he it is who loves Me. But he who loves Me will be loved by My Father and I will love him and manifest Myself to him" (John 14:21). Love issues from knowledge, and love adjusts our daily conduct to that of Jesus. This was the mind of St. Paul when he reminded his converts of Ephesus that they were to be: "No longer children, tossed to and fro and carried about by every wind of doctrine devised in the wicked-ness of men, in craftiness, according to the wiles of error. Rather are we to practice the truth in love and to grow up in all things in Him who is the head, Christ . Be renewed in the spirit of your mind, and put on the new man which has been created acdording to God in justice and holiness of truth" (Eph. 4:14- 24). To accomplish in us this transformation is the precise pur-pose for which Jesus comes to us in Holy Communion. 96 The MighI: o1: C. A. I-.lerberI:, S.J. A meditation made at sea enroute to the Korean missions AS THE S. S. Fair/~ort plows her way through the wild Pacific a few thousand miles out of San Francisco, the thought that strikes one forcefully is the thought of the might of God. Religious seem not to emphasize this attribute of God so much, seem almost to de-emphasize it, in fact. It is rather God's love and mercy that occupy their thoughts and prayers. Yet in God's mind and in that of His Church, His almighty power stands out. "I believe in God, the Father. al-mighty, Creator of heaven and earth." The creator-creature relationship is most fundamental to all religion. Only the Al-mighty can create. In the creed, both in and outside of Mass, "almighty" is the only attribute of God mentioned at all. And how often the official prayer of the Church begins with "al-mighty!" The Old Testament is full of almighty God, the God of armies, and very, very often the God of the sea. As I sit here on the boat-deck reading the Invitatorium of the Office I pray: "His is the sea: for He made it" (Ps. 94:5). Only He could. One realizes that more and more as one looks out or~ the vast circle of water stretching away to the horizon in every direction. Yet those are only a few of the seventy million square miles of the Pacific. God reaches from end to end of it mightily, up-holding every particle of it by the word of His power. A great artist works miracles with his brush and a little pair~t. He tries to imitate nature. What a masterpiece the almighty Artist creates in each sunset at sea! Tonight, Hallo-ween, I watch the sun sink into mountains of gold and silver clouds and make the whole ocean a cauldron of blazing gold. There is no imitation of nature by this Artist; He is at play 97 C. A. HF_~BST Review for Religious creating the most exquisite origina!. The more delicate shades and colors come. as the evening deepens. This is the time for the most loving and awesome thoughts of God. Somehow, on this particular night, I cannot help thinking of the little lights flickering on each grave in southern Austria on All Souls' eve. As the last rich violet cloud is absorbed into the night up north toward Siberia, I think of the suffering, silenced Church behind the iron curtain. The moon is high in the east now, building a silvery bridge to the Philippines three thousand' miles from here. The shep-herdess of the night is queen over her flock of woolpack clouds. She is a type of Mary, our queen, reflecting the light of her Son as the moon does. The stars seem so near and companion-able out here so far away from home and everyone. The big-gest and brightest are the ones we long to see in the crown encircling the head of the Artist's virgin mother. We constantly hear of the power and destructive force of typhoons. We are running into the typhoon area now. Again, we are reminded of the might of God: God of old came in the whirlwind. We struck south several hundred miles in order to get away from the wild weather the equinox brings to the north Pacific but ran into a gale. As the wind thunders through the gear fore and howls through the rigging aft and one sees the angry ocean all around, one feels very small and helpless. The largest ship is a tiny toy in an angry ocean. It is good to be at peace with the Almighty out here. I think of the heavy toll the ocean has taken. How many a guardian angel has had to plead the cause of his charge in these depths! Perhaps the angel of the Pacific helped him. Countries have their angels to watch over them, the Scripture says. Should not these boundless waters have one, too? The Far East radio network out of Tokyo is telling us these days of the troubles in Egypt and the sinking of ships in the Suez Canal. Their number is zero compared with the burden 98 Marck, 1958 THE MIGHT OF GOD this north Pacific bears. What are the secrets of the sea? They have always enticed man. But to them again only the almighty mind of God can reach. One of the mates says there are eight thousand feet of water under this ship; ahead of us there are forty thousand and more. What lies down there and what goes on down there only God knows. Uncounted ships and men have perished here. Here the almighty Judge sat enthroned to pass the sentence of justice and mercy on many a lonely,child of God since Pearl Harbo.r struck. Only He and this restless, silent ocean know the anguish of those-days. Time means nothing to the great timeless One. But its mystery, too, confuses us. We have just crossed the one hundred and eightieth meridian and passed from Monday to Wednesday. There will be no Tuesday for us this week. But for us time is the stuff of which we make our eternity. God gave it to us for that and it goes by quickly. For wasted time and every idle thought we shall have to give an account. Such an occasion as this is like the year's ending. It gives us pause for some serious thinking on the value of time. Here one is impressed by almighty God's providence, too. Large albatross-like birds, "gooney birds" the seamen call them, have been following the ship since San Francisco. For hundreds, even thousands of miles now, they have been following: soaring, soaring all the while, never flying or exerting themselves. Beauti-fully colored little birds appear, too, just out of nowhere, catch-ing insects and feeding, then resting on the water. They are very content ' and carefree. ~At night they sleep on the sea. Naturally there come to mind some of the most consoling words the almighty Christ spoke in the Magna Carta He gave His Church: "Look at the birds of the air; they do not sow, or reap, or gather into barns; yet your heavenly Father feeds them. Are you not of much more value than they?" (Matt. 6:26). A school of porpoises went sporting by today. Their omnipotent Father has given them a happy disposition. They 99 C. A. HERBST are playful and friendly to men, yet are one of the few watery creatures a shark holds in dread. Then a whale went spouting by: big, showy, always attracting attention, but terrible, too, in his way, and almost the hero of the sea since Moby Dick. How big the Almighty has made him, the largest of all known animals, to supply so many products for man! In the evening, as I say the fifth glorious mystery, the Coronation of Offr Blessed Mother Queen,of Heaven, I look up into the big comfortable-looking clouds "over the East China Sea towards Nanking and Shanghai. I wonder what our Lady of China is thinking about tonight. A missionary to China wrote: "Our men are still rotting in Shanghai. They really must be suffering now because the winters in Shanghai are grim." Mary was assumed and crowned for China, too, even for today's China. This evening we are slipping through the East China Sea toward Korea. Off to the right over fifty miles of beautiful blue water to the northe~tst lie Nagasaki and Nagasaki Hill, the hill of the martyrs. Again I think ~f the might of God: how these poor frail men needed His .almighty arm to support them in the terrible torment they had to undergo. Three hundred years later came to the same spot a manifestation of might of another kind; August, 1945, brought the atom bomb that smashed this same Nagasaki to pieces. The power of God, at work in the death of the martyrs and the fissure of the atom, is also bringing a second spring to the Church in Japan. As we pass among the countless rocky islands along the west coast of Korea, mighty China lies four hundred miles to the west over the Yellow Sea. Its iron curtain closes her to Christ toda~ as her exclusiveness made her impenetrable to St. Francis Xavier four hundred years ago. But all things are pos-' sible to almighty God. The length of His arm is not shortened. The exquisite sunrise over the hills around Inchon Bay at the end of this voyage seems like a promise that in these Far Eastern lands the might of God will bring forth a rich harvest. I00 Survey oJ: Roman Document:s R. F. Smlth~ S.J. IN THE FOLLOWING pages there will be given a survey of the documents which appeared in the ~cta /Ipostolicae Se~/z's (AAS) during the months of October and Novem-ber, 1957. Throughout the article all page references will be. to the 1957 AAS (v. 49). Motion Pictures, Radio, and Television Under the date of September 8, 1957 (AAS, pp. 765-805), the Holy Father issued a lengthy encyclical which, is entitled IVIiranda/~r~rsus and which treats of the mass communication arts of the contemporary world. After an introduction wherein he gives the reasons why the Church must be interested in the matter of movies, radio, and television and outlines a brief history of previous papal documents on the subject, Pius XII begins the main body of the encyclical, dividing it into four principal parts which treat in succession the following topics: general norms for the movies, radio, and television; the movies; the radio; television. In developing the first principal part of the encyclical, the ViCar of Christ points out that God who communicates all good things to men has also. desired that men themselves share in the power of communication; human communication, therefore, is an activity which of its very nature possesses nobility and if evil is found in it, that evil can come only from the" misuse of human freedom. Because true human freedom demands that men use for themselves and communicate to others whatever augments vir-tue and perfection, it follows that the Church, the state, and the private individual have the right to use the communication arts for their differing purposes. It is blameworthy, however, to maintain that these arts may be utilized for the dissemination 101 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious of matter that is contrary to sound~mora!ity, provided only ~hat the laws of art are observed. Human art, the Pontiff remarks, need not perform a specifically ethical or religious function; nevertheless, if it leads men to evil, then it corrupts its own nobility and departs from its first and necessary principle. To avoid such evils the Church, the state, and the communication industries should cooperate with each other in working for the attainment of the legitimate goals of the communication arts; this is particularly necessary in the case of the cinema, the radio, the television, for each of these arts is a remarkably effective way of large scale communication. Motion pictures, radio, and television, the Pontiff points out, must first bf all serve the truth by. avoiding the false and the erroneous; they must also aim at the moral p'erfecting of their audience, and this especially in th~ case of those enter-tainment programs where vivid scenes, dramatic dialogue, and music are united and which, by appealing to the whole man, induce him to identify himself with the scene being presented. The power of these communication arts to affect the whole man together with the fact that these arts are destined not for a select audience but foi ~he great masses of the people leads the Holy Father to consider solutionsto the moral problems connected with these arts. He accordingly proposes three practical means by which the mass audience can be led to pass a mature judgment on the products of the communication arts and to escape being carried away uncritically by their superficial attractiveness. The first of these means is that of education, whereby men will be given the artistic and moral norms by which the products of communication arts can be ~orrectly evaluated. Accordingly, the Holy Father expresses the desire that training in the right .appreciation of motion pictures, radio, and television be in-cluded in schools of every kind, in associations of Catholic Action, and in parish activities. The second means is that care be taken that young people should not be exposed to programs 102 March, .I958 ROMAN DOCUMENTS which can harm them psychologically and morally. The third means is that in each country the bishops should set up a na~ tional office for the supervision of motion pictures, radio, and television. The second principal part of the encyclical then considers the problems of motion pictures in particular. The bishops should see. to it that the national office of supervision imparts needed advice and information concerning the movies and moral evaluations of current films should be published. The faithful should be reminded of their obligations to inform themselves of the decisions of ecclesiastical authorities ~ith re-gard to films. All those connected with the movie industry, from the exhibitor to the director and the producer, must be mindful of their duty of fostering morally wholesome produc-tions. Finally, the Holy Father urges that the approval and t.he applause of the. general public be generously given as a reward to those motion pictures that are really worthwhile. The third principal part of the encyclical concerns the radio. Listeners should admit into their homes, only programs which encourage truth and goodness. National Catholic offices for radio should attempt to keep the public informed of the nature of radio programs, and listeners should make known to radio stations and chains their preferences and criticisms. The bishops are encouraged by the Holy Father to increase the use of radio for apostolic and doctrinal purpose~, taking care, however, that such programs meet the highest artistic and technical, standards. The fourth part of the encyclical concerns itself with tele-vision which, among other advantages, has that of inducing members of the family to stay at home together. The obliga-tions with regard to television are the same as for the movies and for radio. In the conclusion to his encyclical the Holy Father encour-ages priests to acquire a sound knowledge of all questions per-taining to motion pictures, radio, and television; moreover, as 103 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious far as it is possible and usefu!, they should utilize these aids for their pastoral work. The same subject matter of the communication arts was the topic of the Pontiff's talk on October 27, 1957 (AAS, pp. 961-65), on the occasion of the blessing of the new quarters for the Vatican radio. In the course of his talk the Vicar of Christ pointed out that radio furnishes Christians a new means' for the better fulfillment of the command to preach the gospel to every creature; and he expressed the hope that the new and more powerful.radio station of the Vatican will prove a new bond of unity among the Christian community, since by its aid more peoples will be able to hear the voice of the Vicar of Christ. To Seminarians and Religious On September 5, 1957 (AAS, pp. 845-49), the Pope addressed a group of students from the minor seminaries of France. After encouraging them to look forward to their priesthood with the greatest of eagerness, he praised their clas- " sical studies as an unrivaled means of' developing penetration of judgment, largeness of outlook, and keenness of analysis. The Pontiff concluded his talk to the seminarians by extolling the value of minor seminaries for the good of the whole Church. On July 30, 1957 (AAS, pp. 871-74), the Sacred Con-gregation of Religious published an important decree, M'ilitare servitium, which henceforth will be the controlling legislation in the matter of religious who must undergo military service for at least six months. Full and exact knowledge of all the provisions of the decree can be obtained only by a direct study of the docu-ment, and no more than the principal points of the legislation will be noted here. According to the decree perpetual vows may not be taken unless a religious has already served his required time in the armed forces or unless it is certain that a given religious is immune from such service. During milit.ary sekvice temporary vows are suspended, though in given-cases the major superior can allow a religious to retain his vow~ during such service. 104 March, 1958 ROMAN DOCUMENTS In either case, however, the person involved remains a member of his religio~s institute and under the authority of its superiors. One whose vows are suspended during the period of mili-tary service may leave religion •luring that time according to the norms of canon 637, provided that he has declared his intention of leaving to superiors either in writing or orally in the presence of witnesses. The decree also gives directives concerning temporal possessions acquired during the time of military service and stipulates that between the conclusion of military service and the taking'of perpetual vows there must be a probation period which generally should not be less than three months. The final provision of the decree is to extend the above legislation, where applicable, to all societies liging in common, but without vows. The same Congregation of Religious issued on March 12, 1957 (AAS, pp. 869-71), a decree giving the norms for aggre-gation to the pontifical institute Re~ina 2V~undi. (For the nature and purpose of this institute, see REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, January, 1957, p. 25.) Aggregation places a house of studies of religious women under the patronage of the institute Regina Mun~/~" and allows the house the right to confer pontifical diplomas, with the reservation that the highest diploma can be granted only to those students who have studied at least one year at Regina 2"V~unc/i. The decree concludes by noting that a house of studies may acquire a special relationship to Regina 2V~unc/i by reason of a special act of recognition, which, how-ever, does not give the house the right to confer pontifical diplomas. By an apostolic letter dated December 27, 1956 (AAS, pp. 889-94), the Holy Father united the two parts of the Order of the Daughters of Mary Our Lady' under the new title, Order of the Company of the Daughters of Mary Our Lady. Two documents of the period surveyed were addressed to religious orders of men. The first was a letter from His 105 SMITH Review fo~" Religfous Holiness to Very Reverend Michael Browne, Master General of the Order of Preachers. Written on the occasion of the seven hundreth anniversary of the death of St. Hyacinth, the letter proposes the saint as a clear image of the apostolic work entrusted to the Dominican order. On September 10, 1957 (AAS, pp. 806-12), the Pope addressed the members of the general congregation of the Society of Jesus, recalling to their attention their ideals of loyalty and obedience to the Holy See. He urged superiors to be vigilant in their care for re-ligious observance and discipline. The Pontiff insisted on the need for austerity of life to be manifested especially by an observance of poverty involving not only a dependance upon superiors but a moderate use of temporal things and the priva-tion of many comforts. In conclusion the Vicar of Christ insisted, to his listeners upon the need to retain the Society's traditional monarchical form of government. For Laymen and Laywomen A large number of the documents published in AAS during October-November, 1957, were devoted to the role of the laity in the .life of the Church today. In a radio message deliv-ered September 15, 1957 (AAS, pp. 854-57), to the faithful present at the Marian shrine of Mariazell in Austria, the Holy Father touched briefly on the subject of the urgenc.y of the lay apostolate in the Church today; three weeks later on Oc-tober 5, 1957 (AAS, pp. 922-39), th.e same topic formed the subject matter of the long and important allocution which the Pope delivered to the Second World Congress for the Lay. Apostolate. The Pontiff began his allocution by framing and answering the question whether a layman who has an ecclesi-astical mandate to teach religion, and whose professional work is almost exclusively such teaching does not therefore pass from the lay apostolate to the "hierarchical" apostolate. The Holy Father replies to the query in the negative, for the layman possesses neither the power of orders 'nor that of jurisdiction. It is interesting to note that at the end of this part of the allocu- 106 Marck, 1958 .ROMAN DOCUMENTS tion the Holy Father refers to the possibility of re:establishing in the Church deacons who would have no intention of going on for the priesthood. His Holiness does not show himself unsympathetic to this idea, but nevertheless notes that the times are not yet ready for such a practice. The Pontiff continues by noting that it is wrong to dis-tinguish in the Church a purely active element (ecclesiastical authorities) and a p.urely passive element (the laity), for all the members of the Church are called to collaborate in the building up of the Mystical Body of Christ. Even apart from a scarcity of priests, the work of the laity is necessary, for the task of the "consecration of the world" is essentially the work of laymen, intimately associated as they are with the economic, social, political, and industrial life of the world. In showing the relations between the lay apostolate and Catholic Action the Pontiff begins by saying that the lay apostolate is the performance by the laity of tasks which derive from the mission given the Church by Christ. Accordingly, the apostolat~ of prayer and personal example and the Christian practice of one's profession are lay apostolates only in a wide sense of that word; the Pontiff emphasizes, however, that lay Christians who exercise their professions in an exemplary fashion perform an activity that is comparable to the best kind of lay apostolate in the stric~ sense of the word. Catholic Action, the Pope remarks, always bears the char-acter of an official apostolate of laymen. It cannot, however, claim for itself a monopoly of the lay apostolate, for alongside of Catholic Action there always remains the free lay apostolate. In this connection the Holy Father discusses a possible change in terminology and structure which may eventually be put into effect. According to this plan the term. "Catholic Action" would be used only in a generic, sense to signify the sum of organized lay apostolates recognized on the national level by the bishops or by the Holy See on the international level. Each individual movement would then be designated by its own proper and 107 R. F. SM~ Review for Religious specific name and not by the generic term "Catholic Action.;' Each bishop would remain free to admit or reject such or such an individual movement, but he would not be free to reject it on the grounds that of its nature it Was not Catholic Action. Observing that not all Christians are called to the lay apos-tolate in the strict sense of the word, the Pope then notes that the lay apostles will always form an elite, not indeed because they stand apart from others, but precisely because they can influence others. As such, they need to be given a serious formation; and this training of lay apostles should be taken care of by organizations within the lay apostolate itself, though diocesan and religious priests, secular institutes, and women religious should assist in this formation. The final part of the allocution is devoted to a detailed consideration of the many areas where lay apostles are urgently needed today; and the Roman Pontiff concludes his allocution by urging his listeners to conquer the world, but only by the weapons of Christ. On ~ugust 25, 1957 (AAS, pp. 837-45), His Holiness addressed thirty thousand members of the Young Catholic Workers. He spoke of his audience as a great hope for the Christian regeneration of the world and urged them to re-establish the Christian notion of work as the personal act of a son of God and of a brother of Christ for the service of God and of the human community. On September 29, 1957 (AAS, pp. 906-22), the Holy Father addressed the Fourteenth International Congress of the World Union of Catholic Organizations of Women, speaking on the mission and apostolate of women. Women's apostolate, he notes, must be rooted in the tru.th, that she comes from God; that she is an image of God;" and that h'er everlasting destiny is God. Not only has God created woman, He has also given her her proper physical and psych!cal structure. 108 March, 1958 ROMAN DOCUMENTS She has been given the gifts which permit her to transmit not only physical life, but also qualities of a spiritual and moral nature---and this not only to the children she bears, but to social and cultural life in general. In married life woman expresses the gift of oneself; this symbolization, however, of self-giving receives a higher form in consecrated virginity, for there her giving is more total, more pure, and more generous. Moreover, the Pope continues, woman belongs to Christ; accordingly no form of heroism or sanctity is inaccessible to her. This belonging of woman to Christ attains its perfect realization in the Blessed Virgin. If actual life sometimes reveals to what depths of evil woman can descend, Mary shows how woman in and through Christ can be raised above all .created things. In the exercise of the apostolate, says the Pontiff, woman finds herself in a welter of ideas, opinions, tendencies, and systems. She needs, therefore, a guide and a norm of judg-ment and action; and this she will find in the Church which is the guardian and interpreter of divine revelation. The aposto-late of woman, concludes the Holy Father, even when rooted in the above truths, will remain largely ineffective, unless it is inspired by a deep love of God that flows over into a universal and fruitful activity which seeks to bring all men into one fold under one pastor. In an allocution given on September 16, 1957 (AAS, pp. 898-904), the Vicar of Christ gave a moving allocution on the nature of Christian widowhood. The Church, he ob-served, does not condemn second marriages; neve~rtheless she has a special love for those who remain faithful to their spouses and to the perfect symbolism of marriage. Christian widow-hood is based on the conviction that death does not destroy the human and supernatural love of marriage, but rather per-fects and strengthens it. Doubtless after~death the juridical institution of marriage does not exist;¢~but that which con- 109 R. F. SMITH Review for Religious situted the soul of the marriage--conjugal love--still continues in existence, for it is a spiritual reality. If the sacrament of marriage is a symbol of the redemptive love of Christ for the Church, it may be said that widowhood is a symbol of the Church militant deprived of the visible presence of Christ, but nevertheless indefectibly united to Him. Socially too the widow has a definite mission to perform, for she participates in the mystery of the cross and the gravity of her comportment should show the message she carries: she is one who has through sorrow gained entrance to a more serene and supernatural world. "In times of trial and discourage-ment the Christian widow should strengthen herself by the thought of the Blessed Virgin who lived as a widow during the early years of Christianity and who by her prayer, interior life, and devotion called down divine blessings on the infant com-munity. Miscellaneous Matters By a decree of July 1, 1957 (AAS, pp.'943-44), the Sacred Congregation of the Sacraments announced that local ordinaries need no longe~ send an annual report to the congre-gation concerning the number of confirmations conferred in their territories by extraordinary ministers of that sacrament. On October 7, 1957 (AAS, pp. 954-58), the Holy Father spoke to a group of sick persons reminding them that they do not suffer alone, for Christ lives in them and makes of them in a real but mysterious sense tabernacles of His presence; moreover, they must complete the Passion of Christ by their suffering and the offering of their pain can preserve the in-nocence of many, recall sinners to the right path, assist the indecisive, and reassure the troubled. In a message dated August 5, 1957 (AAS, pp. 857-61), His Holiness wrote to a group of teachers meeting at Vienna that the Catholic teacher who perfectly exercises his profession I10 March, 1958 ROMAN DOCUMENTS performs an activity which is equal to the best lay apostolate', adding that this is true of those who teach in Catholic schools and almost more so of those teaching in non-Catholic schools. In a later letter dated September 18, 1957 (AAS, pp. 830-36), and directed to Cardinal Siri, President of the Italian Council of Social Weeks, the Pope urged the necessity of protecting the human values of rural life and stressed the need for an increase of faith in agricultural areas. On November 4, 1957 (AAS, pp. 966-69), the Holy Father addressed the parliamen-tary representatives of the European Coal and Steel Authority, congratulating them on the success of their work and expressing the wish that their accomplishments may lead to a greater federation ofEurope. On September 8, 1957 (ASS, pp. 849- 53), His Holiness addressed a group of dentists, showing a competent grasp of the latest phases of dentistry and manifest-ing a delightfully human side of his personality by his solicitude for children who suck their thumbs or bite their nails and by' his hope that the newly discovered method of painless drill-ing of teeth may prove to be really effective. The Sacred Consistorial Congregation issued three decrees by which it canonically established military xiicariates in Argen-tina (AAS, pp. 866-68), in Belgium (AAS, pp. 940-43), and in the United States (AAS, pp. 970-73). The Sacred Con- ¯ gregation of Seminaries and Uni~iersities by a decree of July 28, 1957 (AAS, pp. 975-77), canonically erected De Paul University, Chicago, as a Catholic University according to the norm of canon 1376; moreover, the faculty of music of the same institution was a~liated to the Pontifical Institute of Sacred Music in Rome. Finally, by the same decree the metropolitan archbishop of Chicago was made grand chancellor of De. Paul Catholic University. In the last document to be noted, an apostolic letter of May 9, 1957 (AAS, p. 823), the Holy Father announced the inauguration of an apostolic internhntia-ture for the country of Ethiopia. 111 Book Reviews [Material for this department should be sent to Book Review Editor, REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS, West Baden College, West Baden Springs, Indiana.] MARIOLOGY, VOL. II. Edited by Juniper B. Carol, O.F.M. Pp. 606. The Bruce Publishing Company, 400 North Broadway, Milwaukee 1. 1957. $9.50. This second volume of a most ambitious trilogy on Marian theology contains fourteen articles by some of America's leading theologians. The treatment is scholarly; the articles are well docu-mented; proofs are advanced soberly in an attempt to shed light, not generate heat. . Primarily a reference work, Mariology, Vol. II, covers the major fea'tures of Marian dogma: Mary s-- predestination, divine maternity, perpetual virginity, fullness of grace, knowledge, universal queenship, etc. Among the better parts of the volume are Father Cyril Vollert's two introductory essays, "The Scientific Structure of Mariology" and "The Fundamental Principle of Mariology." The latter serves as a natural basis for some of the articles that follow. Father John Bonnefoy's article "The Predestination of Our Blessed Lady" and Father Gerald Van Ackeren's "The Divine Mother-hood" should provoke discussion and stimulate theological specula-tion among readers of the book. The latter article contains a brief interesting account of modern Protestantism's attitude toward the Mother of God which is worthy of study. Since the volume's bent is less devotional than scientific, the reader should not expect from it what the editor and his contributors did by no means intend. This second volume offers the reader considerable insight into the past progress and present status of the science of Mariology; it makes a distinct, and quite co~ivincing, apology for Mariology's place in the traditional theological dis-ciplines. Religious and priests will especially profit from a thoughtful reading of the book. Seminarians and teachers will find in it a concise and ready reference work on the more important tenets of Marian dogma as it has developed to this day. But for the study of Marian devotion we must await Volume III. To prove the numerous theses presented in Mariology, Vol. II, the individual authors invoke the Church's magisterium, Scripture, tradition, and theological reasoning--the traditional approach. The 112 BOOK REVIEWS general method of presentation is excellent; it is orderly and clear. If there be a flaw in this mode of argumentation, it will probably be found in the scriptural interpretations advanced by some of the theo~ logians in this volume. Quite briefly, they fail to convince. This is especially true of the treatment given the oft-invoked text of Genesis 3:15, which, according to Father Wenceslaus Sebastian, refers to Mary alone "and that in the strict literal sense" (p. 355). The case for Mary's prerogatives as found in the Old Testament seems in this article--fis well as in some others--to be somewhat overstated. But these are slight blemishes on the canvas. No better reason for this entire series can be assigned than that employed in a more specific context by Father Francis Connell. At the conclusion" of his article on Mary's knowledge, he asserts: "And so it is not unprofitable to seek some definite ideas on Mary's knowledge, since a study of this kind helps us to understand the sub-lime dignity of the Mother of God and inspires us to be more ready to seek through her intercession the wisdom and the understanding that we need in the journey of life" (p. 324). What Father Connell remarks about Mary's knowledge may legitimately be predicated of the other facets of her unique personality and character, about which a volume such as this affords us all the opportunity to learn more and more.--THo.x~AS G. SAVAGE, S.J. MANUAL FOR NOVICES. By Felix D. Duffey, C.S.C. Pp. 232. B. Herder Book Company, 15 South Broadway, St. Louis 2. 1957. $3.50. Father Duffey is to be congratulated on his book Manual for Novices. As the title indicates, the book is written primarily for novices and those who have the care of novices; but it is pertinent, profitable, and of interest even to those formed religious who have been away from the novitiate training for a number of years. Is not a good treatment of the vows always a welcome book for our spiritual reading! Manual for Novices is geared to a better understanding of the three vows and their corresponding virtues, which we know to be the essence of the religious life. Father Duffey's thesis is that novices should be carefully schooled in the science of the vows; they should know what the vows entail, what is demanded by the rules and con-stitutions that they might enter the life of the vows with "minds pre-pared." Thus the novitiate is a place where the novice is to form 113 BOOK REVIEWS Review for Religious the proper religious attitudes, where each novice has ample time to test himself and to be tested to see if he can live the life of the vows. It is a time to consider and pray over the great privileges and duties of being a vowed laborer with Christ; /~ time to examine his intention and motives and even to purify them if necessary; the novitiate is a time to understand himself as he has never understood himself before and establish a correct hierarchy of valui~s based on Christ, the model of the vows. Father Duffey tries to give, and quite successfully too, the moral and canonical demands of the vows together with a doctrinal back-ground and ascetical incentive for the faithful living out of the vows. He emphasizes over and over again that the vows are a supernatural way of life led in imitation of Christ; they are something positive, and not a series of "suffocating denials" nor a legalistic ladder to heaven. The living of the vows gives the religious freedom from creatures to do God's will. It is on this positive character of the vows that novices should fix their minds and hearts, for it is the vows that permeate the whole day of the religious! The-book is well planned. There are twelve interesting chapters dealing" with such subjects as: The Novitiate, The Religious Life, Perfection, The Meaning of a Vow; two chapters on each of the three vows; one on Authority and Obedience, which is a very fine treatment of the duties of superiors; and a final chapter on Religious Profession. As the book stands it is broad enough to embrace all spiritualities. It is not meant to be a substitute for the instruction that the master or mistress is accustomed to give, but rather a complement to that instruction. The novice has a source to which he can go if he wishes to refresh his knowledge. The great insistance on the dynamism of the vows as the religious way of living in imitation of Christ is to be commended. "The chap-ters on chastity and obedience are especially well done and bring out the positive character of the vows exceptionally well. However,' the chapters on poverty fall short when compared with the treat-ment of the other two vows. In general the book is instructignal, motivational, full of good common, as well as supernatural, sense. It will be easily understood by the novices. Like a good teacher, Father Duffey repeats his key ideas throughout the book and frequently makes a summary of what has been seen in various chapters. In all the book is most worth-while, highly recommended, and will repay with. interest the time one spends reading it.--RALPH H. T~.LK~N, S.J." 114 March, 1958 BOOK REVIEWS THE YOKE OF DIVINE LOVE. By Dom Hubert Van Zeller, ¯ O.S.B. Pp. 238. Templegate, Springfield, Illinois, 1957. $3.75. The tireless pen of Dom Hubert has, in this small volume, pre-sented another challenge to comfort-loving nature, this time taking for his audience the seekers after conventual perfection. He makes it clear from the outset that he is not writing merely for monks, and certainly not exclusively for those of Benedictine Rule, but for all religious, men and women, though the medium through which he aptly chooses to impart his lessons and deliver his frank and kindly blows is Benedictine vocabulary culled from the wisdom of St. Benedict and his greatest interpreter St. Bernard, The whole concern of his book, as he tells us in the preface, is to show how to work up from the fundamentals of religion, prayer, reading, silence, labor, and enclosure to God and not inward toward self. Such a caution is of vital interest to all religious; and they will eagerly submit to Dom Hubert's admoni-tions, delivered with a freshness and candid realism not too often encountered in spiritual treatises. The volume might almbst be ~ermed a "Book of Sentences," or another version of The Following of Christ, with its many incisive, diminutive paragraphs. Thus the first chapter on Supernatural Motive of less than nine pages is presented in gixty-two thought-packed para-graphs. Any one of them might serve as an outline for a more pro-found meditation. And almost a good third of them would present the thesis of the book, the yoke of divin~ love, in a nutshell. There is always love in the background to give light and warmth whenever it does not appear explicitly or at the head. But it is not an easy doctrine of love the book preaches. It can and does issue startling warnings. "The heart of the monk, if it deviates from the love of God alone, can become an unquiet evil. It wanders, looking for rest and finding none. It fastens on other hearts and drains them of the love of God. If it shrivelled up in solitude it would be a waste enough, but the heart that has tired of the love of God and that hungers still for love is a menace." Dom Hubert tells us exactly what his method in writing the book will be. "What we have to do is to find principles common to most religious orders and examine them in the light of love, prayer, and faith. To agree on foundations is at least a start." From' this humble beginning he develops a gripping code of religious life as he finds it substantially presented by all religious founders. The Yoke of 115 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review for Religious Divine Love, a clever title for the book that follows, is broken down into three minor "books" treating of the religious life, prayer, and community life. Each of these essential constituents of religious life is reviewed with a freshness and vigor that opens the eyes of the reader to a number of surprising subterfuges and alibis that even sincere religious may construct for themselves to escape the more exacting pressures of the yoke of love. One might cite countless instances of plain-spoken axioms of religious living which in one form or another bear out the author's verdict: "The trouble about renouncing the world is that it comes back in another form. You bar the windows of your cell against it, and it comes up through the boards of the floor. You throw it out by the door, and it comes in through the ventilator." It appears that this candid volume to be truly appreciated had better be read first cursorily, with many a smile and more than one mea cull~a, and henceforth be left on the desk or priedieu as a vade mecum for the purpose of snatching now and then tiny crumbs from its pages to be refreshed by its invigorating frankness. More than one reader will be disappointed at the lack of definite references to the many scripture passages cited. St. Thomas, too, St. Benedict, and the Fathers are frequently quoted by name only. ~ALoYSIUS C. KEMPER, S.J. BOOK ANNOUNCI:MI:NTS THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY, 400 North Broadway, Milwaukee 1, Wisconsin. Conferences on the Religious Life. By Aloysius Biskupek, S.V.D. You will find these conferences refreshing and original both as .re-gards the topics chosen and as to the treatment accorded them. Some of the unusual topics are: The Religious Habit, Patrons, The Refectory, Living the Mass, Sick Religious. The author is forthright in his treatment. Part of his answer to those who say that they cannot meditate reads as follows: "Meditation requires the exercise of memory, mind, and will; the use of these faculties is wholly or partially impossible in the case of infants, mental defectives, and insane persons. Does any one who claims he cannot meditate classify himself as belonging to these categories?" Pp. 204. $3.50. Live in the Holy Spirit.By Bruno M. Hagspiel, S.V.D: This is a book" of conferences onthe religious life written for religious 116 l~larch, 1958 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS women. The author speaks with the authority 6f one who has done much work for religious women and knows their virtues as well as their faults. It is a modern book and does not omit to discuss modern topics such as motion pictures, radio, television. Pp. 170. $3.50. You. By Father M. Raymond O.C.S.O. Living in an age that looks on the individual as expendable and negligible, we have great need to realize anew the dignity, sublimity, exalted vocation, and priceless character of even the least of the children of men. Father Raymond emphasizes these truths not in the abstract but in the concrete; not as applied to some one else but to you. His exhortations, . each chapter is a fervent exhortation, are addressed to both religious and lay people. There are no chapters applicable only to religious, and only one (14) intended specifically for parents. It makes encouraging spiritual reading. Pp. 301. $4.50. My Sunday Reading. A Popular Explanation and Application of the Sunday Epistles and Gospels. By Kevin O'Sullivan, O.F.M. We have all heard the Sunday Epistles and Gospels oftener than we care to admit. Do we understand them? This .book serves as an excellent introduction to such understanding. It is written primarily for the layman, but even the religious can profit by a study of this volume. Pp. 345. $5.00. A Christian Philosophy of Life. By Bernard J. Wuellner, S.J. We are guided on our journey through life on earth by the light of reason and by the light of faith. Both are necessary, and both should come into play many times each day. Both also need to be developed. As we may grow in faith by the study of revela-tion, so we perfect reason by the study of philosophy. If you have had the advantages of a college education, you will find Father Wuellner's book an excellent refresher course in philosophy; if you have not, it will give you a brief introduction to the most significant course a Catholic college has to offer. A great merit of the book is that the author does not hesitate to appeal to revelation to supplement the findings of reason. Here is a book which a religious can afford not only to read but to study. Pp. 278. $4.25. Angels Under Wraps. By Edward. Vincent Dailey. A book of stories, all about angels. They are interesting and enjoyable, and it would be surprising if they did not increase your devotion to your own guardian angel. Pp. 149. $2.95. 117 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS .Review for Religious FIDES PUBLISHERS, 744 East 79th Street, Chicago 19, Illinois. One in Christ. By Illtud Evans, O.P. The author accurately describes this collection of essays in these words: "The purpose of these pages is not to argue or to prove. It is simply to say that the life of the Church is the life of Christ continued in time and place, made available to men. The truths we believe are declared every day and the prayer of the Church (which is the prayer of Christ) exists to express them. The life of charity exists to make them incarnate here and now." Pp. 82. Paper $0.95. The Modern Apostle. By Louis J. Putz, C.S.C: Priests and religious will be interested in this book as a means to learn more about the modern lay apostolate and to help to spread this move-ment among the laity. It was written by a priest who has probably done more for this movement in America than any other. The material in the book first appeared as a series of articles in Our Sunday Visitor. Pp. 148. $2.95. Key. to the Psalms. By Mary Perkins Ryan. More and more lay people are beginning to discover the treasure of the Psalms. To help them Mary Perkins Ryan has written this book. She has made her own all the latest findings of the scripture scholars and has written a book that is both authoritative and popular. The translations of the Psalms are particularly excellent. Read this book and discover for yourself why the Church has always made the Psalms such a large part of her liturgical prayer. Pp. 187. $3.50. Together in Marriage. By John J. Kane. This i~ another volume in the "Fides Family Readers Series." It is of special interest to priests who are engaged in Cana Conference work and very suitable for the libraries of 'all houses for lay retreats. Pp. 154. $2.95, The Meaning Of Christmas. By A. M. Avril, O.P. Translated by S. D. Palleske. This is a volume of sermons that were orig-inally broadcast on the National "French Chain. Their subject matter is the Christmas cycle, from the first Sunday of Advent to the sixth Sunday after Epiphany. Pp. 153. $2.75. Going to God. By Sister Jane Marie" Murray, O.P. This is the first volume of a four-year series of textbooks in religion for high schools. The series bears the title "The Christian Life." These books are the product of much thought, study, planning, and con-sultation with fifteen experts in the fields of theology, Sacred Scrip- 118 March, 1958 ~BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS ture, education, the apostolate, and art. All four of the volumes are to be available by the summer of 1958. Before adopting a new set of texts for the religion classes in high school~ be sure that you examine these new books. Pp. 430. GRAIL PUBLICATIONS, St. Meinrad, Indiana. Pope Plus XII and Catholic Education. Edited by Vincent A. Yzermans. We owe a debt of gratitude both tb the editor and to the publishers for collecting in d single volume twenty-two addresses of Pope Plus XII on Catholic education. Teachers will find in them encouragement, wise directives, and much matter for fruitful examination of conscience. Pp. "180. Paper $1.00. B. HERDER BOOK COMPANY, 15-17 South Broadway, St. Louis 2, Missouri. The Sacred Canons. A Concise Presentation of the Current Disciplinary Norms of the Church. Volume I, Canons 1-869; Vol. II, Canons 870.2~14. Revised Edition. By John A. Abbo and Jerome D. Hannan. The purpose of this commentary on the Code of Canon Law is explained in the preface: "The work was begun to answer in some degree the spontaneous demand for a better knowledge of ecclesiastical law that has arisen in~ English-speaking countries among religious who are not clerics and among laymen, especially those engaged in the professions." Vol. I, pp. 871; Vol. II, pp. 936. $19.00 the set. P. J. KENEDY & SONS, 12 Barclay Street, New York 8, New York. Handbook of Moral Theology. By Dominic M. Priimmer, O,P. Translated by Gerald Shelton. Adapted for American usage by John Gavin Nolan. This is0 an English compendium of the justly celebrated four-volume Latin edition. It requires no gift of proph-ecy to predict that it will prove very popular with priesis, sem-inarians, and any who have frequent occasion to familiarize them-selves with the moral teachings of the Church. Pp. 496. $4.00. Maryknoll Missal. If you are looking for an English missal, you will want to examine this one, the first to be published since the recent decrees simplifying the rubrics. It is dom. pletely up-to- . date, and the translation is in modern English. References have been reduced to a minimum. It is a very handsome and convenient missal. Pp. 1699. 119 BOOK ANNOUNCEMENTS Review ]or Religious LONGMANS, GREEN & COMPANY, INCORPORATED, 55 Fifth Avenue, New York 3, New York. Catholicism and the Ecumenical Movement. By John M. Todd. Introduction by the Abbot of Downside. Mr. Todd, author, as-sistant editor of the Downside Review, and radio commentator, writes for both Catholics and non-Catholics. His aim is: "(1) To inform Catholics of the nature of the ecumenical problem and of the solu-tions that are offered by the non-Catholic world; (2) To inform non-Catholics of the reasons for the contemporary (Roman) Catholic attitude to the problem, and to show how a Catholic layman ap-proaches the situation today." Pp. 111. Paper $1.50. THE NEWMAN PRESS, Westminster, Maryland. God's Bandit. The Story of Don Orione, Father of the Poor. By Douglas Hyde. The author, a newspaper reporter by training and temperament, writes the dramatic story of a priest possessed of an immense love of the poor and unfortunate. To promote his work he founded four religious congregations, of which the principal one is the Sons of Divine Providence. As a boy he spent two years with St. Don Bosco. As a priest he was on intimate termswith St. Plus X. He died in 1940 and already many legends have grown up around his memory. It is probable that we shali one day honor him as a saint, for the causeof his beatification has been introduced in Rome. Pp. 208. $3.50. New Life in Christ. By Ludwig Esch, S.J. Translated from the German by W. T. Swain. The author spent forty years working for youth and in' this very comprehensive book gathers together what he has learned so that others may profit by his experience. There are four main divisions. ¯ The Fundamental Principles Gov-erning Our Growing Up in Christ, Our Life in Christ, The Growth of Life in Christ, and Maturing in Christ. Any of the problems that youth must meet today you will find treated in these pages. The book will be useful not only for youth but also for all those who have to assist in their training and education. Pp. 294. $4.50. SHEED & WARD, 840 Broadway, New York 3, New York. Martyrs from St. Stephen to John Tung. By Donald Attwater. Here are fifty-eight graphic and gripping accounts of martyrdom. They will make many a saint you know only as a name come to life for you and, as a result, become a real influence in your life. Pp. 236. $4.00. 120 March, 1958 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS The Roots of the Reformation by" Karl Adam; Marriage and the Family by F. J. Sheed; Confession by John C. Heenan; The Rosary by Maisie Ward; The Devil by' WC'a[ter lCarreI[, O.P., and Bernard Leeming, S,J. These are the first five books of a new series called "Canterbury Books." They are paper-covered books that average one hundred pages and sell for seventy-five cents. They treat their subject matter in greater detail than is possible in a pamphlet but more concisely than a full-length book. They are to be on religious topics and are intended for both Catholics and inquiring non-Catholics. The Making of Church' Vestments. By Graham Jenkins. Part One details the history of the liturgical vestments. Part Two gives easy-to-follow instructions abundantly illustrated on how ~o make church vestments. Pp. 32. $0.95. The New Guest Room Book. Assembled by F. J. Sheed. Illus-trated by Enrico Arno. Here we have a miniature library guaranteed to contain something to please any taste. Pp. 448. $7.50. ( ues ions and Answers [The following answers are given by'Father Joseph F. Gallen, S.J., professor canon law at Woodstock College, Woodstock, Maryland.] When you repeatedly state that sisters are overworked, don't you realize that almost universally the blame is cast on their superiors? And yet what can the superiors do? Are they to blame for the num-ber of Catholic children to be educated? for the opening of new schools? for the vacation schools? for the added demands of modern education? The fact that sisters are overworked is an evident and incontro-vertible fact, and the harmful effects are equally evident. The sense of the remarks on this point has never been that superiors are wholly to blame but that they can do something to lighten the burden. This thought is also completely evident and has been expressed by many others. "In my opinion, a policy almost heroic adopted by certain superiors is deserving of signal praise, that is, the refusal to accept 121 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Review for Religious new works, certainly useful, but which would overwhelm their religious men or women. A more cogent reason is that these religious are already overburdened as they become too few to accomplish the works already accepted which become progressively more compli-cated. The religious who is overburdened, exhausted, iaervous is in danger not only of doing his work poorly but, what is more serious, of being unable to draw spiritual profit from the time of prayer pre-scribed by the constitutions. He thus falls into activism, and there is no need to demonstrate here that this is the contradiction of the . primary and common purpose of the state of perfection" (Reverend A. Pl~, O.P., ztcta et Documenta Congressus Generalis de Statibus Per-fectionis, II, 146). "Superiors should be forbidden to accept new foundations unless they are able to staff them in such a way that their subjects are given the leisure needed for their own souls. What 'is needed are fervent foundations, not mere physical buildings in which a few religious, overwrought and exhausted, live and work in a frenzied round of activity. I believe that the cause of the Church would prosper far more with fewer buildings and projects, erected at the cost of the religious spirit, and with more prayerful religious" (Reverend F. Rice, C.P., ibid., III, 517). "Overwork will inevitably pull down the sl~iritual life. It is al-most impossible to live up to the ideals of the religious life when we are launched upon a troublesome sea ill-prepared and ill-equipped. Careful training and a good, broad education will do much to obviate this and so help considerably in preserving the religious spirit" (Brother P. C. Curran, F.S.C.H., Religious Life Today, 181). Since we are not contemplative, couldn't we dispense with the rule of silence? You are partially contemplative. The mixed religious life is the harmonious union of the contemplative life with apostolic activity. Every religious is supposed to attain a deep spirit of prayer and interior life. Neither of these is possible without recollection
In many low and middle income countries, dismal failures in the quality of public service delivery such as absenteeism among teachers and doctors and leakages of public funds have driven the agenda for better governance and accountability. This has raised interest in the idea that citizens can contribute to improved quality of service delivery by holding policy-makers and providers of services accountable. This proposition is particularly resonant when it comes to the human development sectors - health, education and social protection - which involve close interactions between providers and ci
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The Kamagayan Comprehensive Care Center (KC3) clients report being very satisfied with the comprehensive package of health services offered under the BCP and they feel welcome and accepted at the KC3. Community members in Kamagayan, including family members of the KC3 clients, also praise the service as an excellent intervention. Virtually all key stakeholders interviewed noted that the KC3 team had performed especially well in building trust between clients and their health service providers, families, and community. In that sense, community-based advocacy efforts were successful at generating an enabling environment for service delivery. The KC3 clients, family members, and community representatives also appreciated efforts from the KC3 team to promote demand reduction through counseling, Narcotics Anonymous (NA) sessions, and privileged access to the Argao Treatment and Rehabilitation Center (TRC). There is great demand and genuine interest among the KC3 clients and patients' clients to become peer educators and provide support to PWID. The professionalization of PWID through peer educator roles has also reportedly reduced stigma and discrimination and increased acceptance of PWID in the community. Should services for PWID be scaled up in Cebu and beyond, recruiting a workforce of peer educators should not be a critical challenge, an important lesson learned for future harm reduction projects in the Philippines.
Europe's population is growing older. People are living longer and healthier lives. Wealthier European Union (EU) countries have enjoyed near‐universal access to better health care and seen public health promotion and lifestyle changes that have reduced the morbidity and mortality due to heart disease, an effort known as the "cardiovascular revolution". As a result the EU‐15 countries enjoy an average life expectancy of 81 years. At the same time, EU‐15 countries have also witnessed a drop in fertility since the 1970s, though recently fertility has stabilized or reincreased in a number of countries.
This thesis studies decentralisation of cultural policy and participatory cultural governance in Croatia from 2000 to 2017. Decentralization as a process implies territorial dispersion of cultural policy's competences and resources but is also a method for devolution of power/authority, enabling amplification of cultural democracy and participative governance practices (Katunarić, 2003; Kawashima, 2004). Participatory governance is situated in "institutional voids", or institutional cracks of the traditional state where the practices of participatory governance are reflected in a "proliferation of new forms of social and political association" (Fischer, 2006:20). This implies the rise of political and social relevance of the civil society and non-governmental actors that, by questioning the legitimacy and accountability of the state, open new organisational spaces taking over public activities to "such a degree that some see them as reconfiguring public sector" and affecting policies of the mainstream institutions (Fischer, 2006:20). The examples of decentralised power in the Croatian cultural system are found in a small number of arm's length bodies and institutions, while the selected examples of participatory governance in culture situated in Dubrovnik (Lazareti) and Zagreb (Pogon) follow the evolution of socio-cultural centres involving the use of public space/infrastructure by platforms of civil society organisations based on the principles of sharing, inclusion, social engagement and sustainability. These main lines of research interests respond to the key concerns of cultural policy development that critically reflect and question the levels of democratization in cultural policy needed for securing and widening public traits, access and participation in culture. Detected concerns indicate the issues of representation, which has been ever-present maladie of the cultural policy discourse and practice in Croatia. Its most blatant manifestation is found in the limited permeability of cultural policy processes and the disparate levels of inclusion of institutional (politically controlled) vs. non-institutional cultural sector representatives in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of cultural policy. In the process of the decentralising shift from government to governance, the overarching questions address the issues on who makes the decisions in the cultural field in Croatia, who is represented in the process of decision-making and in what capacity, what is the balance between "top-down" and "bottom-up" approaches in the cycles of Croatian cultural policymaking, and how decentralised and participatory are the decision-making processes in culture? The decentralisation and participatory governance are analysed through interdisciplinary theoretical lenses, with a distinctively sociological approach encompassing the analysis of the social changes that influence dynamics, direction and extent of shifts within the framework of cultural policy and its progression towards a more balanced and democratic form (Katunarić, 1997; Švob Đokić, 2000; Tomić-Koludrović, 2015). To this end, the thesis unravels the links between the cultural policy research and sociological inquiry, exploring the key concepts of the thesis through the theories of structuration, modernisation, transformations and transition both from a general theoretical perspective (Giddens, 1984; 2000; Inglehart and Welzel, 2005; 2007; Eisenstadt, 2010) to a more contextual one (Kalanj, 1998; Rogić, 2001; Švob-Đokić, 2004b; Tomić-Koludrović, 2015; Tomić-Koludrović and Petrić, 2005b). Building on the literature sources that amalgamate Giddens› (1984) and Touraine›s (2000) clarifications on the role and position of actors by with specific social processes of transition and transformation from the sources of Croatian scholars to the analysis of the discourses of power in cultural policy through the theoretical readings of Foucault (1978;1995), Bourdieu (1990; 2012 [2014]) and Habermas (Kellner, 2000; Fernander, 2008; Wang, 2017) and their contesting interpretations by Bennet (1992; 1995; 1998) and McGuigan (1996; 2004), the thesis focuses on these changes and tracks their influence on the dynamics and directions of cultural policy evolution and change. Through the detection of structural position and role of main actors involved in the power play and struggles for cultural policy modernisation in Croatia, attention is given to bottom-up initiatives for cultural policy change detectable in normative policy provision for decentralisation of authority and the emergence of new modes of governance. The research findings indicate that the Croatian cultural system has been experiencing the profound changes in the cultural policy evolution that entail the association and the role of the civil society actors and the rise of the locale, i.e. the city as the origin of the progressive cultural policy changes. The empirical evidence from the policy analysis and investigation of the Lazareti and Pogon cases contributes to the argument that the role of civil society actors in the devolving power in the cultural policy adds to the potentials of social mobilisation and self-actualisation through the development of new structural, institutional and cultural features and formations (Deutch, 1961 in Eisenstadt, 2010:1). However, the thesis shows that while the non-institutional, civil society actors do retain power in sense of the transformative capacity of their actions, the extent of that transformation is limited due to cultural policy constraints in the devolution and sharing of authority. This is amplified with insufficient knowledge about what participatory governance means as a principle and what it should entail in practice, which exacerbates difficulties amongst relationships between key actors, especially on the side of public authorities. To this end, this thesis results in new considerations of the role and implications of decentralised cultural policy and participatory governance in culture as a necessity in achieving structural modernisation and democratisation of the rationales, values and norms of Croatian cultural policy. ; Ova disertacija proučava decentralizaciju kulturne politike i sudioničko upravljanje u Hrvatskoj u razdoblju od 2000. do 2017. godine. Primjeri sudioničkog upravljanja pojavljuju se u hrvatskom kulturnom sustavu i kulturnoj politici kroz proliferaciju nove generacije kulturnih centara, tzv. društveno-kulturnih centara u kojima organizacije civilnog društva upravljaju javnim prostorima i infrastrukturom po načelu civilno-javnog partnerstva što uključuje sudjelovanje, dijeljenje prava i odgovornosti te uključivanje i održivost. Sudioničko upravljanje podrazumijeva uspon političke i društvene važnosti civilnog društva i nevladinih aktera koji, propitivanjem legitimiteta i odgovornosti države, otvaraju nove prostore za javne aktivnosti "do takvog stupnja da ih neki smatraju rekonfiguriranjem javnog sektora" (Fischer, 2006:20). Pojava novih oblika kulturnih institucija koje se izravno bave izazovima i neuspjesima demokratskih vrijednosti u suvremenom kulturnom sustavu zahtijeva stvaranje novih veza i mreža koje se temelje na otvorenim, sudioničkim, djelotvornim i dosljednim procesima. Ovakve promjene ističu problem upravljanja i raspodjele kulturnih resursa, osobito javne prostorne infrastrukture naglašavajući ulogu (mikro)lokaliteta kao ishodišta inovativnih i naprednih koncepata suvremenog kulturnog razvoja. Primjeri sudioničkog upravljanja u kulturi potiču promjene u kulturnoj politici i pratećim osovinama decentralizacije i devolucije ovlasti i moći. Tema decentralizacije i nastanka sudioničkog upravljanja u kulturi se u ovoj disertaciji analizira kroz interdisciplinarni teorijski okvir s naglašenim sociološkim pristupom u analizi društvenih promjena koje imaju utjecaj na dinamiku, smjer i opseg pomaka unutar okvira kulturne politike, kao napretka kulturne politike prema uravnoteženom i demokratičnijem obliku (Katunarić, 1997.; Švob-Đokić, 2000.; Tomić-Koludrović, 2015.). Naime, decentralizacija podrazumijeva teritorijalnu disperziju nadležnosti i resursa kulturne politike, no ona je ujedno i metoda za prijenos vlasti koji omogućuje afirmaciju i primjenu paradigme kulturne demokracije te omogućuje uvođenje praksi sudioničkog upravljanja. Kao sredstvo za smanjenje političke centralizacije u donošenju odluka, decentralizacija se temelji na načelu supsidijarnosti. Supsidijarnost je norma u kulturnoj politici mnogih nacija i može se smatrati najprimjenjivijom metodom za sudioničko stvaranje politika i upravljanje, pri čemu se to odnosi na odnos između centra i lokane razine, ali isto tako i na odnos između vlade i ne-vlade (Katunarić, 2003.; Kawashima, 2004.). Strukturalni i teritorijalni aspekti decentralizacije spajaju se u suvremenoj ulozi gradova koji su se "uzdignuli kao glavni komandni centri svijeta; ne samo ograničeni unutar nacionalnih zemljopisnih granica, već i sa proširenom i složenom međunarodnom ulogom" (Sarikakis, 2012.:17). Uz gradove koji su identificirani kao «ključna mjesta djelovanja u inicijativama globalne politike kako bi se prepoznala važna uloga kulture u održivom razvoju i integrirala kultura u kontekste politike na svim razinama»(Duxbury, 2015.: 69), znakovite promjene u procesima devolucije moći unutar okvira kulturne politike prate se u rastućoj važnosti uloge organizacija civilnog društva u procesima demokratizacije i modernizacije kulturne politike. Lokacija i akteri koji rastvaraju okvir i strukturu kulturne politike su u samoj srži istraživačkog interesa zastupljenog u ovoj disertaciji. Promjene kulturnih politika u smjeru decentralizacije i sudioničkog upravljanja u kulturi proučavaju se kroz metodološki okvir koji se temelji na kvalitativnom istraživanju postavljenom na dva osnovna stupa dizajna istraživanja: policy analizu i tzv. ugniježdenu ili kompozitnu studiju slučaja s dvije jedinice analize. Točnije, prvi dio istraživačkog procesa obuhvaća analizu hrvatske kulturne politike u postavljenom istraživačkom razdoblju, ali i pregled faza razvoja kulturne politike prije istraživačkog perioda te provođenje studije slučaja kroz odabrane primjere sudioničkog upravljanja u kulturi u Dubrovniku (Lazareti) i Zagrebu (Pogon). Ova dva pravca istraživanja odgovaraju na ključne probleme razvoja hrvatske kulturne politike te se kritički analiziraju razine demokratizacije kulturne politike potrebne za osiguravanje i proširivanje javnog karaktera, pristupa i sudjelovanja u kulturi. Ključni problemi se odnose na pitanje zastupljenosti u procesima kulturne politike, a što je sveprisutna boljka diskursa i prakse kulturne politike u Hrvatskoj. U osnovnom obliku, to uključuje ograničenu propusnost procesa kulturne politike i disparatne razine uključenosti i zastupljenosti institucionalnih (politički kontroliranih) aktera naspram izvaninstitucionalnih aktera kulturnog sektora u formulaciji, implementaciji i evaluaciji kulturne politike. U procesu decentralizacijskog pomaka od vladanja (eng. government) prema upravljanju (eng. governance), postavljaju se sveobuhvatna pitanja poput: kako je postavljena kulturna politika u Hrvatskoj; tko donosi odluke u kulturnom polju; tko je zastupljen u procesima donošenja odluka i u kojem kapacitetu; koji je odnos u pristupima "odozgo" i "odozdo" u ciklusima donošenja od luka i formulaciji kulturne politike; kako je kulturna politika decentralizirana i koliko je otvorena sudjelovanju i donošenju odluka u kulturnoj politici? U cilju utvrđivanja sociološki utemeljenih odgovora na ova pitanja, disertacija se temelji na teorijskom okviru koji započinje s analitičkim razmatranjem poveznica između istraživanja kulturne politike i sociologije te postavljanjem teorija strukturacije, modernizacije, transformacije i tranzicije kao teorijske podloge. Ove se teorije razmatraju iz širih, tj. općih perspektiva kako ih vide Giddens (1984.; 2000.), Inglehart i Welzel (2005.; 2007.) i Eisenstadt, (2010.) te iz kontekstualne perspektive kako je artikuliraju Kalanj (1998.), Rogić (2001.), Švob-Đokić (2004.b), Tomić-Koludrović (2015.) i Tomić-Koludrović i Petrić (2005.b). Međupovezanost promjena u kulturnoj politici sa širim društvenim okvirom se u disertaciji prati kroz kombinaciju Giddensovih (1984.) i Touraineovih (2000.) shvaćanja uloge i pozicije aktera uz proučavanje specifičnih procesa transformacije i tranzicije te analizu diskursa moći u kulturnoj politici kroz teorijske ideje Foucaulta (1978.; 1995.), Bourdieuaa (1990.; 2012. [2014.]) i Habermasa (Kellner, 2000.; Fernander, 2008.; Wang, 2017.) kao i njihovih teorijskih sljedbenika Benneta (1992.; 1995.; 1998.) i McGuigana (1996.; 2004.). U detekciji strukturnih pozicija i uloga ključnih aktera unutar raspodjele moći i napora za modernizaciju kulturne politike u Hrvatskoj, posebna se pozornost daje inicijativama "odozdo" koje ulažu napore u promjenu normativnih postavki kulturne politike prema decentralizaciji ovlasti i stvaranju novih oblika upravljanja. Nalazi istraživanja ukazuju na to da je hrvatski kulturni sustav iskusio značajne promjene u evoluciji kulturne politike koje uključuju pomake u tome gdje se kulturna politika stvara i tko je stvara. U tom smjeru se ističu, kako je već navedeno, pozicija grada i uloga aktera civilnog društva kao ishodišta progresivnih promjena (i pritisaka za promjene) u okviru i strukturi, ali i vrijednostima kulturne politike koji se usko uvezuju s koracima ka modernizaciji i demokratizaciji kulturnog sustava. Empirijski dokazi iz analize kulturne politike i istraživanja primjera Lazareta i Pogona u studiji slučaja nadograđuju argumentaciju o ulozi aktera civilnog društva u raspodjeli moći u kulturnoj politici i njihovom doprinosu potencijalima društvene mobilizacije i samo-aktualizacije kroz razvoj novih strukturnih, institucijskih i kulturnih značajki i formacija (Deutch, 1961. u Eisenstadt, 2010.: 1). Međutim, disertacija jednako tako pokazuje da su velike razlike između sistemske pozicije i uloge civilnih aktera u kulturi. Premda izvaninstitucionalni, civilni akteri u kulturi zadržavaju određenu moć u smislu transformativnog potencijala i kapaciteta njihovog djelovanja, raspon posljedičnih učinaka transformativnog djelovanja civilnih aktera je uvjetovan i znatno otežan ograničenjima koje postavlja kulturna politika u mogućnostima raspodjele i dijeljenja ovlasti. Ova su ograničenja dodatno ojačana s nedostatnim razinama znanja o tome što sudioničko upravljanje znači kao princip rada te kako bi trebalo biti primijenjeno u praksi, a što uzrokuje poteškoće u odnosima između ključnih aktera, pogotovo kod javnih vlasti. U tom smislu, disertacija rezultira novim saznanjima o ulozi i implikacijama decentralizirane kulturne politike i sudioničkog upravljanja u kulturi kao potrebnih nadogradnji kulturne politike u smjeru postizanja strukturne modernizacije i demokratizacije postavki, vrijednosti i normi hrvatske kulturne politike.
This thesis studies decentralisation of cultural policy and participatory cultural governance in Croatia from 2000 to 2017. Decentralization as a process implies territorial dispersion of cultural policy's competences and resources but is also a method for devolution of power/authority, enabling amplification of cultural democracy and participative governance practices (Katunarić, 2003; Kawashima, 2004). Participatory governance is situated in "institutional voids", or institutional cracks of the traditional state where the practices of participatory governance are reflected in a "proliferation of new forms of social and political association" (Fischer, 2006:20). This implies the rise of political and social relevance of the civil society and non-governmental actors that, by questioning the legitimacy and accountability of the state, open new organisational spaces taking over public activities to "such a degree that some see them as reconfiguring public sector" and affecting policies of the mainstream institutions (Fischer, 2006:20). The examples of decentralised power in the Croatian cultural system are found in a small number of arm's length bodies and institutions, while the selected examples of participatory governance in culture situated in Dubrovnik (Lazareti) and Zagreb (Pogon) follow the evolution of socio-cultural centres involving the use of public space/infrastructure by platforms of civil society organisations based on the principles of sharing, inclusion, social engagement and sustainability. These main lines of research interests respond to the key concerns of cultural policy development that critically reflect and question the levels of democratization in cultural policy needed for securing and widening public traits, access and participation in culture. Detected concerns indicate the issues of representation, which has been ever-present maladie of the cultural policy discourse and practice in Croatia. Its most blatant manifestation is found in the limited permeability of cultural policy processes and the disparate levels of inclusion of institutional (politically controlled) vs. non-institutional cultural sector representatives in the formulation, implementation and evaluation of cultural policy. In the process of the decentralising shift from government to governance, the overarching questions address the issues on who makes the decisions in the cultural field in Croatia, who is represented in the process of decision-making and in what capacity, what is the balance between "top-down" and "bottom-up" approaches in the cycles of Croatian cultural policymaking, and how decentralised and participatory are the decision-making processes in culture? The decentralisation and participatory governance are analysed through interdisciplinary theoretical lenses, with a distinctively sociological approach encompassing the analysis of the social changes that influence dynamics, direction and extent of shifts within the framework of cultural policy and its progression towards a more balanced and democratic form (Katunarić, 1997; Švob Đokić, 2000; Tomić-Koludrović, 2015). To this end, the thesis unravels the links between the cultural policy research and sociological inquiry, exploring the key concepts of the thesis through the theories of structuration, modernisation, transformations and transition both from a general theoretical perspective (Giddens, 1984; 2000; Inglehart and Welzel, 2005; 2007; Eisenstadt, 2010) to a more contextual one (Kalanj, 1998; Rogić, 2001; Švob-Đokić, 2004b; Tomić-Koludrović, 2015; Tomić-Koludrović and Petrić, 2005b). Building on the literature sources that amalgamate Giddens› (1984) and Touraine›s (2000) clarifications on the role and position of actors by with specific social processes of transition and transformation from the sources of Croatian scholars to the analysis of the discourses of power in cultural policy through the theoretical readings of Foucault (1978;1995), Bourdieu (1990; 2012 [2014]) and Habermas (Kellner, 2000; Fernander, 2008; Wang, 2017) and their contesting interpretations by Bennet (1992; 1995; 1998) and McGuigan (1996; 2004), the thesis focuses on these changes and tracks their influence on the dynamics and directions of cultural policy evolution and change. Through the detection of structural position and role of main actors involved in the power play and struggles for cultural policy modernisation in Croatia, attention is given to bottom-up initiatives for cultural policy change detectable in normative policy provision for decentralisation of authority and the emergence of new modes of governance. The research findings indicate that the Croatian cultural system has been experiencing the profound changes in the cultural policy evolution that entail the association and the role of the civil society actors and the rise of the locale, i.e. the city as the origin of the progressive cultural policy changes. The empirical evidence from the policy analysis and investigation of the Lazareti and Pogon cases contributes to the argument that the role of civil society actors in the devolving power in the cultural policy adds to the potentials of social mobilisation and self-actualisation through the development of new structural, institutional and cultural features and formations (Deutch, 1961 in Eisenstadt, 2010:1). However, the thesis shows that while the non-institutional, civil society actors do retain power in sense of the transformative capacity of their actions, the extent of that transformation is limited due to cultural policy constraints in the devolution and sharing of authority. This is amplified with insufficient knowledge about what participatory governance means as a principle and what it should entail in practice, which exacerbates difficulties amongst relationships between key actors, especially on the side of public authorities. To this end, this thesis results in new considerations of the role and implications of decentralised cultural policy and participatory governance in culture as a necessity in achieving structural modernisation and democratisation of the rationales, values and norms of Croatian cultural policy. ; Ova disertacija proučava decentralizaciju kulturne politike i sudioničko upravljanje u Hrvatskoj u razdoblju od 2000. do 2017. godine. Primjeri sudioničkog upravljanja pojavljuju se u hrvatskom kulturnom sustavu i kulturnoj politici kroz proliferaciju nove generacije kulturnih centara, tzv. društveno-kulturnih centara u kojima organizacije civilnog društva upravljaju javnim prostorima i infrastrukturom po načelu civilno-javnog partnerstva što uključuje sudjelovanje, dijeljenje prava i odgovornosti te uključivanje i održivost. Sudioničko upravljanje podrazumijeva uspon političke i društvene važnosti civilnog društva i nevladinih aktera koji, propitivanjem legitimiteta i odgovornosti države, otvaraju nove prostore za javne aktivnosti "do takvog stupnja da ih neki smatraju rekonfiguriranjem javnog sektora" (Fischer, 2006:20). Pojava novih oblika kulturnih institucija koje se izravno bave izazovima i neuspjesima demokratskih vrijednosti u suvremenom kulturnom sustavu zahtijeva stvaranje novih veza i mreža koje se temelje na otvorenim, sudioničkim, djelotvornim i dosljednim procesima. Ovakve promjene ističu problem upravljanja i raspodjele kulturnih resursa, osobito javne prostorne infrastrukture naglašavajući ulogu (mikro)lokaliteta kao ishodišta inovativnih i naprednih koncepata suvremenog kulturnog razvoja. Primjeri sudioničkog upravljanja u kulturi potiču promjene u kulturnoj politici i pratećim osovinama decentralizacije i devolucije ovlasti i moći. Tema decentralizacije i nastanka sudioničkog upravljanja u kulturi se u ovoj disertaciji analizira kroz interdisciplinarni teorijski okvir s naglašenim sociološkim pristupom u analizi društvenih promjena koje imaju utjecaj na dinamiku, smjer i opseg pomaka unutar okvira kulturne politike, kao napretka kulturne politike prema uravnoteženom i demokratičnijem obliku (Katunarić, 1997.; Švob-Đokić, 2000.; Tomić-Koludrović, 2015.). Naime, decentralizacija podrazumijeva teritorijalnu disperziju nadležnosti i resursa kulturne politike, no ona je ujedno i metoda za prijenos vlasti koji omogućuje afirmaciju i primjenu paradigme kulturne demokracije te omogućuje uvođenje praksi sudioničkog upravljanja. Kao sredstvo za smanjenje političke centralizacije u donošenju odluka, decentralizacija se temelji na načelu supsidijarnosti. Supsidijarnost je norma u kulturnoj politici mnogih nacija i može se smatrati najprimjenjivijom metodom za sudioničko stvaranje politika i upravljanje, pri čemu se to odnosi na odnos između centra i lokane razine, ali isto tako i na odnos između vlade i ne-vlade (Katunarić, 2003.; Kawashima, 2004.). Strukturalni i teritorijalni aspekti decentralizacije spajaju se u suvremenoj ulozi gradova koji su se "uzdignuli kao glavni komandni centri svijeta; ne samo ograničeni unutar nacionalnih zemljopisnih granica, već i sa proširenom i složenom međunarodnom ulogom" (Sarikakis, 2012.:17). Uz gradove koji su identificirani kao «ključna mjesta djelovanja u inicijativama globalne politike kako bi se prepoznala važna uloga kulture u održivom razvoju i integrirala kultura u kontekste politike na svim razinama»(Duxbury, 2015.: 69), znakovite promjene u procesima devolucije moći unutar okvira kulturne politike prate se u rastućoj važnosti uloge organizacija civilnog društva u procesima demokratizacije i modernizacije kulturne politike. Lokacija i akteri koji rastvaraju okvir i strukturu kulturne politike su u samoj srži istraživačkog interesa zastupljenog u ovoj disertaciji. Promjene kulturnih politika u smjeru decentralizacije i sudioničkog upravljanja u kulturi proučavaju se kroz metodološki okvir koji se temelji na kvalitativnom istraživanju postavljenom na dva osnovna stupa dizajna istraživanja: policy analizu i tzv. ugniježdenu ili kompozitnu studiju slučaja s dvije jedinice analize. Točnije, prvi dio istraživačkog procesa obuhvaća analizu hrvatske kulturne politike u postavljenom istraživačkom razdoblju, ali i pregled faza razvoja kulturne politike prije istraživačkog perioda te provođenje studije slučaja kroz odabrane primjere sudioničkog upravljanja u kulturi u Dubrovniku (Lazareti) i Zagrebu (Pogon). Ova dva pravca istraživanja odgovaraju na ključne probleme razvoja hrvatske kulturne politike te se kritički analiziraju razine demokratizacije kulturne politike potrebne za osiguravanje i proširivanje javnog karaktera, pristupa i sudjelovanja u kulturi. Ključni problemi se odnose na pitanje zastupljenosti u procesima kulturne politike, a što je sveprisutna boljka diskursa i prakse kulturne politike u Hrvatskoj. U osnovnom obliku, to uključuje ograničenu propusnost procesa kulturne politike i disparatne razine uključenosti i zastupljenosti institucionalnih (politički kontroliranih) aktera naspram izvaninstitucionalnih aktera kulturnog sektora u formulaciji, implementaciji i evaluaciji kulturne politike. U procesu decentralizacijskog pomaka od vladanja (eng. government) prema upravljanju (eng. governance), postavljaju se sveobuhvatna pitanja poput: kako je postavljena kulturna politika u Hrvatskoj; tko donosi odluke u kulturnom polju; tko je zastupljen u procesima donošenja odluka i u kojem kapacitetu; koji je odnos u pristupima "odozgo" i "odozdo" u ciklusima donošenja od luka i formulaciji kulturne politike; kako je kulturna politika decentralizirana i koliko je otvorena sudjelovanju i donošenju odluka u kulturnoj politici? U cilju utvrđivanja sociološki utemeljenih odgovora na ova pitanja, disertacija se temelji na teorijskom okviru koji započinje s analitičkim razmatranjem poveznica između istraživanja kulturne politike i sociologije te postavljanjem teorija strukturacije, modernizacije, transformacije i tranzicije kao teorijske podloge. Ove se teorije razmatraju iz širih, tj. općih perspektiva kako ih vide Giddens (1984.; 2000.), Inglehart i Welzel (2005.; 2007.) i Eisenstadt, (2010.) te iz kontekstualne perspektive kako je artikuliraju Kalanj (1998.), Rogić (2001.), Švob-Đokić (2004.b), Tomić-Koludrović (2015.) i Tomić-Koludrović i Petrić (2005.b). Međupovezanost promjena u kulturnoj politici sa širim društvenim okvirom se u disertaciji prati kroz kombinaciju Giddensovih (1984.) i Touraineovih (2000.) shvaćanja uloge i pozicije aktera uz proučavanje specifičnih procesa transformacije i tranzicije te analizu diskursa moći u kulturnoj politici kroz teorijske ideje Foucaulta (1978.; 1995.), Bourdieuaa (1990.; 2012. [2014.]) i Habermasa (Kellner, 2000.; Fernander, 2008.; Wang, 2017.) kao i njihovih teorijskih sljedbenika Benneta (1992.; 1995.; 1998.) i McGuigana (1996.; 2004.). U detekciji strukturnih pozicija i uloga ključnih aktera unutar raspodjele moći i napora za modernizaciju kulturne politike u Hrvatskoj, posebna se pozornost daje inicijativama "odozdo" koje ulažu napore u promjenu normativnih postavki kulturne politike prema decentralizaciji ovlasti i stvaranju novih oblika upravljanja. Nalazi istraživanja ukazuju na to da je hrvatski kulturni sustav iskusio značajne promjene u evoluciji kulturne politike koje uključuju pomake u tome gdje se kulturna politika stvara i tko je stvara. U tom smjeru se ističu, kako je već navedeno, pozicija grada i uloga aktera civilnog društva kao ishodišta progresivnih promjena (i pritisaka za promjene) u okviru i strukturi, ali i vrijednostima kulturne politike koji se usko uvezuju s koracima ka modernizaciji i demokratizaciji kulturnog sustava. Empirijski dokazi iz analize kulturne politike i istraživanja primjera Lazareta i Pogona u studiji slučaja nadograđuju argumentaciju o ulozi aktera civilnog društva u raspodjeli moći u kulturnoj politici i njihovom doprinosu potencijalima društvene mobilizacije i samo-aktualizacije kroz razvoj novih strukturnih, institucijskih i kulturnih značajki i formacija (Deutch, 1961. u Eisenstadt, 2010.: 1). Međutim, disertacija jednako tako pokazuje da su velike razlike između sistemske pozicije i uloge civilnih aktera u kulturi. Premda izvaninstitucionalni, civilni akteri u kulturi zadržavaju određenu moć u smislu transformativnog potencijala i kapaciteta njihovog djelovanja, raspon posljedičnih učinaka transformativnog djelovanja civilnih aktera je uvjetovan i znatno otežan ograničenjima koje postavlja kulturna politika u mogućnostima raspodjele i dijeljenja ovlasti. Ova su ograničenja dodatno ojačana s nedostatnim razinama znanja o tome što sudioničko upravljanje znači kao princip rada te kako bi trebalo biti primijenjeno u praksi, a što uzrokuje poteškoće u odnosima između ključnih aktera, pogotovo kod javnih vlasti. U tom smislu, disertacija rezultira novim saznanjima o ulozi i implikacijama decentralizirane kulturne politike i sudioničkog upravljanja u kulturi kao potrebnih nadogradnji kulturne politike u smjeru postizanja strukturne modernizacije i demokratizacije postavki, vrijednosti i normi hrvatske kulturne politike.
En décembre 2019, les membres deRethinking Economics Belgium(dorénavant REB) ont diffusé un rapport intitulé "Dix ans après la crise, faut-il changer la formation des futurs économistes ?". Ce rapport présente les résultats d'une enquête statistique réalisée auprès d'un échantillon d'étudiants bacheliers en sciences économiques en Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles entre 2016 et 2017. Ses auteurs y déplorent que l'enseignement des sciences économiques est presque exclusivement centré sur l'approche néoclassique alors que celle-ci, selon eux, souffre d'un biais en faveur de l'idéologie néolibérale. Stigmatisant cette situation comme un manque de pluralisme, le rapport avance un certain nombre de propositions de réforme de l'enseignement et de la recherche en économie. Nous accueillons ce rapport comme une belle opportunité dedisputatioet c'est dans cet esprit que notre note a été écrite. Bien que selon nous le rapport comporte plusieurs défauts méthodologiques, notre intention dans cette note est de nous limiter à l'essentiel en proposant une interprétation différente du phénomène que les auteurs du rapport appellent la «domination de la théorie néoclassique» et en défendant l'idée que la question du pluralisme en économie gagne à être abordée d'une manière différente. Une domination néoclassique ? L'approche néoclassique est un courant de la pensée économique qui vit le jour dans le dernier quart du 19ème siècle. Ses piliers sont la notion d'équilibre et la théorie subjective de la valeur, enracinée dans une perspective d'individualisme méthodologique et fondée sur les concepts d'utilité marginale et de productivité marginale*. Les auteurs du document de REB rattachent sa "domination" dans l'enseignement au fait qu'elle existe "quasiment sans partage" dans la recherche. En d'autres termes, elle y occupe le statut de "mainstream". La notion demainstreamse rencontre fréquemment dans la littérature économique – ainsi que dans le rapport de REB – mais elle est souvent définie d'une manière vague. Dans un article récent (De Vroey et Pensieroso 2020), nous avançons la thèse que cette notion n'est intéressante que si on lui donne un fondement méthodologique au lieu de se contenter de la rattacher à une simpleprépondérance statistique. Dans cette vue, une situation demainstreamn'existe que si un consensus s'établit sur des critères méthodologiques considérés comme dessine qua nonpour une bonne pratique scientifique. Dans notre article, nous montrons que trois types de situations se sont succédés au cours du 20ème siècle. La première est un état d'absence demainstream. Elle a perduré jusque dans les années 1980. Ces dernières ont vu l'émergence d'unmainstreamen économie théorique, qu'il s'agisse de travaux de pure théorie ou de travaux combinant théorie et mesure empirique. C'est la seconde situation. Elle a émergé à la croisée de deux évolutions distinctes. La première est l'extension à différents champs de l'économie de trois principes méthodologiques déjà en vigueur en théorie des jeux et en microéconomie:(i)le rôle-pivot donné au concept d'équilibre,(ii)la modélisation mathématique et(iii)le caractère micro-fondé de l'analyse, à savoir l'exigence que les fonctions de demande et offre agrégées soient explicitement dérivées des règles de comportement optimisateur suivies par les agents économiques. Une telle extension s'est produite plus ou moins simultanément et d'une manière non-coordonnée dans différentes disciplines comme par exemple la macroéconomie et l'économe industrielle. A son origine, on trouve une insatisfaction quant aux principes méthodologiques en vigueur antérieurement. La seconde évolution est le phénomène général de certification qui a graduellement imprégné nos sociétés pour prendre son plein essor avec l'émergence de l'internet – l'attribution de brevets de qualité et la construction d'échelles appréciatives permettant de classer des objets ou des expériences diverses en fonction de leur excellence. Dans ce contexte, les revues scientifiques, en plus de leur rôle d'instrument de diffusion de la recherche, ont commencé à fonctionner comme organes de certification, séparant les articles respectant les standards méthodologiques de ceux qui ne les respectent pas et sont dès lors écartés. L'effet de cette double transformation se résume en quelques chiffres ayant trait au contenu des articles publiés dans les quatre principales revues économiques (American Economic Review,Econometrica,Journal of Political EconomyetQuarterly Journal of Economics) dans les périodes 1970-1990 et 1990-2010. Alors que les articles respectant les trois choix méthodologiques précités représentaient 38 % du total des articles publiés en 1970, en 1990 ils en représentaient 67 % et en 2010 69 %. Nous interprétons ces chiffres comme offrant une indication claire de l'émergence d'unmainstreamdans le champ théorique entre 1970 et 1990. Par contre durant cette période, aucun consensus méthodologique n'existait en ce qui concernait les travaux faisant une contribution exclusivement empirique, l'économie appliquée. Mais ce qui n'était pas vrai en 1990 l'est devenu au cours de la première décennie de ce siècle. La situation actuelle se caractérise par la montée en puissance de l''économie expérimentale', ce terme étant entendu dans un sens large comme le commun dénominateur(i)des expériences comportementales de laboratoire,(ii)desrandomized controlled trialet(iii)des 'expériences naturelles'.** Le premier de ces courants résulte de l'adoption par un groupe d'économistes de protocoles expérimentaux propres aux psychologues cognitifs dans le but de justifier le remplacement de l'hypothèse de comportement optimisateur par des hypothèses plus réalistes. Le succès venant, cette démarche est maintenant connue sous le nom d''économie comportementale'. Le second découle de l'adoption par des économistes du développement de techniques expérimentales en usage en épidémiologie et centrées sur une confrontation entre groupe de traitement et de groupe de contrôle (cfr. Parienté 2016). Quant aux études d'expériences naturelles, elles consistent à exploiter «des situations où les forces de la nature ou des politiques étatiques semblent avoir conspiré pour produire un environnementproche de celui sur lequel lesrandomized trialsse penchent» (Angrist and Krueger 2001 : 73). Les méthodes adoptées en économie expérimentale au sens large ont eu un impact majeur sur l'économie appliquée. Une nouvelle manière de la concevoir, marquant une triple rupture par rapport à l'économie appliquée traditionnelle, s'est dégagée. On y observe :i)Une émancipation à l'égard des impératifs méthodologiques imposés par les économètres théoriques. Le recours à des outils économétriques plus simples en est la conséquence (cfr. Angrist et Peschke 2017).ii)Une adhésion à la 'révolution causale' avec, comme corolaire, un résultat de rétrécissement de l'objet d'étude. L'explanandumest une question concrète et spécifique ayant souvent une incidence politique immédiate; l'explanansest une cause unique. A titre d'exemple, citons l'étude de Dal et Krueger (2002) visant à répondre la question, le fait d'être diplômé d'une université prestigieuse au minerval élevé plutôt que d'une université moins prestigieuse et moins chère génère-t-il une différence de revenu significative une vingtaine d'année après l'obtention du diplôme ?iii)Le recours à des instruments statistiques - telles que les variables instrumentales, la stratégie de double différence ou les discontinuités de régression - visant à éliminer les biais de sélection ou d'omissions et dont les règles de bon usage font l'objet d'un consensus à l'intérieur de la communauté des économistes appliqués. Lemainstreamthéorique se voit ainsi complété par unmainstreamempirique fondé sur des règles méthodologiques régissant chacune de trois composantes de l'économie expérimentale. De nos jours, il y a donc deux manières d'appartenir aumainstream. La première résulte d'une définition méthodologique de ce qui est considéré être une bonne pratique théorique, la seconde d'une définition méthodologique de ce qui est considéré être une bonne pratique empirique. Notre analyse sur le débat ouvert par le rapport REB a deux retombées. En premier lieu, on peut se demander simainstreamet approche néoclassique coïncident. A strictement parler, cela n'est pas le cas. D'abord, la théorie des jeux est une composante dumainstreamqui ne peut être identifiée à l'approche néoclassique. Ensuite, il y a des travaux néoclassiques qui se trouvent être exclus dumainstream- la théorie autrichienne, parce qu'elle n'adopte pas le langage mathématique, et les études néoclassiques qui n'adoptent pas la démarche de micro-fondements. Enfin, en 2010, la part dumainstreamempirique dans le total des deuxmainstreamsreprésentait 22 %. Or, par définition, aucun des articles qui en font partie n'appartient à l'approche néoclassique. Le tableau contemporain est donc bien plus riche et varié que ce qui est dépeint dans le rapport REB. La seconde question qui se pose du fait de l'existence d'unmainstreamen économie porte sur l'interprétation de cette réalité. Il est clair que les tenants des approches écartées se sentent frustrés d'être exclus dumainstreamavec toutes les conséquences professionnelles qui en découlent. Ils auront donc tendance à voir cette situation comme une régression par rapport à une situation antérieure plus satisfaisante car marquée du sceau du pluralisme. Par contre, les économistes dont les travaux s'inscrivent à l'intérieur des critères définissant lemainstreampeuvent avancer l'idée que l'unification de la discipline autour de critères méthodologiques clairs et nets est un signe de progrès. En conséquence, la question de savoir si l'existence d'unmainstreamest une régression ou la marque d'un progrès ne peut recevoir de réponse univoque. Une absence de pluralisme ? Trois stratégies s'offrent aux tenants de choix méthodologiques exclus dumainstream. La première (et la plus intéressante à nos yeux) est de centrer leur énergie sur le développement de leur paradigme préféré, comme si de rien n'était, dans le but d'en démontrer la fécondité explicative. La seconde vise à convaincre les tenants dumainstreamque les choix de base sur lesquels ils reposent sont inadéquats. A notre avis, les chances de succès de cette seconde stratégie sont minimes si, comme nous le pensons, les révolutions théoriques trouvent en général leurs origines dans des faiblesses mises en avant par une critique interne. La troisième consiste à affirmer que l'existence même d'un mainstream est condamnable parce qu'il s'agit d'un manque de pluralisme. Comme ce point de vue occupe une place centrale dans le document REB, il mérite d'être passé au crible. A nos yeux, la justification qui en est donnée n'est pas convaincante. Le fait que l'exigence de pluralisme est d'une importance primordiale dans le domaine de la démocratie politique et de l'information n'implique pas que ceci soit aussi le cas pour la connaissance scientifique. Comme nous l'avons déjà évoqué plus haut, une unification paradigmatique peut être interprétée comme une marque de progrès. Il reste qu'en économie, peut-être plus que dans d'autres sciences, la question du pluralisme doit être posée. Mais, à nos yeux, elle doit l'être dans d'autres termes. Depuis Adam Smith jusqu'à nos jours, les économistes ont débattu de la meilleure manière d'organiser la société dans sa dimension économique. L'objet d'étude de la science économique est donc éminemment politique. D'ailleurs, les travaux économiques débouchent souvent, sinon toujours, sur des conclusions de politique économique. L'enjeu sous-jacent porte sur le rôle respectif de l'Etat et des forces de marchés dans le fonctionnement de l'économie. Schématiquement, trois visions du capitalisme sont en présence : une vision pleinement libérale (le laissez faire d'Hayek ou de Friedman), une vision marxiste et une vision que l'on peut qualifier de «libéralisme mitigé» ou de «libéralisme raisonné». Cette dernière, associée notamment au nom de Keynes, consiste en une défense de l'économie de marché allant de pair avec la réalisation qu'elle peut rencontrer des échecs de fonctionnement auxquels seules des interventions étatiques sont à même de remédier. L'accusation de manque de pluralisme serait pertinente s'il s'avérait que lemainstreamthéorique, tel que nous l'avons cerné dans la section précédente, est intrinsèquement partisan d'une seule vision, le plein libéralisme par exemple. Dans un article, publié dans lesRegards Économiquesen 2018, nous avons démontré que cela n'est pas le cas en nous centrant sur trois épisodes de l'histoire des théories économiques - une comparaison du cadre conceptuel de Marx et des économistes classiques, l'utilisation de la théorie walrasienne pour justifier le socialisme et les controverses entre keynésiens et monétaristes. Dans cette perspective, tant la théorie classique que la théorie néoclassique sont un langage qui peut être mis au service de visions du capitalisme différentes. L'existence d'unmainstreamen économie n'est donc pas synonyme d'un manque de pluralisme en économie. *Cfr. De Vroey et Pensieroso (2018) pour plus de détails.**En témoignent les prix Nobel en économie décernés à D. Kahneman et V. Smith en 2002, à A. Roth en 2012, à R. Shiller en 2013, à R. Thaler en 2017 et à A. Banerjee, E. Duflo and M. Kremer en 2019. Références: Angrist, J. and A. Krueger (2001), "Instrumental Variables and the Search for Identification: From Supply and Demand to Natural Experiments."Journal of Economic Perspectives. 15, No. 4 : 69-85. Angrist, J. and J-S. Pischke. 2009.Mostly Harmless Econometrics. An Empiricist's Companion. Princeton (N. J.) and Oxford, Princeton University Press. Dale, S. and Al Krueger. 2002. "Estimating the Payoff to Attending a More Selective College: An Application of Selection on Observables and Unobservables."Quarterly Journal of Economics117: 1491–1527. De Vroey M. et L. Pensieroso (2020), "Mainstream Economics. Its Rise and Evolution", mimeo. De Vroey M. et L. Pensieroso (2018), "La question du pluralisme en économie. Une mise en perspective",Regards Économiques, numéro 137. Parienté W. (2016), "Mesurer l'effet des politiques publiques : l'essor des évaluations aléatoires",Regards Économiques, numéro 124. Rethinking Economics Belgium (2019),10 ans après la crise : faut-il changer la formation des futur·e·s économistes ?
This study examines the value chains of cassava leaves and chikwangue, in light of the evolution of food consumption patterns, population growth and urbanization in the city of Kinshasa. The analysis of the evolution of culinary and food practices, considering its historical roots, has made it possible to identify current innovations and trends in food consumption patterns. It was based on an in-depth documentary analysis of the various reports on consumption carried out in Kinshasa. Certain documents and works published before the independence of the country have also been of great help in locating certain historical landmarks. The analysis of the value chain was made possible thanks to an empirical study carried out with direct and indirect actors in both urban and peri-urban areas of Kinshasa. Thus, a survey at the level of producers, processors, traders, service providers and state service agents was carried out to identify the functioning of the value chain taking into account its environment. Another household-level survey aimed at identifying the end market and identifying the drivers of demand for cassava leaves and its potential. The analysis of the changing eating habits of the people of Kinshasa reveals a specific culture linked to the history of the formation and evolution of social, economic and cultural identities. Food consumption in the city of Kinshasa highlights the influence of cultural mixing in culinary and food practices. The population of Kinshasa is cosmopolitan; the original heterogeneity now rooted in a native majority and the mixing with foreign cultures have favored the appearance of a particular urban culture in Kinshasa and new eating styles. The telltale signs of the evolution of culinary and food practices in Kinshasa were already perceptible before independence. Kinshasa cuisine has been developed on the basis of cultural, pre-colonial, colonial and more recently global influences. Current trends show that the people of Kinshasa are seeking to adapt by emphasizing a few innovations, both in terms of consumption and distribution (food supply). These innovations are recognized as an unavoidable phenomenon linked to urbanization. They were achieved gradually, and they remain strongly marked by the history of consumers' social positions. This evolution in food demand and consumption has important consequences on the food problem of the country in general and of the city of Kinshasa in particular. As the food styles of city dwellers differ from those of rural people, one of the essential questions for the future is to know under what conditions the agricultural supply of the country or of peri-urban areas can contribute to satisfy the urban demand of Kinshasa (in constant evolution) ? This question is not limited to estimating whether the quantities of food produced will be sufficient in the future to feed the populations of the city of Kinshasa. It also refers to the conditions for adapting this offer to the new requirements of city dwellers in this city, taking into account in particular their income, their way of life, and their socio-cultural models. Indeed, the food of the Kinois of tomorrow, in quantity and in quality, will be partly dependent on the capacity of the Congolese food system in general and Kinshasa in particular to innovate, from the seed to the plate. The household survey showed that cassava leaves and chikwangue have strong symbolic and cultural value. There are several methods of preparing "pondu" according to the provinces, the most common of which are: pondu ya madesu (cassava leaves with beans), limbondo (laid bicarbonates) and saka saka or matamba (cassava leaves) without baking soda or beans). In terms of variety, the majority of consumers (72%) choose the Manihot glazziovi. Projecting demand over 5 to 10 years, places potential demand for cassava leaves at 863,615 tonnes in 2022 and 1,070,221 tonnes in 2027; that of the chikwangue is estimated at 334,307 tonnes in 2022 and 414,285 tonnes in 20227. Survey results show that the cassava leaf and chikwangue value chains are driven by several actors. Certain actors (direct and service providers) contribute to the proper functioning of the value chain while others (State service agents in particular) are illustrated by the phenomenon of racketeering, thus contributing to the increase in product prices at the end of the chain. The value chain and the "contracts" between the actors and the stakeholders respond to economic logics and constraints embedded in social logics of security (being able to still work tomorrow, having good contacts with people we will need) rather than optimization (earning the maximum today). The transformation of the leaves and the chikwangue is still rudimentary. Stakeholders are using less sophisticated techniques. Since research has invested little in these value chains, the experience of industrialization is currently in its infancy. The marketing of these products remains an almost informal activity with a strong presence of women. All actors in the value chain make profits, which attests to economic profitability at the level of each link. The leaf value chain achieves an added value of around USD 8.0 / kg of leaves. However, processing is the activity that creates the most value and, therefore, processors are the ones who take the largest share (at least 90%). For the same quantity, the value added in the chikwangue value chain is evaluated at USD 1.19 / kg, the largest portion of which is captured by the processor of cassava roots into kimpuka (36.13%) and the trader retailer (36.13%). The agrifood market value chains of cassava leaves and chikwangue face many constraints in terms of production, marketing and processing. Despite these various constraints, these two value chains have significant assets, linked in particular to the ecology of cassava, to transport infrastructure (Kinshasa is well connected to its hinterland thanks to national road 1, the path to iron and the Congo river) and to the geographic proximity and accessibility to the urban market. Beyond the advantages, several opportunities arise and can be capitalized on to boost the commercial activities of the cassava leaf and chikwangue value chains. Among other things, we can note: urban demand, international demand for cassava products, the symbolic and cultural value of the product, taking cassava value chains into account in various projects and programs in the eastern part of the country, and the existence of scientific institutions and research and management centers. ; La présente étude traite des chaînes de valeur de feuilles de manioc et de la chikwangue, au regard de l'évolution des modes de consommation alimentaires, de la croissance démographique et de l'urbanisation de la ville de Kinshasa. L'analyse de l'évolution des pratiques culinaires et alimentaires, en considérant ses racines historiques, a permis d'identifier les innovations et tendances actuelles dans les modes de consommation alimentaires. Elle s'est appuyée sur l'analyse documentaire approfondie des diverses études sur la consommation réalisées à Kinshasa. Certains documents et travaux publiés avant l'indépendance du pays ont aussi été d'une grande utilité pour situer certains repères historique. L'analyse de la chaîne de valeur a été rendue possible grâce une étude empirique réalisée auprès des acteurs directs et indirects aussi bien en zone urbaine que périurbaine de Kinshasa. Ainsi, une enquête au niveau des producteurs, transformateurs, des commerçants, des prestataires de services et des agents de services de l'Etat a effectuée pour cerner le fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur en tenant compte de son environnement. Une autre enquête a été réalisée au niveau des ménages dans le but cerner le marché final et d'identifier les ressorts de la demande pour les feuilles de manioc et son potentiel. L'analyse de changement des habitudes alimentaires des Kinois rend compte d'une culture propre liée à l'histoire de la formation et de l'évolution des identités sociales, économiques et culturelles. La consommation alimentaire dans la ville de Kinshasa met en évidence l'influence du brassage culturel dans les pratiques culinaires et alimentaires. La population de Kinshasa est cosmopolite ; l'hétérogénéité d'origine désormais enracinée dans une majorité native et le brassage avec des cultures étrangères ont favorisé l'apparition d'une culture urbaine particulière à Kinshasa et de nouveaux styles alimentaires. Les signes révélateurs de l'évolution des pratiques culinaires et alimentaires à Kinshasa étaient déjà perceptibles avant l'indépendance. La cuisine kinoise s'est élaborée sur la base d'influences culturelles, précoloniales, coloniales et plus récemment mondiales. Les tendances actuelles montrent que les populations kinoises cherchent à s'adapter en mettant l'accent sur quelques innovations tant au niveau de la consommation qu'au niveau de la distribution (pratique d'approvisionnement) alimentaires. Ces innovations sont reconnues comme phénomène incontournable lié à l'urbanisation. Elles se sont réalisées progressivement, et elles restent fortement marquées par l'histoire des positions sociales des consommateurs. Cette évolution dans la demande et la consommation alimentaires a des conséquences importantes sur la problématique alimentaire du pays en général et de la ville de Kinshasa en particulier. Les styles alimentaires des citadins se différenciant de ceux des ruraux, une des questions essentielles pour l'avenir est de savoir à quelles conditions l'offre agricole du pays ou des zones périurbaines pourront contribuer à satisfaire la demande urbaine de Kinshasa (en constante évolution) ? Cette question ne se limite pas à estimer si les quantités d'aliments produites seront suffisantes à l'avenir pour nourrir les populations de la ville de Kinshasa. Elle renvoie aussi aux conditions d'une adaptation de cette offre aux nouvelles exigences des citadins de cette ville compte tenu en particulier de leurs revenus, de leur mode de vie, et de leurs modèles socioculturels. En effet, l'alimentation des Kinois de demain, en quantité et en qualité, sera en partie tributaire de la capacité du système alimentaire congolais en général et kinois en particulier à innover, de la semence à l'assiette. L'enquête dans les ménages a montré que les feuilles de manioc et la chikwangue ont une valeur symbolique et culturelle forte. Il existe plusieurs modes de préparation de « pondu » selon les provinces, dont les plus répandus sont : le pondu ya madesu (feuilles de manioc avec le haricot), le limbondo (pondu aux bicarbonates) et le saka saka ou matamba (feuilles de manioc sans bicarbonate ni haricot). Pour ce qui est de la variété, la majorité des consommateurs (72%) portent leur choix sur le Manihot glazziovi. La projection de la demande réalisée sur 5 à 10 ans, situe la demande potentielle en feuilles de manioc à 863.615 tonnes en 2022 et 1.070.221 tonnes en 2027 ; celle de la chikwangue est évaluée à 334.307 tonnes en 2022 et à 414.285 tonnes en 20227. Les résultats de l'enquête révèlent que les chaînes de valeur de feuilles de manioc et de la chikwangue sont animées par plusieurs acteurs. Certains acteurs (directs et prestataires de service) contribuent au bon fonctionnement de la chaîne de valeur tandis que d'autres (agents de services de l'Etat notamment) s'illustrent par le phénomène de racket, contribuant ainsi au renchérissement des prix des produits au bout de la chaîne. La chaîne de valeur et les « contrats » entre les acteurs, les parties prenantes répondent à des logiques et contraintes économiques enchâssées dans des logiques sociales de sécurisation (pouvoir encore travailler demain, avoir des bons contacts avec des gens dont on aura besoin) plutôt que d'optimisation (gagner le maximum aujourd'hui). La transformation des feuilles et de la chikwangue reste encore rudimentaire. Les parties prenantes mobilisent des techniques moins sophistiquées. La recherche ayant peu investi dans ces chaînes de valeur, l'expérience d'industrialisation est actuellement au stade embryonnaire. La commercialisation de ces produits reste une activité quasi informelle avec une forte présence des femmes. Tous les acteurs de la chaîne de valeur réalisent des bénéfices, ce qui atteste la rentabilité économique au niveau de chaque maillon. La chaîne de valeur de feuilles permet de réaliser une valeur ajoutée de l'ordre de 8,0 USD/kg de feuilles. Toutefois, la transformation est l'activité qui crée le plus de valeur et, par conséquent, les transformateurs sont ceux qui en prennent la plus grande part (au moins 90%). Pour la même quantité, la valeur ajoutée dans la chaîne de valeur de la chikwangue est évaluée à 1,19 USD/kg dont la plus grande portion est captée par le transformateur des racines de manioc en kimpuka (36,13%) et le commerçant détaillant (36,13%). Les chaînes de valeur agroalimentaire marchande des feuilles de manioc et de la chikwangue font face à de nombreuses contraintes tant au niveau de la production, de la commercialisation que de la transformation. Malgré ces diverses contraintes, ces deux chaînes de valeur disposent d'atouts non négligeables, liés notamment à l'écologie du manioc, aux infrastructures de transport (Kinshasa est bien connecté à son hinterland grâce à la route nationale n°1, le chemin de fer et le fleuve Congo) et à la proximité géographique et l'accessibilité au marché urbain. Au-delà des atouts, plusieurs opportunités se présentent et peuvent être capitalisées pour booster les activités commerciales des chaînes de valeur des feuilles de manioc et de la chikwangue. On peut noter entre autres : la demande urbaine, la demande internationale en produits du manioc, la valeur symbolique et culturelle du produit, la prise en compte des chaînes de valeur du manioc dans divers projets et programmes dans la partie orientale du pays, et l'existence d'institutions scientifiques et de centres de recherche et d'encadrement.
Die dynamische Bevölkerungsentwicklung Ostdeutschlands seit 1990 zeigt am Beispiel der Entstehung einer Residualbevölkerung die unterschiedlichen Variationen der Selektivität von Wanderungen: Einer Bevölkerung, die aufgrund langfristig wirkender selektiven Wanderungsverluste im ländlich-peripheren Raum ein spezifisches demographisches Verhalten aufweist. Der Wanderungsverlust Ostdeutschlands mit über 2,5 Millionen Menschen hat tiefgreifende Auswirkungen auf die alters-, geschlechts- und bildungsspezifische Bevölkerungsstruktur der neuen Bundesländer hinterlassen. Auch wenn die jungen Generationen zumeist das politisch geeinte Deutschland leben, existieren mit Blick auf die vorliegenden demographischen Prozesse und Strukturen bis heute nahezu zwei deutsche Staaten. Die Entwicklungen sowie die Auswirkungen insbesondere der räumlichen Bevölkerungsbewegung wurden entsprechend dem Stand der Forschung vor dem Hintergrund der Situation Ostdeutschlands vorgestellt und die darauf aufbauenden Forschungsthesen benannt. Das bisher nur theoretische Konstrukt der Residualbevölkerung, die Interdependenz aus natürlicher und räumlicher Bevölkerungsbewegung, wurde anhand von unterschiedlichen demographischen Parametern (u. a. hohe Fertilität, hohe Mortalität, starke Wanderungsverluste, großes Frauendefizit, Überalterung) eingeordnet und damit als messbar definiert. Am Beispiel Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns konnte anschließend gezeigt werden, wie sich die Bevölkerungsstruktur des ehemals jüngsten Bundeslandes aufgrund der selektiven Migration innerhalb eines Vierteljahrhunderts in das älteste umkehrte. Um diesen Verlauf nachzuvollziehen, wurden auf Gemeindeebene die unterschiedlichen Bewegungsentwicklungen ab 1990 dargestellt: Der Rückgang der Sterblichkeit, der Wiederanstieg der Fertilität sowie der sich manifestierende Wanderungsverlust junger Frauen. Daran anschließend zeigten Strukturberechnungen, wie sowohl das Billeter-Maß als auch Geschlechterproportionen, die umfassenden Auswirkungen der Bewegungen auf den Bevölkerungsstand und dessen Struktur Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns: Einen stetigen Rückgang der Bevölkerungszahlen, ein über-proportionales Frauendefizit in jüngeren Altersjahren und eine fortlaufend beschleunigte Alterung der Bevölkerung. Vor dem Hintergrund dieser Rahmenbedingungen wurde für die Zeiträume 1990-2001 und 2002-2013 jeweils eine Clusteranalyse durchgeführt, die als Ergebnis eine Typisierung von Gemeinden hinsichtlich einer messbaren Residualbevölkerung ermöglichten. Entsprechend der Vordefinition eines solchen migrationellen Konstruktes konnte für etwa jede fünfte Gemeinde in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern solcherart demographische Bedingungen identifiziert werden. Diese Gemeinden liegen tendenziell im Binnenland und fern der Zentren – eine zentrale Verortung konnte nicht festgestellt werden. Von Gemeinde zu Gemeinde unterschieden sich die demographischen Parameter teils stark, so dass von einflussreichen lokalen (nicht betrachteten) Rahmenbedingungen ausgegangen werden muss. Dagegen konnten auch Gemeinden ohne residuale Züge identifiziert werden. Etwa jede dritte Gemeinde Mecklenburg-Vorpommerns wies keine Parameter einer Residualbevölkerung auf. Diese Regionen waren vor allem in der Nähe der Zentren und der Küste zu finden. Die verbliebenen Gemeinden zeigten nur kurzfristig oder nur im geringfügigem Maße Indizien für eine solche Bevölkerung – das betraf etwa die Hälfte aller Gemeinden im Land. Nach der gesamtgemeindlichen Analyse wurde die Bevölkerungs- und Sozialstruktur der dabei betroffenen Gemeinden Strasburg (Um.) im Landkreis Vorpommern-Greifswald und Dargun im Landkreis Mecklenburgische Seenplatte detailliert analysiert. Die Bevölkerungsentwicklung beider Betrachtungsgemeinden entsprach der vieler ostdeutscher Kleinstädte im ländlichen Raum nach der politischen Wende: Während die Gemeinden in der DDR Bevölkerungswachstum erfuhren oder zumindest gleichbleibende Bevölkerungszahlen als regionales Zentrum aufwiesen, verursachte die Abwanderung vor allem junger Menschen und ein manifestierter Sterbeüberschuss nach 1990 stetig rückläufige Zahlen. In diesen beiden Gemeinden wurden dann nicht gesamtgemeindliche Bevölkerungszahlen analysiert, sondern vielmehr die Zusammensetzung einer Gemeindebevölkerung vor dem Hintergrund ihres Migrationsstatus differenziert. Für den Zeitraum 1979-2014 wurden deshalb anhand dieses Status die Bevölkerungen beider Gemeinden in Sesshafte und Zugezogene unterteilt. Aufgrund der sowohl vorhandenen Sterbe- als auch Geburtsstatistik war es möglich, die natürliche und räumliche Bevölkerungsbewegung der insgesamt fast 22.000 Men-schen direkt herauszuarbeiten. Die sesshafte Bevölkerung repräsentiert dabei die Menschen, die am ehesten dem Typus "Residualbevölkerung" entsprechen. Nach Berechnung der Mortalitäten für unterschiedliche Zeiträume ergab sich tendenziell eine höhere Sterblichkeit bzw. geringere Lebenserwartung der Sesshaften gegenüber den Zuzüglern bei Frauen wie Männern. Wurden darüber hinaus die Zugezogenen nach Lebensdauer in den Betrachtungsgemeinden differenziert, ergab bei beiden Geschlechtern eine längere Zugehörigkeit zu den Gemeinden auch eine höhere Sterblichkeit. Damit wurde einerseits die generell höhere Mortalität des ländlich-peripheren Raums gegenüber dem urbanen Raum bestätigt. Andererseits entspricht die höhere Sterblichkeit der sesshaften gegenüber der der nichtsesshaften Bevölkerung den Vorüberlegungen zur Residualbevölkerung. Darüber hinaus wurde zusätzlich der Parameter "Bedürftigkeit" berücksichtigt. Hier konnte erwartungsgemäß für beide Betrachtungsgemeinden die höchste Sterblichkeit der von Sozial-leistungen betroffenen Menschen festgestellt werden. Je länger dabei die Bezugsdauer, umso höher war die aufgezeigte Mortalität – dies sogar zumeist vor der sesshaften Bevölkerung. Bezieher von Sozialhilfe waren im Vergleich zu Beziehern von Wohngeld am stärksten betroffen; Unterschiede bei Männern besonders stark vertreten. Die Nichtbezieher wiesen bei beiden Geschlechtern die geringste Sterblichkeit auf. Neben der Mortalität wurde als zweite Variable der natürlichen Bevölkerungsbewegung die Fertilität der beiden Bevölkerungsgruppen untersucht. Hier ergaben sich jedoch keine signifikanten Unterschiede zwischen beiden Bevölkerungsgruppen Im Bereich der Periodenfertilität wiesen Zuzügler gegenüber den Sesshaften eine erhöhte Fertilität auf. Berechnungen der Kohortenfertilität ergaben wiederrum eine leicht höhere Fertilität der Sesshaften. Auch eine detaillierte Analyse der Zuzüglerinnen offenbarte kein einheitliches Bild. Mit Blick auf die Bedürftigkeit war festzustellen, dass die Bezieherinnen eine deutlich höhere Fertilität gegenüber Nichtbezieherinnen – unabhängig von der Bezugsdauer – aufwiesen. Im Ergebnis wurde damit zwar die generell höhere Fertilität des ländlich-peripheren Raums gegenüber dem urbanen Raum bestätigt. Die entsprechenden Vorüberlegungen zur Fertilität der sesshaften gegenüber der nichtsesshaften Bevölkerung konnten aber nicht eindeutig verifiziert werden. Die gesamtheitliche Betrachtung der Gemeindeberechnungen zeigte demzufolge ein zweitgeteiltes Bild: Die Ergebnisse der Mortalität bestätigen die Annahmen zur Residualbevölkerung, die Ergebnisse der Fertilität nur in Teilen. Auch wenn die festgestellten Fertilitäts- und Morta-litätsunterschiede ortsbehaftet sind – sei es durch Umwelteinflüsse vor Ort oder die Art der Menschen zu leben: Je länger die Menschen in Regionen mit einem bestimmten Fertilitäts- und Mortalitätsniveau leben, umso stärker passen sie sich diesem an – in beide Richtungen. Vor dem Hintergrund sowohl der Typisierung aller Gemeinden als auch der beiden Betrach-tungsgemeinden ist zu konstatieren, dass beide Variablen der natürlichen Bevölkerungsbewegung nichtgleichberechtigt nebeneinander zur Erklärung einer Residualbevölkerung fungieren müssen. Unter der Beibehaltung der theoretischen Annahmen ist dementsprechend zukünftig von einer Residualbevölkerung mit Schwerpunkt einer hohen Mortalität einerseits und mit Schwerpunkt einer hohen Fertilität andererseits auszugehen. Das bisher in der Literatur benannte Frauendefizit stellt darüber hinaus nur einen Parameter unter mehreren dar und sollte bei nachfolgenden Betrachtungen nicht als alleiniger Indikator dienen. Unter Berücksichtigung der Ergebnisse sowohl aus beiden Gemeinden als auch aus den Clus-teranalysen wurde ein Modell einerseits zur Entstehung der Residualbevölkerung, andererseits zum Wirken der selektiven Migration generell erstellt. In Abhängigkeit von Alter und Geschlecht und unter Voraussetzung einer langfristig konstanten Wanderungsbewegung konnte so der theoretische Einfluss der räumlichen Bevölkerungsbewegung auf die Bevölkerungsstruktur – und damit indirekt auch auf die natürliche Bevölkerungsbewegung – vereinfacht projiziert werden. Der ostdeutsche ländlich-periphere Raum ist abschließend als Sonderform des ländlich-peripheren Raums einzuordnen. Die hier gezeigte Residualbevölkerung kann als ein Indikator für – den gesellschaftlichen, kulturellen und wirtschaftlichen Verwerfungen geschuldeten – langfristige Wanderungsverluste eingeordnet werden. Die überproportional ausgeprägte Bedürftigkeit im ländlich-peripheren Raum kann deshalb auch als ein Merkmal der Sesshaftigkeit eingeordnet werden. Insofern ist die Residualbevölkerung, vor dem Hintergrund der darüber hinaus als perspektivisch ungünstig erachteten Zukunftsaussicht, als Bevölkerungsgruppe eines Raumes abnehmender Entwicklungsstufe zu verstehen. Es ist daher ratsam, einerseits eine Verbesserung der Lebenssituation betroffener Menschen in ländlich-peripheren Räumen zu erwirken und andererseits diesen Herausforderungen raumplanerisch stärkeres Gewicht zu verleihen. Die zukünftige dahingehende Gestaltung ländlich-peripherer Räume in Ostdeutschland bedarf aus Sicht des Autors deshalb mehr an Autarkie sowie flexibler Kreativität. ; The dynamic population development in East Germany since 1990 shows the different variations in the selectivity of migration: A population that has a specific demographic behavior due to long-term selective migration losses in the rural-peripheral area. The migration loss of more than 2,5 million people in East Germany has profound effects on the age-specific, gender-specific and education-specific population structure of the new federal states. Even though the younger generations mostly live in a politically united Germany, with regard to the present demographic processes and structures, almost two German states still exist today. The developments as well as the effects of the spatial population movement in particular were presented according to the state of research against the background of the situation of East Germany and the research theses based on it were named. The so far only theoretical construct of the Residualbevölkerung, in the interdependency of natural and spatial population movement, was arranged on the basis of different demographic parameters (among the things high fertility, high mortality, strong migration losses, large woman deficit, overaging) and thus defined as measurable. The example of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern has shown afterwards explained how the population structure of the formerly youngest federal state reversed into the oldest within a quarter of a century due to selective migration. In order to follow this course, the different movements from 1990 onwards were presented at community level: The decline in mortality, the increase in fertility and the apparent continuation of migration loss in young women. Subsequently, structural calculations, such as the Billeter-Maß, as well as gender proportions, showed the overall impact of movements on the population level and its structure of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, viz a steady decline in population, a disproportionate deficit of young women and an accelerated aging of the population. Against the backdrop of these conditions, a cluster analysis was carried out for the periods 1990-2001 and 2002-2013 respectively which allowed typologies of communities for a measurable residual population. According to the predefinition of such a migration construct, demographic conditions could be identified for about one in five communities in Mecklenburg- Vorpommern. These communities tend to be inland and remote from the centre, centralized location could not be determined. From community to community, the demographic parameters are sometimes very different, so that influential local conditions (not considered) have to be assumed. On the other hand, communities without residual traits could be identified. About one in three municipalities in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern had no parameters of a Residualbevölkerung. These regions were mainly found near the centres and the coast. The remaining municipalities showed only short-term or insignificant evidence for such a population, that was about half of all communities in the country. According to the analysis of the total community, the population and social structure of the affected communities Strasburg (Um.) in the district of Vorpommern-Greifswald and Dargun in the district of Mecklenburger Seenplatte are analyzed in detail. The population development of both viewing communities corresponded to that of many eastern German rural towns after the political change, while the communities in the GDR experienced population growth or at least a constant population as a regional centre, the emigration of mainly young people and a manifested death surplus after 1990 caused steadily declining numbers. In these two communities population numbers were not analyzed, but rather the composition of a community population was differentiated against the background of their migration status. For the period 1979-2014, therefore, this status has divided the populations of both communities into settled and immigrant communities. Based on the existing mortality and birth statistics it was possible to work out directly the natural and spatial population movement of the nearly 22.000 people. The sedentary population represents the people most closely associated with the type of " Residualbevölkerung". Calculating mortality rates for different periods, there was a tendency towards higher mortality rates and lower life expecting for sedentary people compared with the immigrants (in women as well as in men). In addition, if the immigrants were differentiated by their duration of life in the viewing communities, a longer affiliation to the communities also resulted in a higher mortality in both sexes. On the one hand, this confirmed the generally higher mortality of the rural-peripheral area compared to the urban area. On the other hand, the higher mortality of the sedentary population compared to that of the non-sedentary population corresponds to the consideration of the Residualbevölkerung. In addition, the parameter "neediness" was additionally taken into account. Here, as expected, the highest mortality rate of people affected by social benefits could be determined for both viewing communities. The longer the duration of the treatment, the higher is the mortality rate and this is even higher than that of the sedentary population. Beneficiares of social assistance were the most affected compared with beneficiares of housing assistance. Differences in men are particulary strong. The non-recipients showed the lowest mortality in both sexes. In addition to mortality, the fertility of the two populations was studied as the second variable of the natural population movement. However, there were no significant differences between the two populations. In the area of period fertility, newcomers showed increased fertility compared to the sedentary population. Calculations of cohort fertility, in turn, showed a slightly higher fertility of the sedentary population. A detailed analysis of the newcomers also revealed no uniform picture. With regard to the neediness, it was noted that the recipients had a significantly higher fertility rate vis-a`-vis non-recipients, regardless of the duration of receipt of social benefits. As a result, the generally higher fertility of the peripheral area compared to the urban area was confirmed. However, the respective considerations of fertility of the sedentary versus non-indigenous population could not be clearly verified. The holistic consideration of the municipal calculations thus showed a split picture: The results of the mortality confirm the assumptions about the Residualbevölkerung, the results of the fertility only partially. Even if the observed differences in fertility and mortality are location-dependent, whether due to environmental factors on site or the way people live: The longer people live in regions with a defined fertility and mortality level, the more they adapt to it - in both directions. The background to both the typification of all communities and the two communities of concern is that both variables of the natural population movement do not have to function equally alongside one another to explain a Residualbevölkerung. Accordingly while maintaining the theoretical assumptions, a Residualbevölkerung with a high mortality focus on the one hand and a high fertility focus on the other hand should be assumed. The women`s deficit mentioned so far in the literature also represents only one parameter among several and should not be used as a sole indicator in subsequent considerations. Taking into account the results from both municipalities and cluster analysis, a model was created on the one hand for the emergence of the Residualbevölkerung and on the other hand for act of selective migration. Depending on age and gender and assuming a long-term constant migration, the theoretical influence of the spatial population movement on the population structure and thus also indirectly on the natural population movement could be projected in a simplified manner. The eastern German rural-peripheral area is finally classified as a special form of rural-peripheral space. The Residualbevölkerung shown here can be categorized as an indicator of long-term migration losses owed to societal, cultural and economic upheavals. This disproportionately high need in the rural-peripheral area can therefore also be classified as a feature of sedentary life. In this respect, the Residualbevölkerung as seen against the background of a poor future is to be understood as the population group of a decreasing development level. It is therefore advisable, on the one hand, to improve the living conditions of affected people in rural-peripheral areas and, on the other hand, to give these challenges greater emphasis in terms of spatial planning. From the author`s point of view, the future design of rural-peripheral areas in East Germany therefore needs more self-sufficiency and flexible creativity.