En mi formación de posgrado a finales de los años ochenta, teníamos cerca de treinta camas hospitalarias en un pabellón llamado "sépticas" (1). En Colombia, donde el aborto estaba totalmente penalizado, allí estaban mayoritariamente mujeres con abortos inseguros complicados. El enfoque que recibíamos era técnico: manejo de cuidados intensivos; realizar histerectomías, colostomías, resecciones intestinales, etc. En esa época algunas enfermeras eran monjas, y se limitaban a interrogar a las pacientes para que "confesaran" qué se habían hecho para abortar. Siempre me inquietó que las mujeres que salían vivas se iban sin ninguna asesoría, ni con un método anticonceptivo. Al preguntar alguna vez a uno de mis docentes me contestó con desdén: "este es un hospital de tercer nivel, esas cosas las hacen las enfermeras en primer nivel". Al ver tanto dolor y muerte, decidí hablar con las pacientes del servicio y empecé a entender sus decisiones. Recuerdo aún con tristeza tantas muertes, pero un caso en particular aún me duele: era una mujer cercana a los cincuenta años que llegó con una perforación uterina en estado de sepsis avanzada. A pesar de la cirugía y los cuidados intensivos, falleció. Alcancé a hablar con ella y me contó que era viuda, tenía dos hijos mayores y había abortado por "vergüenza con ellos", pues se iban a dar cuenta de que tenía vida sexual activa. A los pocos días de su fallecimiento, me llamó el profesor de patología, extrañado, para decirme que el útero que habíamos enviado para examen patológico no tenía embarazo. Era una mujer en estado perimenopáusico con una prueba de embarazo falsamente positiva, debido a los altos niveles de FSH/LH típicos de su edad. ¡¡¡NO ESTABA EMBARAZADA!!! No tenía menstruación porque estaba en premenopausia y una prueba falsamente positiva la llevó a un aborto inseguro. Claro, las lesiones causadas en las maniobras abortivas la llevaron al desenlace fatal, pero la real causa subyacente fue el tabú social respecto a la sexualidad. Tuve que ver muchas adolescentes y mujeres jóvenes salir del hospital vivas, pero sin útero, a veces sin ovarios y con colostomías, para ser despreciadas por una sociedad que les recriminaba el haber decidido no ser madres. Tuve que ver situaciones de mujeres que llegaban con sus intestinos protruyendo a través de sus vaginas por abortos inseguros. Vi mujeres que en su desespero se autoinfligieron lesiones tratando de abortar con elementos como palos, ramas, gajos de cebolla, barras de alumbre, ganchos, entre otros. Eran tantas las muertes que era difícil no tener por lo menos una mujer diariamente en la morgue a consecuencia de un aborto inseguro. En esa época no se abordaba la salud desde lo biopsicosocial sino solamente desde lo técnico (2); sin embargo, en las evaluaciones académicas que nos hacían, ante la pregunta de definición de salud, había que recitar el texto de la Organización Mundial de la Salud que involucraba estos tres aspectos, ¡qué contrasentido! Para dar respuesta a las necesidades de salud de las mujeres y garantizar sus derechos, cuando ya era docente, inicié el servicio de anticoncepción posevento obstétrico en ese hospital de tercer nivel. Hubo resistencia de las directivas, pero afortunadamente logré donaciones internacionales para la institución y esto facilitó su aceptación. Decidí concursar para carrera docente con el ánimo de poder sensibilizar a profesionales de la salud hacia un enfoque integral de la salud y la enfermedad. Cuando en 1994 se realizó la Conferencia Internacional de Población y Desarrollo (CIPD) en El Cairo ya llevaba varios años en la docencia, y cuando leí su Programa de Acción, encontré nombre para lo que estaba trabajando: derechos sexuales y derechos reproductivos. Empecé a incorporar en mi vida profesional y docente las herramientas que este documento me daba. Pude sensibilizar personas del Ministerio de Salud de mi país y trabajamos en conjunto recorriéndolo con un abordaje de derechos humanos en materia de salud sexual y reproductiva (SSR). Esta nueva mirada buscaba además de ser integral, dar respuesta a viejos problemas como la mortalidad materna, el embarazo en la adolescencia, la baja prevalencia anticonceptiva, el embarazo no planeado o no deseado o la violencia contra la mujer. Con otras personas sensibilizadas empezamos a permear con estos temas de SSR la Sociedad Colombiana de Obstetricia y Ginecología, algunas universidades y hospitales universitarios. Todavía seguimos dando la lucha en un país que a pesar de tantas dificultades ha mejorado muchos indicadores de SSR. Con la experiencia de haber trajinado en todas las esferas con estos temas, logramos con un puñado de colegas y amigas de la Universidad El Bosque crear la Maestría en Salud Sexual y Reproductiva, abierta a todas las profesiones, en la que rompimos varios paradigmas. Se inició un programa en el que la investigación cualitativa y cuantitativa tenían el mismo peso y algunos de los egresados del programa están ahora en posiciones de liderazgo en los entes gubernamentales e internacionales replicando modelos integrales. En la Federación Latinoamericana de Obstetricia y Ginecología (FLASOG) y en la Federación Internacional de Obstetricia y Ginecología (FIGO), pude por varios años aportar mi experiencia en los comités de SSR de esas asociaciones para beneficio de las mujeres y las niñas en los ámbitos regional y global. Cuando pienso en quienes me han inspirado en esta lucha, debo resaltar las grandes feministas que me han enseñado y acompañado en tantas batallas. No puedo mencionarlas a todas, pero he admirado la historia de vida de Margaret Sanger con su persistencia y mirada visionaria. Ella luchó durante toda su vida para ayudar a las mujeres del siglo XX para que obtuvieran el derecho a decidir si querían o no tener hijos o hijas y cuándo (3). De las feministas actuales he tenido el privilegio de compartir experiencias con Carmen Barroso, Giselle Carino, Debora Diniz y Alejandra Meglioli, lideresas de la Federación Internacional de Planificación de la Familia, Región del Hemisferio Occidental (IPPF-RHO, por su nombre en inglés). De mi país quiero resaltar a mi compatriota Florence Thomas, psicóloga, columnista, escritora y activista feminista colombo-francesa. Es una de las voces más influyentes e importantes del movimiento por los derechos de la mujer en Colombia y en la región. Arribó procedente de Francia en la década de 1960, en los años de la contracultura, los Beatles, los hippies, Simone de Beauvoir y Jean-Paul Sartre, época en la que se empezó a criticar el capitalismo y la cultura del consumo (4). Fue entonces cuando se comenzó a hablar del cuerpo femenino, la sexualidad femenina y cuando llegó la píldora anticonceptiva como una revolución total para las mujeres. A su llegada en 1967, ella experimentó un choque porque acababa de asistir a toda una revolución y solo encontró un país de madres, no de mujeres (5). Ese era el único destino de una mujer, ser callada y sumisa. Entonces se dio cuenta de que no se podía seguir así, hablando de "vanguardias revolucionarias" en un ambiente tan patriarcal. En 1986 con las olas del feminismo norteamericano y europeo, y con su equipo académico crearon el grupo Mujer y Sociedad de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia, semillero de grandes iniciativas y logros para el país (6). Ella ha liderado grandes cambios con su valentía, la fuerza de sus argumentos, y un discurso apasionado y agradable a la vez. Dentro de sus múltiples libros resalto Conversaciones con Violeta (7), motivado por el desdén hacia el feminismo de algunas mujeres jóvenes. Lo escribe a manera de diálogo con una hija imaginaria en el que, de una manera íntima, reconstruye la historia de las mujeres a través de los siglos y da nuevas luces sobre el papel fundamental del feminismo en la vida de la mujer moderna. Otro libro muestra de su valentía es Había que decirlo (8), en el que narra la experiencia de su propio aborto a sus 22 años en la Francia de los años sesenta. Mi experiencia de trabajo en la IPPF-RHO me ha permitido conocer líderes y lideresas de todas las edades en diversos países de la región, quienes con gran mística y dedicación, de manera voluntaria, trabajan por lograr una sociedad más equitativa y justa. Particularmente me ha impresionado la apropiación del concepto de derechos sexuales y reproductivos por parte de las personas más jóvenes, y esto me ha dado gran esperanza en el futuro del planeta. Seguimos con una agenda incompleta del Plan de acción de la CIPD de El Cairo, pero ver cómo la juventud enfrenta con valentía los retos, me motiva a seguir adelante y aportar mis años de experiencia en un trabajo intergeneracional. La IPPF-RHO evidencia un gran compromiso por los derechos y la SSR de adolescentes en sus políticas y programas, que son consistentes con lo que la Organización promueve; por ejemplo, el 20% de los puestos de toma de decisión están en manos de jóvenes. Las organizaciones miembros, que basan su labor en el voluntariado, son verdaderas incubadoras de jóvenes que harán ese recambio generacional inexpugnable y necesario. A diferencia de lo que nos tocó a muchos de nosotros, trabajar en esta complicada agenda de salud sexual y reproductiva sin bases teóricas, hoy vemos personas comprometidas y con una sólida formación para reemplazarnos. En la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia y en la Facultad de Enfermería de la Universidad El Bosque, las nuevas generaciones están más motivadas y empoderadas, con grandes deseos de cambiar las rígidas estructuras subyacentes. Nuestra gran preocupación son los embates de ultraderecha que soportan grupos antiderechos, muchas veces mejor organizados que nosotros, que sí apoyamos los derechos y somos verdaderos provida (9). Ante este escenario, debemos organizarnos mejor y seguir dando batallas para garantizar los derechos de las mujeres en el ámbito local, regional y global, aunando esfuerzos de todas las organizaciones proderechos. Estamos ahora comprometidos con los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (10), entendidos como aquellos que satisfacen las necesidades de la generación presente sin comprometer la capacidad de las generaciones futuras para satisfacer sus propias necesidades. Esta nueva agenda se basa en: - El trabajo no finalizado de los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio - Los compromisos pendientes (convenciones ambientales internacionales) - Los temas emergentes en las tres dimensiones del desarrollo sostenible: social, económica y ambiental. Tenemos ahora 17 Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible y 169 metas (11). Entre estos objetivos se menciona en varias ocasiones el "acceso universal a la salud reproductiva". En el Objetivo 3 de esa lista se incluye garantizar, de aquí al año 2030, "el acceso universal a los servicios de salud sexual y reproductiva, incluidos los de planificación familiar, información y educación". De igual manera, el Objetivo 5, "Lograr la igualdad de género y empoderar a todas las mujeres y las niñas", establece que se deberá "asegurar el acceso universal a la salud sexual y reproductiva y los derechos reproductivos según lo acordado de conformidad con el Programa de Acción de la Conferencia Internacional sobre la Población y el Desarrollo, la Plataforma de Acción de Beijing". No se puede olvidar que el término acceso universal a la salud sexual y reproductiva incluye el acceso universal al aborto y la anticoncepción. Actualmente 830 mujeres mueren cada día por causas maternas prevenibles; de estos decesos, el 99% ocurre en países en desarrollo, más de la mitad en entornos frágiles y en contextos humanitarios (12). 216 millones de mujeres no pueden acceder a métodos de anticoncepción moderna y la mayoría vive en los nueve países más pobres del mundo y en un ambiente cultural propio de la década de los sesenta (13). Este número solo incluye las mujeres de 15 a 49 años en cualquier tipo de unión, es decir el número total es mucho mayor. Cumplir con los objetivos marcados supondría prevenir 67 millones de embarazos no deseados y reducir a un tercio las muertes maternas. Actualmente tenemos una alta demanda insatisfecha de anticoncepción moderna, con un bajísimo uso de los métodos de larga duración reversible (dispositivos intrauterinos e implantes subdérmicos) que son los más efectivos y de mayor adherencia (14). No hay uno solo de los 17 Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible donde la anticoncepción no tenga un papel preponderante: desde el primero que se refiere al fin de la pobreza, pasando por el quinto de igualdad de género, el décimo de reducción de la desigualdad, entre los países y en el mismo país, hasta el decimosexto relacionado con paz y justicia. Si queremos cambiar el mundo, debemos procurar acceso universal a la anticoncepción sin mitos ni barreras. Tenemos la obligación moral de lograr la erradicación de la pobreza extrema y avanzar en la construcción de sociedades más igualitarias, justas y felices. En anticoncepción de urgencia (AU), estamos muy lejos de alcanzar lo que esperamos. Si en métodos de larga duración reversible tenemos una baja prevalencia, en la AU la situación empeora. No en todas las facultades de medicina de la región se aborda este tema, y donde sí se hace, no hay homogeneidad de contenidos, ni siquiera dentro del mismo país. Hay aún mitos sobre su verdadero mecanismo de acción. Hay países como Honduras donde está prohibida y no hay un medicamento dedicado, como tampoco lo hay en Haití. Donde está disponible el acceso es ínfimo, particularmente entre las niñas, adolescentes, jóvenes, migrantes, afrodescendientes e indígenas. Hay que derrumbar las múltiples barreras para el uso eficaz de la anticoncepción de emergencia, y para eso necesitamos trabajar en romper mitos y percepciones erróneas, tabúes y normas culturales; lograr cambios en las leyes y normas restrictivas de los países; lograr acceso sin barreras a la AU; trabajar intersectorialmente; capacitar al personal de salud y la comunidad. Es necesario transformar la actitud del personal de salud en una de servicio por encima de sus propias opiniones. Reflexionando acerca de lo que ha pasado después de la CIPD realizada en El Cairo, su Programa de Acción cambió cómo miramos las dinámicas de población de un énfasis en la demografía a un enfoque en los derechos humanos y las personas. Los gobiernos acordaron que, en este nuevo enfoque, el éxito era el empoderamiento de las mujeres y la posibilidad de elegir a través de expandir el acceso a la educación, la salud, los servicios y el empleo, entre otros. Sin embargo, ha habido avances desiguales y persiste la inequidad en nuestra región, no se cumplieron todas las metas, los derechos sexuales y reproductivos continúan fuera del alcance de muchas mujeres (15). Aún queda un largo camino para recorrer, hasta que mujeres y niñas del mundo puedan reclamar sus derechos y la libertad de decidir. Globalmente la mortalidad materna se ha reducido, hay mayor asistencia calificada del parto, mayor prevalencia anticonceptiva, la educación integral en sexualidad y el acceso a servicios de SSR para adolescentes ya son derechos reconocidos y con grandes avances, además ha habido ganancias concretas en materia de marcos legales más favorables en particular en nuestra región; sin embargo, si bien las condiciones de acceso han mejorado, las legislaciones restrictivas de la región exponen a las mujeres más vulnerables a abortos inseguros. Hay aún grandes desafíos para que los gobiernos reconozcan la SSR y los DSR como parte integral de los sistemas de salud, existe una amplia agenda contra las mujeres. En ese sentido, el acceso a SSR está bajo amenaza y opresión, se requiere movilización intersectorial y litigios estratégicos, investigación y apoyo a los derechos de las mujeres como agenda intersectorial. Hacia adelante hay que esforzarnos más en el trabajo con jóvenes, para avanzar no solo en el Programa de Acción de la CIPD, sino en todos los movimientos sociales. Son uno de los grupos más vulnerables, y de los mayores catalizadores para el cambio. La población joven aún enfrentan muchos desafíos, especialmente las mujeres y niñas; las jóvenes están especialmente en alto riesgo debido a la falta de servicios y salud sexual y reproductiva amigables y confidenciales, la presencia de violencia basada en género y la falta de acceso a los servicios. Además hay que mejorar el acceso al aborto; es responsabilidad de los estados garantizar la calidad y seguridad en el acceso. Aún en nuestra región existen países con marcos totalmente restrictivos. Las nuevas tecnologías facilitan el autocuidado (16), lo que permitirá ampliar el acceso universal, pero los gobiernos no pueden desvincularse de su responsabilidad. El autocuidado se está expandiendo en el mundo y puede ser estratégico para llegar a las poblaciones más vulnerables. Hay nuevos desafíos para los mismos problemas, que requieren una reinterpretación de las medidas necesarias para garantizar los DSR de todas las personas, en particular mujeres, niñas y en general las poblaciones marginadas y vulnerables. Es necesario tener en cuenta aspectos como las migraciones, el cambio climático, el impacto de medios digitales, el resurgimiento de discursos de odio, la opresión, la violencia, la xenofobia, la homo/transfobia y otros problemas emergentes, pues la SSR debe verse en un marco de justicia, y no aislado. Debemos exigir rendición de cuentas a los 179 gobiernos que participaron en la CIPD hace 25 años y a los 193 países que firmaron los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible. Deben reafirmarse en sus compromisos y expandir la agenda a los temas no considerados en ese momento. Nuestra región ha dado ejemplo al mundo con el Consenso de Montevideo, que se convierte en una hoja de ruta para el cumplimiento del plan de acción de la CIPD y no debe permitirnos retroceder. Este Consenso pone en el centro a las personas, en especial a las mujeres, e incluye el tema de aborto invitando a los estados a que consideren la posibilidad de legalizarlo, lo que abre la puerta para que los gobiernos de todo el mundo reconozcan que las mujeres tienen el derecho a decidir sobre la maternidad. Este Consenso es mucho más inclusivo: Considerando que las brechas en salud continúan sobresalientes en la región y las estadísticas promedio suelen ocultar los altos niveles de mortalidad materna, de infecciones de transmisión sexual, de infección por VIH/SIDA y de demanda insatisfecha de anticoncepción entre la población que vive en la pobreza y en áreas rurales, entre los pueblos indígenas y las personas afrodescendientes y grupos en condición de vulnerabilidad como mujeres, adolescentes y jóvenes y personas con discapacidad, acuerdan: 33-Promover, proteger y garantizar la salud y los derechos sexuales y los derechos reproductivos para contribuir a la plena realización de las personas y a la justicia social en una sociedad libre de toda forma de discriminación y violencia. 37-Garantizar el acceso universal a servicios de salud sexual y salud reproductiva de calidad, tomando en consideración las necesidades específicas de hombres y mujeres, adolescentes y jóvenes, personas LGBT, personas mayores y personas con discapacidad, prestando particular atención a personas en condición de vulnerabilidad y personas que viven en zonas rurales y remotas y promoviendo la participación ciudadana en el seguimiento de los compromisos. 42-Asegurar, en los casos en que el aborto es legal o está despenalizado en la legislación nacional, la existencia de servicios de aborto seguros y de calidad para las mujeres que cursan embarazos no deseados y no aceptados e instar a los demás Estados a considerar la posibilidad de modificar las leyes, normativas, estrategias y políticas públicas sobre la interrupción voluntaria del embarazo para salvaguardar la vida y la salud de mujeres adolescentes, mejorando su calidad de vida y disminuyendo el número de abortos (17). ; In my postgraduate formation during the last years of the 80's, we had close to thirty hospital beds in a pavilion called "sépticas" (1). In Colombia, where abortion was completely penalized, the pavilion was mostly filled with women with insecure, complicated abortions. The focus we received was technical: management of intensive care; performance of hysterectomies, colostomies, bowel resection, etc. In those times, some nurses were nuns and limited themselves to interrogating the patients to get them to "confess" what they had done to themselves in order to abort. It always disturbed me that the women who left alive, left without any advice or contraceptive method. Having asked a professor of mine, he responded with disdain: "This is a third level hospital, those things are done by nurses of the first level". Seeing so much pain and death, I decided to talk to patients, and I began to understand their decision. I still remember so many deaths with sadness, but one case in particular pains me: it was a woman close to being fifty who arrived with a uterine perforation in a state of advanced sepsis. Despite the surgery and the intensive care, she passed away. I had talked to her, and she told me she was a widow, had two adult kids and had aborted because of "embarrassment towards them" because they were going to find out that she had an active sexual life. A few days after her passing, the pathology professor called me, surprised, to tell me that the uterus we had sent for pathological examination showed no pregnancy. She was a woman in a perimenopausal state with a pregnancy exam that gave a false positive due to the high levels of FSH/LH typical of her age. SHE WAS NOT PREGNANT!!! She didn't have menstruation because she was premenopausal and a false positive led her to an unsafe abortion. Of course, the injuries caused in the attempted abortion caused the fatal conclusion, but the real underlying cause was the social taboo in respect to sexuality. I had to watch many adolescents and young women leave the hospital alive, but without a uterus, sometime without ovaries and with colostomies, to be looked down on by a society that blamed them for deciding to not be mothers. I had to see situation of women that arrived with their intestines protruding from their vaginas because of unsafe abortions. I saw women, who in their despair, self-inflicted injuries attempting to abort with elements such as stick, branches, onion wedges, alum bars and clothing hooks among others. Among so many deaths, it was hard not having at least one woman per day in the morgue due to an unsafe abortion. During those time, healthcare was not handled from the biopsychosocial, but only from the technical (2); nonetheless, in the academic evaluations that were performed, when asked about the definition of health, we had to recite the text from the International Organization of Health that included these three aspects. How contradictory! To give response to the health need of women and guarantee their right when I was already a professor, I began an obstetric contraceptive service in that third level hospital. There was resistance from the directors, but fortunately I was able to acquire international donations for the institution, which facilitated its acceptance. I decided to undertake a teaching career with the hope of being able to sensitize health professionals towards an integral focus of health and illness. When the International Conference of Population and Development (ICPD) was held in Cairo in 1994, I had already spent various years in teaching, and when I read their Action Program, I found a name for what I was working on: Sexual and Reproductive Rights. I began to incorporate the tools given by this document into my professional and teaching life. I was able to sensitize people at my countries Health Ministry, and we worked together moving it to an approach of human rights in areas of sexual and reproductive health (SRH). This new viewpoint, in addition to being integral, sought to give answers to old problems like maternal mortality, adolescent pregnancy, low contraceptive prevalence, unplanned or unwanted pregnancy or violence against women. With other sensitized people, we began with these SRH issues to permeate the Colombian Society of Obstetrics and Gynecology, some universities, and university hospitals. We are still fighting in a country that despite many difficulties has improved its indicators of SRH. With the experience of having labored in all sphere of these topics, we manage to create, with a handful of colleagues and friend at the Universidad El Bosque, a Master's Program in Sexual and Reproductive Health, open to all professions, in which we broke several paradigms. A program was initiated in which the qualitative and quantitative investigation had the same weight, and some alumni of the program are now in positions of leadership in governmental and international institutions, replicating integral models. In the Latin American Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology (FLASOG, English acronym) and in the International Federation of Obstetrics and Gynecology (FIGO), I was able to apply my experience for many years in the SRH committees of these association to benefit women and girls in the regional and global environments. When I think of who has inspired me in these fights, I should highlight the great feminist who have taught me and been with me in so many fights. I cannot mention them all, but I have admired the story of the life of Margaret Sanger with her persistence and visionary outlook. She fought throughout her whole life to help the women of the 20th century to be able to obtain the right to decide when and whether or not they wanted to have children (3). Of current feminist, I have had the privilege of sharing experiences with Carmen Barroso, Giselle Carino, Debora Diniz and Alejandra Meglioli, leaders of the International Planned Parenthood Federation – Western Hemisphere Region (IPPF-RHO). From my country, I want to mention my countrywoman Florence Thomas, psychologist, columnist, writer and Colombo-French feminist. She is one of the most influential and important voices in the movement for women rights in Colombia and the region. She arrived from France in the 1960's, in the years of counterculture, the Beatles, hippies, Simone de Beauvoir, and Jean-Paul Sartre, a time in which capitalism and consumer culture began to be criticized (4). It was then when they began to talk about the female body, female sexuality and when the contraceptive pill arrived like a total revolution for women. Upon its arrival in 1967, she experimented a shock because she had just assisted in a revolution and only found a country of mothers, not women (5). That was the only destiny for a woman, to be quiet and submissive. Then she realized that this could not continue, speaking of "revolutionary vanguards" in such a patriarchal environment. In 1986 with the North American and European feminism waves and with her academic team, they created the group "Mujer y Sociedad de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia", incubator of great initiatives and achievements for the country (6). She has led great changes with her courage, the strength of her arguments, and a simultaneously passionate and agreeable discourse. Among her multiple books, I highlight "Conversaciones con Violeta" (7), motivated by the disdain towards feminism of some young women. She writes it as a dialogue with an imaginary daughter in which, in an intimate manner, she reconstructs the history of women throughout the centuries and gives new light of the fundamental role of feminism in the life of modern women. Another book that shows her bravery is "Había que decirlo" (8), in which she narrates the experience of her own abortion at age twenty-two in sixty's France. My work experience in the IPPF-RHO has allowed me to meet leaders of all ages in diverse countries of the region, who with great mysticism and dedication, voluntarily, work to achieve a more equal and just society. I have been particularly impressed by the appropriation of the concept of sexual and reproductive rights by young people, and this has given me great hope for the future of the planet. We continue to have an incomplete agenda of the action plan of the ICPD of Cairo but seeing how the youth bravely confront the challenges motivates me to continue ahead and give my years of experience in an intergenerational work. In their policies and programs, the IPPF-RHO evidences great commitment for the rights and the SRH of adolescent, that are consistent with what the organization promotes, for example, 20% of the places for decision making are in hands of the young. Member organizations, that base their labor on volunteers, are true incubators of youth that will make that unassailable and necessary change of generations. In contrast to what many of us experienced, working in this complicated agenda of sexual and reproductive health without theoretical bases, today we see committed people with a solid formation to replace us. In the college of medicine at the Universidad Nacional de Colombia and the College of Nursing at the Universidad El Bosque, the new generations are more motivated and empowered, with great desire to change the strict underlying structures. Our great worry is the onslaught of the ultra-right, a lot of times better organized than us who do support rights, that supports anti-rights group and are truly pro-life (9). Faced with this scenario, we should organize ourselves better, giving battle to guarantee the rights of women in the local, regional, and global level, aggregating the efforts of all pro-right organizations. We are now committed to the Objectives of Sustainable Development (10), understood as those that satisfy the necessities of the current generation without jeopardizing the capacity of future generations to satisfy their own necessities. This new agenda is based on: - The unfinished work of the Millennium Development Goals - Pending commitments (international environmental conventions) - The emergent topics of the three dimensions of sustainable development: social, economic, and environmental. We now have 17 objectives of sustainable development and 169 goals (11). These goals mention "universal access to reproductive health" many times. In objective 3 of this list is included guaranteeing, before the year 2030, "universal access to sexual and reproductive health services, including those of family planning, information, and education." Likewise, objective 5, "obtain gender equality and empower all women and girls", establishes the goal of "assuring the universal access to sexual and reproductive health and reproductive rights in conformity with the action program of the International Conference on Population and Development, the Action Platform of Beijing". It cannot be forgotten that the term universal access to sexual and reproductive health includes universal access to abortion and contraception. Currently, 830 women die every day through preventable maternal causes; of these deaths, 99% occur in developing countries, more than half in fragile environments and in humanitarian contexts (12). 216 million women cannot access modern contraception methods and the majority live in the nine poorest countries in the world and in a cultural environment proper to the decades of the seventies (13). This number only includes women from 15 to 49 years in any marital state, that is to say, the number that takes all women into account is much greater. Achieving the proposed objectives would entail preventing 67 million unwanted pregnancies and reducing maternal deaths by two thirds. We currently have a high, unsatisfied demand for modern contraceptives, with extremely low use of reversible, long term methods (intrauterine devices and subdermal implants) which are the most effect ones with best adherence (14). There is not a single objective among the 17 Objectives of Sustainable Development where contraception does not have a prominent role: from the first one that refers to ending poverty, going through the fifth one about gender equality, the tenth of inequality reduction among countries and within the same country, until the sixteenth related with peace and justice. If we want to change the world, we should procure universal access to contraception without myths or barriers. We have the moral obligation of achieving the irradiation of extreme poverty and advancing the construction of more equal, just, and happy societies. In emergency contraception (EC), we are very far from reaching expectations. If in reversible, long-term methods we have low prevalence, in EC the situation gets worse. Not all faculties in the region look at this topic, and where it is looked at, there is no homogeneity in content, not even within the same country. There are still myths about their real action mechanisms. There are countries, like Honduras, where it is prohibited and there is no specific medicine, the same case as in Haiti. Where it is available, access is dismal, particularly among girls, adolescents, youth, migrants, afro-descendent, and indigenous. The multiple barriers for the effective use of emergency contraceptives must be knocked down, and to work toward that we have to destroy myths and erroneous perceptions, taboos and cultural norms; achieve changes in laws and restrictive rules within countries, achieve access without barriers to the EC; work in union with other sectors; train health personnel and the community. It is necessary to transform the attitude of health personal to a service above personal opinion. Reflecting on what has occurred after the ICPD in Cairo, their Action Program changed how we look at the dynamics of population from an emphasis on demographics to a focus on the people and human rights. The governments agreed that, in this new focus, success was the empowerment of women and the possibility of choice through expanded access to education, health, services, and employment among others. Nonetheless, there have been unequal advances and inequality persists in our region, all the goals were not met, the sexual and reproductive goals continue beyond the reach of many women (15). There is a long road ahead until women and girls of the world can claim their rights and liberty of deciding. Globally, maternal deaths have been reduced, there is more qualified assistance of births, more contraception prevalence, integral sexuality education, and access to SRH services for adolescents are now recognized rights with great advances, and additionally there have been concrete gains in terms of more favorable legal frameworks, particularly in our region; nonetheless, although it's true that the access condition have improved, the restrictive laws of the region expose the most vulnerable women to insecure abortions. There are great challenges for governments to recognize SRH and the DSR as integral parts of health systems, there is an ample agenda against women. In that sense, access to SRH is threatened and oppressed, it requires multi-sector mobilization and litigation strategies, investigation and support for the support of women's rights as a multi-sector agenda. Looking forward, we must make an effort to work more with youth to advance not only the Action Program of the ICPD, but also all social movements. They are one of the most vulnerable groups, and the biggest catalyzers for change. The young population still faces many challenges, especially women and girls; young girls are in particularly high risk due to lack of friendly and confidential services related with sexual and reproductive health, gender violence, and lack of access to services. In addition, access to abortion must be improved; it is the responsibility of states to guarantee the quality and security of this access. In our region there still exist countries with completely restrictive frameworks. New technologies facilitate self-care (16), which will allow expansion of universal access, but governments cannot detach themselves from their responsibility. Self-care is expanding in the world and can be strategic for reaching the most vulnerable populations. There are new challenges for the same problems, that require a re-interpretation of the measures necessary to guaranty the DSR of all people, in particular women, girls, and in general, marginalized and vulnerable populations. It is necessary to take into account migrations, climate change, the impact of digital media, the resurgence of hate discourse, oppression, violence, xenophobia, homo/transphobia, and other emergent problems, as SRH should be seen within a framework of justice, not isolated. We should demand accountability of the 179 governments that participate in the ICPD 25 years ago and the 193 countries that signed the Sustainable Development Objectives. They should reaffirm their commitments and expand their agenda to topics not considered at that time. Our region has given the world an example with the Agreement of Montevideo, that becomes a blueprint for achieving the action plan of the CIPD and we should not allow retreat. This agreement puts people at the center, especially women, and includes the topic of abortion, inviting the state to consider the possibility of legalizing it, which opens the doors for all governments of the world to recognize that women have the right to choose on maternity. This agreement is much more inclusive: Considering that the gaps in health continue to abound in the region and the average statistics hide the high levels of maternal mortality, of sexually transmitted diseases, of infection by HIV/AIDS, and the unsatisfied demand for contraception in the population that lives in poverty and rural areas, among indigenous communities, and afro-descendants and groups in conditions of vulnerability like women, adolescents and incapacitated people, it is agreed: 33- To promote, protect, and guarantee the health and the sexual and reproductive rights that contribute to the complete fulfillment of people and social justice in a society free of any form of discrimination and violence. 37- Guarantee universal access to quality sexual and reproductive health services, taking into consideration the specific needs of men and women, adolescents and young, LGBT people, older people and people with incapacity, paying particular attention to people in a condition of vulnerability and people who live in rural and remote zone, promoting citizen participation in the completing of these commitments. 42- To guarantee, in cases in which abortion is legal or decriminalized in the national legislation, the existence of safe and quality abortion for non-desired or non-accepted pregnancies and instigate the other States to consider the possibility of modifying public laws, norms, strategies, and public policy on the voluntary interruption of pregnancy to save the life and health of pregnant adolescent women, improving their quality of life and decreasing the number of abortions (17).
Transcript of an oral history interview with General Gordon R. Sullivan, conducted by Sarah Yahm at the Sullivan Museum and History Center on 23 April 2015, as part of the Norwich Voices oral history project. Gordon Sullivan was a member of the Norwich University Class of 1959. After graduating from Norwich University, he served in a variety of Army command and staff assignments in the United States, Germany, Korea and Vietnam. He became Chief of Staff of the U. S. Army on 21 June 1991. The Sullivan Museum and History Center at Norwich University was named in his honor. Topics of interest within the oral history include General Sullivan's Army career as well as his legacy, philosophy, and activities after his retirement from the U.S. Army. ; 1 Gordon Sullivan, NU 1959, Oral History Interview April 23, 2015 Interviewed by Sarah Yahm GORDON SULLIVAN: I have often talked -- I talk a lot to troops and groups and so forth and so on and I'm very quick to tell them that I have been in and around the United States Army since 1955 in one form or another, either as a cadet at Norwich when I took my oath in the summer -- late summer of 1955 -- and obviously as a commissioned officer in the United States Army since 1959, 1995. Then, in my retired life, other than a two-year period when I was doing something in the commercial sector which I frankly didn't -- it wasn't for me. I knew it wasn't for me. I did okay at it but I didn't want to continue doing it. The job was open as the president of the Association of the United States Army, which is the Army's professional association, designed to tell the story of land power and the story of the Army and to do whatever we could to help soldiers and their families. So, in reality, I've spent my adult life in or around the United States Army. Since I retired, in addition to the association and the United States Army, I've done a couple of things which, to me, fit with the way I wanted to live my life. One was to create with three other retired officers an organization known as the Marshall Legacy Institute, Marshall being General George C. Marshall, former Secretary of State who, in 1948, created the Marshall Plan; he and others who worked for him. The essential nature of the Marshall Plan was to help war-torn nations recover in a collaborative way, not in a Big Brother way where we went in and did all the work and they stood by and watched us. It was where we collaborated with them and enabled them to help themselves. So, by happenstance, I was asked, since I had been the chief of staff of the Army to help commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the creation of the Marshall Plan. I found out that what they wanted was celebratory activities; a cocktail party and so forth and so on, which didn't interest me. So, I found some kindred spirits and we created the Marshall Legacy Institute, which has been around since 1997, and we have over 200 mine detection dogs out around the world. We have raised the money. The State Department has supported us, and these dogs are in some of the worst places in the world, enabling others to take landmines, a silent killer, out of the ground, and to provide safe living and a way of being; food, commerce, and so forth in war-torn countries such as in the Balkans, in Afghanistan, Iraq, African countries like Angola, one of the most mine-infested countries in the world, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, so forth and so on. We have -- those dogs have cleared, along with their indigenous handlers, millions and millions of square you-name-it -- square kilometers or yards or whatever, whatever metric you want, ground for people to live safely. I view that as sort of right up along with everything else I did when I was in uniform. It's the same kind of a business, making the world safe for others to live, save lives, not take lives, save lives. As a part of -- for some reason, let's put it this way. Sometimes in life, things happen that you really don't -- you didn't expect and so forth. I was asked to be a part of a study group in 2006. The study group was on -- conducted by CNA. That's otherwise known in a previous life as the Center for Naval Analysis. Well, I'm an Army general and it was kind of odd to be asked to do something 2 with the CNA but I was asked to do it and I did. It seemed like a good idea at the time. It was to look at the national security implications of global climate change. Well, the implications of global climate change, no matter how you feel about it, the trends of anything related to climate are going in the wrong direction; not the specifics. If you argue point data, there is always someone who has better data or different data. So, that becomes very contentious. All right, I think it was twelve retired admirals and generals were on this study group and by some fluke, I guess, I became the chairman of this group. We published a study in '07 which said that climate change is a national security threat or presents a national security threat to the United States of America. Failed and failing states, whether they failed because of drought or political reasons or why they failed, become like a Petri dish within which extremist groups grow, and that goes from Somalia to the Sudan and you name it; Syria and so forth. Syria was later but the ones we were dealing with at the time were mainly in the Middle East and Africa and we could see it. So, we published that study and it got some attention. Actually, we, within reason, steered away from the maelstrom of political stuff because we were the least likely people to say it. All of us were mostly operators. Now, we had one astronaut, a naval officer, and one of them was a nuclear -- you know, you would expect the Navy because of the nuclear-powered submarines and ships and so forth. So, they were scientists, really, and they had access to data and they knew about the phenomenon. But, the rest of us were either fighter pilots or I'm a ground combat guy or Marine -- Marines; you know, just people with a lot of experience in international stuff and defense and security. So, anyway, that study was replicated in '14 and said, "Well, this is what we said in '07. It's worse." Things got worse, and that's what we said; that not only was it bad then, but it's worse today. Obviously, we had Syria and various other garden spots on the table; Syria, Libya, on and on and on. Arab Spring was caused, in many places, since -- Arab Spring, what became known as Arab Spring, was caused by drought or one of the causes was drought in Russia, which -- and the Russians stopped exporting wheat because they had to -- they had a shortage of wheat so they stopped exporting it. That caused ripples throughout North Africa and Mesopotamia, specifically, Syria. SARAH YAHM: So, I have a couple questions for you, and I do want to -- you know, I feel like we're talking now for a little bit and I do want to sit down when I have more time to prepare and really give a couple hours. GS: I want you to do that. What I'm telling you is I put it all together and my time here at Norwich here as the chairman and it's all a piece. SY: Well, that's what I sense is that you felt this urgency to come in today. GS: I want you to know that in case -- I'm now 77, almost 78. I want to take advantage of you being here, me meeting you, so that you know how I really feel about it. SY: So, yeah, so you feel this urgency about your legacy. So, what -- so, you're telling me something now that it seems like you're afraid isn't in the historical record or won't be in the historical record. GS: It's not. SY: So, is it the idea that this global warming work, this landmine work, that is all part and parcel -- GS: That's all a part and parcel of how I view my life.3 SY: OK, and so you see this linear thread that goes through your life. GS: Yes. SY: So, if you were to articulate the values of that linear thread, how would you articulate it? GS: I think -- I don't know it. I think that when I sit here today, this morning I was talking about -- I was introducing these 200 things that you don't know about Norwich, and I said to myself, well, there's a lot I don't know about Norwich but I know about myself. I don't think I'm unique, by the way, in the history of Norwich. I think I'm just one of the people who went here. So, you have this museum which, you know, is -- I find this hard to say, but, okay, there's this museum here, and you've got some of my stuff. It doesn't -- it's hard -- yeah, how do -- what do I think? How do -- there's some stuff out there. There's nobody but me who could tell you why I think some of those artifacts tell the story. SY: No, you need to interpret the story of your life. GS: Yeah, I need to interpret it. SY: You need to interpret it. GS: It's me. I don't think -- SY: Absolutely. GS: I don't think -- I can go to things out there. I can show you one panel that shows me as a young man struggling to figure out who I am and Norwich, my buddies, this institution enabled me to mature and they didn't throw me out, because I was, struggling. I don't mean that in a -- I was struggling to figure out how I would fit in the world, and I don't think I'm unique and Norwich helped me do that. Okay? SY: Absolutely. GS: So, on the same panel, it goes from me being, you know, this guy I was who was whatever. I'm not apologizing for any of it because I don't have anything to apologize for. But, I can tell you it went from somebody who was immature to the chief of staff of the Army with the woman I was married to for 49 years standing beside me when I became the chief of staff in the Army. I will tell you, I'd do it all the same way and marry the same woman. SY: I think your vulnerability matters, and I think that's something that needs to go in the record, too -- the confusion of being a 20-year old, right? GS: Yeah, the confusion of being a 20-year old and now 70 -- in my late seventies. I'm reasonably healthy but I know my own -- I mean, I'm human. I've figured it out obviously since my wife essentially died, you know. I mean, well, she did die. I'm also struggling. I'm not struggling with it. I think I've accommodated. I understand it all but I know, okay, that's the way it is, and I want you to know it. SY: Yeah, and you're evaluating. You're in a moment in your life of evaluation, right? GS: Yeah, right. What did I do? What did I do with my life? SY: Yeah, and that has to be richer than a list of accomplishments, right? GS: It's not the accomplishments. It's what do you -- how does it fit? I think I am occupying a very large part of the space there, and there are many people like me and I know that, and they should be here, too. SY: Yeah, and we're actually -- I mean, we are collecting their voices, but maybe the key is to figure out how you're representative of a moment.4 GS: Yeah, whatever. You're the expert. I'm just here, and I don't think for one minute -- I have a hard time telling people. I talk about this as 'the museum.' SY: Not the 'Sullivan Museum.' GS: No, no, I don't say that. I have never said it. SY: So, we'll sit down and we'll talk and we'll have you curate the story of your life, you know, and that will help enrich our museum. I also think -- I mean, you oversaw a messy century, you know. The second half of the 20th century was a messy century, right? GS: Well, yeah, here's the cycle, though. I just came back from Germany. I was in the headquarters of the United States Army Europe. I went to Europe for the first time in 1965, 50 years ago, when the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact, was right up against the border. I went up into a part of Germany. I was about 40 miles from the inner German border in a tank battalion. I later commanded a tank brigade -- an armored brigade -- in the same division, the largest brigade in the US Army at the time; five maneuver battalions, three tank battalions, two mechanized infantry battalions, about 5000 men and women. There were some women. The Cold War -- so the Cold War is over. I go 50 years later. Twenty years ago, Russia was sort of off the screen militarily. So, I'm sitting in the room and I look out at this expanse of Europe and in Eastern Ukraine, there's this major penetration, this major red thrust. What goes around comes around. In my life, I have gone from an officer who spent twelve and a half years in Germany during the Cold War, became the chief of staff in the Army. I saw the Wall come down and now this, where the Russians are back moving again. I mean, it's -- what goes around comes around, and I'm seeing the nation-state, the concept of nation-states being questioned. Will the Middle East unravel so that it's just tribes? This is -- I mean, this has been in my lifetime, and I've been a part of it, in a sense. SY: No, in a very concrete sense. Does it lead you to despair? Does it lead you to -- GS: No, it doesn't lead me to despair. It leads me to understand that the cycles of history have a way of repeating themselves and it's the human interaction. That's missteps. Did we handle it right? Did we appreciate how -- well, how Russia would perceive what happened when the Cold War ended. How would the Russian people perceive it? Clearly, as an amateur looking at it, people say, "Well, Russia needs --." Russia has needs like any country, and they have always wanted to have the near abroad as a buffer. So, let's say that's real. Let's say that's true for the sake of argument. Then, now we have a nationalist. That's what he is. Putin is a nationalist and he has turned the switch. They sign up politically. They sign up. SY: Yeah, they always do. GS: They always do. They always have, and they are again, and here it is. So, look, that doesn't -- I don't think I'm the first Norwich grad to figure that out. I don't -- I wouldn't -- but it's been a part of my life, and I am what I am. What I am, for better or worse, is a soldier. I'm just a soldier that's retired. SY: Yeah. Could you talk a little about the connection -- so, you know, most of your life was concrete soldiering, right? GS: Yes, real soldiering. SY: Real soldiering. Now, you're talking about specifically this landmine work. How do you see the two as connected, because in one part of your life, you were in charge of --5 GS: Putting landmines in the ground. SY: Yes. GS: Right, and I wasn't -- I am a defender of that because it protects soldiers and so forth and so on because they do protect soldiers. It's one of these strange weapons. They protect soldiers and they kill soldiers. OK, so, in 1997, when I and three combat arms colonels -- retired colonels -- created this thing, this entity, we wanted to do something to help others and it was the mines. Get the mines out of the ground. Everybody was talking mines are bad but they were talking about it. Mines are bad, right? Got it. What are you going to do about it? We wanted to do something about it. It wasn't to philosophize. It was to take them out of the ground, help other people take them out of the ground; like to make things -- make something happen, action-oriented. That's more important to me than all the great ideas of the world. Yeah, global hunger -- I've got it. You know, make the world mine-free. Well, okay, if you want to take mines out of the ground, you can. We've actually, along with others -- there are other ways to take mines out of the ground mechanically and that's a lot of what Princess Diana was involved with -- Princess Diana was involved with and now Harry -- Prince -- SY: Yeah, the royal British family, yeah. GS: So, anyway, we -- so that's -- to me, that fits, okay? SY: Yeah, it's not something -- GS: Now, whether anybody else thinks it fits or not, I don't know, but to me it does. SY: But, to you, it doesn't seem like a contradiction to you? GS: It's not a contradiction to me. SY: Could you talk more about that? GS: Why? What? SY: Well, because I'm curious about getting at your sort of philosophy and understanding so that it does seem part and parcel of the same work. GS: It seems part and parcel of the same work because the country says -- I don't know where we are on the treaty, whether -- the chiefs have said, of which I was one; you know, in my former life, I was one of the Joint Chiefs, a member of the Joint Chiefs. We're protecting South Korea. We're partners with the South Koreans -- Republic of Korea -- and the UN protecting South Korea. Part of that defense involves the demilitarized zone, which is heavily mined. At certain points in Afghanistan and Iraq, I would suspect that there are mines which are -- you can turn them on and off. That type of protection is used, not much but it is periodically. It's there. It's available if they want to use them. I don't view that as much of a contradiction. These things are, as I say, you turn them on and you turn them off. You put them back in your rucksack and unless somebody hits one with a round or something, they're not going to detonate. SY: Yeah, they're safer. GS: Safer. SY: They're not going to get women and children 20 years later. GS: No. That's not -- no, that's not going to happen. SY: You know -- GS: So, anyway, I guess I'm a theory to practice guy. Okay, I've got the theory. I've got the concept and, okay, let's do something about it then.6 SY: That's the thread that goes through your life. GS: That's the thread for me. Let's do something about it. So, global climate change -- national security issue. I came up here and talked about that. You have the speech that I gave down here, and I gave another one at the Society of American Military Engineers, which -- a national security issue for the United States of America is -- and an economic issue and a health issue is we're running out of water -- fresh water -- fresh, potable water. Now, the Corps of Engineers, which US Army Corps of Engineers is responsible for a lot of that in some sense. So, I represent -- I'm trying to tell the Army story, right? It's my job -- Association of the United States Army. The Corps of Engineers is a part of it. The Army Medical Department -- just the researchers and medical researchers just discovered a vaccine which prevents Ebola. Walter Reed was an Army officer. So, we -- Lewis and Clark were Army people. SY: Do you remember, you know, the kid you were at Norwich -- the 20-year old kid -- and the world you lived in then? GS: Yes. SY: What do you think he would have thought of this particular world we're in now, of this US, of this globe? GS: Well, there's some that wouldn't have surprised him, given that I was a history major. I was quoted in the Boston Globe in 1989. I was giving a talk in Cambridge, Massachusetts in the Sonesta. I was at a conference. I was a three-star at the time. I was the chief of operations in the United States Army and before I got up to speak -- I was to speak on doctrine, Army doctrine -- I was handed a note that said, "Heads up. The Wall just came down and people are streaming and streaming into Berlin -- West Berlin." The heads-up was that the press was in the room. So, anyway, I gave my -- whatever I was going to say. The first question I was asked was, "The Berlin Wall just opened. What do you think?" I gave an honest answer. SY: What did you think? GS: I said, "I don't know what I don't know." I didn't. I mean, I was -- you know, I was obviously pleased. That was apparent, but in the back of my mind, I didn't -- you couldn't -- I couldn't predict it. SY: You couldn't -- GS: I couldn't then -- I couldn't predict it and I wasn't going to. SY: Your whole life had been a Cold War world. GS: Yes, I understand that, and I couldn't -- I didn't know what it would mean. Well, what it meant was genocide in the Balkans. What it has meant is a lot of things that aren't good. The whole world that we knew is over time coming apart, like the nation-state. Remember what I said earlier here? Will the nation-state, which was created by -- at the end of World War I -- will those boundaries hold in the Middle East? What about the Balkans? What about the Baltic nations? It's all a part. My uncertainty then -- it's all -- it's still playing out. What's the role of the United States of America? I have no idea. SY: What do you think it should be? GS: Well, I think everybody expects the United States of America to be what it has been since the end of World War II, like the United States of America, the leader; in some sense, the leader. I think we're struggling with that. Are we? Do we really want to be the leader? 7 What about a world where the United States is a reluctant leader? What kind of a world is that? I don't know. That's beyond me. All I know is what I know. That, by the way, if you can figure that out, all I know is what I know or what I feel -- SY: Yeah. Did you have any moments when you had -- when you were talking about you feel gut reactions that really helped you out, that steered you in the right direction? GS: A lot of time, a lot of time. I suppose there is some type that you could say this guy is this type of person. I'm pretty good at reading people. I can read -- I think I am, anyway. That may be a conceit of mine, but I think I am, and I can -- I don't -- yeah, sometimes I go by feel. Sometimes, when I'm doing things, which is why I like the give and take in a meeting, why I need to hear, I want to hear from people. I like ideas. I like the dialog because I learn from it. SY: Yeah, we're thinking a lot about this citizen soldier idea, right, which means a lot of different things to different people but to some people it means having the courage to stand up for what you believe in in moments where it's scary. Can you think of moments like that in your life where you pushed back out of your gut and it was scary? GS: Yeah, well, when you go up to Capitol Hill and you tell people things that politically they don't agree with or if the senator comes from a coal-producing state and you're there telling him that, hey, this climate change is serious, and certainly, one of the causes is carbon, hydrocarbons, whatever, in the air, okay, now don't ask me how many parts per million but for some reason, it's warmer in the last 10 years, like 4 or 5 of the years have been the warmest in recorded history. Something is going on which is warming the planet up. Is that a part of it? Perhaps, probably. You know, he's going to come back -- he or she is going to come back at you and say, "Well, you're smoking dope but it's not. It happens all the time, right?" Well, yeah, but you've got a lot of trends that are going in the wrong direction. Okay, but at any rate, yeah, sure, you know. People said, "Well, we need -- the country needs a peace dividend," which is all well and good. Right after the Cold War, the country did need a peace dividend but at some point, you get so small -- the Army gets so small that you wind up fighting wars. You fight two wars and the strength of the Army -- active Army -- was such that you asked too much from too few and you wind up with soldiers who are psychologically damaged because the same men and women went back and forth and back and forth. You think that's popular to say that? I don't care. It's true. SY: Yeah, I mean, right. You spent a lot of time in Capitol Hill, obviously the most partisan place in the country and you served under -- you were chief of staff under a Republican and then a Democrat, right? GS: That's correct. SY: How did you navigate that partisan world? GS: You just -- well, you know, first of all, you don't -- you're not partisan. I'm not partisan. Nobody knows what I am and that's the way I like it. I'm my own person. I'm essentially an independent and I decide. Frankly, many people like me -- I didn't vote when I was a chief of staff and before. I just didn't vote. SY: Talk about that. GS: Well, I think that that's fine. I mean, I didn't vote. I could have voted but I elected not to because I'm nonpartisan. I'm serving the country. Now, I know people would say, 8 "Well, you know, it's your duty to vote." Yeah, but when I -- the more senior I became -- first of all, I was overseas 17 years out of 36. In spite of what everybody says, getting absentee ballots to some of the places I was -- give me a break. It's not going to happen. You know, all the paperwork; who are you? What do you mean? Who? It wasn't worth it. Then, the more senior I became, it just became -- to me, it didn't make any difference. I was not going to be known as a Democrat or a Republican or anything. I didn't want to be known as anything other than as a soldier. But, I understand very clearly. There is a distinction between citizen soldier and soldier citizen. I always felt I was a citizen first. SY: What's that distinction? GS: Well, the distinction to me was that when I was retired that it was not -- I knew -- I always knew that I would leave the Army some day and that I would do something. Well, it just so happens so when it came, it came. I mean, I knew I was so I got a job. It just so happens that the job I ultimately have is related to the Army. SY: When you were here at Norwich and you were struggling just like any kid struggles, what were you struggling with? What were your ambitions? What were your visions? GS: I didn't know. I didn't know. I told somebody last night that, you know, one of my friends -- he's still a close friend of mine; like I talk to him once a week, anyway. He said to me -- I don't know whether I was a junior or a senior, but he said, "Well, what do you want to do?" I said, "Well, maybe," I think I answered him, "Well, maybe, I'll go in the Army," or maybe at that time I was writing a column for the newspaper for -- SY: The Guidon. GS: -- the Guidon. Sully's -- it was called Sully's Scratchings. I said, "Maybe, I'll get into the newspaper business or something, become a columnist or whatever." I mean, that seemed like a good idea at the time, you know. Whether I could have done it or not, I don't know but I thought it. Well, as it turned out, you know, as it turned out, it turned out. I found what I really liked. SY: When was the moment that you realized you had this passion? GS: In summer camp -- ROTC summer camp. SY: What -- GS: Went to Fort Knox. Well, I was very -- I found it very attractive what -- the kind of people I met there, the noncommissioned officers who were teaching the courses. Officers were sort of distant to cadets. It was the NCOs and I found that relationship in keeping with what I had done during the summer, working. I worked construction jobs and so forth and so on. I liked that kind of stuff, being outside and most of them were men who were doing labor and building things and making things. So, I think I found that attractive. SY: It seemed honest to you? GS: Well, it was honest. Yeah, it was an honest way of making a living, you know, but I knew I didn't want to do it for the rest of my life but -- and I liked that relationship. So, anyway, one thing led to another and I became a commissioned officer and I didn't want to stay a reservist because I thought that being a reservist was -- I mean, I didn't have anything against being a reserve officer but it was just I wanted to be a part of the -- in it, committed to being a soldier. Immediately upon becoming a regular Army officer, I was sent to Korea, and that's where I really, really knew that I was -- had chosen correctly.9 SY: Was there a moment when you knew it? GS: Well, I knew it as soon as I got there because it was -- first of all, the country, at that time -- it was in June of 1961. I had been at Fort Hood for a while but that was sort of kind of getting my feet on the ground. It was very, very under-resourced units and there was not -- it was not fulfilling at all. When I arrived in Korea, we were full up. We were up close to the DMZ. It was real soldiering, and that's where I learned how much I liked it. SY: Did you also learn that you were good at it? Was there a moment when you were like, oh, hey, I'm good at this? GS: No. I felt I was -- probably felt at that time I was a good platoon leader and company commander and I had a staff job for a while. Then, I volunteered to go to Vietnam and you can see a picture of me in that passport I gave yesterday. So, I went from Korea to Vietnam. Some people say, "Well, you know, why?" I said, "Because that's what I thought soldiers did." The chief of staff of the Army asked for volunteers and I thought that's what you do. You volunteer to go to war. That's what I was -- a professional soldier. So, I did that for 18 months and then I came back home. I didn't meet my wife. I knew my wife. I had gone to grammar --I'd gone -- I knew her. We grew up in the same town so I knew who she was as a kid. Then, we were in the same junior high school class. You know, like I'd known her forever. I knew her forever. Then, I went to public school, public high school. I blew that. My mother said, "This is not going to work out," so I wound up at what we called then a country day school -- a private school but not a live-in school. Gay was my classmate in summer school because she couldn't do math either and neither could I so I had to take a summer course. SY: Did you need more structure? Is that what happened with you and public school? GS: Yeah, it's probably the same thing. I mean, it was the same thing that you saw here. I had -- I'm the kind of guy that they would say, "Well, he has lots of talent but he doesn't apply himself because he's with his buddies and doing other things while he should be studying or something else." SY: You were like that at Norwich, too? GS: The same thing. It was the same thing. SY: What were you doing? GS: Well, I was working in the mess hall, selling sandwiches at night to make a couple of bucks for my buddy, actually, my buddy who I memorialized a building for him last week. I was a eulogist at his funeral. One of the things that's sort of fallen to me, you know, whatever, it's the sad kind of stuff is being the eulogist at two -- Jack (Dirgins?) who I came up here as a senior in high school when we both decided to come here. I went to high school with him and Norwich with him, and I'm the godfather of one of his children and I buried him. That's -- you know, that's hard duty -- SY: Yeah, it is. GS: -- because they're my buddies. I also -- my wife told me the day she died -- she said -- she gave me instructions. She said, "I want you to speak at my funeral service, not as an army general, as my husband." SY: Those are good instructions. GS: That's different. I said, "Are you sure?" She said, "I'm very sure." SY: What did she mean?10 GS: She meant she didn't want me to give some Army kind of speech. She wanted me to tell them what kind of a person she was. SY: She wanted you to be vulnerable. GS: Yeah, well, sure, sure. SY: It sounds like she was a good counterbalance. GS: She was a great counterbalance and a huge part of my life. SY: Yeah, 49 years? GS: Forty-nine years. One night she told me -- I was -- oh, I had something going on professionally and so forth and she was -- she said, "Look," we were in the kitchen, just the two of us. I think all the kids had gone by then. She said, "Look, I'm going to bed. I'm tired of listening to you, you know, sort of fuming around and stumbling around." She said, "Just remember this -- suck it up. It's a test." That was it. "Suck it up. It's a test," and it was and she was right, and how I handled it was a test and it all worked out. When I woke up the morning of her funeral and I had been through about eight drafts of what I was going to say, I had papers and notes all over the place. I laid in bed and I said to myself, "What would Gay have said?" She would have said, "Suck it up. It's a test." SY: That's beautiful. GS: Life's a test. I don't know whether I passed or not. It's a test. SY: Do you have doubts? GS: I have no doubts. That's false modesty. That's really not me. SY: So, you do think you passed. GS: I passed. (laughter) I passed. SY: All right! GS: OK? SY: OK. GS: I don't want Norwich -- anybody at Norwich University to think I think I failed. SY: Yeah. What are you proudest of? GS: I'm proud to say I'm a Norwich University graduate. I'm proud to say I was an American soldier and I don't care who knows it. SY: Proud of being a good husband? GS: I'm proud of being a good husband, and a good father, and a good grandfather. I'm proud of all of it. Was I as good a father as I could have been? Probably not. SY: Is anyone? GS: I don't know. I'm sure everybody has their doubts about that. Being a parent never ends -- never ends -- and being a grandfather is a joy. SY: Did you have to be away from them a lot? GS: Well, my children, I did, yes. My wife and I actually raised one of our grandchildren and that was the joy, extra joy, in our life. He's now a junior in college and doing pretty good. He's a good boy, thanks to his grandmother and me to some extent. Anyway, so that's what I wanted you to know, okay? SY: OK.11 GS: Now, I could show you some things in there which are more meaningful than others to tell that story but personally, frankly, I don't think that story holds. I don't think that what's in there -- I'm not arguing for any more space. You could probably do less and do the same thing. You've got some stuff. I mean, I can tell stories about almost everything you've got and how it all fits. SY: But, it sounds like, yeah, you have a slightly different narrative, so what -- GS: I have a different narrative than what a historian would pick out. SY: So, what would your narrative be? GS: Well, I think my narrative would be I can take you right in there right now and start -- and show you stuff that supports what I just told you. SY: All right. Do you want me to take the microphone and we can go in there? END OF AUDIO FILE
Part one of an interview with Settimio "Babe" Pellechia. Part of this interview has been redacted as per Mr. Pellechia's wishes. Topics include: Family history. How his parents came to the United States from Italy and settled in Leominster, MA. His father's work at the Leominster Button Company and then as an ash collector. Babe's memories of growing up in Leominster during the Depression. His father's construction work. The work his siblings did. What it was like for Babe working with his father on construction jobs. How his brothers turned the construction business into a concrete block manufacturing business. The different businesses Babe started and worked in. What the Lincoln Terrace neighborhood was like when Babe was growing up. His mother mainly spoke Italian and knew very little English. Speaking Italian in the home. What his mother was like. The types of food his mother would prepare. Babe's work in the motel business. What life was like when Babe was running an ice cream shop and a motel. His children's education. ; 1 BABE: And [DeMazzio]… [Icelano], and then after would actually be Joseph… Enrico. LINDA: Enrico? BABE: Enrico. LINDA: Enrico. BABE: Uh oh, we got caught. Enrico, and then myself, and then Olga. LINDA: Hi, I'm Linda. SPEAKER 3: Hi nice to meet you. BABE: Now there wasn't -- of course Dave passed four years ago. There was another DeMazzio [unintelligible - 00:00:53] Icelano. LINDA: Oh, there were two others that died? BABE: Well, they died at the age of three and one in the same weekend. LINDA: Okay. BABE: Before the others. That's why they renamed the others. LINDA: They renamed -- so. I'll put that in here there were two others. You want that in there? There was another one DeMazzio that died and they named it the next one DeMazzio. And Icelano was one that died, and they named the next one Icelano. SPEAKER 3: I would like that in there. LINDA: Okay. SPEAKER 3: [Unintelligible - 00:01:21] you should have hired her. LINDA: How are you, Tina? TINA: Oh good. I'm… LINDA: Now, your marriage. BABE: Now, there's a bad part. You had to spoil it. October 5, 1945. I'm sorry, October 6, 1945. LINDA: Uh-oh. SPEAKER 3: I was just waiting. I didn't want to say anything. LINDA: October 6, 1945 and you married Augustina, what? SPEAKER 3: Traini. BABE: T-R-A-I-N-I. 2 LINDA: Augustina Traini. BABE: This comes out of that because [unintelligible - 00:02:01] that's part of the book [unintelligible - 00:02:05]. SPEAKER 3: Babe, you're going to have to do this because -- I'm sorry, I have a class. I'm teaching down the college, so… BABE: What was that last one? LINDA: Your children, the names of your children. BABE: Okay, Linda… LINDA: Another Linda. BABE: And Barry David. LINDA: And Barry David. Residential history. Now, you lived on Grove Avenue. BABE: The different places we lived? Well, we started in Lincoln Terrace where I was born, and Miller Street, [Union] Street. After Union Street we went to Sterling, Westminster, to Grove Avenue, and then over here. LINDA: Norfolk, okay. BABE: I missed one, Litchfield Street. LINDA: Where was that at? BABE: That would before Union. LINDA: Litchfield? BABE: Litchfield. Is it recording now? LINDA: Yes. BABE: Then I can't joke as I go on. LINDA: Oh, you can joke. I just wanted to make sure that… BABE: Had I graduated it would've been the class of '40. LINDA: Okay. Work history. What did you do? Your father? BABE: What did I do? I started with contracting with my father. My father was a contractor, so I fit in that very good. And then I was self-employed in the following businesses: Babe's Ice Cream, Dennison Motel, West [unintelligible - 00:04:06] Motel, and Babe's Miniature Golf, subdivision of the real estate [unintelligible - 00:04:07] houses. LINDA: Subdivision of real estate? For housing? 3 BABE: Mm-hmm. That's all I did. LINDA: What about Blocks? BABE: Yes, true. That was another corporation. These were all my own. Blocks was a corporate… LINDA: That was with your father? SPEAKER 3: At least she remembered. LINDA: Contracting with father, Blocks -- was that the name of it? BABE: Well, Blocks was the name of the four brothers. SPEAKER 3: It's a great thing you guys are doing, you know. I'm so glad you got that older woman, that 100 year old lady, 106. Thank God you got her before she went. LINDA: We got a little bit. You didn't get to see her [unintelligible - 00:05:09]. SPEAKER 3: Not me. It was someone who was working before. BABE: To show that we're not always hiding. That first sheet down there, what's that say? SPEAKER 3: This one? BABE: Yeah. SPEAKER 3: The Joy of Growing Up Italian? BABE: No, no, the one above it. SPEAKER 3: American? BABE: No, what's the next one you have there? SPEAKER 3: This one, the Americans? BABE: Oh, that's what you had. [Unintelligible - 00:05:26] LINDA: Babe, my next question here is St. Anne the Church, and that's St. Anna. You always belonged to St. Anna Church? BABE: Off and on. LINDA: Off and on. SPEAKER 3: Yeah. BABE: And now it's off. SPEAKER 3: I'm just going to say bye. And I'll see you. LINDA: Good luck. Nice meeting you. [Unintelligible - 00:05:58] 4 BABE: It was a pleasure. SPEAKER 3: I got pineapples for my still life. LINDA: You're going to paint still life? SPEAKER 3: No, they're drawing. It's a drawing class that I'm taking [unintelligible - 00:06:05]. BABE: Before -- do you want to shut it for just a minute? SPEAKER 3: Not on there, so… LINDA: Thank you, Ann. I would have checked. Okay, we have to start again. I'm Linda Rosenblum with the Center for Italian Culture. It's Tuesday, October 30th at 1:20 p.m. We're with Babe Pellechia, and Rosa Farrell is with me, and we're at his home at 27 North Fourth Drive in Leominster. Hi, Babe. Thanks for letting us come and interview you. I thought that you could tell me a little bit about your parents first. Are they the ones that came to Leominster? BABE: Yes. My father came to Leominster in 1906, and… how far do you want me to expand on that? What he did? LINDA: Sure. Well, first of all, where did he immigrate from? BABE: From Rome. LINDA: Rome? Did he travel with your mother? BABE: No, she came in 1909. LINDA: Okay. Who did he travel with? BABE: He just came on his own, I believe, at that time or whatever, people were coming. He left from Roma and landed in New York then came to Leominster. LINDA: Do you know why he came to Leominster? BABE: You know, that's one of the questions we never asked him, and I'm still trying to find out why he came to Leominster. It must be because of friends; that's where most of them was. You know, there was quite a colony of the Santa Maria Del Combo, and that's from the section of Italy where they came from. So it could have been from other friends where he… 5 LINDA: What do you call that, Santa Maria? ROSA: Del Campo. Santa Maria Del Campo. BABE: It's an Italian organization. ROSA: The particular region in Italy. LINDA: So, close to Rome? BABE: It's south of Rome. It's actually -- El Vita, and [unintelligible - 00:08:00]… which is part of -- give me a minute. My notes over there, please, these little papers here. It's [unintelligible - 00:08:17] Costa Lata. C-O-S-T-A, L-A-T-A, I believe it is. And that's where most of them came from. LINDA: And I had just read in some of the papers over here that he studied industrial agriculture when he was in Rome? Did you know that? BABE: He was a farmer, whatever that may mean. You know, like I say, [unintelligible - 00:08:41]… authority, and that sometimes these things happen like a good friend of ours that was a garbage collector, and he did wonderful things. The city of New York gave him an award, and they said he is a sanitation engineer. And the guy got up and says I am a garbage collector. So I don't think he did much studying at that age because there was -- things were pretty rough there in Italy. LINDA: Did he ever tell you any stories of Italy? BABE: Oh yes. LINDA: Would you like to share some? BABE: Well, he would say the way they used to work and so forth, and their living conditions, which was pretty rough at that time. That was the reason why they came here. Of course, supposedly our roads were paved with gold, and that's out there. But he was always a very hard worker and always wanted to do more, learn more, do more, which he did do in his life. Like the first thing he did when he came in to Leominster was he headed down to Leominster Button Company, which is near, 305 Whitney Street, and they're called [unintelligible - 00:10:01] now. And he was a rubber of buttons and combs. They used ashes, and it's surprising that 6 they [unintelligible - 00:10:11] health in that year one of the filthiest jobs that -- the men worked, and this is outlined -- let's see, this is put out by the Board of Health of Massachusetts. LINDA: So he was called a rubber? BABE: Mm-hmm. LINDA: Did you remember him explaining what he did? BABE: Well, what it is, you take the buttons or the combs or whatever they're working on [unintelligible - 00:10:37] was turtle, made from turtle then [unintelligible - 00:10:39], and what the ashes and what the wheels going at the RPMs that it does go, and the water, that polishes up, really polish it. But of course if you got water and ashes and a wheel going you know what that does to the person, and that's what he did for a few years. Surprisingly though in 1914 he sold that fine ashes -- this was a business for him. LINDA: So he realized that there was a use for that ash. BABE: Mm-hmm, and they got him out of that filthy working conditions. LINDA: I'm wondering what does an ash dealer mean? What would he do with the ashes? BABE: You go around and pick up the ashes from people's home, 10 cents a barrel, bring them down and screen it through a screen that water won't go through, and that's what they used for rubbing. That's the compound that they used for rubbing these plastic -- not plastic but the horns or hooks or whatever they were doing. LINDA: Did he get that idea from someone else, to go and collect the ash? BABE: Well, he got the idea from being in business. He got some wagons to collect the ashes, which were -- and the rubber district was a good business at the time, and then he felt that he had that, why not screen the ashes and sell it to the industries, which he did. Another byproduct of that too that the -- when you screen the ashes you always get the coal that never burnt, and half of Lincoln Terrace was the Italian Colony. He used to go down and pick up the coal, and it kept a lot of people warm up there 7 at that time, so that they would go down -- it was on Middle Street where they did that. So [unintelligible - 00:12:33] he helped out a lot of people by letting them go and they go through these screenings and pick out all the little black diamond gold that heats the house, and that was it. LINDA: So this 75 Lincoln Terrace, was that where you lived, or … BABE: That's where I was born, and that's where we lived at the time. LINDA: So he actually -- I just want to make sure that we get this on tape, so sorry to keep asking you… BABE: That's all right. LINDA: It's an old art, and it's not easily explainable. So he would go around to people's homes, or… BABE: Yes. Because everybody burnt coal in those days. You'd call up and you'd go there and then take the barrels out where -- which as he said was very, very heavy, because you'd either have to go up the stairs if they didn't have an outside door or to the bulkhead or something like that, and he aggravated at some people to get more ashes in the barrel [unintelligible - 00:13:26]. And so that's more weight, and then you couldn't screen it. Other than that he had the horse and wagons, put them on, bring them down -- the screening plant was on Millet Street, which is just off of Lincoln Terrace, and there he would screen what he picked up from the people's homes and separate it and sell the extra fine screened ashes to industry. And he shipped it to a few places all over the United States at the time. LINDA: Where did he get the money to begin this type of a business? BABE: By what most foreigners other than Puerto Ricans, saved their money [unintelligible - 00:14:09] saved their money and do it that way. LINDA: So at this time was he married? BABE: Probably should strike that out. That isn't too nice to say, but it's already on tape. 8 LINDA: Well, it's going to be edited. BABE: Okay. LINDA: What did I ask -- was he married to your mother by this time? BABE: Oh yes, he married my mother in 19… I'll put my glasses on. It would help, wouldn't it? LINDA: Okay, but we can figure out the dates later. BABE: Hmm? LINDA: We can figure out the dates later. BABE: Okay. LINDA: So we'll figure it out. So can you tell me a little bit about growing up on Lincoln Terrace? BABE: It's a good thing that we didn't know better. We enjoyed ourselves. It was a happy life and so forth, but I just wonder what would happen today if children had to go through what we did. Our fun would be getting in a sandbank and digging holes and whatever we could find, cups and make objects out of it. We'd play baseball. Whoever had the baseball and the bat would be the one that would pick the teams and when we'd play and how we'd play. And it was -- on today's standard it was really very, very rough living at the time. We had no entertainment to speak of. We hardly go to movies only it was only a nickel to go to the Gem Theater; we didn't get there too often. And the main highlight, or one of them, was at Christmastime at the -- one thing my father would do, he did everything for Christmas. You know, for food and things like that. And one of the big games as I remember would be getting the table like this and putting sawdust on it, and he'd hide coins in the sawdust, and you each had a shape to pick out a shape where you'd want hoping to get more coins than your brothers and sisters and so forth. So that was one of the fun things that we did. 9 But myself as I grew up I always had a tendency to follow him and get involved with his work. By that time [unintelligible - 00:16:36] he was in the contracting. He was more doing contracting at that time, became a contractor. So I always followed him around on jobs and things like that. So I learned more. I think even for myself I think I grew up real fast as far as a youngster. LINDA: Is that partly because you were the seventh son? BABE: No, because that's what I wanted to do. LINDA: Explain to me though what your name means again. BABE: Settmio is seven in Italian, and that's what it means. It's just that the Sette is seven, and that's where the name comes from. LINDA: So I forgot now. You're the seventh son or seventh child? BABE: Seventh son in rotation. LINDA: And how many sisters? BABE: Out of eleven. There was three girls in the family. LINDA: So by the time you came around your family already had six boys? BABE: Yes. I was the seventh and the last boy in the family. LINDA: So how were your brothers' lives different than yours? Were they harder? Were they… BABE: Oh yes. Well, my oldest brother was quite active in the business and so forth. He did all that. But then my next brother was a -- he worked very, very hard, and entertainment was out as far as that got. No vacations and things like that. It was strictly, as I remember it, when -- don't forget I'm entering about the time, well, 8 years old and that was the beginning of the Great Depression. I remember that quite well. The families were living on $12 a week, quite a few of them, which is what the welfare would give you. LINDA: So during the Depression your father was working? BABE: Whenever [unintelligible - 00:18:44] work. Yeah, he was doing contracting, whatever work he could get. On one job he was a supervisor for doing some work at city hall, and this is choosy but you have to do it 10 by the WPA program at the time. And to do a [unintelligible - 00:19:02] for city hall you did it at the time but they send them 30 men. You know, other people that were on the WPA, and they were on top of one another so my father had to let them be -- he had them closing doors, open doors and sweeping, everything but working because they were all in one another's way. But he was a supervisor at that time. But he did work like that there and then we plowed snow in the wintertime—there was income from plowing the snow, keeping the truck busy. Then he did odd jobs as they came up, but nothing -- it was a tough time. To backtrack, my father was very, very successful up until 1929. He owned 33 houses, and one by one he lost them all because people didn't have money to pay the rent and the banks wanted their money and they would just keep taking the house. You know, the foreclosing, keep doing that. LINDA: So he owned 33 homes and he lost every single one? BABE: All but the one we were living in. LINDA: Oh. BABE: Yeah. LINDA: How did he afford to buy 33 houses? BABE: Because he got to be a good-sized contractor. Like he built – he had the contract for all the concrete work in the Leominster post office, which was quite a job in those days. In 1926 he built the Main Street garage down on -- he did the fence around St. [Lido's] cemetery, which is quite a sizeable job, and he built numerous homes. In those days the first homes he built, regular homes like on Lincoln Terrace, there's probably eight homes up there that he built and was sold for the big sum of $2,800. LINDA: Wow. BABE: That's what they were at that time. In fact, numerous times, her dad would work for my father on his trade. You know, blocks and bricks, plastering 11 so that he and [unintelligible - 00:21:22], whenever they had a job that required brickwork and plaster and so forth, they were the first two that he called to do the work. So you see we would all get things first class with first-class people. But he couldn't -- the Depression was too much for everybody at that time, not only him. LINDA: Before we go on, let's back up a little bit. He came to this country, he started -- he used ash to rub buttons et cetera, then he opened his own business selling ash. BABE: He started that, yeah. LINDA: Right. So what kind of time frame are we talking about? BABE: I beg your pardon? LINDA: What's the time frame that we're talking about? BABE: [Unintelligible - 00:22:05] LINDA: Where was it, 1914? BABE: Yeah. LINDA: So he was selling ash in 1914, and then he went into the construction business? BABE: I can give you year by year. Let me show you. See, this is the -- you know, all the concrete work on this job there's his -- do you see that there on the box [unintelligible - 00:22:27] and Company? LINDA: Mm-hmm. Oh that's interesting. That's in '29, so this was a bad time. BABE: No, that was the good time; the beginning of the bad started right after that. So that the -- well, he worked the button shop, at Leominster Button… then he -- let's see as we go along here. Okay, now in 1913 he put a grocery store in the house. LINDA: He put a grocery store in your house? BABE: Well, [unintelligible - 00:23:14] to sell groceries, yeah. LINDA: So at 75 Lincoln Terrace? BABE: Yeah, that's still 75 Lincoln Terrace. And then of course he got both here the ashes and the grocery that he did. LINDA: So who's running the grocery store? 12 BABE: My mother. LINDA: Oh, was it your mother? BABE: Yeah. It's just on Lincoln Terrace a small street though, there wasn't -- no store, like you think of stores today. And it keeps on changing. Now right now, then in 1916, he added trucking to that too. LINDA: Trucking? So that's when he's an ash dealer though? BABE: No, he started with regular trucking after that. Sand and gravel and so forth at that time. LINDA: So again, he'd buy the sand and gravel, and then… BABE: No, we had our own pit. LINDA: You had your own pit? BABE: Yeah. He owned the land down on Miller Street, which was back in there. LINDA: So at least we understand the chronological. BABE: Hmm? LINDA: At least we understand it a little bit more, I think. I was going from the ash business right to building. BABE: [Unintelligible - 00:24:43]. LINDA: That makes more sense. We get into trucking, gravel and sand, and then construction. And he would build these buildings himself? BABE: He did all kinds of construction work. He even built the 38 -- he had the contract for the bridge on [unintelligible - 00:25:05] Street in Pittsburgh, which was Route 2A at the time. ROSA: He put the sand and the gravel and the ashes. Didn't he make his own blocks, make blocks for construction? BABE: Started making blocks around 1920. That was part of the… LINDA: So he would use the materials that he was gathering or buying and selling? So who would he sell the blocks to? Or would he use the blocks for his own building? BABE: He would use the blocks or sell them to whoever needed them. LINDA: And how would he make the blocks? 13 BABE: From our own pit, with the sand and gravel we had there on North Smith. He would make the blocks at that time. LINDA: Was it a mold, or did people do them… BABE: It's a machine, the machine that the mold would take care of it. LINDA: What was the name of the construction company? BABE: Pellechia and Company. LINDA: Pellechia? Did they have many people working? BABE: At some times he had quite a few people. LINDA: You don't have to worry so much about those dates, because I can look through that after. I'm just trying to understand how someone comes here from nothing and owns 33 homes. BABE: It was 1925. LINDA: Sand and gravel, ashes and store. So he goes from his buggy to his truck. Now, who's Charles? BABE: That's my oldest brother. LINDA: Your oldest brother. Okay, so your brothers went into business with him? BABE: Yep. LINDA: All six of them? BABE: We all worked for him. We all worked for him. We built a lot of gas stations, too. We had quite a team. Because amongst the team there was my father, who strictly did supervisory work, figured the job and things like that. And then we had Charlie, who was [unintelligible - 00:27:09] equipment as well as piping and so forth; Red was a great laborer; Rico was a carpenter first class; I was a mason, but what I picked -- I went to trade school to be a mason, you know. So when we would get on a job we were pretty much able to do quite a bit of it ourselves. LINDA: Now, who's Red and Rico? Are those brothers? Red and Rico? BABE: Brothers. LINDA: So those are nicknames? BABE: Mm-hmm. LINDA: For who? 14 BABE: Well, DeMazzio and Enrico. LINDA: And where did you get your nickname? BABE: Babe? After 11 kids it's time to call somebody Babe. No, my sister Lena gave it to me as she said when I was a baby at that time. LINDA: So how did your brother Red learn how to build pipe for -- what did you say that he did? BABE: When you run a gas station there's a lot of pipings involved. You know, water and gasoline and so forth. That was how he -- my brother Red was a hard worker and the one that never asked for too much and always -- education-wise Red was very, very limited. In fact, one of the side stories on that is he couldn't learn his general orders in the Army, and as a result of it, on his record, they said he would never be anything other than a private, and he couldn't get any Class A pass. So they went overseas, and he had two companies that he was in that were completely all injured or so forth, and he became the top sergeant of the whole group. So he knew what to do when it was important. He had the smarts for that, but as far as the learning he just didn't have the ability to learn. LINDA: So, how did you all learn and know -- was it, were you apprenticed? Did you have any kind of… BABE: No, no you just learned from one another. That's how [unintelligible - 00:29:19] families just keep going, and it was just, you know, you started off -- and our father knew what was what and we picked it up real fast and just kept going on it. LINDA: Can you tell me or share with me an early experience of working with your father? BABE: Well, I just started, just jumped and started doing it. In fact, I was 15 years old and I built the gas station on the corner of Walnut and Main Street in Leominster. I was supervisor and so forth because they had other jobs, but it all came natural. I just enjoyed it and I just did it. In fact, 15 when I was with the trade school, at the end of the school year I was in the brick mason department, and the instructor told me, "Don't come back; you're wasting your time." LINDA: Wow. And is that why you didn't go back? BABE: Well, I had to go to work. LINDA: Well, bring me back though to a day when you're working with your father. What was it like? Did you all kind of disperse and go to different jobs? BABE: Go to different jobs. He never drove, so one of us had to drive him. One thing about him he was very honest, and he was very thorough. In fact whether we were doing a job contractor or day work he would even tell us, you do the same thing whether it's day work or contract, even if you lose money. So you know, with a bringing up like that, you can't go wrong. So of course when I was very young and we were doing a lawn on Berne Avenue, and we had the big roll that you use to roll with, and I was very young and the roll was banking, and I'll never forget I came close to the bank and I couldn't hold the roll, and it went down and right through a flower garden. That was one of the unpleasant days. [Unintelligible - 00:31:33] let me know that I did wrong. He never hit us or anything like that. But I was worried for a while on that score. But then I'd go figure jobs and then he'd take me with him, because I'm the one that probably liked it the most and did it the most. That was good days. I enjoyed it. I never resented -- I think he taught us an awful lot, so we couldn't lose with that combination. And with a mother that would watch us like we're all just a baby -- whether you're six years old or 40 years old, she wouldn't go to sleep until you were in the house. It was good times under the conditions. As I said though, we didn't know better. If I did that like -- I know that many a times on the job when things 16 were that the -- come time to eat and all we had the money for was probably a cheese sandwich or something like, that you know, just limited, which is -- my son now later on was putting in overhead doors, he had a business he did that, and he was developing by the South Shore there and he came home and he said, "Dad, you know I forgot my money today," he says, "I didn't eat." "What do you mean you didn't have no money at all?" He said "Well, I only had a dollar." I said, "You know, you still could have had a cheese sandwich." He said, "Dad, those days are gone." So that's the difference. LINDA: So, when you'd go with your father to figure jobs you said, did someone call him? Not call him probably, but contact him to build something? BABE: Yeah, people would call from his advertisement. He did advertise, and they'd call him too. You know, a lot of people wanted bids; you have to bid it. So I'd go with him a lot of times and do the bidding and help him do the bidding and so forth. As I grew older. LINDA: So would he write a contract out and then have a company sign it, or…? BABE: Most of the time you just did it with the individual, it was all by -- in those days everything was with a good shake hand, which they meant. Very rarely was there a contract drawn up. Unless it was a big job, and then they'd have that. LINDA: And who was his competitor? BABE: A lot of competitors. There was a lot of competitors. Must have been -- Leominster probably had about 15 to 20 contractors at the time when it got to contracting. LINDA: Were there any other Italians? BABE: Oh yeah. There was probably half a dozen or so I think Italians. LINDA: Did your father apprentice anyone? Did anyone begin working with him and then venture out on their own? BABE: Well, we wouldn't call it apprentice. They just did that, which is the American way to do things. You never met anybody better than 17 themselves, so that -- yeah, we had somebody. I mean, that never bothered him. LINDA: How long did your father do this kind of work? BABE: Until he retired at about age -- he stopped working I think at about age 60. LINDA: And did the company survive? Did the sons take it over? BABE: Well, what happened, we kept the thing going quite a while. Even by that time, the brothers, we went into the manufacturing of concrete blocks on a real production method. We used to manufacture quite a few a day, and that became our sole business then. LINDA: So tell me about that then. BABE: Well, we came back from the Army, and with the -- three of us were veterans, and we got a loan from the government on the G.I. Bill, and we bought this production machinery and put up a whole plant and went into manufacturing of concrete blocks all type on full production. We used to make at that time about 4,000 blocks a day and get out -- plus the building supplies that went with it. And my father first saw [unintelligible - 00:36:15] he gave us the land and he also would watch the building of it when we did that. That was in 1945. In 1946 we started selling the blocks from our new plant. LINDA: And what was the name of the company? BABE: Blocks Incorporated. LINDA: Blocks Incorporated. And you and your three brothers started… BABE: And myself yeah. [Unintelligible - 00:36:42] Well, there were three veterans, but then one wasn't there. One didn't go into the Army and he was part of the corporation. LINDA: So four brothers plus yourself? BABE: No, four brothers. LINDA: Oh, four brothers. Three [unintelligible - 00:36:55]. So you would make these blocks and then sell them to… BABE: To whoever wanted to buy them. LINDA: Do you have advertisement for that company too? 18 BABE: Yeah. LINDA: Good. And how long did you do this? BABE: We did it up until 1979. LINDA: Oh, so what happened to the business? BABE: Well, at the age of all of us at that time it was time to liquidate it, and we did. We just sold off the -- we had an auction for the equipment, we sold the real estate, and by that time we were all -- other than myself all my brothers were ready to retire. Well, one other brother, the one next older to me, he had passed away. So it was just the two oldest brothers, and it was too much at that time to run the business of that, because we built another plant after that. The original plant was at -- our second plant we were doing 8,000 a day, so -- but it's, it was competitive, and getting out to sell them and everything else, it was quite a job. So I decided -- well, what happened was actually while I was out doing all my things at the time, I left. I was still part owner, but I left to do my motels and everything else with it, and they did get in trouble financially. And I went in and helped them straighten it out again, and when we straightened it out. That's when I told them we're selling the business, and so that's what we did. So we sold it in good graces [unintelligible - 00:38:47]. LINDA: So did any of your sons -- well, you have one son, but you must have some nephews. They didn't want to take over the business? BABE: We tried and it didn't work out. My son actually went to college and so forth, so he didn't fit into that. Then my -- there weren't too many boys in the family [unintelligible - 00:39:12], and Red had two boys, and one didn't want nothing to do with it all, and the other tried and he didn't like it. So it really was limited as to who could run it after that. LINDA: Now, did you sell the blocks locally or out of state, too? BABE: Well, out of state, New Hampshire, we sell New Hampshire. And we made a special block that we did one delivery in New York City with a special block, but we also had -- my brother had invented a new face for the blocks, and the -- it was a glazed block, and we did manufacture them, 19 and there are three school in Leominster have them. The Army has it in Leominster, and we sold a school in Gill, Mass. and [unintelligible - 00:40:07] and in Worcester, so that we did do quite well with that glazed block, which did very, very good. But like I say, age probably got that business why we finally sold it. LINDA: So the blocks though were they pretty standard size? BABE: They were all standard. LINDA: And then it only changed when your brother invented the glaze? BABE: Well, they were a standard block; it was just something added to it. LINDA: Added. Did he patent that invention? BABE: We worked on patenting it, but surprisingly when you patent something, there's always something close to it. In other words they did a whole lot of research on it and we didn't think it was patentable at the end, because the concrete goes way back year and years and years, and there's always somebody that did something close to it that you -- it just wasn't patentable. LINDA: So how did he develop the glaze? Do you know? BABE: Just working at it. In other words he just -- that was Joe, and Joe was the one in the family that was probably ahead on thinking of doing things and so forth. He was the one that always experimented, in other words, come up with ideas of doing special things. LINDA: So during the time as you're part owner of this company, you did other things. Can you explain? BABE: Did he do other things? LINDA: Yes. BABE: Yes, I did all those things that you wrote down in the book there. There were a few of them. LINDA: Yeah, I know. But could you explain some of them? BABE: Okay. What do you want me to start off? Which one, the first one, the ice cream place? 20 LINDA: Is that the first one that you started? BABE: Maybe I had a little of father in me that you do different things, you know. I went to an auction, and they had an ice cream machine, a brand new one, at the auction for sale, and I bought it for $1,000. And before I left, the salesman that sold it from the Mills Company came there and he found out that I bought it, and he offered me $1,500 for it. The minute he said that I immediately said if this thing is worth $1,500 to the salesman, I'm going to see what this machine will do. And I built an ice cream place around it. That was the beginning of Babe's Ice Cream at the time. LINDA: And where was that located? BABE: On Route 12. LINDA: Route 12. BABE: [Unintelligible - 00:42:44] started that, which is very interesting. We were going to open up on July 4th, and this was in 1950. On July 2nd it was one of those hot, miserable days, miserable, real miserable, [unintelligible - 00:42:56]. And this busload pulls in. There was 38 people on the bus, and one came out. They were monks from Rhode Island of the Vow of Silence, and one came in and he said could he please have 38 glasses of water. So my wife and I packed up 38 sandwiches, 38 ice creams, 38 cold drinks, and the bus leaves. And as the bus is going out of the circular driveway, there's a bus leaving, people just funneled in. And of course I knew most of them, and they said, "Babe, how can you be so lucky that you aren't even open and you get them by the busload?" not knowing what happened. And I said I hope I don't get too many busloads, I don't want to close before I get -- so that's how we started that there. But it growed real fast after that, just kept on growing and growing and growing. It meant nothing to sell a thousand ice cream cones on a Sunday afternoon. LINDA: So you knew nothing about ice cream? 21 BABE: I knew nothing about ice cream. I knew nothing about motels, and I built a motel and ran that. I bought another motel and ran that. But the -- I didn't know anything about subdivisions, but I did that. I think a lot of my father's in me. In other words, you just keep going. As long as you do what's right, work hard, you accomplish it. In other words I won't take no for an answer when it comes to trying to do business. Because I've had people, when I went into the [unintelligible - 00:44:41] and doing hardware, I didn't mention that one. When we were doing hardware, in other words it was on the wholesale level to sell to contractors. I did that, and that was very, very difficult because they felt that I should have went to school, you know, because you got to know what hardware's proper for certain jobs. You've got to know your fire codes and so forth. And a lot of people in the beginning wouldn't sell me. They said in other words we don't want to sell to you, you do things wrong and it could come back to us. So I made it clear to them if I got to go from here to California I'm going into the business and I'm going to buy the stuff. You're either going to sell it to me or somebody else is going to sell it to me. And what that did, I got them, built up that business, which was real good. So I just did it. I think maybe I was just blind. I just went into some of these things. We got kind of carried away. We're supposed to be talking on the Italian Colony, aren't we? ROSA: This is all part of that. LINDA: This is all part of it. But as far as getting the ice cream machine and maybe the motel, were you just in the right place at the right time? Just kind of… BABE: That's probably the story of my life, yeah. I think that -- I really believe the gift of the seventh son really played a part on me. Because everything always works out. 22 LINDA: So would you like to tell us a little more about Lincoln Terrace? You're the first person I've interviewed, I'm thinking, isn't it true that grew up on Lincoln Terrace? BABE: You read this book? LINDA: I've looked at it. I haven't finished it. BABE: You haven't finished it? LINDA: No. BABE: Our family's mentioned in that quite a few times. But first of all he just about hit it on the way it was, you know. It was close-knit, Lincoln Terrace, and it was different than what today is. If you did something wrong and somebody scolded you and you went back and told your parents that the neighbor or whoever it was did this to you, you would get a call down again from him. It isn't that knock at the door saying what -- like today, you got assault and battery like that. In other words, they all watched one another. It was really a family unit up there. So you couldn't do anything wrong, and if anybody came on the street that wasn't part of the street, everybody knew about it and they watched them. So it was quite a neighborhood, it really was. And like I say, we enjoyed the -- now, the early part of it is I can look the -- they all had gardens the way they all had pigs in the back of the house, and when the fall of the year come they would all slaughter and they'd all help one another. I got that on film by the way, 8 mm. LINDA: What, the slaughtering the pigs? BABE: Yeah. LINDA: Oh, that's interesting. Now, was there a smokehouse? BABE: No. They did things themselves. They take the hams and they make the prosciutto out of those. You know how they do that? LINDA: Nuh-uh. BABE: Actually, they take the hind of the pig, and they really salt it and pepper it, all that it will take, and then they put it in most cases in the cellar up 23 against some beam or another beam, and then with a hydraulic jack or whatever kind of a jack, they keep squeezing it until the ham starts this big until it [unintelligible - 00:48:37] that big, but the salt and the pepper is actually curing it out. You heard of that, did you? No? So they did that. They made the meat, they made the sausages. Very few people used to cook the blood. We never did that, but a few of them did and make the… use that. But the whole pork chops, the whole thing, they saved every bit of it. LINDA: Now, did most people have a pig? BABE: In Lincoln Terrace they did. LINDA: They did. BABE: Yep, in those days. LINDA: So they'd all get together on one day and … BABE: They always worked together. Helped one another do things. LINDA: Was that day called something in particular? BABE: No. LINDA: No. BABE: No, and then like the -- I got a large grapevine. See, the whole hill did [unintelligible - 00:49:37] grape used to make his own wine. Then they all had big gardens. And another thing the Italian women up on Lincoln Terrace, on tomato time they would actually make tomato paste. I don't know if you ever saw that. They would have all these boards of pine nice and clean, they spread all the tomato on it, and then put one of those nets on it that they used to cover babies in a carriage to keep the flies out and so forth. And just by working that they made their own tomato paste. And they'd do all different things like that, you know, which they don't do today. It's easier to go to the store today and buy it. 24 LINDA: So when they slaughtered the pig and they made the prosciutto and et cetera… BABE: [Unintelligible - 00:50:24]. LINDA: When they slaughtered the pig, how did they store the -- how did they store what they had made? BABE: Mostly in the cellar. The meats [unintelligible - 00:50:34] like they'd make the sausage and they'd hang them up to dry. They had them covered and they'd hang them up to dry, and they would dry until they dried out with the [unintelligible - 00:50:45] it was all ice boxes what they had then, you know. But they'd have a place in the cellar which was damp enough or so forth that would last -- none of it wasted; they certainly ate it all before anything got to be wasted. LINDA: Was there any trading between families? BABE: I wouldn't say so, no. They had it all. They would give it to somebody like that, but there wouldn't be any trading. If somebody needed something, they would give it to them. LINDA: For some reason I can't remember what you call this, but when you dig out, let's say, a little hill when you keep food in it, what is that called? BABE: They didn't do that. They had it all in the cellar. ROSA: They just used the cellar cold. They can't do it today -- you can't do it today with the heat in the houses, but in those days the cellars were damp and cold sausages could be strung up in the rafters. And prosciutto. They made their sausages with the tubing, I remember seeing them. LINDA: Was that a long process, making the sausage? BABE: Well you got a 300-pound pig; you got a little work to do. You've got quite a bit of meat there to… ROSA: They'd grind it … LINDA: Now, was that woman's work, men's work? BABE: Oh, they all worked. The women did the cooking. They did a lot of that there, and the women probably -- some of the women would put the 25 [rosin] in the hot water to clean the hair of the animals. Hot water and rosin [unintelligible - 00:52:29] take the hair all off. LINDA: Was the skin used for anything? BABE: Yeah, they cooked that up. ROSA: Salt pork. BABE: Yeah. LINDA: So that's really what salt pork is? BABE: There was no waste. Probably threw the hoof away, didn't use that. ROSA: The head. LINDA: Did they throw the head away, or did they use part of it? BABE: Some people ate the head. Yeah some did. We didn't. ROSA: The ears, too. BABE: They all had chickens. LINDA: [Unintelligible - 00:53:05] throw the head away! BABE: And they all had chickens. In fact, my mother had her own little hobby [unintelligible - 00:53:11] times she had chickens and the eggs, and you know, feed the family, and if there's any eggs over she would sell them to the neighbor. So she would do that. My mother never learned to speak English too well even though she did the answering for my father, but it was -- my father could interpret what she would say even though she was saying it wrong. Like there was a company called Bowen and Fuller in Leominster, and my father always said this to people that they called my mother and have your husband come, we've got some deliveries to make, and she asked what company they said Bowen and Fuller. She said "Damn Fool?" He said no, Bowen and Fuller. She asked two or three times and yes. So my father came home, and she said, "Damn Fool wants you to pick up." So he knew them when he went there. The guy says, [unintelligible - 00:54:09] your message and the guy says yes. But they did understand one another. Of course the guy knew that she wasn't doing it to insult him 26 or anything. She didn't know any different on that. But she never learned the -- very, very little English. My father, working with the French people, he learned to speak French, and he learned the English right away, and of course he had the Italian. LINDA: Well, what about you and your brothers and sisters? Did you speak Italian? BABE: We understood it and so forth. They can speak it, but very [unintelligible - 00:54:50], and I can understand quite a bit what happens. Incidentally the three oldest children went to a French school at that time, and they learned French also. LINDA: What school? St. Cecelia's? BABE: St. Cecelia's, yeah. They went three years and then the French people needed a school for themselves and they transferred to St. [unintelligible - 00:55:14] school. LINDA: Now, I heard some people tell me that they weren't allowed to speak Italian in their homes after they learned English at school. Was that true for your family? BABE: Nope. No, we always spoke it. But my wife now, when she came over -- she came from Italy, and I didn't -- and when she came home with the school -- she's not from here, she's from Pennsylvania. But she refused to learn English until the teachers got -- one friendly teacher, "But why don't you want to learn?" She says, "I won't be able to speak to my mother and father then." She thought she'd lose the English. And after that day she made all kinds of honors in school. So she -- but in our house, now, my children, two of them they didn't speak -- we never spoke in Italian, but -- so we [unintelligible - 00:56:12] secret family thing when you're in front of the children, we'd speak Italian, my wife and I, not to be heard, but that's all done now because my daughter went out and became a professor of Italian history, so that brought us out. We can't even… 27 LINDA: So was it important for your family, your father and mother, for their children to assimilate, to become more American? BABE: We never discussed that. I don't think that ever came a thing -- you do the best you can do. That was about the biggest teaching that my father ever gave. Do the best you can do, stay out of trouble. And the other thing he always was a stickler for was he said you always respect authority. He said if someone does something wrong you respect it, you do it when you come home, you tell me about it, and I will take care of it. Of course it was just [unintelligible - 00:57:06] he never did anything everything after it, but meanwhile he kept peace in the family. LINDA: So he didn't want you to confront an adult; he would. BABE: Nope, and you know, in most cases you don't win with authority. You listen to it, and that's it. LINDA: So tell me about your mother. What was she like? BABE: My mother was strictly a loving for her children. She'd do anything for us. To quote my wife, which we shouldn't put on tape… LINDA: You don't want to? BABE: No, I'll tell you what my wife says about my mother. If it's not on tape. LINDA: If it's not on tape, okay. BABE: One of the things that happened though before [unintelligible - 00:57:56] we got married, my wife would go with my sister shopping and so forth. And in our house everybody -- they're all married now, but everybody would end up at the kitchen table at nighttime after the day's work, and my mother would -- you know, there was just the two of them, my mother and father at home, but there was always two or three pounds of spaghetti made, and we'd all eat there and then go home and say we're not hungry. But there was this one day we're there and my wife and my sister went shopping. They were late when they came in, so my brother-in-law and I said so let's have some fun. So the minute they came in, I says "Tina, where have you been? You know I worked all hard all day. I come home 28 and I want to eat." And so she says, "Well, we shopped." And my mother spoke up, she says, "That's not right. You got to feed your husband when he comes…" Well, then my brother-in-law to my sister says the same thing, you know. And my mother spoke up, and maybe she had something important to do. Same conversation. So -– but she was [unintelligible - 00:59:07] she was sick for a while. She had lost one eye too, and so for a while she was a -- but she could find -- after that she could find things that we couldn't, with that one eye. We would lose something and she would find it, even a pin or something like that, but… LINDA: Did she come from -- she came from Italy but differently than your father? I mean … BABE: Three years later. 1909 she came. LINDA: Did she come directly to Leominster? BABE: Well, she landed in Boston. Now, how she got there from Italy I don't have any information on that. LINDA: Do you know how your parents met each other? BABE: Probably out in the farm someplace, I would guess, because that's all they did; they were farmers. Even the woman worked the farms out there and so forth. So, a lot of them out there worked in [unintelligible - 01:00:03] actually who worked for the people that owned the land. LINDA: Where? BABE: In Italy. LINDA: Oh, they knew each other in Italy? BABE: Oh yeah. LINDA: Oh. 29 BABE: When she came here she -- well, that picture there shows her when she came in 19 -- with her children there, that's the picture when she came in 1909. LINDA: Okay. BABE: One of those. LINDA: Okay, so they knew each other in Italy? BABE: Yeah, they got married in Italy. They got married in Italy. LINDA: Then came here separately. BABE: Yes. LINDA: Not at the same time? BABE: No. LINDA: Okay, I didn't understand that. Did they have children [unintelligible - 01:00:45]? BABE: Yeah, yeah. This one here it was 1910 when she came. There was three of them. There was the three. They would be 1, 2, 3 that she came back with. Of course she came here in 1909, 1910 there was another one added at that time. LINDA: So your father came without the family first and then brought them over? BABE: They all did that. They all boarded. If you will look at the directory, they all, the Italians all boarded someplace. They -- none of them had their own home or anything like that in the beginning, so their wives came over and then they would find a place. LINDA: So growing up and you're working with your father, did you work six days a week? BABE: Sometimes seven. Not too often, but sometimes we'd have things to do and we'd do it. So in other words you have to realize when I got to the working age, I was in the Depression, actually. So you took it as you could get it as far as work is concerned. LINDA: Did you work out during the daylight hours? 30 BABE: Oh yeah. We generally got home [unintelligible - 01:02:06] unless there was an emergency job you stayed later. We'd get home about five, five thirty from a job, start at eight o'clock in the morning. LINDA: And then you would eat dinner with your parents? BABE: Mm-hmm. LINDA: And who made the dinner? BABE: My mother. LINDA: What about your sisters? BABE: They were married by that time. Don't forget, they were completely -- they were much older than I was, so they were -- by the time that I started eating, you know, they were married. LINDA: So tell me what kind of things you ate. The types of things your mother made. BABE: All the good things that I like. LINDA: Which is what? BABE: She made spaghetti, pasta [la jour], even polenta. I know you know what that is. LINDA: Mm-hmm. BABE: In those days that was a poor man's meal. Today you go in restaurants you pay a fancy price for it. LINDA: I should have said no, I don't know what it is so you can explain to us on tape. I'll have to get that sometime. So what's polenta? BABE: Lentils, I like lentils. She used to make that, different soups. I'm sorry, what did you say? LINDA: What's polenta? What is it? BABE: Corn -- mush is what it is, actually. LINDA: How would she serve that? BABE: We'd put it on the board, on the table, you spread it all over a board, and then what we'd do, the fun we'd have is try to decide what we're going to carve, and everybody would just carve whatever shape we wanted. And another thing she'd do too at times would be so we would eat all of it, 31 she'd put meat in the middle, and you had to work your way. If you didn't work your way you wouldn't get to the meat. You know, whether it was a meatball a piece of pork chop something like that. LINDA: So it was kind of polite eating. You eat from the outside in? You don't just dig in. BABE: No, no you have to work your way in, clean the road as you go. But on holidays, surprisingly, my father would do the cooking. I know on Easter especially he would make the ham and fix it all up and put the garlic in it and so forth. He always did that. LINDA: Now, during the Depression, did you eat meat at all, or was that really a luxury? BABE: It was a luxury. LINDA: Were different foods prepared on a Sunday compared to the rest of the week? BABE: Yes, Sunday you would have a bigger meal. And during the height of the Depression, we'd probably get oranges at Christmastime, maybe a banana at Christmastime. The rest of the year you didn't need it, so you didn't get it. LINDA: Do you want to go back to your jobs then? BABE: My jobs? LINDA: Yeah, jobs. BABE: Such as? LINDA: Or your companies or your interests. Like the motels. How did you get involved in the motels? BABE: Well, we went out to get some materials. It was in New Jersey, picking up some pallets for the block plant at that time, and it was next door to a motel, the pallets and so forth, and I started talking to the fellow and so forth. And [unintelligible - 01:05:44] the business, and now I had the ice cream place, I had the tourist stopping, so the brain just clicked in it would be nice to have a motel in Leominster. We had none. That was the first one. So that's what I did. I built a motel. 32 LINDA: Where did you build it? BABE: On Route 12 right next to my ice cream place. So that -- I didn't have any money at that time, so that was a problem. I went to the bank, it was the first bank I went to, told them I wanted $25,000, to borrow $25,000, said what are you going to do and I explained. They said you can't do that for that price. I said oh yes, I can I buy all my materials wholesale, and I do all the work myself. And he said well, in that case you have to give me a list of what it's going to cost you because I can only loan you 80 percent of what you're going to pay. So my answer to him was you really don't want me to build the motel, do you? But I fought it. Like I say, I made up my mind I was going to fight it and I did, so I just kept going and we built it. LINDA: So did you end up borrowing the money from a bank? BABE: Oh yeah, I got money from a bank—not that bank though, another bank. But then I started with eight rooms and built another eight and built another eight, and then four more on that same site, and so that worked out good. That was a good business. LINDA: And you kept the ice cream business in addition? BABE: Yeah. LINDA: So who ran the motel? BABE: Hmm? LINDA: Who ran the motel? BABE: I did. There was nobody else to run it. My wife was busy with the children at that time. LINDA: I thought there were only 24 hours in a day! That's why I'm asking. BABE: Well, I still slept three hours. You get up in the morning at eight o'clock. About eight we'd go have some breakfast and then close about two o'clock. Three nights a week I'd make ice cream until about three or four o'clock in the morning. Then with the motel beside it, you get -- break up during the night, people checking in late, so that was the schedule for a number of years. 33 LINDA: Where were you living at this time? BABE: We built a house in back of the motel and ice cream place. LINDA: Okay. So did you advertise for the motel? BABE: Yeah, we did advertise on that. LINDA: So who was staying in the motel, people visiting? BABE: We had -- mostly it was a commercial motel and we had mostly salesmen, engineers, buyers. It was all very good class of business that we had, and tourists and so forth, but we had quite a reputation that we even had quite a few of the national companies that if they were within 50 miles of our place such as Gates Rubber from Colorado, Singer Sewing Machine, if any of their people were within 50 miles of our motel, we had direct billing with them, they'd stop with us. But we made it very, very comfortable for them, because we learned very early that a salesman or an engineer or anybody that's traveling alone is the most lonesome guy in the world. So the thing that we would do is if a guy comes in and he could be with the plastic industry, he's alone, somebody else we know is in the motel in the plastic business he's alone, we have them meet one another. They'd go out and from then on they'd come back, because they knew that it was always -- they were going to meet somebody there instead of just sitting in a room all night long. And we built up a wonderful business that way. In fact, even -- we had a regular customer of ours once got in an automobile accident, and he couldn't go back home and we were full, and we asked [unintelligible - 01:09:51] two people of other customers that one of our customers was in an accident and can't go home, would you mind packing up and leaving? They did. LINDA: Wow. BABE: You know, which is so unusual. We explained what it was, but even that was a family affair that they would. It was a lot of fun. We had a lot of 34 fun doing that. One of the regulars that came in would we would always be pulling jokes, stuff like -- one time he brought somebody in and my wife was in Florida with her mother at the time, so I don't know what made me do it, but this guy was saying I've got to meet your wife, I hear so much about it from the other guys. So I said, yeah, but you know, when you talk to her she's hard of hearing, so then I pick up my wife and I said this wonderful guy from Chicago is in room 9. Wonderful guy. He was doing management surveys for the [unintelligible - 01:10:58] on Adams Street. So I told Tina he's hard of hearing. So now when they come in, they're all there, because they always -- we had a lawn area that we sit at, and so I said, Tina there's the guy, so, "How are you," and they're hollering like two idiots back and forth, and everybody starts laughing. But it was good for a joke. But they all accepted it as such, and that's it. Now, the one I got to say on the ice cream place now, I'm going to take a [unintelligible - 01:11:30] had his favorite place. I gave ice cream to every church in Leominster but my own. We'll have to continue. LINDA: We were talking about you had a story about churches and giving ice cream. BABE: Yes, I gave ice cream to every church in Leominster but St. Anne's, my church. Because what would happen, even the synagogues, the Jewish would call up and they want ice cream, how much is it. And I'd say $5 a tub. When I'd bring it up I'd give them a receipted bill. My own people, when they'd call, they'd say, "Oh, we can buy it for $4.50," so I never had the opportunity to give it to them, right? LINDA: Really? BABE: That was in six years I think I gave to every church in Leominster but my own. Now, I never told them I was going to give it to them for nothing. They asked me what the price was. The price was $5 a tub. So I guess that's all right. We all still made it. 35 LINDA: How long did you keep the ice cream? BABE: From 1950 to 1958. LINDA: And what about the motel? BABE: Motel, sold that in '64. LINDA: You had two didn't you? BABE: Yep, sold the other one about the same time. The other one I bought. I didn't build the other one. LINDA: And what was that, West… BABE: West [unintelligible - 01:12:59] Motel. LINDA: Is that the one that's across from -- well, it's Sam's now -- I mean, not Sam's, Walmart. Is that the one? BABE: No, it's up further. It's at the junction of 110 and 12. LINDA: All right. So again, give me an idea of what a day was like for you when you owned both the ice cream shop and the motel. BABE: Hectic. Get up in the morning, help out at the place… you know, noon time was busy there and so forth. And then at night start checking in people at the motel, then come back and make the ice cream. Like I said, I did all my building in the wintertime, too. [Unintelligible - 01:13:48] like I built the motel myself, I did that all. And the other thing we did during that time again was one summer, which was really -- my wife got me involved, and we built -- with the people of Leominster now, they're very generous; we built a swimming pool for the Nazareth Home for Boys. So I'm the owner, I'm doing the blocks, and I'm doing all the rebuilding of it. And people always like to have fun, and I had fellows working for me, a police officer mowing my lawn at the motel and stuff. And I know that the day I laid blocks I was just about dead, and I come home and [unintelligible - 01:14:35] is really doing good you hired people to do work for you, you're getting lazy. 36 But that was all, it was a lot of work, just busy, busy. But I enjoyed it. I think someone said one time that work won't kill you, and it didn't. LINDA: It sounds like your wife was supportive. Very supportive. BABE: Yeah, she is. She did. She had to take care of the children, and she also, at the same time, she was taking care of her sister's. She was one of the waitress I had. She had to waitress, she took care of their two children too, then at night she would come up and help with serving customers. Although she was a troublemaker. She's the one that liked to joke with the customers. For example, we used to have -- a new product came out, the ketchup that you squeeze it, the pump it, they called it. On Saturday night we'd get those big gang of dancers come in, dress suits, ties. So this one guy was trying to get the ketchup on and it wouldn't work on a hamburger. We said, "Tina, why don't you throw these away? They don't work." So she says, "You don't mind if I squeeze it at you?" "Go ahead," he says, so of course, ketchup all the way down his face. She never worked on Saturdays, but one Saturday she's working and one of our good customers from Connecticut would come by every Saturday with his wife and family going to New Hampshire camping. I'm outside talking to the guys and he came out and said, "You know, I don't know who that new waitress you got, but you better fire her or you won't have no customers left." I said, "Which one?" I said, "I can't fire her, she owns it!" But it was always funny, and I think that's what kept it going. It wasn't -- we enjoyed it, and that's probably what kept us going. We didn't look at it as a job or as work. We looked at it as something to do, and we were happy while we did it. LINDA: Did you have many employees? 37 BABE: Well, probably on the weekends was the most. It was probably about eight or nine of us on a weekend working. LINDA: Working at the ice cream shop, or… BABE: As far as the motel, it only required -- two girls would work just in the morning. That was separate girls, you know. A few hours they would have the rooms all ready. Then my children, we had the miniature golf. LINDA: Oh, that's right did. You built the miniature golf next to the ice cream shop? BABE: Yeah. LINDA: Now, where did you get that idea? BABE: I saw one, and I thought it would be nice to have, so I built one. LINDA: So, again, would that be the first miniature golf place in Leominster? BABE: No, there had been one for years and years up on North Main Street behind the bowling alleys. The motel was the first one in Leominster. LINDA: Well, then tell me about building the miniature golf. You actually designed it and built it? BABE: No, I didn't design it. The people I bought the equipment from did the designing of it. But I built it, I put it in there. Everything was designed by them, and I bought all the fixtures and so forth from them. LINDA: And then your children worked there? BABE: Yeah. LINDA: So how did you and your wife feel about education for your children? BABE: We felt tops for education. We probably made a couple of mistakes educating our children. To be very honest, I think St. Ann's, my son went there, and I think that was a mistake because there was [unintelligible - 01:18:44] 60 kids in the first grade. And had he went to where I went to school, they had 11 children. It would have been almost like a private tutoring. So what we did with him to pick up, we sent him to Julie Country Day afterwards, which is a private school, and from there he went to Worcester Academy. LINDA: I guess I'm interested to know how something like that happens. 38 BABE: Like what? LINDA: Like that you went to the 9th grade, you said, and your father is an immigrant who came over here to work so hard, and you know, he may not have had much schooling, and then all of a sudden your son is going to Worcester Academy. BABE: Because I wanted him to go there. LINDA: Because you wanted him… BABE: Oh yeah. LINDA: And why did you want him… BABE: In fact, [unintelligible - 01:19:34] when people ask me what I did I say I'm a bum. And of course my son must have heard me two or three times and, I know when he was ready to go to college, he said, "Dad, I don't want to go to college. I want to be a bum." I said, "You're going to be an educated bum." And he went to college, which he did very, very good [unintelligible - 01:19:51]. But no, we felt that the he lacked the basic knowledge at the very beginning. /AT/pa/mlb/es
Breast cancer (BC) risk for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers varies by genetic and familial factors. About 50 common variants have been shown to modify BC risk for mutation carriers. All but three, were identified in general population studies. Other mutation carrier-specific susceptibility variants may exist but studies of mutation carriers have so far been underpowered. We conduct a novel case-only genome-wide association study comparing genotype frequencies between 60,212 general population BC cases and 13,007 cases with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations. We identify robust novel associations for 2 variants with BC for BRCA1 and 3 for BRCA2 mutation carriers, P < 10-8, at 5 loci, which are not associated with risk in the general population. They include rs60882887 at 11p11.2 where MADD, SP11 and EIF1, genes previously implicated in BC biology, are predicted as potential targets. These findings will contribute towards customising BC polygenic risk scores for BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation carriers. ; BCAC acknowledgements. We thank all the individuals who took part in these studies and all the researchers, clinicians, technicians and administrative staff who have enabled this work to be carried out. ABCFS thank Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Gillian Dite. ABCS thanks the Blood bank Sanquin, The Netherlands. ABCTB Investigators: Christine Clarke, Deborah Marsh, Rodney Scott, Robert Baxter, Desmond Yip, Jane Carpenter, Alison Davis, Nirmala Pathmanathan, Peter Simpson, J. Dinny Graham, Mythily Sachchithananthan. Samples are made available to researchers on a non-exclusive basis. BBCS thanks Eileen Williams, Elaine Ryder-Mills, Kara Sargus. BCEES thanks Allyson Thomson, Christobel Saunders, Terry Slevin, BreastScreen Western Australia, Elizabeth Wylie, Rachel Lloyd. The BCINIS study would not have been possible without the contributions of Dr. K. Landsman, Dr. N. Gronich, Dr. A. Flugelman, Dr. W. Saliba, Dr. E. Liani, Dr. I. Cohen, Dr. S. Kalet, Dr. V. Friedman, Dr. O. Barnet of the NICCC in Haifa, and all the contributing family medicine, surgery, pathology and oncology teams in all medical institutes in Northern Israel. The BREOGAN study would not have been possible without the contributions of the following: Manuela Gago-Dominguez, Jose Esteban Castelao, Angel Carracedo, Victor Munoz Garzon, Alejandro Novo Dominguez, Maria Elena Martinez, Sara Miranda Ponte, Carmen Redondo Marey, Maite Pena Fernandez, Manuel Enguix Castelo, Maria Torres, Manuel Calaza (BREOGAN), Jose Antunez, Maximo Fraga and the staff of the Department of Pathology and Biobank of the University Hospital Complex of Santiago-CHUS, Instituto de Investigacion Sanitaria de Santiago, IDIS, Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Santiago-SERGAS; Joaquin Gonzalez-Carrero and the staff of the Department of Pathology and Biobank of University Hospital Complex of Vigo, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur, SERGAS, Vigo, Spain. BSUCH thanks Peter Bugert, Medical Faculty Mannheim. CBCS thanks study participants, co-investigators, collaborators and staff of the Canadian Breast Cancer Study, and project coordinators Agnes Lai and Celine Morissette. CCGP thanks Styliani Apostolaki, Anna Margiolaki, Georgios Nintos, Maria Perraki, Georgia Saloustrou, Georgia Sevastaki, Konstantinos Pompodakis. CGPS thanks staff and participants of the Copenhagen General Population Study. For the excellent technical assistance: Dorthe Uldall Andersen, Maria Birna Arnadottir, Anne Bank, Dorthe Kjeldgard Hansen. The Danish Cancer Biobank is acknowledged for providing infrastructure for the collection of blood samples for the cases. CNIO-BCS thanks Guillermo Pita, Charo Alonso, Nuria alvarez, Pilar Zamora, Primitiva Menendez, the Human Genotyping-CEGEN Unit (CNIO). The CTS Steering Committee includes Leslie Bernstein, Susan Neuhausen, James Lacey, Sophia Wang, Huiyan Ma, and Jessica Clague DeHart at the Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Dennis Deapen, Rich Pinder, and Eunjung Lee at the University of Southern California, Pam Horn-Ross, Peggy Reynolds, Christina Clarke Dur and David Nelson at the Cancer Prevention Institute of California, Hoda Anton-Culver, Argyrios Ziogas, and Hannah Park at the University of California Irvine, and Fred Schumacher at Case Western University. DIETCOMPLYF thanks the patients, nurses and clinical staff involved in the study. The DietCompLyf study was funded by the charity Against Breast Cancer (Registered Charity Number 1121258) and the NCRN. We thank the participants and the investigators of EPIC (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition). ESTHER thanks Hartwig Ziegler, Sonja Wolf, Volker Hermann, Christa Stegmaier, Katja Butterbach. GC-HBOC thanks Stefanie Engert, Heide Hellebrand, Sandra Krober and LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases (Markus Loeffler, Joachim Thiery, Matthias Nuchter, Ronny Baber). The GENICA Network: Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch-Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, and University of Tubingen, Germany [HB, Wing-Yee Lo], German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Partner Site Tubingen [[HB], gefordert durch die Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) im Rahmen der Exzellenzstrategie des Bundes und der Lander - EXC 2180 - 390900677 [HB], Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany [YDK, Christian Baisch], Institute of Pathology, University of Bonn, Germany [Hans-Peter Fischer], Molecular Genetics of Breast Cancer, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany [Ute Hamann], Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, Germany [Thomas Bruning, Beate Pesch, Sylvia Rabstein, Anne Lotz]; and Institute of Occupational Medicine and Maritime Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany [Volker Harth]. HABCS thanks Michael Bremer. HEBCS thanks Kirsimari Aaltonen, Irja Erkkila. HUBCS thanks Shamil Gantsev. KARMA and SASBAC thank the Swedish Medical Research Counsel. KBCP thanks Eija Myohanen, Helena Kemilainen. kConFab/AOCS wish to thank Heather Thorne, Eveline Niedermayr, all the kConFab research nurses and staff, the heads and staff of the Family Cancer Clinics, and the Clinical Follow-Up Study (which has received funding from the NHMRC, the National Breast Cancer Foundation, Cancer Australia, and the National Institute of Health (USA)) for their contributions to this resource, and the many families who contribute to kConFab. LMBC thanks Gilian Peuteman, Thomas Van Brussel, EvyVanderheyden and Kathleen Corthouts. MARIE thanks Petra Seibold, Dieter Flesch-Janys, Judith Heinz, Nadia Obi, Alina Vrieling, Sabine Behrens, Ursula Eilber, Muhabbet Celik, Til Olchers and Stefan Nickels. MBCSG (Milan Breast Cancer Study Group): Mariarosaria Calvello, Davide Bondavalli, Aliana Guerrieri Gonzaga, Monica Marabelli, Irene Feroce, and the personnel of the Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory. The MCCS was made possible by the contribution of many people, including the original investigators, the teams that recruited the participants and continue working on follow-up, and the many thousands of Melbourne residents who continue to participate in the study. We thank the coordinators, the research staff and especially the MMHS participants for their continued collaboration on research studies in breast cancer. MSKCC thanks Marina Corines, Lauren Jacobs. MTLGEBCS would like to thank Martine Tranchant (CHU de Quebec - Universite Laval Research Center), Marie-France Valois, Annie Turgeon and Lea Heguy (McGill University Health Center, Royal Victoria Hospital; McGill University) for DNA extraction, sample management and skilful technical assistance. J.S. is Chair holder of the Canada Research Chair in Oncogenetics. NBHS and SBCGS thank study participants and research staff for their contributions and commitment to the studies. For NHS and NHS2 the study protocol was approved by the institutional review boards of the Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, and those of participating registries as required. We would like to thank the participants and staff of the NHS and NHS2 for their valuable contributions as well as the following state cancer registries for their help: A.L., A.Z., A.R., C.A., C.O., C.T., D.E., F.L., G.A., I.D., I.L., I.N., I.A., K.Y., L.A., M.E., M.D., M.A., M.I., N.E., N.H., N.J., N.Y., N.C., N.D., O.H., O.K., O.R., P.A., R.I., S.C., T.N., T.X., V.A., W.A., and W.Y. The authors assume full responsibility for analyses and interpretation of these data. OFBCR thanks Teresa Selander, Nayana Weerasooriya. ORIGO thanks E. Krol-Warmerdam, and J. Blom for patient accrual, administering questionnaires, and managing clinical information. PBCS thanks Louise Brinton, Mark Sherman, Neonila Szeszenia-Dabrowska, Beata Peplonska, Witold Zatonski, Pei Chao, Michael Stagner. The ethical approval for the POSH study is MREC /00/6/69, UKCRN ID: 1137. We thank staff in the Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre (ECMC) supported Faculty of Medicine Tissue Bank and the Faculty of Medicine DNA Banking resource. RBCS thanks Jannet Blom, Saskia Pelders, Annette Heemskerk and the Erasmus MC Family Cancer Clinic. We thank the SEARCH and EPIC teams. SKKDKFZS thanks all study participants, clinicians, family doctors, researchers and technicians for their contributions and commitment to this study. SZBCS thanks Ewa Putresza. UCIBCS thanks Irene Masunaka. UKBGS thanks Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research for support and funding of the Breakthrough Generations Study, and the study participants, study staff, and the doctors, nurses and other health care providers and health information sources who have contributed to the study. We acknowledge NHS funding to the Royal Marsden/ICR NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. We acknowledge funding to the Manchester NIHR Biomedical Research Centre (IS-BRC-1215-20007). The authors thank the WHI investigators and staff for their dedication and the study participants for making the program possible. CIMBA acknowledgments. All the families and clinicians who contribute to the studies; Catherine M. Phelan for her contribution to CIMBA until she passed away on 22 September 2017; Sue Healey, in particular taking on the task of mutation classification with the late Olga Sinilnikova; Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Gillian Dite, Helen Tsimiklis; members and participants in the New York site of the Breast Cancer Family Registry; members and participants in the Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry; Vilius Rudaitis and Laimonas Grikeviius; Drs Janis Eglitis, Anna Krilova and Aivars Stengrevics; Yuan Chun Ding and Linda Steele for their work in participant enrollment and biospecimen and data management; Bent Ejlertsen and Anne-Marie Gerdes for the recruitment and genetic counseling of participants; Alicia Barroso, Rosario Alonso and Guillermo Pita; all the individuals and the researchers who took part in CONSIT TEAM (Consorzio Italiano Tumori Ereditari Alla Mammella), in particular: Bernard Peissel, Dario Zimbalatti, Daniela Zaffaroni, Alessandra Viel, Giuseppe Giannini Liliana Varesco, Viviana Gismondi, Maria Grazia Tibiletti, Daniela Furlan, Antonella Savarese, Aline Martayan, Stefania Tommasi, Brunella Pilato and the personnel of the Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory, Milan, Italy. Ms. JoEllen Weaver and Dr. Betsy Bove; FPGMX: members of the Cancer Genetics group (IDIS): Marta Santamarina, Miguel Aguado and Olivia Rios; IFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases (Markus Loeffler, Joachim Thiery, Matthias Nuchter, Ronny Baber); We thank all participants, clinicians, family doctors, researchers, and technicians for their contributions and commitment to the DKFZ study and the collaborating groups in Lahore, Pakistan (Noor Muhammad, Sidra Gull, Seerat Bajwa, Faiz Ali Khan, Humaira Naeemi, Saima Faisal, Asif Loya, Mohammed Aasim Yusuf) and Bogota, Colombia (Ignacio Briceno, Fabian Gil). Genetic Modifiers of Cancer Risk in BRCA1/2 Mutation Carriers (GEMO) study is a study from the National Cancer Genetics Network UNICANCER Genetic Group, France. We wish to pay a tribute to Olga M. Sinilnikova, who with Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet initiated and coordinated GEMO until she sadly passed away on the 30th June 2014. The team in Lyon (Olga Sinilnikova, Melanie Leone, Laure Barjhoux, Carole Verny-Pierre, Sylvie Mazoyer, Francesca Damiola, Valerie Sornin) managed the GEMO samples until the biological resource centre was transferred to Paris in December 2015 (Noura Mebirouk, Fabienne Lesueur, Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet). We want to thank all the GEMO collaborating groups for their contribution to this study: Coordinating Centre, Service de Genetique, Institut Curie, Paris, France: Muriel Belotti, Ophelie Bertrand, Anne-Marie Birot, Bruno Buecher, Sandrine Caputo, Anais Dupre, Emmanuelle Fourme, Marion Gauthier-Villars, Lisa Golmard, Claude Houdayer, Marine Le Mentec, Virginie Moncoutier, Antoine de Pauw, Claire Saule, Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet, and Inserm U900, Institut Curie, Paris, France: Fabienne Lesueur, Noura Mebirouk. Contributing Centres: Unite Mixte de Genetique Constitutionnelle des Cancers Frequents, Hospices Civils de Lyon - Centre Leon Berard, Lyon, France: Nadia Boutry-Kryza, Alain Calender, Sophie Giraud, Melanie Leone. Institut Gustave Roussy, Villejuif, France: Brigitte Bressac-de-Paillerets, Olivier Caron, Marine Guillaud-Bataille. Centre Jean Perrin, Clermont-Ferrand, France: Yves-Jean Bignon, Nancy Uhrhammer. Centre Leon Berard, Lyon, France: Valerie Bonadona, Christine Lasset. Centre Francois Baclesse, Caen, France: Pascaline Berthet, Laurent Castera, Dominique Vaur. Institut Paoli Calmettes, Marseille, France: Violaine Bourdon, Catherine Nogues, Tetsuro Noguchi, Cornel Popovici, Audrey Remenieras, Hagay Sobol. CHU Arnaud-de-Villeneuve, Montpellier, France: Isabelle Coupier, Pascal Pujol. Centre Oscar Lambret, Lille, France: Claude Adenis, Aurelie Dumont, Francoise Revillion. Centre Paul Strauss, Strasbourg, France: Daniele Muller. Institut Bergonie, Bordeaux, France: Emmanuelle Barouk-Simonet, Francoise Bonnet, Virginie Bubien, Michel Longy, Nicolas Sevenet, Institut Claudius Regaud, Toulouse, France: Laurence Gladieff, Rosine Guimbaud, Viviane Feillel, Christine Toulas. CHU Grenoble, France: Helene Dreyfus, Christine Dominique Leroux, Magalie Peysselon, Rebischung. CHU Dijon, France: Amandine Baurand, Geoffrey Bertolone, Fanny Coron, Laurence Faivre, Caroline Jacquot, Sarab Lizard. CHU St-Etienne, France: Caroline Kientz, Marine Lebrun, Fabienne Prieur. Hotel Dieu Centre Hospitalier, Chambery, France: Sandra Fert Ferrer. Centre Antoine Lacassagne, Nice, France: Veronique Mari. CHU Limoges, France: Laurence Venat-Bouvet. CHU Nantes, France: Stephane Bezieau, Capucine Delnatte. CHU Bretonneau, Tours and Centre Hospitalier de Bourges France: Isabelle Mortemousque. Groupe Hospitalier Pitie-Salpetriere, Paris, France: Chrystelle Colas, Florence Coulet, Florent Soubrier, Mathilde Warcoin. CHU Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France: Myriam Bronner, Johanna Sokolowska. CHU Besancon, France: Marie-Agnes Collonge-Rame, Alexandre Damette. CHU Poitiers, Centre Hospitalier d'Angouleme and Centre Hospitalier de Niort, France: Paul Gesta. Centre Hospitalier de La Rochelle: Hakima Lallaoui. CHU Nimes Caremeau, France: Jean Chiesa. CHI Poissy, France: Denise Molina-Gomes. CHU Angers, France: Olivier Ingster; Ilse Coene en Brecht Crombez; Ilse Coene and Brecht Crombez; Alicia Tosar and Paula Diaque; Drs.Sofia Khan, Taru A. Muranen, Carl Blomqvist, Irja Erkkila and Virpi Palola; The Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Research Group Netherlands (HEBON) consists of the following Collaborating Centers: Coordinating center: Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, NL: M.A. Rookus, F.B.L. Hogervorst, F.E. van Leeuwen, S. Verhoef, M.K. Schmidt, N.S. Russell, D.J. Jenner; Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, NL: J.M. Collee, A.M.W. van den Ouweland, M.J. Hooning, C. Seynaeve, C.H.M. van Deurzen, I.M. Obdeijn; Leiden University Medical Center, NL: C.J. van Asperen, J.T. Wijnen, R.A.E.M. Tollenaar, P. Devilee, T.C.T.E.F. van Cronenburg; Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, NL: C.M. Kets, A.R. Mensenkamp; University Medical Center Utrecht, NL: M.G.E.M. Ausems, R.B. van der Luijt, C.C. van der Pol; Amsterdam Medical Center, NL: C.M. Aalfs, T.A.M. van Os; VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, NL: J.J.P. Gille, Q. Waisfisz, H.E.J. Meijers-Heijboer; University Hospital Maastricht, NL: E.B. Gomez-Garcia, M.J. Blok; University Medical Center Groningen, NL: J.C. Oosterwijk, A.H. van der Hout, M.J. Mourits, G.H. de Bock; The Netherlands Foundation for the detection of hereditary tumours, Leiden, NL: H.F. Vasen; The Netherlands Comprehensive Cancer Organization (IKNL): S. Siesling, J.Verloop; the ICO Hereditary Cancer Program team led by Dr. Gabriel Capella; the ICO Hereditary Cancer Program team led by Dr. Gabriel Capella; Dr Martine Dumont for sample management and skillful assistance; Ana Peixoto, Catarina Santos and Pedro Pinto; members of the Center of Molecular Diagnosis, Oncogenetics Department and Molecular Oncology Research Center of Barretos Cancer Hospital; Heather Thorne, Eveline Niedermayr, all the kConFab research nurses and staff, the heads and staff of the Family Cancer Clinics, and the Clinical Follow-Up Study (which has received funding from the NHMRC, the National Breast Cancer Foundation, Cancer Australia, and the National Institute of Health (USA)) for their contributions to this resource, and the many families who contribute to kConFab; the investigators of the Australia New Zealand NRG Oncology group; members and participants in the Ontario Cancer Genetics Network; Leigha Senter, Kevin Sweet, Caroline Craven, Julia Cooper, Amber Aielts, and Michelle O'Conor; HVH: acknowledgments to the Cellex Foundation for providing research facilities and equipment. Dr Juliette Coignard was supported by a fellowship of INCa Institut National du Cancer N degrees 2015-181, la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer IP/SC-15229 and Olga Sinilnikova's fellowship (2016). BCAC Funding. BCAC is funded by Cancer Research UK [C1287/A16563, C1287/A10118], the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (grant numbers 634935 and 633784 for BRIDGES and B-CAST respectively), and by the European Communitys Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement number 223175 (grant number HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS). The EU Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme funding source had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation or writing of the report. Genotyping of the OncoArray was funded by the NIH Grant U19 CA148065, and Cancer UK Grant C1287/A16563 and the PERSPECTIVE project supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (grant GPH-129344) and, the Ministere de l'Economie, Science et Innovation du Quebec through Genome Quebec and the PSRSIIRI-701 grant, and the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. The Australian Breast Cancer Family Study (ABCFS) was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The ABCFS was also supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, the New South Wales Cancer Council, the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (Australia) and the Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium. J.L.H. is a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Principal Research Fellow. M.C.S. is a NHMRC Senior Research Fellow. The ABCS study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society [grants NKI 2007-3839; 2009 4363]. The Australian Breast Cancer Tissue Bank (ABCTB) was supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, The Cancer Institute NSW and the National Breast Cancer Foundation. The work of the BBCC was partly funded by ELAN-Fond of the University Hospital of Erlangen. The BBCS is funded by Cancer Research UK and Breast Cancer Now and acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, and the National Cancer Research Network (NCRN). The BCEES was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia and the Cancer Council Western Australia and acknowledges funding from the National Breast Cancer Foundation (JS). For the BCFR-NY, BCFR-PA, BCFR-UT this work was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. The BREast Oncology GAlician Network (BREOGAN) is funded by Accion Estrategica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS PI12/02125/Cofinanciado FEDER; Accion Estrategica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS Intrasalud (PI13/01136); Programa Grupos Emergentes, Cancer Genetics Unit, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur. Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Vigo-SERGAS, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain; Grant 10CSA012E, Conselleria de Industria Programa Sectorial de Investigacion Aplicada, PEME I + D e I + D Suma del Plan Gallego de Investigacion, Desarrollo e Innovacion Tecnologica de la Conselleria de Industria de la Xunta de Galicia, Spain; Grant EC11-192. Fomento de la Investigacion Clinica Independiente, Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad, Spain; and Grant FEDER-Innterconecta. Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad, Xunta de Galicia, Spain. The BSUCH study was supported by the Dietmar-Hopp Foundation, the Helmholtz Society and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). CBCS is funded by the Canadian Cancer Society (grant # 313404) and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. CCGP is supported by funding from the University of Crete. The CECILE study was supported by Fondation de France, Institut National du Cancer (INCa), Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Agence Nationale de Securite Sanitaire, de l'Alimentation, de l'Environnement et du Travail (ANSES), Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR). The CGPS was supported by the Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund, the Danish Medical Research Council, and Herlev and Gentofte Hospital. The CNIO-BCS was supported by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, the Red Tematica de Investigacion Cooperativa en Cancer and grants from the Asociacion Espanola Contra el Cancer and the Fondo de Investigacion Sanitario (PI11/00923 and PI12/00070). The CTS was initially supported by the California Breast Cancer Act of 1993 and the California Breast Cancer Research Fund (contract 97-10500) and is currently funded through the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA77398, UM1 CA164917, and U01 CA199277). Collection of cancer incidence data was supported by the California Department of Public Health as part of the statewide cancer reporting program mandated by California Health and Safety Code Section 103885. The University of Westminster curates the DietCompLyf database funded by Against Breast Cancer Registered Charity No. 1121258 and the NCRN. The coordination of EPIC is financially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The national cohorts are supported by: Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut Gustave Roussy, Mutuelle Generale de l'Education Nationale, Institut National de la Sante et de la Recherche Medicale (INSERM) (France); German Cancer Aid, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) (Germany); the Hellenic Health Foundation, the Stavros Niarchos Foundation (Greece); Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro-AIRC-Italy and National Research Council (Italy); Dutch Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sports (VWS), Netherlands Cancer Registry (NKR), LK Research Funds, Dutch Prevention Funds, Dutch ZON (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland), World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF), Statistics Netherlands (The Netherlands); Health Research Fund (FIS), PI13/00061 to Granada, PI13/01162 to EPIC-Murcia, Regional Governments of Andalucia, Asturias, Basque Country, Murcia and Navarra, ISCIII RETIC (RD06/0020) (Spain); Cancer Research UK (14136 to EPIC-Norfolk; C570/A16491 and C8221/A19170 to EPIC-Oxford), Medical Research Council (1000143 to EPIC-Norfolk, MR/M012190/1 to EPIC-Oxford) (United Kingdom). The ESTHER study was supported by a grant from the Baden Wurttemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts. Additional cases were recruited in the context of the VERDI study, which was supported by a grant from the German Cancer Aid (Deutsche Krebshilfe). The GC-HBOC (German Consortium of Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer) is supported by the German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, coordinator: Rita K. Schmutzler, Cologne). This work was also funded by the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713-241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, 14575/2470). The GENICA was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany grants 01KW9975/5, 01KW9976/8, 01KW9977/0 and 01KW0114, the Robert Bosch Foundation, Stuttgart, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, the Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, as well as the Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany. The GESBC was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e. V. [70492] and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). The HABCS study was supported by the Claudia von Schilling Foundation for Breast Cancer Research, by the Lower Saxonian Cancer Society, and by the Rudolf Bartling Foundation. The HEBCS was financially supported by the Helsinki UniversityHospital Research Fund, the Finnish Cancer Society, and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. The HUBCS was supported by a grant from the German Federal Ministry of Research and Education (RUS08/017), and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and the Federal Agency for Scientific Organizations for support the Bioresource collections and RFBR grants 14-04-97088, 17-29-06014 and 17-44-020498. Financial support for KARBAC was provided through the regional agreement on medical training and clinical research (ALF) between Stockholm County Council and Karolinska Institutet, the Swedish Cancer Society, The Gustav V Jubilee foundation and Bert von Kantzows foundation. The KARMA study was supported by Marit and Hans Rausings Initiative Against Breast Cancer. The KBCP was financially supported by the special Government Funding (EVO) of Kuopio University Hospital grants, Cancer Fund of North Savo, the Finnish Cancer Organizations, and by the strategic funding of the University of Eastern Finland. kConFab is supported by a grant from the National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. Financial support for the AOCS was provided by the United States Army Medical Research and Materiel Command [DAMD17-01-1-0729], Cancer Council Victoria, Queensland Cancer Fund, Cancer Council New South Wales, Cancer Council South Australia, The Cancer Foundation of Western Australia, Cancer Council Tasmania and the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia (NHMRC; 400413, 400281, 199600). G.C.T. and P.W. are supported by the NHMRC. RB was a Cancer Institute NSW Clinical Research Fellow. LMBC is supported by the 'Stichting tegen Kanker'. The MARIE study was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e.V. [70-2892-BR I, 106332, 108253, 108419, 110826, 110828], the Hamburg Cancer Society, the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany [01KH0402]. MBCSG is supported by grants from the Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC; IG2014 no.15547) to P. Radice. The MCBCS was supported by the NIH grants CA192393, CA116167, CA176785 an NIH Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer [CA116201], and the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. The Melbourne Collaborative Cohort Study (MCCS) cohort recruitment was funded by VicHealth and Cancer Council Victoria. The MCCS was further augmented by Australian National Health and Medical Research Council grants 209057, 396414 and 1074383 and by infrastructure provided by Cancer Council Victoria. Cases and their vital status were ascertained through the Victorian Cancer Registry and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, including the National Death Index and the Australian Cancer Database. The MEC was support by NIH grants CA63464, CA54281, CA098758, CA132839 and CA164973. The MISS study is supported by funding from ERC-2011-294576 Advanced grant, Swedish Cancer Society, Swedish Research Council, Local hospital funds, Berta Kamprad Foundation, Gunnar Nilsson. The MMHS study was supported by NIH grants CA97396, CA128931, CA116201, CA140286 and CA177150. MSKCC is supported by grants from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative. The work of MTLGEBCS was supported by the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer program - grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade - grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. The NBHS was supported by NIH grant R01CA100374. Biological sample preparation was conducted the Survey and Biospecimen Shared Resource, which is supported by P30 CA68485. The Northern California Breast Cancer Family Registry (NC-BCFR) and Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry (OFBCR) were supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The Carolina Breast Cancer Study was funded by Komen Foundation, the National Cancer Institute (P50 CA058223, U54 CA156733, U01 CA179715), and the North Carolina University Cancer Research Fund. The NHS was supported by NIH grants P01 CA87969, UM1 CA186107, and U19 CA148065. The NHS2 was supported by NIH grants UM1 CA176726 and U19 CA148065. The ORIGO study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society (RUL 1997-1505) and the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRI-NL CP16). The PBCS was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. Genotyping for PLCO was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health, NCI, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics. The PLCO is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and supported by contracts from the Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. The POSH study is funded by Cancer Research UK (grants C1275/A11699, C1275/C22524, C1275/A19187, C1275/A15956 and Breast Cancer Campaign 2010PR62, 2013PR044. The RBCS was funded by the Dutch Cancer Society (DDHK 2004-3124, DDHK 2009-4318. SEARCH is funded by Cancer Research UK [C490/A10124, C490/A16561] and supported by the UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at the University of Cambridge. The University of Cambridge has received salary support for PDPP from the NHS in the East of England through the Clinical Academic Reserve. The Sister Study (SISTER) is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES049033). The Two Sister Study (2SISTER) was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES102245), and, also by a grant from Susan G. Komen for the Cure, grant FAS0703856. SKKDKFZS is supported by the DKFZ. The SMC is funded by the Swedish Cancer Foundation and the Swedish Research Council (VR 2017-00644) grant for the Swedish Infrastructure for Medical Population-based Life-course Environmental Research (SIMPLER). The SZBCS and IHCC were supported by Grant PBZ_KBN_122/P05/2004 and the program of the Minister of Science and Higher Education under the name Regional Initiative of Excellence in 2019-2022 project number 002/RID/2018/19 amount of financing 12 000 000 PLN. The TNBCC was supported by: a Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. The UCIBCS component of this research was supported by the NIH [CA58860, CA92044] and the Lon V Smith Foundation [LVS39420]. The UKBGS is funded by Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London. The UKOPS study was funded by The Eve Appeal (The Oak Foundation) and supported by the National Institute for Health Research University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre. CIMBA Funding. CIMBA: The CIMBA data management and data analysis were supported by Cancer Research - UK grants C12292/A20861, C12292/A11174. GCT and ABS are NHMRC Research Fellows. iCOGS: the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement no 223175 (HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS), Cancer Research UK (C1287/A10118, C1287/A 10710, C12292/A11174, C1281/A12014, C5047/A8384, C5047/A15007, C5047/A10692, C8197/A16565), the National Institutes of Health (CA128978) and Post-Cancer GWAS initiative (1U19 CA148537, 1U19 CA148065 and 1U19 CA148112 - the GAME-ON initiative), the Department of Defence (W81XWH-10-1-0341), the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer (CRN-87521), and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade (PSR-SIIRI-701), Komen Foundation for the Cure, the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, and the Ovarian Cancer Research Fund. The PERSPECTIVE project was supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Ministry of Economy, Science and Innovation through Genome Quebec, and The Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. BCFR: UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. BIDMC: Breast Cancer Research Foundation. CNIO: Spanish Ministry of Health PI16/00440 supported by FEDER funds, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) SAF2014-57680-R and the Spanish Research Network on Rare diseases (CIBERER). COH-CCGCRN: Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health under grant number R25CA112486, and RC4CA153828 (PI: J. Weitzel) from the National Cancer Institute and the Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. CONSIT TEAM: Funds from Italian citizens who allocated the 5x1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects '5x1000') to S. Manoukian. Associazione Italiana Ricerca sul Cancro (AIRC; IG2015 no.16732) to P. Peterlongo. DEMOKRITOS: European Union (European Social Fund - ESF) and Greek national funds through the Operational Program Education and Lifelong Learning of the National Strategic Reference Framework (NSRF) - Research Funding Program of the General Secretariat for Research & Technology: SYN11_10_19 NBCA. Investing in knowledge society through the European Social Fund. DKFZ: German Cancer Research Center. EMBRACE: Cancer Research UK Grants C1287/A10118 and C1287/A11990. D. Gareth Evans and Fiona Lalloo are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre, Manchester. The Investigators at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. Ros Eeles and Elizabeth Bancroft are supported by Cancer Research UK Grant C5047/A8385. Ros Eeles is also supported by NIHR support to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. FCCC: A.K.G. was in part funded by the NCI (R01 CA214545), The University of Kansas Cancer Center Support Grant (P30 CA168524), The Kansas Institute for Precision Medicine (P20 GM130423), and the Kansas Bioscience Authority Eminent Scholar Program. A.K.G. is the Chancellors Distinguished Chair in Biomedical Sciences Professorship. A.Vega is supported by the Spanish Health Research Foundation, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), partially supported by FEDER funds through Research Activity Intensification Program (contract grant numbers: INT15/00070, INT16/00154, INT17/00133), and through Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red de Enferemdades Raras CIBERER (ACCI 2016: ER17P1AC7112/2018); Autonomous Government of Galicia (Consolidation and structuring program: IN607B), and by the Fundacion Mutua Madrilena (call 2018). GC-HBOC: German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, Rita K. Schmutzler) and the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713-241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, 14575/2470). GEMO: Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer; the Association Le cancer du sein, parlons-en! Award, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer program and the French National Institute of Cancer (INCa grants 2013-1-BCB-01-ICH-1 and SHS-E-SP 18-015). GEORGETOWN: the Non-Therapeutic Subject Registry Shared Resource at Georgetown University (NIH/NCI grant P30-CA051008), the Fisher Center for Hereditary Cancer and Clinical Genomics Research, and Swing Fore the Cure. G-FAST: Bruce Poppe is a senior clinical investigator of FWO. Mattias Van Heetvelde obtained funding from IWT. HCSC: Spanish Ministry of Health PI15/00059, PI16/01292, and CB-161200301 CIBERONC from ISCIII (Spain), partially supported by European Regional Development FEDER funds. HEBCS: Helsinki University Hospital Research Fund, the Finnish Cancer Society and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. HEBON: the Dutch Cancer Society grants NKI1998-1854, NKI2004-3088, NKI2007-3756, the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research grant NWO 91109024, the Pink Ribbon grants 110005 and 2014-187.WO76, the BBMRI grant NWO 184.021.007/CP46 and the Transcan grant JTC 2012 Cancer 12-054. HEBON thanks the registration teams of Dutch Cancer Registry (IKNL; S. Siesling, J. Verloop) and the Dutch Pathology database (PALGA; L. Overbeek) for part of the data collection. ICO: The authors would like to particularly acknowledge the support of the Asociacion Espanola Contra el Cancer (AECC), the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (organismo adscrito al Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad) and Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER), una manera de hacer Europa (PI10/01422, PI13/00285, PIE13/00022, PI15/00854, PI16/00563 and CIBERONC) and the Institut Catala de la Salut and Autonomous Government of Catalonia (2009SGR290, 2014SGR338 and PERIS Project MedPerCan). INHERIT: Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer program - grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade - grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. IOVHBOCS: Ministero della Salute and 5x1000 Istituto Oncologico Veneto grant. kConFab: The National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. MAYO: NIH grants CA116167, CA192393 and CA176785, an NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201),and a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation. MCGILL: Jewish General Hospital Weekend to End Breast Cancer, Quebec Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade. Marc Tischkowitz is supported by the funded by the European Union Seventh Framework Program (2007Y2013)/European Research Council (Grant No. 310018). MSKCC: the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, the Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative, the Andrew Sabin Research Fund and a Cancer Center Support Grant/Core Grant (P30 CA008748). NCI: the Intramural Research Program of the US National Cancer Institute, NIH, and by support services contracts NO2-CP-11019-50, N02-CP-21013-63 and N02-CP-65504 with Westat, Inc, Rockville, MD. NNPIO: the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (grants 17-00-00171, 18-515-45012 and 19-515-25001). NRG Oncology: U10 CA180868, NRG SDMC grant U10 CA180822, NRG Administrative Office and the NRG Tissue Bank (CA 27469), the NRG Statistical and Data Center (CA 37517) and the Intramural Research Program, NCI. OSUCCG: Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center. PBCS: Italian Association of Cancer Research (AIRC) [IG 2013 N.14477] and Tuscany Institute for Tumours (ITT) grant 2014-2015-2016. SMC: the Israeli Cancer Association. SWE-BRCA: the Swedish Cancer Society. UCHICAGO: NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA125183), R01 CA142996, 1U01CA161032 and by the Ralph and Marion Falk Medical Research Trust, the Entertainment Industry Fund National Women's Cancer Research Alliance and the Breast Cancer research Foundation. UCSF: UCSF Cancer Risk Program and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center. UPENN: Breast Cancer Research Foundation; Susan G. Komen Foundation for the cure, Basser Research Center for BRCA. UPITT/MWH: Hackers for Hope Pittsburgh. VFCTG: Victorian Cancer Agency, Cancer Australia, National Breast Cancer Foundation. WCP: Dr Karlan is funded by the American Cancer Society Early Detection Professorship (SIOP-06-258-01-COUN) and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), Grant UL1TR000124. HVH: Supported by the Carlos III National Health Institute funded by FEDER funds - a way to build Europe - PI16/11363. MT Parsons is supported by a grant from Newcastle University. Kelly-Anne Phillips is an Australian National Breast Cancer Foundation Fellow. ; Sí
Publisher's version (útgefin grein) ; Breast cancer is a common disease partially caused by genetic risk factors. Germline pathogenic variants in DNA repair genes BRCA1, BRCA2, PALB2, ATM, and CHEK2 are associated with breast cancer risk. FANCM, which encodes for a DNA translocase, has been proposed as a breast cancer predisposition gene, with greater effects for the ER-negative and triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) subtypes. We tested the three recurrent protein-truncating variants FANCM:p.Arg658*, p.Gln1701*, and p.Arg1931* for association with breast cancer risk in 67,112 cases, 53,766 controls, and 26,662 carriers of pathogenic variants of BRCA1 or BRCA2. These three variants were also studied functionally by measuring survival and chromosome fragility in FANCM−/− patient-derived immortalized fibroblasts treated with diepoxybutane or olaparib. We observed that FANCM:p.Arg658* was associated with increased risk of ER-negative disease and TNBC (OR = 2.44, P = 0.034 and OR = 3.79; P = 0.009, respectively). In a country-restricted analysis, we confirmed the associations detected for FANCM:p.Arg658* and found that also FANCM:p.Arg1931* was associated with ER-negative breast cancer risk (OR = 1.96; P = 0.006). The functional results indicated that all three variants were deleterious affecting cell survival and chromosome stability with FANCM:p.Arg658* causing more severe phenotypes. In conclusion, we confirmed that the two rare FANCM deleterious variants p.Arg658* and p.Arg1931* are risk factors for ER-negative and TNBC subtypes. Overall our data suggest that the effect of truncating variants on breast cancer risk may depend on their position in the gene. Cell sensitivity to olaparib exposure, identifies a possible therapeutic option to treat FANCM-associated tumors. ; Peterlongo laboratory is supported by Associazione Italiana Ricerca sul Cancro (AIRC; IG2015 no.16732) to P. Peterlongo and by a fellowship from Fondazione Umberto Veronesi to G. Figlioli. Surrallés laboratory is supported by the ICREA-Academia program, the Spanish Ministry of Health (projects FANCOSTEM and FANCOLEN), the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competiveness (projects CB06/07/0023 and RTI2018-098419-B-I00), the European Commission (EUROFANCOLEN project HEALTH-F5-2012-305421 and P-SPHERE COFUND project), the Fanconi Anemia Research Fund Inc, and the "Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional, una manera de hacer Europa" (FEDER). CIBERER is an initiative of the Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain. BCAC: we thank all the individuals who took part in these studies and all the researchers, clinicians, technicians and administrative staff who have enabled this work to be carried out. ABCFS thank Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Tu Nguyen-Dumont is a National Breast Cancer Foundation (Australia) Career Development Fellow. ABCS thanks the Blood bank Sanquin, The Netherlands. Samples are made available to researchers on a non-exclusive basis. BCEES thanks Allyson Thomson, Christobel Saunders, Terry Slevin, BreastScreen Western Australia, Elizabeth Wylie, Rachel Lloyd. The BCINIS study would not have been possible without the contributions of Dr. Hedy Rennert, Dr. K. Landsman, Dr. N. Gronich, Dr. A. Flugelman, Dr. W. Saliba, Dr. E. Liani, Dr. I. Cohen, Dr. S. Kalet, Dr. V. Friedman, Dr. O. Barnet of the NICCC in Haifa, and all the contributing family medicine, surgery, pathology and oncology teams in all medical institutes in Northern Israel. The BREOGAN study would not have been possible without the contributions of the following: Manuela Gago-Dominguez, Jose Esteban Castelao, Angel Carracedo, Victor Muñoz Garzón, Alejandro Novo Domínguez, Maria Elena Martinez, Sara Miranda Ponte, Carmen Redondo Marey, Maite Peña Fernández, Manuel Enguix Castelo, Maria Torres, Manuel Calaza (BREOGAN), José Antúnez, Máximo Fraga and the staff of the Department of Pathology and Biobank of the University Hospital Complex of Santiago-CHUS, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Santiago, IDIS, Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Santiago-SERGAS; Joaquín González-Carreró and the staff of the Department of Pathology and Biobank of University Hospital Complex of Vigo, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur, SERGAS, Vigo, Spain. BSUCH thanks Peter Bugert, Medical Faculty Mannheim. CBCS thanks study participants, co-investigators, collaborators and staff of the Canadian Breast Cancer Study, and project coordinators Agnes Lai and Celine Morissette. CCGP thanks Styliani Apostolaki, Anna Margiolaki, Georgios Nintos, Maria Perraki, Georgia Saloustrou, Georgia Sevastaki, Konstantinos Pompodakis. CGPS thanks staff and participants of the Copenhagen General Population Study. For the excellent technical assistance: Dorthe Uldall Andersen, Maria Birna Arnadottir, Anne Bank, Dorthe Kjeldgård Hansen. The Danish Cancer Biobank is acknowledged for providing infrastructure for the collection of blood samples for the cases. Investigators from the CPS-II cohort thank the participants and Study Management Group for their invaluable contributions to this research. They also acknowledge the contribution to this study from central cancer registries supported through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Program of Cancer Registries, as well as cancer registries supported by the National Cancer Institute Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results program. The CTS Steering Committee includes Leslie Bernstein, Susan Neuhausen, James Lacey, Sophia Wang, Huiyan Ma, and Jessica Clague DeHart at the Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, Dennis Deapen, Rich Pinder, and Eunjung Lee at the University of Southern California, Pam Horn-Ross, Peggy Reynolds, Christina Clarke Dur and David Nelson at the Cancer Prevention Institute of California, Hoda Anton-Culver, Argyrios Ziogas, and Hannah Park at the University of California Irvine, and Fred Schumacher at Case Western University. DIETCOMPLYF thanks the patients, nurses and clinical staff involved in the study. The DietCompLyf study was funded by the charity Against Breast Cancer (Registered Charity Number 1121258) and the NCRN. We thank the participants and the investigators of EPIC (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition). ESTHER thanks Hartwig Ziegler, Sonja Wolf, Volker Hermann, Christa Stegmaier, Katja Butterbach. FHRISK thanks NIHR for funding. GC-HBOC thanks Stefanie Engert, Heide Hellebrand, Sandra Kröber and LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases (Markus Loeffler, Joachim Thiery, Matthias Nüchter, Ronny Baber). The GENICA Network: Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch-Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, and University of Tübingen, Germany [HB, Wing-Yee Lo], German Cancer Consortium (DKTK) and German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) [HB], Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany's Excellence Strategy - EXC 2180 - 390900677 [HB], Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany [Yon-Dschun Ko, Christian Baisch], Institute of Pathology, University of Bonn, Germany [Hans-Peter Fischer], Molecular Genetics of Breast Cancer, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, Germany [Ute Hamann], Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, Germany [TB, Beate Pesch, Sylvia Rabstein, Anne Lotz]; and Institute of Occupational Medicine and Maritime Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany [Volker Harth]. HABCS thanks Michael Bremer. HEBCS thanks Heidi Toiminen, Kristiina Aittomäki, Irja Erkkilä and Outi Malkavaara. HMBCS thanks Peter Hillemanns, Hans Christiansen and Johann H. Karstens. HUBCS thanks Shamil Gantsev. KARMA thanks the Swedish Medical Research Counsel. KBCP thanks Eija Myöhänen, Helena Kemiläinen. LMBC thanks Gilian Peuteman, Thomas Van Brussel, EvyVanderheyden and Kathleen Corthouts. MABCS thanks Milena Jakimovska (RCGEB "Georgi D. Efremov), Katerina Kubelka, Mitko Karadjozov (Adzibadem-Sistina" Hospital), Andrej Arsovski and Liljana Stojanovska (Re-Medika" Hospital) for their contributions and commitment to this study. MARIE thanks Petra Seibold, Dieter Flesch-Janys, Judith Heinz, Nadia Obi, Alina Vrieling, Sabine Behrens, Ursula Eilber, Muhabbet Celik, Til Olchers and Stefan Nickels. MBCSG (Milan Breast Cancer Study Group) thanks Daniela Zaffaroni, Irene Feroce, and the personnel of the Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory. We thank the coordinators, the research staff and especially the MMHS participants for their continued collaboration on research studies in breast cancer. MSKCC thanks Marina Corines and Lauren Jacobs. MTLGEBCS would like to thank Martine Tranchant (CHU de Québec Research Center), Marie-France Valois, Annie Turgeon and Lea Heguy (McGill University Health Center, Royal Victoria Hospital; McGill University) for DNA extraction, sample management and skillful technical assistance. J.S. is Chairholder of the Canada Research Chair in Oncogenetics. NBHS thanks study participants and research staff for their contributions and commitment to the studies. We would like to thank the participants and staff of the Nurses' Health Study and Nurses' Health Study II for their valuable contributions as well as the following state cancer registries for their help: AL, AZ, AR, CA, CO, CT, DE, FL, GA, ID, IL, IN, IA, KY, LA, ME, MD, MA, MI, NE, NH, NJ, NY, NC, ND, OH, OK, OR, PA, RI, SC, TN, TX, VA, WA, WY. The study protocol was approved by the institutional review boards of the Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, and those of participating registries as required. The authors assume full responsibility for analyses and interpretation of these data. OFBCR thanks Teresa Selander and Nayana Weerasooriya. ORIGO thanks E. Krol-Warmerdam, and J. Blom for patient accrual, administering questionnaires, and managing clinical information. PBCS thanks Louise Brinton, Mark Sherman, Neonila Szeszenia-Dabrowska, Beata Peplonska, Witold Zatonski, Pei Chao and Michael Stagner. The ethical approval for the POSH study is MREC /00/6/69, UKCRN ID: 1137. We thank staff in the Experimental Cancer Medicine Centre (ECMC) supported Faculty of Medicine Tissue Bank and the Faculty of Medicine DNA Banking resource. PREFACE thanks Sonja Oeser and Silke Landrith. PROCAS thanks NIHR for funding. RBCS thanks Petra Bos, Jannet Blom, Ellen Crepin, Elisabeth Huijskens, Anja Kromwijk-Nieuwlaat, Annette Heemskerk, the Erasmus MC Family Cancer Clinic. We thank the SEARCH and EPIC teams. SKKDKFZS thanks all study participants, clinicians, family doctors, researchers and technicians for their contributions and commitment to this study. We thank the SUCCESS Study teams in Munich, Duessldorf, Erlangen and Ulm. SZBCS thanks Ewa Putresza. UCIBCS thanks Irene Masunaka. UKBGS thanks Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research for support and funding of the Breakthrough Generations Study, and the study participants, study staff, and the doctors, nurses and other health care providers and health information sources who have contributed to the study. We acknowledge NHS funding to the Royal Marsden/ICR NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. CIMBA: we are grateful to all the families and clinicians who contribute to the studies; Sue Healey, in particular taking on the task of mutation classification with the late Olga Sinilnikova; Maggie Angelakos, Judi Maskiell, Helen Tsimiklis; members and participants in the New York site of the Breast Cancer Family Registry; members and participants in the Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry; Vilius Rudaitis and Laimonas Griškevičius; Yuan Chun Ding and Linda Steele for their work in participant enrollment and biospecimen and data management; Bent Ejlertsen and Anne-Marie Gerdes for the recruitment and genetic counseling of participants; Alicia Barroso, Rosario Alonso and Guillermo Pita; all the individuals and the researchers who took part in CONSIT TEAM (Consorzio Italiano Tumori Ereditari Alla Mammella), thanks in particular: Giulia Cagnoli, Roberta Villa, Irene Feroce, Mariarosaria Calvello, Riccardo Dolcetti, Giuseppe Giannini, Laura Papi, Gabriele Lorenzo Capone, Liliana Varesco, Viviana Gismondi, Maria Grazia Tibiletti, Daniela Furlan, Antonella Savarese, Aline Martayan, Stefania Tommasi, Brunella Pilato, Isabella Marchi, Elena Bandieri, Antonio Russo, Daniele Calistri and the personnel of the Cogentech Cancer Genetic Test Laboratory, Milan, Italy. FPGMX: members of the Cancer Genetics group (IDIS): Ana Blanco, Miguel Aguado, Uxía Esperón and Belinda Rodríguez. We thank all participants, clinicians, family doctors, researchers, and technicians for their contributions and commitment to the DKFZ study and the collaborating groups in Lahore, Pakistan (Noor Muhammad, Sidra Gull, Seerat Bajwa, Faiz Ali Khan, Humaira Naeemi, Saima Faisal, Asif Loya, Mohammed Aasim Yusuf) and Bogota, Colombia (Diana Torres, Ignacio Briceno, Fabian Gil). Genetic Modifiers of Cancer Risk in BRCA1/2 Mutation Carriers (GEMO) study is a study from the National Cancer Genetics Network UNICANCER Genetic Group, France. We wish to pay a tribute to Olga M. Sinilnikova, who with Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet initiated and coordinated GEMO until she sadly passed away on the 30th June 2014. The team in Lyon (Olga Sinilnikova, Mélanie Léoné, Laure Barjhoux, Carole Verny-Pierre, Sylvie Mazoyer, Francesca Damiola, Valérie Sornin) managed the GEMO samples until the biological resource centre was transferred to Paris in December 2015 (Noura Mebirouk, Fabienne Lesueur, Dominique Stoppa-Lyonnet). We want to thank all the GEMO collaborating groups for their contribution to this study. Drs.Sofia Khan, Irja Erkkilä and Virpi Palola; The Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Research Group Netherlands (HEBON) consists of the following Collaborating Centers: Netherlands Cancer Institute (coordinating center), Amsterdam, NL: M.A. Rookus, F.B.L. Hogervorst, F.E. van Leeuwen, M.A. Adank, M.K. Schmidt, N.S. Russell, D.J. Jenner; Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, NL: J.M. Collée, A.M.W. van den Ouweland, M.J. Hooning, C.M. Seynaeve, C.H.M. van Deurzen, I.M. Obdeijn; Leiden University Medical Center, NL: C.J. van Asperen, P. Devilee, T.C.T.E.F. van Cronenburg; Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, NL: C.M. Kets, A.R. Mensenkamp; University Medical Center Utrecht, NL: M.G.E.M. Ausems, M.J. Koudijs; Amsterdam Medical Center, NL: C.M. Aalfs, H.E.J. Meijers-Heijboer; VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, NL: K. van Engelen, J.J.P. Gille; Maastricht University Medical Center, NL: E.B. Gómez-Garcia, M.J. Blok; University of Groningen, NL: J.C. Oosterwijk, A.H. van der Hout, M.J. Mourits, G.H. de Bock; The Netherlands Comprehensive Cancer Organisation (IKNL): S. Siesling, J.Verloop; The nationwide network and registry of histo- and cytopathology in The Netherlands (PALGA): A.W. van den Belt-Dusebout. HEBON thanks the study participants and the registration teams of IKNL and PALGA for part of the data collection. Overbeek; the Hungarian Breast and Ovarian Cancer Study Group members (Janos Papp, Aniko Bozsik, Zoltan Matrai, Miklos Kasler, Judit Franko, Maria Balogh, Gabriella Domokos, Judit Ferenczi, Department of Molecular Genetics, National Institute of Oncology, Budapest, Hungary) and the clinicians and patients for their contributions to this study; HVH (University Hospital Vall d'Hebron) the authors acknowledge the Oncogenetics Group (VHIO) and the High Risk and Cancer Prevention Unit of the University Hospital Vall d'Hebron, Miguel Servet Progam (CP10/00617), and the Cellex Foundation for providing research facilities and equipment; the ICO Hereditary Cancer Program team led by Dr. Gabriel Capella; the ICO Hereditary Cancer Program team led by Dr. Gabriel Capella; Dr Martine Dumont for sample management and skillful assistance; Catarina Santos and Pedro Pinto; members of the Center of Molecular Diagnosis, Oncogenetics Department and Molecular Oncology Research Center of Barretos Cancer Hospital; Heather Thorne, Eveline Niedermayr, all the kConFab investigators, research nurses and staff, the heads and staff of the Family Cancer Clinics, and the Clinical Follow Up Study (which has received funding from the NHMRC, the National Breast Cancer Foundation, Cancer Australia, and the National Institute of Health (USA)) for their contributions to this resource, and the many families who contribute to kConFab; the investigators of the Australia New Zealand NRG Oncology group; members and participants in the Ontario Cancer Genetics Network; Kevin Sweet, Caroline Craven, Julia Cooper, Amber Aielts, and Michelle O'Conor; Christina Selkirk; Helena Jernström, Karin Henriksson, Katja Harbst, Maria Soller, Ulf Kristoffersson; from Gothenburg Sahlgrenska University Hospital: Anna Öfverholm, Margareta Nordling, Per Karlsson, Zakaria Einbeigi; from Stockholm and Karolinska University Hospital: Anna von Wachenfeldt, Annelie Liljegren, Annika Lindblom, Brita Arver, Gisela Barbany Bustinza; from Umeå University Hospital: Beatrice Melin, Christina Edwinsdotter Ardnor, Monica Emanuelsson; from Uppsala University: Hans Ehrencrona, Maritta Hellström Pigg, Richard Rosenquist; from Linköping University Hospital: Marie Stenmark-Askmalm, Sigrun Liedgren; Cecilia Zvocec, Qun Niu; Joyce Seldon and Lorna Kwan; Dr. Robert Nussbaum, Beth Crawford, Kate Loranger, Julie Mak, Nicola Stewart, Robin Lee, Amie Blanco and Peggy Conrad and Salina Chan; Carole Pye, Patricia Harrington and Eva Wozniak. OSUCCG thanks Kevin Sweet, Caroline Craven, Julia Cooper, Michelle O'Conor and Amber Aeilts. BCAC is funded by Cancer Research UK [C1287/A16563, C1287/A10118], the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme (grant numbers 634935 and 633784 for BRIDGES and B-CAST respectively), and by the European Community´s Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement number 223175 (grant number HEALTH-F2-2009-223175) (COGS). The EU Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme funding source had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation or writing of the report. Genotyping of the OncoArray was funded by the NIH Grant U19 CA148065, and Cancer UK Grant C1287/A16563 and the PERSPECTIVE project supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (grant GPH-129344) and, the Ministère de l'Économie, Science et Innovation du Québec through Genome Québec and the PSRSIIRI-701 grant, and the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. The Australian Breast Cancer Family Study (ABCFS) was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The ABCFS was also supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, the New South Wales Cancer Council, the Victorian Health Promotion Foundation (Australia) and the Victorian Breast Cancer Research Consortium. J.L.H. is a National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Senior Principal Research Fellow. M.C.S. is a NHMRC Senior Research Fellow. The ABCS study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society [grants NKI 2007-3839; 2009 4363]. The Australian Breast Cancer Tissue Bank (ABCTB) was supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, The Cancer Institute NSW and the National Breast Cancer Foundation. The AHS study is supported by the intramural research program of the National Institutes of Health, the National Cancer Institute (grant number Z01-CP010119), and the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (grant number Z01-ES049030). The work of the BBCC was partly funded by ELAN-Fond of the University Hospital of Erlangen. The BBCS is funded by Cancer Research UK and Breast Cancer Now and acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, and the National Cancer Research Network (NCRN). The BCEES was funded by the National Health and Medical Research Council, Australia and the Cancer Council Western Australia. For the BCFR-NY, BCFR-PA, BCFR-UT this work was supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. BCINIS study was funded by the BCRF (The Breast Cancer Research Foundation, USA). The BREast Oncology GAlician Network (BREOGAN) is funded by Acción Estratégica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS PI12/02125/Cofinanciado FEDER; Acción Estratégica de Salud del Instituto de Salud Carlos III FIS Intrasalud (PI13/01136); Programa Grupos Emergentes, Cancer Genetics Unit, Instituto de Investigacion Biomedica Galicia Sur. Xerencia de Xestion Integrada de Vigo-SERGAS, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain; Grant 10CSA012E, Consellería de Industria Programa Sectorial de Investigación Aplicada, PEME I + D e I + D Suma del Plan Gallego de Investigación, Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica de la Consellería de Industria de la Xunta de Galicia, Spain; Grant EC11-192. Fomento de la Investigación Clínica Independiente, Ministerio de Sanidad, Servicios Sociales e Igualdad, Spain; and Grant FEDER-Innterconecta. Ministerio de Economia y Competitividad, Xunta de Galicia, Spain. The BSUCH study was supported by the Dietmar-Hopp Foundation, the Helmholtz Society and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). Sample collection and processing was funded in part by grants from the National Cancer Institute (NCI R01CA120120 and K24CA169004). CBCS is funded by the Canadian Cancer Society (grant # 313404) and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. CCGP is supported by funding from the University of Crete. The CECILE study was supported by Fondation de France, Institut National du Cancer (INCa), Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Agence Nationale de Sécurité Sanitaire, de l'Alimentation, de l'Environnement et du Travail (ANSES), Agence Nationale de la Recherche (ANR). The CGPS was supported by the Chief Physician Johan Boserup and Lise Boserup Fund, the Danish Medical Research Council, and Herlev and Gentofte Hospital. The American Cancer Society funds the creation, maintenance, and updating of the CPS-II cohort. The CTS was initially supported by the California Breast Cancer Act of 1993 and the California Breast Cancer Research Fund (contract 97-10500) and is currently funded through the National Institutes of Health (R01 CA77398, K05 CA136967, UM1 CA164917, and U01 CA199277). Collection of cancer incidence data was supported by the California Department of Public Health as part of the statewide cancer reporting program mandated by California Health and Safety Code Section 103885. The University of Westminster curates the DietCompLyf database funded by Against Breast Cancer Registered Charity No. 1121258 and the NCRN. The coordination of EPIC is financially supported by the European Commission (DG-SANCO) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer. The national cohorts are supported by: Ligue Contre le Cancer, Institut Gustave Roussy, Mutuelle Générale de l'Education Nationale, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) (France); German Cancer Aid, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) (Germany); the Hellenic Health Foundation, the Stavros Niarchos Foundation (Greece); Associazione Italiana per la Ricerca sul Cancro-AIRC-Italy and National Research Council (Italy); Dutch Ministry of Public Health, Welfare and Sports (VWS), Netherlands Cancer Registry (NKR), LK Research Funds, Dutch Prevention Funds, Dutch ZON (Zorg Onderzoek Nederland), World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF), Statistics Netherlands (The Netherlands); Health Research Fund (FIS), PI13/00061 to Granada, PI13/01162 to EPIC-Murcia, Regional Governments of Andalucía, Asturias, Basque Country, Murcia and Navarra, ISCIII RETIC (RD06/0020) (Spain); Cancer Research UK (14136 to EPIC-Norfolk; C570/A16491 and C8221/A19170 to EPIC-Oxford), Medical Research Council (1000143 to EPIC-Norfolk, MR/M012190/1 to EPIC-Oxford) (United Kingdom). The ESTHER study was supported by a grant from the Baden Württemberg Ministry of Science, Research and Arts. Additional cases were recruited in the context of the VERDI study, which was supported by a grant from the German Cancer Aid (Deutsche Krebshilfe). FHRISK is funded from NIHR grant PGfAR 0707-10031. The GC-HBOC (German Consortium of Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer) is supported by the German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, coordinator: Rita K. Schmutzler, Cologne). This work was also funded by the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713-241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, 14575/2470). The GENICA was funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany grants 01KW9975/5, 01KW9976/8, 01KW9977/0 and 01KW0114, the Robert Bosch Foundation, Stuttgart, Deutsches Krebsforschungszentrum (DKFZ), Heidelberg, the Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance, Institute of the Ruhr University Bochum (IPA), Bochum, as well as the Department of Internal Medicine, Evangelische Kliniken Bonn gGmbH, Johanniter Krankenhaus, Bonn, Germany. The GEPARSIXTO study was conducted by the German Breast Group GmbH. The GESBC was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e. V. [70492] and the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ). The HABCS study was supported by the Claudia von Schilling Foundation for Breast Cancer Research, by the Lower Saxonian Cancer Society, and by the Rudolf Bartling Foundation. The HEBCS was financially supported by the Helsinki University Central Hospital Research Fund, Academy of Finland (266528), the Finnish Cancer Society, and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. The HMBCS was supported by a grant from the German Research Foundation (Do 761/10-1). The HUBCS was supported by a grant from the German Federal Ministry of Research and Education (RUS08/017), and by the Russian Foundation for Basic Research and the Federal Agency for Scientific Organizations for support the Bioresource collections and RFBR grants 14-04-97088, 17-29-06014 and 17-44-020498. E.K was supported by the program for support the bioresource collections №007-030164/2 and study was performed as part of the assignment of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Russian Federation (№АААА-А16-116020350032-1). Financial support for KARBAC was provided through the regional agreement on medical training and clinical research (ALF) between Stockholm County Council and Karolinska Institutet, the Swedish Cancer Society, The Gustav V Jubilee foundation and Bert von Kantzows foundation. The KARMA study was supported by Märit and Hans Rausings Initiative Against Breast Cancer. The KBCP was financially supported by the special Government Funding (EVO) of Kuopio University Hospital grants, Cancer Fund of North Savo, the Finnish Cancer Organizations, and by the strategic funding of the University of Eastern Finland. LMBC is supported by the 'Stichting tegen Kanker'. DL is supported by the FWO. The MABCS study is funded by the Research Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology "Georgi D. Efremov" and supported by the German Academic Exchange Program, DAAD. The MARIE study was supported by the Deutsche Krebshilfe e.V. [70-2892-BR I, 106332, 108253, 108419, 110826, 110828], the Hamburg Cancer Society, the German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) and the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) Germany [01KH0402]. MBCSG is supported by grants from the Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC) and by funds from the Italian citizens who allocated the 5/1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects "5 × 1000"). The MCBCS was supported by the NIH grants CA192393, CA116167, CA176785 an NIH Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer [CA116201], and the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. MCCS cohort recruitment was funded by VicHealth and Cancer Council Victoria. The MCCS was further supported by Australian NHMRC grants 209057 and 396414, and by infrastructure provided by Cancer Council Victoria. Cases and their vital status were ascertained through the Victorian Cancer Registry (VCR) and the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), including the National Death Index and the Australian Cancer Database. The MEC was support by NIH grants CA63464, CA54281, CA098758, CA132839 and CA164973. The MISS study is supported by funding from ERC-2011-294576 Advanced grant, Swedish Cancer Society, Swedish Research Council, Local hospital funds, Berta Kamprad Foundation, Gunnar Nilsson. The MMHS study was supported by NIH grants CA97396, CA128931, CA116201, CA140286 and CA177150. MSKCC is supported by grants from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation and Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative. The work of MTLGEBCS was supported by the Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the "CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer" program – grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade – grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. The NBHS was supported by NIH grant R01CA100374. Biological sample preparation was conducted the Survey and Biospecimen Shared Resource, which is supported by P30 CA68485. The Northern California Breast Cancer Family Registry (NC-BCFR) and Ontario Familial Breast Cancer Registry (OFBCR) were supported by grant UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute (USA). The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the USA Government or the BCFR. The Carolina Breast Cancer Study was funded by Komen Foundation, the National Cancer Institute (P50 CA058223, U54 CA156733, U01 CA179715), and the North Carolina University Cancer Research Fund. The NHS was supported by NIH grants P01 CA87969, UM1 CA186107, and U19 CA148065. The NHS2 was supported by NIH grants UM1 CA176726 and U19 CA148065. The ORIGO study was supported by the Dutch Cancer Society (RUL 1997-1505) and the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRI-NL CP16). The PBCS was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. Genotyping for PLCO was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the National Institutes of Health, NCI, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics. The PLCO is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics and supported by contracts from the Division of Cancer Prevention, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health. The POSH study is funded by Cancer Research UK (grants C1275/A11699, C1275/C22524, C1275/A19187, C1275/A15956 and Breast Cancer Campaign 2010PR62, 2013PR044. PROCAS is funded from NIHR grant PGfAR 0707-10031. The RBCS was funded by the Dutch Cancer Society (DDHK 2004-3124, DDHK 2009-4318). SEARCH is funded by Cancer Research UK [C490/A10124, C490/A16561] and supported by the UK National Institute for Health Research Biomedical Research Centre at the University of Cambridge. The University of Cambridge has received salary support for PDPP from the NHS in the East of England through the Clinical Academic Reserve. The Sister Study (SISTER) is supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES049033). The Two Sister Study (2SISTER) was supported by the Intramural Research Program of the NIH, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Z01-ES044005 and Z01-ES102245), and, also by a grant from Susan G. Komen for the Cure, grant FAS0703856. SKKDKFZS is supported by the DKFZ. The SMC is funded by the Swedish Cancer Foundation and the Swedish Research Council [grant 2017-00644 for the Swedish Infrastructure for Medical Population-based Life-course Environmental Research (SIMPLER)]. The SZBCS is financially supported under the program of Minister of Science and Higher Education "Regional Initiative of Excellence" in years 2019-2022, Grant No 002/RID/2018/19. The TNBCC was supported by: a Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, a generous gift from the David F. and Margaret T. Grohne Family Foundation. The UCIBCS component of this research was supported by the NIH [CA58860, CA92044] and the Lon V Smith Foundation [LVS39420]. The UKBGS is funded by Breast Cancer Now and the Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London. ICR acknowledges NHS funding to the NIHR Biomedical Research Centre. The UKOPS study was funded by The Eve Appeal (The Oak Foundation) and supported by the National Institute for Health Research University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre. The USRT Study was funded by Intramural Research Funds of the National Cancer Institute, Department of Health and Human Services, USA. CIMBA CIMBA: The CIMBA data management and data analysis were supported by Cancer Research – UK grants C12292/A20861, C12292/A11174. ACA is a Cancer Research -UK Senior Cancer Research Fellow. GCT and ABS are NHMRC Research Fellows. The PERSPECTIVE project was supported by the Government of Canada through Genome Canada and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Ministry of Economy, Science and Innovation through Genome Québec, and The Quebec Breast Cancer Foundation. BCFR: UM1 CA164920 from the National Cancer Institute. The content of this manuscript does not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the National Cancer Institute or any of the collaborating centers in the Breast Cancer Family Registry (BCFR), nor does mention of trade names, commercial products, or organizations imply endorsement by the US Government or the BCFR. BFBOCC: Lithuania (BFBOCC-LT): Research Council of Lithuania grant SEN-18/2015 and Nr. P-MIP-19-164. BIDMC: Breast Cancer Research Foundation. BMBSA: Cancer Association of South Africa (PI Elizabeth J. van Rensburg). CNIO: Spanish Ministry of Health PI16/00440 supported by FEDER funds, the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (MINECO) SAF2014-57680-R and the Spanish Research Network on Rare diseases (CIBERER). COH-CCGCRN: Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Cancer Institute of the National Institutes of Health under grant number R25CA112486, and RC4CA153828 (PI: J. Weitzel) from the National Cancer Institute and the Office of the Director, National Institutes of Health. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. CONSIT TEAM: Associazione Italiana Ricerca sul Cancro (AIRC; IG2014 no.15547) to P. Radice. Funds from Italian citizens who allocated the 5 × 1000 share of their tax payment in support of the Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Nazionale Tumori, according to Italian laws (INT-Institutional strategic projects '5 × 1000') to S. Manoukian. UNIROMA1: Italian Association for Cancer Research (AIRC; grant no. 21389) to L. Ottini. DFKZ: German Cancer Research Center. EMBRACE: Cancer Research UK Grants C1287/A10118 and C1287/A11990. D. Gareth Evans and Fiona Lalloo are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre, Manchester (IS-BRC-1215-20007). The Investigators at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust are supported by an NIHR grant to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. Ros Eeles and Elizabeth Bancroft are supported by Cancer Research UK Grant C5047/A8385. Ros Eeles is also supported by NIHR support to the Biomedical Research Centre at The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust. FCCC: NIH/NCI grant P30-CA006927. The University of Kansas Cancer Center (P30 CA168524) and the Kansas Bioscience Authority Eminent Scholar Program. A.K.G. was funded by R0 1CA140323, R01 CA214545, and by the Chancellors Distinguished Chair in Biomedical Sciences Professorship. Ana Vega is supported by the Spanish Health Research Foundation, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), partially supported by FEDER funds through Research Activity Intensification Program (contract grant numbers: INT15/00070, INT16/00154, INT17/00133), and through Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enferemdades Raras CIBERER (ACCI 2016: ER17P1AC7112/2018); Autonomous Government of Galicia (Consolidation and structuring program: IN607B), and by the Fundación Mutua Madrileña (call 2018). GC-HBOC: German Cancer Aid (grant no 110837, Rita K. Schmutzler) and the European Regional Development Fund and Free State of Saxony, Germany (LIFE - Leipzig Research Centre for Civilization Diseases, project numbers 713-241202, 713-241202, 14505/2470, 14575/2470). GEMO: Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer; the Association "Le cancer du sein, parlons-en!" Award, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the "CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer" program, the French National Institute of Cancer (INCa) (grants AOR 01 082, 2013-1-BCB-01-ICH-1 and SHS-E-SP 18-015) and the Fondation ARC pour la recherche sur le cancer (grant PJA 20151203365). GEORGETOWN: the Survey, Recruitment and Biospecimen Shared Resource at Georgetown University (NIH/NCI grant P30-CA051008) and the Fisher Center for Hereditary Cancer and Clinical Genomics Research. HCSC: Spanish Ministry of Health PI15/00059, PI16/01292, and CB-161200301 CIBERONC from ISCIII (Spain), partially supported by European Regional Development FEDER funds. HEBCS: Helsinki University Hospital Research Fund, Academy of Finland (266528), the Finnish Cancer Society and the Sigrid Juselius Foundation. HEBON: the Dutch Cancer Society grants NKI1998-1854, NKI2004-3088, NKI2007-3756, the Netherlands Organization of Scientific Research grant NWO 91109024, the Pink Ribbon grants 110005 and 2014-187.WO76, the BBMRI grant NWO 184.021.007/CP46 and the Transcan grant JTC 2012 Cancer 12-054. HUNBOCS: Hungarian Research Grants KTIA-OTKA CK-80745 and NKFI_OTKA K-112228. HVH (University Hospital Vall d'Hebron) This work was supported by Spanish Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII) funding, an initiative of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Innovation partially supported by European Regional Development FEDER Funds: FIS PI12/02585 and PI15/00355. ICO: The authors would like to particularly acknowledge the support of the Asociación Española Contra el Cáncer (AECC), the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (organismo adscrito al Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad) and "Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER), una manera de hacer Europa" (PI10/01422, PI13/00285, PIE13/00022, PI15/00854, PI16/00563, P18/01029, and CIBERONC) and the Institut Català de la Salut and Autonomous Government of Catalonia (2009SGR290, 2014SGR338, 2017SGR449, and PERIS Project MedPerCan), and CERCA program. IHCC: PBZ_KBN_122/P05/2004. ILUH: Icelandic Association "Walking for Breast Cancer Research" and by the Landspitali University Hospital Research Fund. INHERIT: Canadian Institutes of Health Research for the "CIHR Team in Familial Risks of Breast Cancer" program – grant # CRN-87521 and the Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade – grant # PSR-SIIRI-701. IOVHBOCS: Ministero della Salute and "5 × 1000" Istituto Oncologico Veneto grant. IPOBCS: Liga Portuguesa Contra o Cancro. kConFab: The National Breast Cancer Foundation, and previously by the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), the Queensland Cancer Fund, the Cancer Councils of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia, and the Cancer Foundation of Western Australia. MAYO: NIH grants CA116167, CA192393 and CA176785, an NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA116201), and a grant from the Breast Cancer Research Foundation. MCGILL: Jewish General Hospital Weekend to End Breast Cancer, Quebec Ministry of Economic Development, Innovation and Export Trade. Marc Tischkowitz is supported by the funded by the European Union Seventh Framework Program (2007Y2013)/European Research Council (Grant No. 310018). MSKCC: the Breast Cancer Research Foundation, the Robert and Kate Niehaus Clinical Cancer Genetics Initiative, the Andrew Sabin Research Fund and a Cancer Center Support Grant/Core Grant (P30 CA008748). NCI: the Intramural Research Program of the US National Cancer Institute, NIH, and by support services contracts NO2-CP-11019-50, N02-CP-21013-63 and N02-CP-65504 with Westat, Inc, Rockville, MD. NNPIO: the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (grants 17-54-12007, 17-00-00171 and 18-515-45012). NRG Oncology: U10 CA180868, NRG SDMC grant U10 CA180822, NRG Administrative Office and the NRG Tissue Bank (CA 27469), the NRG Statistical and Data Center (CA 37517) and the Intramural Research Program, NCI. OSUCCG: was funded by the Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center. PBCS: Italian Association of Cancer Research (AIRC) [IG 2013 N.14477] and Tuscany Institute for Tumors (ITT) grant 2014-2015-2016. SMC: the Israeli Cancer Association. SWE-BRCA: the Swedish Cancer Society. UCHICAGO: NCI Specialized Program of Research Excellence (SPORE) in Breast Cancer (CA125183), R01 CA142996, 1U01CA161032 and by the Ralph and Marion Falk Medical Research Trust, the Entertainment Industry Fund National Women's Cancer Research Alliance and the Breast Cancer research Foundation. UCSF: UCSF Cancer Risk Program and Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center. UKFOCR: Cancer Researc h UK. UPENN: National Institutes of Health (NIH) (R01-CA102776 and R01-CA083855; Breast Cancer Research Foundation; Susan G. Komen Foundation for the cure, Basser Research Center for BRCA. UPITT/MWH: Hackers for Hope Pittsburgh. VFCTG: Victorian Cancer Agency, Cancer Australia, National Breast Cancer Foundation. WCP: Dr Karlan is funded by the American Cancer Society Early Detection Professorship (SIOP-06-258-01-COUN) and the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), Grant UL1TR000124. ; Peer Reviewed
Death Instinct In Mary Shelley's Frankenstein Panca Wisetioko English Literature Faculty of Language and Arts State University of Surabaya y.panca.wise@gmail.com Drs. Much. Khoiri, M.Si. English Department Faculty of Language and Arts State University of Surabaya much_choiri@yahoo.com Abstrak Naluri dapat digambarkan sebagai kekuatan manusia dan dianggap ada di balik ketegangan yang disebabkan oleh kebutuhan dari id. Id dapat berkembang menjadi kekuatan destruktif yang disebut sebagai insting kematian dan ekspresi insting kematian disebut sebagai agresi. Dalam Mary Shelley Frankenstein, dua karakter utama menggambarkan insting kematian yang mempengaruhi pikiran dan tindakan yang bertujuan untuk menghancurkan atau membunuh siapa pun. Studi ini berfokus pada dua masalah , ( 1 ) bagaimana insting kematian digambarkan dalam Mary Shelley Frankenstein? dan ( 2 ) Mengapa si monster dan Dr Frankenstein menggambarkan agresi sebagai komponen dari insting kematian dalam hidup mereka di Mary Shelley Frankenstein? Data tesis diambil dari novel sebagai sumber utama dan membaca secara intensif adalah langkah berikutnya dalam analisis. Konsep yang akan digunakan meliputi konsep naluri dan insting kematian oleh Freud dan Susan , dan juga istilah agresi oleh Subaidah. Untuk menjawab masalah pertama, penelitian ini menggunakan istilah Freud tentang insting kematian dan didukung oleh konsep dari Susan tentang insting. Masalah kedua dijawab dengan menggunakan konsep dari Subaidah tentang agresi. Yang terakhir, analisis mengungkapkan bahwa insting kematian digambarkan oleh monster melalui tindakannya ketika membunuh putra Dr Frankenstein, teman, dan anggota keluarga yang lain. Selain itu, Dr Frankenstein juga menggambarkan insting kematian melalui intensi untuk menghancurkan si monster. Keduanya mendapatkan kesenangan dan kepuasan dari tindakan mereka. Dr Frankenstein dan monster tersebut menggambarkan insting kematian karena rasa marah dan frustrasi antara satu sama lain. Kata kunci : insting kematian, sadar, id, agresi. Abstract Instincts can be described as the forces of human and assume to exist behind the tensions which are caused by the needs of the id. The id can develop into destructive force which is called as death instinct and the expression of death instinct called as the aggression. In Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, the two main characters depict the death instinct that influence their minds and actions which purpose to destroy or kill anyone. The study focuses on two problems, (1) how is death instinct depicted in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein? and (2) Why do the monster and Dr. Frankenstein represent the aggression as the component of death instinct in their life in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein? The data of thesis are taken from the novel as the main source and intensive reading is the next step of analysis. The concept that will be used includes the concepts of instinct and death instinct by Freud and Susan, and the terms of aggression by Subaidah. To answer the first problem, this study uses Freud's terms about death instinct and supported by Susan's terms about the concepts of instinct. The second problem is answered by using Subaidah's terms about the aggression. Last of all, the analysis reveals that death instinct depicted by the monster through his action in killing Dr. Frankenstein's son, friends, and his other family members. Besides, Dr. Frankenstein also represents death instinct through his intension to destroy the monster. Both of them get pleasure and satisfaction from their actions. Dr. Frankenstein and the monster represent death instinct because the feeling of anger and frustration each other. Keywords: death instinct, unconscious, id, aggression. INTRODUCTION Horror literature is focusing ondeath, theafterlife,evil, thedemonicand the principle of the thing embodied in the person. In stories, there are many gothic creatures, like witches,vam-pires,demonic, werewolves,and ghost. This genre has ancient origins which were reformulated in the 18th century asGothic horror, with publication of theCastle of Otranto(1764) byHorace Walpole. After that century, the Gothic tradition blossomed into the genre modern readers call horror literature in the 19th century. In this era, some great works and characters of horror have been adapted by some films and cinema. It shows to the world that some horror writers have given contributions. Some literary works concern with horror in genre are Mary Shelley'sFrankenstein(1818),Edgar Allan Poe's short stories, the works ofSheridan Le Fanu,Robert Louis Stevenson'sStrange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde(1886),Oscar Wilde'sThe Picture of Dorian Gray(1890), andBram Stoker'sDracula(1897). One of the most famous horror novels is Frankenstein which was written by Mary Shelley in 19th century. In that era, the novel was also being a very important work in literature contributions that had made by women acceptable. Although Mary Shelley wrote many novels, none of her another works was popular like Frankenstein, which still gains its popularity until today. (www.famousauthors.org/mary-shelley) A study of the scientific aspects of the novel is so popular and timely that the present author and others have presented or published papers on this theme (Ginn, 2003; Ketterer, 1997). The National Library of Medicine has developed a traveling exhibit examining Frankenstein's science, and a conference dedicated to this theme (Frankenstein's Science: Theories of Human Nature in the 18thand 19thCenturies) was held in Canberra, in 2003. (nlm.nih.gov/hmd/frankenstein/frankhome.html) The author of Frankenstein, Mary Shelley, is often known asMary Wollstonecraft Shelley. She was one of the famous horror writers in the world. Mary was a British woman novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, travel writer, and editor of the works of her husband, Percy Bysshe Shelley who was a Romantic poet and a philosopher. And she was the daughter of the political philosopherWilliam Godwinand Mary Wollstonecraft who was famous as the writer, philosopher, and feminist. She wrote many horror novels including Lodore (1835), Faulkner (1937), Mathilde (1959), Valperga or the Life and Adventures of Castruccia, Prince of Lucca (1823), The Last Man (1826), and The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck (1830). She also wrote a number of short stories, travelogues and other works, but Frankenstein has been the unforgettable works of her. Mary Shelley herself is best remembered by literature world as the author of Frankenstein. The story of this novel tells about an ambitious inventor named Dr. Frankenstein who forces to create a human from various body parts taken from some corpses in graves. He believes that he can create a perfect human which is stronger and smarter than any ordinary human being. He finally finishes his project in making that creature. But, the result does not alike what he expects before. The creature looks like a monster rather than a human. It makes Dr. Frankenstein rejecting and dumping him. The monster cannot accept how the doctor treats him because the doctor himself is as the creator and the father of the monster who should love him and treat him well like God who creates and loves human beings. The doctor always mocks the monster about his physical appearance condition which is very ugly, even looks like a devil. The monster is very angry with the doctor. He hates the doctor a lot and he wants to kill the doctor as a revenge. Not only the doctor, but the monster also hates human being because people treats him as bad as the doctor even though the monster has given aid to humans. The other thing that makes him hate human is because there is no one wants to be his friends. Everyone who meets him always run, hit and shout that he is a monster. He feels depressed and desperate about his life and his condition. He always asks to himself why he cannot be an acceptable person in his real life. After he got many bad things, he says that he will kill all human being, especially a man who created him and all persons that he loves. One by one, everyone who loved by Dr. Frankenstein were killed by the monster. The doctor himself also promises to kill his creature because of those accidents. Both of them have death instinct to kill each other. In the end of the story, Dr. Frankenstein dies in the way when he looks for the monster. The monster feels very satisfied with his death, after that he falls down to the sea, and no one never see him again. Death instinct which is depicted in Frankenstein and it based on the concepts of Sigmund Freud. According to Orbach (2007), his conceptualization of the death instinct behaviors reflecting self-destructive tendencies, guilt feelings, suicide, melancholia, masochism and sadism are furnished with a motivational force of their own, as well as a specific mechanism of action, that is the repetition compulsion. The death instinct drives man to the ultimate state of quiescence – death through the urge inherent in organic life to restore an earlier state of things. This novel presents death instinct that is depicted by Dr. Frankenstein and the monster as the characters of Shelley's Frankenstein. There is a stage which is being the part of the story that represents the instinct. It is shown when the monster killed Frankenstein's son (Shelley, 1994: 179). The action that has been done by the monster is the representation of the death instinct, especially the purpose of death instinct. It depends on Freud terms (1949: 6), he explained that the purpose of death instinct is to kill someone or destroy something. The another things that are shown in this novel is the reason of the characters when they want to do aggression which is being the component of death instinct (Subaidah, 2012), she also said that anger feeling becomes the one of the reasons or factors to do aggression to another person. The reason is depicted in the part of the story when the monster becomes angry and wants to kill all human and the doctor who is being his creator (Shelley, 1994: 172) Depends on Schultz (2008: 56), Freud also developed three parts of mind. He drew that the parts are the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. Aside from the three levels of consciousness, Freud believed there to be three parts of personality. There are the id, the ego, and the superego. That is why this study is being the study that analysis about death instinct and its reason because there are many statements and actions that has been represented by the characters of the novel, especially about death instinct and its reason. RESEARCH METHOD To reveal the death instinct of the characters, this study applies the concept of human instinct in analyzing the problems. The concept which will be applied to discuss the matter in this study is the psychoanalysis theory especially the concept of death instinct by Sigmund Freud. The main data source of this study is Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, while the data which is used in this study is in the form of statements which are taken from the novel Frankenstein that reveals the death instinct of the characters, Dr. Frankenstein and the monster. This study will be conducted by using descriptive-qualitative method. It means that this study provides descriptive analysis without using any statistic or number in analyzing the subject matter. The concept applied to discuss the matter in this study is death instinct which is mostly described by Mary Shelley in her novel which titled is Frankenstein. Since the focus of the study becomes clearer, data classification is needed. After collecting and classifying such complete data, the study arranges it in order, so that the study is able to get good understanding about the story of the novel and the issue which is going to be analyzed. In the next step, the story is being analyzed by using theory that is Instinct theory. Here, in analyzing death instinct of human being, this study tries to elaborate dialogue, conflict, and action in the novel and applies the concept. Then, the next step is to reveal how is the death instinct of the characters, which is viewed from the theory of psychoanalysis by Sigmund Freud. Finally, this research provides a deep analysis on the death instinct of Dr. Frankenstein and the monster in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein. DEFINITION OF INSTINCT The forces which human assume to exist behind the tensions caused by the needs of the id are called instincts. It can change their aim (by displacement) and also that they can replace one another-the energy of one instinct passing over another. This also consists in the satisfaction of its innate needs. (Freud, 1949: 5) Instinct also can be described as the basic elements of the personality, the motivating forces that drive behavior and determine its direction. Freud's German term for this concept is Trieb, which is best translated as a driving force or impulse (Bettelheim, 1984). Instincts are a form of energy—transformed physiological energy—that connects the body's needs with the mind's wishes. The stimuli (hunger or thirst, for example) for instincts are internal. When a need such as hunger is aroused in the body, it generates a condition of physiological excitation or energy. The mind transforms this bodily energy into a wish. It is this wish—the mental representation of the physiological need—that is the instinct or driving force that motivates the person to behave in a way that satisfies the need. A hungry person, for example, will act to satisfy his or her need by looking for food. The instinct is not the bodily state; rather, it is the bodily need transformed into a mental state, a wish. When the body is in a state of need, the person experiences a feeling of tension or pressure. The aim of an instinct is to satisfy the need and thereby reduce the tension. Freud's theory can be called a homeostatic approach insofar as it suggests that people are motivated to restore and maintain a condition of physiological equilibrium, or balance, to keep the body free of tension. Freud believed that people always experience a certain amount of instinctual tension and that people must continually act to reduce it. It is not possible to escape the pressure of our physiological needs as we might escape some annoying stimulus in our external environment. This means that instincts are always influencing our behavior, in a cycle of need leading to reduction of need. People may take different paths to satisfy their needs. For example, the sex Drives may be satisfied by heterosexual behavior, homosexual behavior, or auto sexual behavior, or the sex drive may be channeled into some other form of activity. Freud thought that psychic energy could be displaced to substitute objects, and this displacement was of primary importance in determining an individual's personality. Although the instincts are the exclusive source of energy for human behavior, the resulting energy can be invested in a variety of activities. This helps explain the diversity people see in human behavior. All the interests, preferences, and attitudes people display as adults were believed by Freud to be displacements of energy from the original objects that satisfied the instinctual needs. Freud grouped the instincts into two categories: life instincts and death instincts. The life instincts serve the purpose of survival of the individual and the species by seeking to satisfy the needs for food, water, air, and sex. The life instincts are oriented toward growth and development. The psychic energy manifested by the life instincts is the libido. The libido can be attached to or invested in objects, a concept Freud called cathexis. If you like your roommate, for example, Freud would say that your libido is cathected to him or her. The life instinct Freud considered most important for the personality is sex, which he defined in broad terms. He did not refer solely to the erotic but included almost all pleasurable behaviors and thoughts. Freud regarded sex as our primary motivation. Erotic wishes arise from the body's erogenous zones: the mouth, anus, and sex organs. He suggested that people are predominantly pleasure-seeking beings, and much of his personality theory revolves around the necessity of inhibiting or suppressing our sexual longings. In opposition to the life instincts, Freud postulated the destructive or death instincts. Drawing from biology, he stated the obvious fact that all living things decay and die, returning to their original inanimate state, and he proposed that people have an unconscious wish to die. One component of the death instincts is the aggressive drive, described as the wish to die turned against objects other than the self. The aggressive drive compels us to destroy, conquer, and kill. Freud came to consider aggression as compelling a part of human nature as sex. Freud developed the notion of the death instincts late in life, as a reflection of his own experiences. He endured the physiological and psychological debilitations of age, his cancer worsened, and he witnessed the carnage of World War I. One of his daughters died at the age of 26, leaving two young children. All these events affected him deeply, and, as a result, death and aggression became major themes in his theory. In his later years, Freud dreaded his own death, and exhibited hostility, hatred, and aggressiveness toward colleagues and disciples who disputed his views and left his psychoanalytic circle. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTINCT According to Susan (2004: 42), there are some characteristics of instincts. She summarized the four aspects of instincts: source, pressure, aim, dan object. The first is source. All physic energy is derived from biological processes in some parts or organs of the body. There is no separate, exclusively mental energy. The amount of energy a person has does not change throughout a lifetime although it is transformed so that it is invested differently. At first, psychic energy is directed toward biological needs. As development occurs, this same energy can be redirected into other investment, such as interpersonal relationships and work. The second is pressure. It refers to its force or motivational quality. It corresponds to the strength of the instinctual drive; it is high when the drive is not satisfied and falls when the needs is met. For example, a hungry infant has a high pressure of the hunger drive: one just fed has hunger at a low pressure. When the pressure is low, the instinct may nt have noticeable effect; but when the pressure is high, it may break through, interrupting other activities. A hungry baby wakes up, for example, and it depends on Susan (2004: 42). The next characteristic is aim, the function of instinct according to a principle of homeostatis, or steady state, a principle borrowed from biology. Instinct aim to preserve the ideal steady state for organism (Susan, 2004: 42). Changes moving away from this steady state are experienced as tension. The aim of all instincts is to reduce tension, which is pleasurable. Instincts operate according to what Freud called the pleasure principle, they aim simply to produce pleasure by reducing tension, immediately and without regard to reality constraints. Tension reduction occurs when the original biological instinct is directly satisfied, for example, when a hungry infant is fed or when sexually aroused adult achieves orgasm. It would be a mistake, however, to conclude that only direct biological drive satisfaction can reduce tension. Some transformations of libido also allow tension reduction (Susan, 2004: 42). Such healthy, socially acceptable ways of reducing tension are termed sublimation. However, indirect expressions of libido do not always reduce the pressure of instinct. Thus a chronic deviation from a restful, homeostatic state occurs in individuals who have not found ways to reduce tension, such as neurotics (Susan, 2004: 42). The last is object, this characteristic of instinct is about the person or thing in the world that is desired so that the instinct can be satisfied, it based on Susan's terms about instinct (2004: 42). For example, the object of the hunger drive of an infant is the mother's breast: it brings satisfaction. The object of a sexually aroused adult is a sexual partner. Investment of psychic energy in a particular object is called cathexis. It is with respect to the object of an instinct that there is the most variation, the most influence of experience on a person's fundamental motivations. Some sexually aroused men look for a woman just like mother; others look for a very different kind of woman or for a man, or even for underwear or a child or any of a vast assortment of sexual objects. Women are also very widely in their choice of sexual objects. The fact that libido is capable of being directed toward so many diverse objects; not fixed biologically, is termed the plaslicily of instinct. This is much greater in humans than in lower animals, who seem to come with instinct "prewired" to very specific objects. Learning from experience-selecting objects from the possibilities in the environment and learning to adapt to reality-occurs in the ego. The ego, in contrast, the functions according to a very primitive mechanism, called primary process. DEATH INSTINCT (THANATOS) Freud believed that every human had a life and death instinct. The life instinct is callederoswhile death instinct is calledthanatos. Death instinct is a destructive force directing us inevitably toward death, the ultimate release from the tension of living. It motivates all kind of aggression including war and suicide. (Susan, 2004: 41) According to Orbach (2007: 266), Freud's conceptualization of the death instinct behavior reflecting self-destructive tendencies, guilt feelings, suicide, melancholia, mascochism and sadism are furnished with a motivational force of their own, as well as with a specific mechanism of action, that is the repetition compulsion. Death instinct drives man to the ultimate state of quiescence – death through the urge inherent organic life to restore an earlier state of things. The purpose of death instinct is to destroy things and to reduce living things to an inorganic state. (Freud, 1949: 5) Freud also explains that death instinct is intended to individuals typically two ways, to himself or others to outside themselves. Death instinct is redirected looking at people in an action of suicide, while the instinct redirected to death outside or anyone else to do something when they want to kill, persecute, or destroy others. Death instinct also encourages people to ruin people, and the aggressive drive pushes the distribution of people who are not killed. To maintain them, death instinct will against life with generally energy which steer out, intended to others. Freud assumes that every human in their subconscious part, will have a passion for dead, a desire is always mightily repressed by ego. The component of the death instincts is aggression. (http://12013pus.blogspot.com/2013/06/sigmund-freud.html) The most influenced component of the death instincts is the aggressive drive. It is described as a wish to against objects rather than a self. The aggressive drive compels us to destroy, conquer and kill. Freud comes to consider aggression as compelling a part of human nature. Freud also recognizes that the object of the aggressive instinct is fighting, and it is always for the gratification of the id. Most aggressive behavioral traits are destructive. They are considered to be the consequence of dysfunctional character formation. However, some of these instinctual traits may be momentary. Freud suggests that the aggressivity is related to death threat. This means that it can apply to the individual as well as to his or her relation with others. According to Subaidah (2012), aggression is a behavior that can hurt others. There are several factors that influence the aggression. Each factors may differed from one's act of aggression in which it is more dependent on an act of aggression itself and where the act of aggression took place. Lately a lot of aggression is going on in the social sphere such as at school and other social spheres. She explains that there are several factors that cause aggression or aggressiveness: 1. Biological factors There are several biological factors that influence aggressive behavior: a. The gene seems to affect the formation of the neural systems that regulate the aggressive behavior. b. Brain systems which are not involved in aggression were found to reinforce or inhibit the neural circuits that control the aggression. c. Blood chemistry (particularly the sex hormones which is partly determined heredity) can also influence aggressive behavior. 2. The Instinct According to Sigmund Freud, he explains that in humans there are two kinds of instincts which are called as eros (life instinct) and thanatos (death instinct). Aggression is an expression of the death instinct and it may be directed to other people or other targets (external) and can also to themselves (internal). 3. The Anger feeling Anger is the emotion that has the characteristics of the parasympathetic nervous system activity which is high. It is the feeling of strong dislike feeling commonly conducted due to an error, which may be manifestly wrong or maybe not. At the moment, there is a desire to attack which includes by angry, punching, destroy or throw something, it usually arises cruel mind. When things are distributed and there is aggressive behavior. 4. Frustration feeling Frustration occurs when someone blocked by something in achieving a goal, needs, desires, expectations or specific actions. Aggression is the way to respond the frustration feeling. Poor time naughty teen is a result of frustration which is related to the amount of unemployed time, financial mediocre and the requirements that must be fulfilled but difficult to achieve. As a result, they become irritable and aggressive. (jambeekidul.blogspot.com/2012/05/agresi.html) The Death Instinct depicted by Dr. Frankenstein and The Monster in Mary's Frankenstein In the novel, death instinct depicted is firstly depicted by Dr. Frankenstein when he meets the monster in the field of ice. When he enjoys the atmosphere of the nature around him, suddenly he sees the figure of man and the creature comes nearly to him with super human speed. He really surprised when he sees the creature that stands in front of him. The creature is the monster that was made by him, but the doctor never wants to see the monster because it looks so ugly and scary. So the doctor wants to kill that monster by himself. The next part which depicts the death instinct is shown by the monster. It happens when the doctor sees something like a human but it looks different from the ordinary human. The creature comes nearly to him, and the doctor is surprised because the creature is the person who is seemed like a monster. The doctor said many bad words to him, but there is the time when the monster wants to make a deal with Frankenstein. The monster is being the unacceptable person in the real life, there is no one can accept his condition. The monster wants to ask about something which is related to his condition but he says that if the doctor refuses his request, the monster will kill him. The next quote is shown by Dr. Frankenstein and his creature. After the monster asked something with the doctor and want to make a deal with the doctor, Frankenstein who is being the creator of the monster answered the kind of thing that has been asked by the monster. Death instinct is depicted in the some words. In those words, the doctor want to take the monster's life or in another meaning, it means that the doctor want to kill the monster. It depends on Freud terms about death instinct, he explains that the purpose of death instinct is to kill someone. The next part which shows death instinct in the novel, there is no deal between Dr. Frankenstein and the monster. The doctor feels very angry and hates the monster because the condition of the monster itself. After that, the doctor does the action that is shown in the quotation as the part of the story. In some parts of the statements, the doctor wants to attack the monster by himself. It shows that Frankenstein want to expressing his feeling that represent the purpose of death instinct. It is like Freud terms, he explains that the purpose of the death instinct of human being is to destroy or kill another creature. The next statement is said by Dr. Frankenstein, it happens when the doctor tries to hit the monster. But the monster can dodge the action of the doctor. The monster still wants to make a deal with the doctor. The monster tells about his sadness feeling to the doctor. But the words that were said by the monster cannot make the doctor's heart follow what the monster wants. In the time of the novel, the doctor feels angry and says many words to the monster. There are some words which depicts the death instinct of the doctor and describe that Frankenstein want to fight with the monster and kills him. The next statement is said by the monster, he continuous his journey, and after that he arrives at Geneva. Directly, he looks for the hiding place. Then he takes a rest, and suddenly the little boy comes to him. He thinks that this boy does not have a negative thought like the other people. But he is wrong, this boy looks so scared, he tries to talk with the boy. Suddenly, the boy says many bad words to him, and he tells Frankenstein as a name of the person that the monster really hates. Finally, the monster wants to kill this boy, it is depicted in the some words. He describes the death instinct and his actions that he will do in this part of the statement. Based on Freud (1949: 6), the purpose of death instinct is to kill or destroy something. The Reason of the Characters Who Represent the Aggression In this Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, there are many aggressions that are depicted in the some parts or in the some statement that were said by the characters, and there are many things that are being the reason of the character to do their aggression to another. Dr. Frankenstein and the monster show the causes or the factors of aggression based on their actions and quotations. The factors will be explained in these parts of thesis based on Subaidah's terms of aggression (2012). Aggression is firstly shown by Dr. Frankenstein when he sees a person in the ice field. When he really enjoys the natural situation around him, suddenly he finds the figure of human and the creature comes nearly to him with super human speed. He really surprised when he sees the creature which stands in front of him. The creature is the monster that was made by him, but the doctor never wants to see the monster because it looks so ugly and scary. In some statement, there is a factor that will be explained. There are some words which show the anger feeling of the doctor as the main factor which influences him and it is the reason of him to do the aggression to the monster. The next statement is continuing the conversation before that happened between Dr. Frankenstein and his creature. After the monster asked something with the doctor and want to make a deal with the doctor, Frankenstein who is being the creator of the monster answered the kind of thing that has been asked by the monster. He said some words to answer what the monster want. Those words describe the anger feeling of the doctor and also show that the doctor really does not like the monster because the psychical condition of the monster. It is to be his reason to do the aggression to the monster. This explanation similar with Subaidah's terms, she explains that the anger is one of the factors that can influence a person to do aggression to another person, and the thing that can cause the anger is because the feeling of dislike so strong. The next part of the story in the novel, there is no deal between Dr. Frankenstein and the monster. The doctor feels very angry and hates the monster because the condition of the monster itself. After that, the doctor does the action that is shown in the quotation as the part of the story. There are some words which show the reason of the doctor when he wants to destroy the monster. The doctor describes his feeling which influences him to be aggressive clearly in this part of his statement. These feeling can influence someone to be an aggressive person, it means that the person wants to kill or destroy the other person. This is has similarity with Subaidah's term, she explains that the reason of the person to do aggression is because their angry feeling. The next statement is said by the monster. It is continuing from the statements before. After the doctor asked him to go, the monster is still trying to tell about the experiences that he got in his life. He tells many things to the doctor, he hopes the doctor will agree to make a deal with him. And in the situation that is described in the novel, the monster says something about his feelings to the doctor. He says the words to Dr. Frankenstein. There are some words that show the anger feeling of the monster. The words describe the reason of him when he wants to do the aggression to his enemies and he really wants to destroy them. Based on Subaidah (2012), anger is the factor for the people to do aggression to another, and the dislike feeling because of the mistaken things that has been done by a person will influence a person angry with the another people. There are also some words which show the mistakes of the doctor and the human that cause the anger of the monster. Dr. Frankenstein has done something that make the monster feel dislike and angry with him, this is also done by the other person. The next statement is still based on the story of the monster. After he went to forest, he lived in a place. He felt desperate because of human actions. He remembered the accident that he got from De Lacey family, especially from Felix. He felt so angry, he wanted to destroy everything near him. There are some words which represent the anger feeling of the monster, it is described clearly in the part of the statement. It becomes his main feeling when he thinks to destroy something or injury the human and it also shows the factor that influences him when he cannot control himself and change into an aggressive person. The anger feeling is the dominant feeling that becomes the reason for him to do aggression to human being. This is similar with Subaidah's terms which describes the aggression can be done by a person because the anger feeling that were caused by the mistake of the another person, it can grow up the dislike feeling of the person. CONCLUSION Based on the analysis in the previous chapter, there are two important conclusions drawn: the death instinct and the aggression which is being the component of death instinct based on the characters. First, it represents death instinct which is shown by Dr. Frankenstein and the monster who is his creature. Death instinct has some steps which include unconscious and id, it also has a purpose to destroy something or kill someone. By those steps and the purposes of death instinct, it can be concluded that the doctor has death instinct when he wants to kill or destroy the monster, and the monster wants to kill the doctor and all people who gave him many bad experiences in his life, such as when he killed Frankenstein's son. They show death instinct by killing or destroy something based on their main feelings and instinct itself. The unconscious is being the important part of instinct because it drives and controls all human mind and action that they want to do to another people. The next step that becomes the part of unconscious is the id of the characters. They will do something that will give them a pleasure or satisfied feeling, it based on their id. These part will develop to death instinct when they have some wishes to destroy anything or kill anyone. It is shown when the monster killed the doctor's wife, some his families member, and his friends, it is also depicted when the doctor really wants to take the monster life by himself because he killed many person that he really loves. The other things which are depicted in those parts are the characteristics of instinct. it includes the pressure, the aim, and the object of instinct. The pressure is described as the motivational things which influence person to do something to get pleasure. It is shown by the monster when he wants to kill all human because his revenge feeling, and the doctor when he wants to fight with the monster because his rage feeling. The second characteristic is the aim of instinct which describe as the actions or wishes that will be done by the person to get pleasure in their life. It is depicted in the characters when the doctor wants to take the monster life with his own hands, and when the monster wants to kill the doctor because he created him with the bad physical condition which make the monster as the unacceptable person in his social life. The last characteristics which is shown by the characters is the object of instinct, it means that the person who do the actions based on their instinct, will get the satisfied feeling from the object of instinct itself. It is shown when the doctor wants to destroy the monster's head, the monster is being the object of instinct that can give a satisfied for the doctor when Frankenstein really can kill the monster by himself. And it is also shown when the monster killed Elizabeth who is being the doctor's wife. She is being the object of instinct that will give the satisfied feeling for the monster when he can kill her by his hands. Besides finding how death instinct is done by the characters, this study also find the reasons why aggression is done by them. Based on aggression terms, there are some factors that influence people to do aggression. They includes the biological factor, instinct, anger and frustration feeling. Those factors are shown by the characters, such as Dr. Frankenstein and the monster. It is described when the doctor hunts the monster, he wants kill the monster because he is very angry, it related to the accidents that has been done by the monster to his friends and families in the novel. It is also shown by the monster, when he destroyed many inanimate things such as tress around him, he feels frustration because he cannot injure a human. These feelings become the reason for them to do aggression to another person or thing. REFERENCES Abrams, M.H. 1999. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Seventh Editio. U.S.A : Thomson Learning, inc. Cloninger, Susan. 2004. Theory of Personality : Understanding Person. Fourth Edition. : Pearson Prentice Hall. Feist, Jess and Gregory J. Feist. 2008. Theories of Personality, Seventh Edition. New York: McGraw – Hill Co. Klein, Melanie. 1988. Development In Theory and Practice Volume 1. New York: Taylor & Francis e-Library. Orbach, Israel. 2007. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci Vol 44 No. 4. Israel : Bar-Ilan University. Rickman, Richard M. 2008. Theories of Personality Ninth Edition. Belmont: Thomson Higher Education. Rivers, William H.R. 1920. Instinct and The Unconscious A Contribution to A Biological Theory of The Psychoneuroses. Ontario: Christopher D. Green. Schultz, Duane P and Sydney Ellen Schultz. 2009, 2005. Theories of Personality Ninth Edition. Belmont: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning (http://www.phobosdeimos.com/History/Frankenstein/Frankenstein%20History.htm. Retrieved on June, 20th 2013) (http://12013pus.blogspot.com/ 2013/ 06/ sigmund-freud.html. 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Domestic Violence in Danielle Steel's Journey (A Liberal Feminism Approach) Aryani Fitri Hira Kartika English Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University Aryanifitri11@gmail.com Fabiola Dharmawati Kurnia English Department, Faculty of Languages and Arts, Surabaya State University fabkurnia@gmail.com Abstrak Permasalahan kekerasan dalam rumah tangga selalu menjadi ancaman bagi wanita. Hak asasi manusia mereka ditiadakan oleh suami.Tujuan penelitian ini adalah menganalisis bagaimana kekerasan dalam rumah tangga dan bagaimana wanita melawan kekerasan yang tergambarkan pada Journey karya Danielle Steel. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode data deskriptif-qualitatif dengan pendekatan konsep kekerasan menurut Paula and Margie untuk menunjukkan bentuk kekerasan dalam rumah tangga dan liberal feminisme menurut Naomi Wolf dan John Stuart Mill untuk menunjukkan usaha wanita untuk melawan kekerasan dan bangkit dari permasalahannya. Hasil penelitian ini mengungkapkan (1) bentuk kekerasan yang dialami Mddy, tokoh utama dalam Journey yang ditinjau dari pendekatan liberal feminisme adalah kekerasan emosional; penghinaan, ancaman, menganggap rendah, dan pengisolasian sosial, sementara kekerasan seksual;pemaksaan seks, pemaksaan sterilisasi, penyiksaan secara seksual, dan menganggap wanita sebagai objek seks. (2) Bagaimana Maddy melawan kekerasan melalui berani berbicara ketika Ia ingin diberi kesempatan untuk memberi ide-idenya dalam area pekerjaan, membuat keputusan dalam hidupnya, bersosialisasi dengan teman-temannya, melalui tindakan ketika Ia menentang perintah suaminya untuk menjauhi anak istrinya, keinginan Maddy tetap pada merawat anaknya, dan yang terakhir melalui personal autonomi ketika Ia mengambil sikap untuk berpisah dari suaminya demi terbebas dari kekerasan suaminya. Berpisah dari suaminya, Ia bisa hidup mandiri tanpa bayang-bayang suaminya. Keywords : Kekerasan, Wanita, Perlawanan, Liberal Feminisme Abstract Violence always becomes threat for women. Their human rights are denied by their husband.The purpose of this study is analyzing how domestic violence to woman and how woman resists against violence as reflected in Danielle Steel's JOURNEY. This research of method used to analyze the data is a descriptive-qualitative with an approach of domestic violence by Paula and Margie to show the forms of domestic violence and liberal feminism by Naomi Wolf and John Stuart Mill to show her efforts to resist against violence and revival from her problems. The result of this research exposes that (1) violence experienced by Maddy as the main female character are emotional abuse; humiliation, threats, belittling, and social isolation, meanwhile sexual abuse; rape, enforced sterilization, torturing sexually, and looking woman as sexual object. (2) How Maddy resists against violence through speak out as she wants to be given opportunity in giving her ideas in her working place, making her own decisions in her life, socializing with her friends, and, through doing action as Maddy tries to oppose every her husband's commands, one of them is her decision for taking care her children and through being personal autonomy when she decides to divorce with her husband and lived independent with working without the shadows of her husband. She has had power to be personal hood in determining self, mind, body, and feeling that divorce is the best way for sake of happiness and pleasure (freedom of emotional and sexual abuses) perpetuated by her husband. Keywords : Violence, Women, Resistance, Liberal Feminism INTRODUCTION: God creates a man to the earth for living in love with others but in reality lately the acts of violence has always been part of the human experience. Acts of violence can happen in everywhere, be experienced by anyone, and be perpetrated by anyone (Dustin, 2009:87). However, survey from UNICEF Research Centre in 2000 states that violence is regular part of women's experience in domestic violence. They are unable to make their own decisions, voice their own opinions or protect themselves and their children for fear of further repercussions. Their human rights are denied and their lives are stolen from the abuser by regularly getting threats of violence (Khan, 2000:2). Many factors make women experience violence, one of them is gender bias, unequal power relations between men and women in which women is forced into a subordination position compared women than men that leads women as the victim of men dominance and discrimination and to prevention of the full advancement of women (Khan, 2000:2). Violence in domestic life always happens toward wife as a party who is regarded weaker than her husband. Joda et al, 2009:2 states that husband often do not feel guilty with what he does even he feels no breaking the law when he commits violence to his wife. Some women activists believes that violence in domestic sphere is rooted in belief of patriarchal system that still applied by husband in system of his household. According to Dobash, patriarchy contributes toward wife abuse. The system had defined the differences of gender between men and women. Husband was supposed to be strong, dominant, authoritarian, aggressive, and rational provider while women had devalued as secondary and inferior who had been assigned to be irrational, dependent, passive, submissive, soft, nurturing (in Margie, 2002:34). Patriarchal society regarded women as men's property and gave authority toward husband to control and decide decision for wife. Araji and Carlson (2001) argued that patriarchal societies may foster domestic violence because the dominant male is perceived to be appropriately disciplining and controlling the behaviour of the subordinate wife in the family (in Florence, 2008:592). The forms of women abuse can be classified into three forms, those are physical abuse, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse. Physical abuse is like grabbing, hitting, and kicking, sexual abuse is like demanding sex when one's partner is unwilling, enforced to sterilization, regarding women as a sex object, and emotional abuse is like humiliation, threatening, belittling, and social abuse (Paula, 2006:5 &16 and Margie, 2000: 3-6). Bhasin states that patriarchy as a concept to refer social system of masculine domination over women. Patriarchal society places men in superior or masculine position meanwhile women is put in subordinate position (2000:10). Murniati states that patriarchy is a system of socio-culture that marginalizes women's position in all aspects including in economic, social, education, politic sphere as if the system legitimizes some a various inequality, deprivation, and oppression over women (2004:227-229). In patriarchal situation, women had only little influences in society where they did not have rights on common areas in society such as in family, social, government, education. So, women's economic social, political, psychological condition depended on men. Domestic violence always becomes the hidden issue. Almost all of the victims are unwilling to report the police because wife still depends on financial on husband, wife still loves her husband, and many reason else. Summer states that many the victim is always silent toward violence perpetrated by her husband, never resists the abuser and never tells anyone (Summers, 2002:170). Moreover, according to Joyce, victims of violence over time experiences more serious consequences than of one-time incidents. Domestic violence against women where husband as the perpetrator can lead psychological consequences for the victim (2009:134-135). Gender bias that causes women are always marginalized, subordinated, and oppressed in the family at the place of work, and in society emmerges feminism. Feminism is an awareness of women oppression at the place of work within the family and an awareness of patriarchal control (Bhasin, 2000:31). Meanwhile Carter states that feminism is a movement for women that attempts to resist the dominance of a patriarchal society have a long history (2006:910). One of feminism movement that defend equality rights between men and women is liberal feminism. Liberal feminism is a movement that is reflected in every struggle done by women to demand the right of freedom (Humm, 2002:250). Liberal feminism emphasizes the importance of individualism, freedom, especially freedom of choice. The feminist movement is that women gain control. Both of the body itself as well as the social world. They reject the gender symbols attached to each sex and gender socialization to children that had been done. Women experience discrimination because of gender inequality but women should have same opportunity like men in all of aspects, including private field, or public field, or public field (Ritzer, 1992:450). John Stuart Mill states that women must be personal autonomy as women are rational beings and have the same capacity as men. Problems faced by women more often caused by women if legal reform has happened to make equality between men and women (Tong, 2009:29). Women who success financially comfortable, succesful does not guarantee them will freedom from discrimination and violation. As women regard themselves as the victim of discrimination and violation, Wolf states that women have the power to control what happens to them so stop thinking of themselves as victim and to capitalize on the power inherent in their majority status. Society does not oppress them. It is time for women to do self defeating (speak out) against violation and discrimination. Proclaiming themselves as victimhood does not project strength (Wood, 2009:84). Journey is a novel that will be analyzed. This research chooses the novel as the main female character, experiences violence emotionally and sexually during her marriage life however Maddy is a representation of woman's movement who is brave to speak out against violence perpetruated by her husband but she never tries to hate marriage institution. Maddy as a woman who is not afraid to out of comfort zone and false happiness created by her husband after getting supports from her friends, a support group for battered women, daughter. She escapes from the shackle of oppression to be an independent, free women with her daughter and her friends who support her not like many wives commonly are afraid to escape from violence or say divorce cause they still depend on their husband. Based on the explanation above, the writer is interested to analyze how domestic violence is reflected using the concept of domestic violence from sociological approach by Paula and Margie and how woman resists against violence and revival from her problems by using liberal feminism by Naomi Wolf and John Stuart Mill. Theoritical Framework In producing a good understanding of the conflicts in domestic life which woman experiences and how woman resists against violence in Danielle Steel's Journey, this study applies extrinsic approach in analyzing the problems. The theory of domestic violence by Paula and Margi is chosen as the tool to find out domestic violence to woman is reflected in Danielle Steel's Journey. Theory of domestic violence is a theory which is used to analyze how the forms of abuses which is experienced by the victim. The types of domestic violence according to Paula and Margie consist of physical abuse, emotional abuse, and sexual abuse. (1) Physical abuse is the action of physically assaults, causing injury, pinching, or squeezing, (2) emotional or psychological abuse is consistently doing or saying things verbally that results in fear, loss of confidence, loss of the ability to act, a sense of helplessness and or severe psychological suffering on a person, and (3) sexual abuse is including sadism and forcing a person to have sex when he or she does not want to, forcing a person to engage in sexual act that he or she does not like or finds unpleasant, frightening, or violent, touches the victim sexually in uncomfortable ways, and regards women as a sexual object. Liberal feminism is chosen as the tool to analyze how woman resist against violence. Its feminism emphasizes that violence toward women is based on unequal power relations between women and men. Its theory emphasizes equal individual rights and liberties for women and downplaying sexual differences. Liberal feminist propose a series of strategies for eliminating gender inequality; supporting individual in challenging sexism wherever it is enccountered in daily life without hating the marriage institution. As women experience inequality, the soulution is on women themselves (Ritzer, 1992:452-53). In challenging discrimination and violation toward women, Wolf demands woman to do self defeating (speak out). Its concept is used by Wolf to give powerness for women resist against discrimination and violation (Wood, 84). Wolf states that women are not needed to ask for permission toward anyone for achieving social equality (1999:79). Meanwhile John Stuart Mill gives powerness on women for being personal autonomy. Personal autonomy is a autonomous decision making. John Stuart Mill states that women have powerness as personhood over their self, their thinking, their feeling, their body in determining a choice in their living for sake of happiness and pleasure but not obstruct another people's right in the process (Tong, 2009:16) Based on the background of the study above, the questions below will be answered. (1). How is domestic violence to woman reflected in the Danielle Steel's Journey? (2). How does woman in Danielle Steel's Journey resist against violence? Research Design and Method: To analyze Danielle Steel's Journey, this study uses descriptive qualitative. Thomas (2003) defines qualitative methods as method that involves research by describing kinds of characteristics people and events without comparing the events in term of amounts. The main data is the novel entitled Journey by Danielle Steel, published in 2000 by Dell Publishing, New York. Meanwhile the additional data are taken from many sources such as journal, book, and internet sources. Besides that, quotations in the novel is taken also related how domestic violence to woman is reflected and how woman resists against woman as represented by the main female character of Maddy. There were some steps taken in conducting this study. First, reading was the first step to do to gain the idea the novel intends to deliver. After the writer has finished reading the novel, the next step which was hold was close reading. This step was applied to find quotations related to the topic and problems going to analyze. Close reading was done three times. The first close reading was to find the quotations which are related how domestic violence to woman, then the second close reading was to find how woman resists against woman as represented in Danielle Steel's Journey. The data observed from the novel were then analyzed to the statement of the problems. It was then synchronized with the similar concept of domestic violence by Paula and Margie, concept of victimization by Joyce, and the concept of liberal feminism by Naomi Wolf and John Stuart Mill taken from journals, books, and critical essays. The synchronized data were useful to take final conclusions. Therefore, the significance of the study can be achieved well. Data analysis For the first question this study take theory from the theoritical framework which concerns with forms of abuse toward woman. The concept of domestic violence by Paula and Margie will be explained in this research to find out how domestic violence to woman is reflected in Danielle Steel's Journey. In this research, the writer only found two forms of abuses to women, they are emotional abuses, and sexual abuses. For the second question this study take theory from the theoritical framework which concerns with women's efforts to resist against violence. The concept of liberal feminism by Naomi Wolf and John Stuart Mill which are used to reveal how woman in Danielle Steel's Journey resists against violence. RESULT (1). As the explanation of the domestic violence, this study finds out domestic violence to woman into two forms of abuse, they are emotional abuse and sexual abuse. Emotional Abuse consists of humiliation, threatening, belittling, social isolation. Meanwhile sexual abuse consist of rape, enforced sterilization, torturing sexually, and looking woman as a sexual object. (2). As the explanation of liberal feminism by Naomi Wolf and John Stuart Mill, this study reveal how woman resists against violence. The strategy of Maddy's resistance to get out of domestic violence in Danielle Steel's Journey through speak out, doing action, and being personal autonomy. 1.1 Emotional Abuse 1.1.1 Humiliation "I don't give a damn what you think. I don't pay you to think. I pay you to look good and read the news of a TelePrompTer. That's all I want from you. And with that, he walked into his bathroom, and slammed the door behind him, as she burst into tears in their bedroom. (Steel, p. 34) The quotation above show the form of humiliation by men toward women. In this Journey, Jack always puts his wife into subordinate position. Jack never regards his wife having capability in thinking. Jack just cares how Maddy could look beautiful in front of audiences without giving opportunity for her in giving her arguments or ideas as she is delivering the news. Jack will getting angry as Maddy tries to oppose his commands. One of his commands is prohibitting his wife to hold the program of editorial however Maddy still holds it for the sake of helping her new friend who committed suicide due to abused by her husband, Jack's friend also. 1.1.2 Threatening "I heard you, she said numbly. And I hate you for it. I don't give a damn what you think or feel about this. I only care about what you do, and it goddamn better be the right thing this time, or you're finished. With me and the network. Is that clear, Mad? She looked at him for a long moment and then turned on her heel and walked swiftly down the stairs, back to her own floor. She was pale and shaking." (Steel, p.63) The quotation above shows that Jack always tries threats for Maddy, his wife. Besides she will loss her jobs, Jack will divorce Maddy as his threat for his wife as she does not obey what Jack says to her. Maddy loves so much her husband and also depend financially with her husband. That's Maddy has no other alternatives to leave her husband. In her marriage, Maddy has no power over her husband. Jack always regards her as his property that could be ordered by Jack. Jack feels Maddy as his wife and his employee so he deserves to control his wife as she tries to show her potential in giving comments which acrosses with Jack's principles. 1.1.3 Belittling "That's insulting! It's the truth. As I recall, Mad, you never went to college. In fact, I'm not even sure if you finished high school. It was the ultimate put-down, insinuating that she was too stupid and uneducated to think (Steel, p. 90) The quotation above shows that Maddy tries to oppose all of belittling which is perpetruated by Jack to her however Jack gives awareness to Maddy that the reason of belittling is because Jack doubts whether Maddy ever finished her school or not. The unequal power relation in educational things lead discrimination over Maddy by Jack. Jack belittles Maddy as a stupid wife so Maddy should put down with her husband's commands. 1.1.4 Social Isolation "She didn't have that many friends in Washington, she'd never had time to make them and those she had made, Jack never liked, and eventually pressured her not to see them. She never objected because Jack always had some objection to them, regarding her friends were fat, ugly, inappropriate, or indiscreet. He kept Madeleine carefully guarded, and inadvertently isolated. She knew he meant well in protecting her, and she didn't mind, but it meant that the person she was closest to was Jack, and in recent years, Greg Morris." (Steel, p. 25) From the quotation above, social isolation is as form of discrimination. Men have full power over women as well as limits women to socialize with their friends. In Journey, Jack as the head of family, he determines which is a friend should be and should not be met by Maddy. Meanwhile Jack is freedom to choose which a friend he wants to meet. Besides his bussiness relation, he can also meet with woman. The quotation can be seen below: "He had been so quick to explain the photograph of the woman he's been with at Annabel's in london (Steel, p.159) 1.2 Sexual Abuse 1.2.1 Rape "He was smiling at her, and he reached out a hand and gently touched her breast, and then before she could stop him, he had grabbed her so hard, it made her gasp, and she begged him to stop "Why, baby? Tell me why? Don't you love me? I love you, but you're hurting me. There were tears in her eyes as she said it. I don't want to make love tonight, she tried to say, but he didn't listen, he grabbed a handful of her hair and sharply pulled her head back. What she sensed most in his love for her was danger. (Steel, p.87) From the quotation above shows that Jack regards Maddy as his own property which could be used by Jack anytime Jack wants. Jack always controls Maddy's sexuality. It can be shown from the quotation above as Jack always forces Maddy to have a sex with him although Maddy does not want to have a sex with Jack or finds unpleasant, frightening, violent when having a sex. Jack does not care with his wife's refusal, instead Jack grabs a handful of her hair and sharply pulled her head back to make his sexual impulse satisfied. 1.1.5 Enforced Sterilization "Jack convinced Maddy that children will obstacle her career. Jack had made it very clear to her right from the beginning that he didn't want children. And after a brief period of mourning for the babies she would never have, at Jack's insistence, Maddy had had her tubes tied. It seemed easier to give in to Jack's wishes and not take any chances. He had given her so much, and wanted such great things for her. She could see his point that children would only be an obstacle she'd have to overcome, and a burden on her career. But there were still times when she regretted the irreversibility of her decision. (Steel, p. 15). From the quotation above shows forcing woman to tie the rope uterus shows the violations of human rights because it is band for woman's reproduction where woman will never have children again. The factors that leads this abuse still attached to the dominant assumption has the right to control the weak and the wife playing the role of a person who is required to comply, in terms of the economic dependence of women makes women cannot do anything other than comply with applicable rules. Jack Maddy action to force the rope cut the uterus with the aim that Maddy is not hampered career is a form of self control female reproduction by males while liberal feminism oppose the restrictions on reproduction for having offspring is the right of every individual, and no one was allowed to prohibit or restrict. 1.1.6 Torturing sexually "Are you going to be a good girl now?" he asked, taunting her, torturing her with pleasure. "Do you promise?" "I promise," she said breathlessly. "Promise again, Mad." He was a master at what he was doing, it had taken long years of practice. "Promise me again"I promise I promise I promise I'll be good, I swear." All she wanted now was to please him, and from the distance, she knew she hated herself for it. She had sold out to him again, given herself to him again, but he was too powerful a force to resist (Steel, p. 70) From the quotation above can be stated that Jack as a husband who tries to pressure toward his wife in order to always being submissive and does not break commands which have applied by her husband. Jack reminds his wife with torturing her sexually slow by slow when having sex, in order to his wife realizes that the acts which have been done by Maddy is wrong. As Maddy's position is in inferior status and depends financially toward her husband, Jack regards her as his own property that can be treated anything. 1.1.7 Looking woman as a sexual abuse "They often lay there for a while before they went to sleep, talking about what had happened that day, the places they'd been, the people they'd met with, the parties they'd been to. As they did now, and Maddy tried to guess what the President was up to. I told you, I'll tell you when I can, stop guessing. Secrets drive me crazy, she giggled. You drive me crazy, he said, turning her gently toward him, and feeling the satin of her flesh beneath the silky nightgown (Steel, p. 15). The quotation above shows that woman still is put in inferior position. Because of her position in inferior, man always regards woman's existence as a sexual object not as a friend in helping her husband in solving the problems. From the quotation above, Maddy feels curious what is talking with her husband with the president, she tries to ask well but her husband instead say crazy to Maddy. Jack only focuses on her body which is reflected in he stops her husband's conversation which tries to ask what happens between her husband and president, Jack instead turns Maddy gently toward him, and feeling the satin of her flesh beneath the silky nightgown. 2. The Strategy woman's resistance against violence 2.1 Speak out "Have you ripped Jack's head off yet about our editorials? He grinned at her. No, but I will later, when I see him. As Jack and Maddy sped together toward Georgetown, she said to Jack "What the hell happened to our editorials? "Bullshit, Jack, they love them. Whydidn't you say something to me about it this morning?" She still looked annoyed. You never even asked me. It would have been nice to know. I think you really made the wrong decision on that one. (Steel, chapt 3: 27) The quotation above shows that Maddy tries to do refusal against Jack's treatment that suddenly stopped the editorial program which is hosted by Maddy. For Maddy, the act of Jack that has stopped the editorial program which is hosted by her is as form of individual rights violation as Jack who always created his own decisions without giving freedom his wife to speak or deliver her ideas or just giving refusal with Jack's concepts which must be runned by his wife. In working place, Jack is as a concept maker meanwhile Maddy is just a puppet that only run the duties of work from Jack without being given the opportunity to give her ideas. Maddy dare to challenge Jack the event that a decision to dismiss an editorial decision is the kind of action one dared speak against the arbitrary actions of Jack who always underestimate the ability of Maddy in guiding news event. "I'm so proud of you, Madeleine," said a soft voice Phyllis Armstrong , wife of the president. "That was a very brave thing you did, and the editorial is very necessary. It was a wonderful broadcast, Maddy." "Thank you, Mrs. Armstrong, said Maddy." (Steel, chapt 3: 32) The quotation above shows that Maddy has strengtheness against Jack's commands which acrosses with Maddy's principle. She does not want to regard herself as victim of victimhood. Although Jack has stopped the program however Maddy is not afraid to air the program without unbeknownst by Jack. Without helping from Jack's concepts, Maddy actually has power in delivering news well. It can be shown as many audiences and the president's wife commend her broadcast is very amazing. For Maddy, the struggle which has done by her toward Janet is a form of struggle as woman to help other women and also her efforts to show her existence. In the sphere of work, Maddy does not want to regulated by Jack, she wanted to be given the opportunity to organize the editorial program which is ever hosted by her. 2.2 Doing action Liberal feminism supports that every women have equal rights and freedom same as men, including freedom in making choice for reproduction. As Maddy decides to marry with Jack, she thinks that her life will brings happiness. Jack always brings luxurious gifts for Maddy, she never got abuses physically like her marriage life with Bobby Joe and her childhood life that her father always beats her and his mother. However, Jack never gives rights as individual and social beings. One of human right violation which is perpetrated by Jack to Maddy is prohibitting Maddy to have a baby that Maddy must allow her tube of uterus tied in the name of love her for Jack. "Why didn't you tell me that you'd had a visit from my daughter?" Her eyes never lefthis as she asked the question, and she saw something cold and hard come into his, a burning ember that was rapidly being kindled by anger. "Why didn't you tell me you had a daughter?" he asked just as bluntly. "What I want to know from you is why you didn't tell me that you saw her. What were you saving it for?" (Steel, 111) The quotation above shows that as a woman, Maddy wants to her existence can be regarded, a form of recognition of the existence of women by men with giving woman to create reproduction choice. From the quotation above is explained that Maddy shows her anger to Jack as he has intended Maddy to meet her daughter who has ever regarded lost. The action of Jack to Maddy can be categorized with human rights violation to have descent. Understanding that Jack never accept Lizzy's presence, Maddy does not care how Jack will respond the situation. In Maddy's mind is only Lizzy. She deserves to have a right for having a child after Jack ever loss Maddy's opportunity. As stated by Naomi Wolf that social equality is not things that are entreated from others. Women must be ready to have a place that has become their rights. Maddy realizes that she has a right to be mother without asking for permission from Jack, she still maintain her rights to regard Maddy to be her children and meets with her. The quotation can be seen below: "Where were you? Try telling me the truth this time.I was with Lizzie. Who is that?" My daughter. Oh, for God's sake," he said." (Steel, p.129). 2.3 Being Personal Autonomy "You owe me everything. And I hope you realize you'll be out of a job if you leave me." His eyes glittered like steel."Possibly. I'll let my lawyers handle that, Jack. I have a contract with the network.You can't just throw me out without notice or compensation." She had gotten braver and smarter while fighting for her life in the rubble. (185) Based on the above text can be proved that maddy had dared to oppose, and to threaten Jack behind. The quotation above explains that the woman has power to determine self, body, and mind. Maddy has shows how she is able to stand alone. For sake of happiness and pleasure, she does not let his wife to hurt her heart agains. She deseves to find her autonomous choices witthout being afraid with threats from her husband as stated by John Stuart Mill above. After she decides to leave living which is borrowed by Jack, Maddy get offers to become a broadcaster of three big television station still she thinks that it is time for her taking care her daughter and her son first. She wants to feel how being a mother thrutfully as John Stuart Mill states that women have power to determine her self, her body, and her mind. In this case Maddy wants to determine her self as a mother first, "I don't know yet. I want to go back to work, but I want to enjoy you and Andy for a while. This is my first chance, and my last, to be a full-time mother. Her lawyer was organizing a major lawsuit against Jack and his network. He owed her a huge severance for kicking her out of her job, and there was the issue of slander, malicious intent, (Steel, p. 201). She also wants to determine her body as Madelaine Beaumont. Determining self, body, and mind according his or her own wishes without getting a force from other, it means that he or she has been personal autonomy. The quotation can be seen below: "She didn't want anything more to do with Jack Hunter. Even if she went on another show again, she had decided to do so as Madeleine Beaumont." (Steel, p. 199) The quotation on 199-201 above can be explained that Maddy as an individual that has found her true identity as a woman, who ever had been despoiled by Jack, her husband. With the emergence of self confidence on Maddy cultivates an attitude of optimism in her mind that without abundant wealth from, happiness could be achieved by Maddy with is accompanied by her children. Maddy could choose to leave her husband, changes her name with using her own name and decides to work again without any coercion from others, she has personal autonomy, a autonomous decision making. Besides she has been personal autonomy, she also becomes a flourishing person that she still decides to work and she is not afraid to sue her husband and her husband networking as he had done violation toward Maddy's name. CONCLUSION The first problem is domestic violence to woman reflected. Based on the result of data analysis and discussions which have been explained on previous chapter, it is revealed that in Journey happens oppression which is perpetrated by Jack to Maddy in their marriage life in some aspects, including emotional, sexual abuses then discrimination in sphere of work. Emotional abuse is reflected in Journey including humiliation, threatening, belittling, social isolation which is committed all by the main male character to the main female character. Meanwhile sexual abuse is reflected in Journey including prohibition to have a baby by the main male character, Jack to the main female character, Maddy, forces in having sex, use torturing sexually when having sex as a punishment so that the main female character is submissive with the main male character. Discrimination in working spheres also reflected in Journey including subordination toward integrity of woman, for instance woman is considered incapable of doing anything without the concept of men's, women in this novel is described only as a performer who does things her own unsubstantiated opinion, and woman is only regarded as an benefit asset in increasing television program which is guided by the main female character. Woman in Journey need only look beautiful in a career without having to use her mind and her ability as an independent individual. In Journey, the female character, Maddy is always prosecuted for looking beautiful, elegant and not much demand to her husband. Woman does not have important role in all of spheres such as in her private life at home and in her public life at working place. The second problem is how woman resists against violence. The forms of woman's resistance which are reflected in Journey, including speak out action, act of courage to speak to her husband when finding things that are not in accordance with her conscience in addition to speak out, the main female character in Journey resists violence through doing action, against the rules which across with the principle of the main female character mind as the image of woman in Journey is reflected very dare to oppose rules which limit ability of woman in expression. As her husband still does not show change in attitude, finally the main female decides to become personal autonomy, dare to take a firm stance with which she considers leaving her husband and had trampled her dignity as a woman. In the field work, Maddy in an attempt to show her integrity dare express her opinions, and show the concept of the work which should become her responsibility. Besides she is brave to speak out, the main female character in attempt to get happiness she is brave to oppose all imposed restrictions by the main male character, Jack. Form of opposition is reflected in Journey is she keeps on airing the program of editorial, which has been banned by Jack. The main female character presents the editorial in an effort to gain public attention over the fate of other women, still socialization with her friends, and meets with her daughter although she gets refusal from her husband. Besides doing action, the female character chooses to be personal autonomy with leaving home in order to getting happiness in her life. She has successed in determining her self, her body, her thinking that she will be happy without her husband. The resistance of female character to her husband for leaving her husband is having arisen awareness in women that she can be independent in the material, social, and can decide for the direction and purpose of her life with the ability, intelligence, skills she has with supporting her friends, and her daughters. She wants to reach her dreams to achieve happiness without getting abuses, and being a mother for her daughter who is ever entrusted in baby house and a new baby whom she gets from her friend, find another men who can love her so much and understand her weakness or her excess. SUGGESTION From some of the conclusion above, the writer can propse following suggestions: a) Gender injustice can happen anytime and anywhere and overwrite both men and women in all aspects and levels of life. Therefore, there needs to be an effort to address gender inequality. b) There needs to be provision of an understanding of gender and gender inequality early on in the community both within the family, the education in school, and so forth. c) The result of this study is served as a material to conduct in-depth analysis of gender approach, especially gender inequalities that afflict women. REFERENCES Bhasin, Kamala (2000). Understanding Gender. New Delhi : Kali for Women Carter, David (2006). Literary Theory Pocket Essential. United States of America : Harpenden Denmark, Florence (2008). Psychology of Women. United States of America : Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. Dustin, Ells Howes (2009). Toward a Credible Pacifism Violence and the Possibilitties of Politics. Albany : State University of New York Press. Humm, Maggie (1986). Feminist Criticism. Women as Contemporarary Critics. United States of America : The Harverster Press. Joda A, Zubairu H, Abdulwaheed S, Giwa A, Abass R, Adidu V, Okagbue I, Balogun O (2007). Against Violence Against Women. Baobab Legal Literacy Leaflet No.1 Khan, Mehr (2000). Domestic Violence Against Women And Girl : UNICEF Innocenti Digest Lundberg, Paula K and Shelly Marmion (2006). Intimate'' Violence against Women : When Spouses, Partners, o Lovers Attack. United States of America: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. Margi, McCue Laird (2002). Domestic Violence : A Reference Handbook Contemporary World Issues. United States of America: ABC-CLIO. Tong, Rosemarie (2009). Feminist Thought. United States of America: Westview Press. Wolf, Naomi (1994). Fire With Fire, The New Female Power and How it Hill Chane the 21st Century. United States of America : Vintage. Wood, Julia T (2009). Gendered Lives Communication. Canada : Nelson Education, Ltd.
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W. BARKXEY, '04. "YARNS" 99 FRESHMAN. "THE MILL WILL NEVER GRIND WITH THE WATER THAT IS PAST" 101 LYMAN A. GUSS, '04. EDITORIALS 105 Spring Term—Senior Memorial—Catalogue. EXCHANGES 107 BOOK REVIEW . 107 74 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. TO SESTIUS. (Translatedfrom Horace.) CHAS. W. HEATHCOTB, '05. TNCLEMENT Winter melts away, lo Spring with sunny skies ~ And gentle zephyrs; sailors launch their ships again from shore Now cattle leave their stalls, and peasant quits his fire, And fields bloom with flowers where laid the snow before. By Venus led, while moon shines over head, The comely graces joined hand in hand with alternating feet Strike on the ground, while glowing Vulcan scatters fire fierce and red From the forges of the Cyclops, with repeated beat. 'Tis fit with myrtle green to crown our head Or with flowers, the earth from the fetters of Winter freed. And to sacrifice to Pan in some grassy bed, A lamb or kid if he prefers such offering feed. Death comes alike to all—to the tyrant's lofty mansion Or the cottage of the poor—his advances none can stay. Oh, happy Sestius, achieve each day some certain action, Enjoy thy life to-day with far reaching hopes away. Soon shall the grave enshroud thee and the Manes' feeble crowd And shadowy home of Pluto shut thee in, There shalt not thou cast lot for ruddy wine, Nor woo the gentle Lycidas whom all are mad to win. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 75 . NATURE IN EMERSON'S POETRY. CHARLES C. STORRICK, '02. (Graeff Prize Essay.) /V LL who are familiar with the literature of the period of ^ •*■ Queen Anne, know that it was devoid of poems based on Nature. About the time that Wordsworth came into promi-nence as a poet, an insurrection arose against the school of literature represented by Dryden and Pope. This insurrection was called "a going back to nature." Burns exemplified it in fresh and original poems, Cowper also manifested it in minute descriptions of natural objects. Compare one of Burns' or Cowper's poems with the conventional verse of the times, and the latter is completely overshadowed by the beauty and mean-ing of the new style of literature. William Wordsworth was the great head of this revolution. He endeavored not only to describe but to interpret Nature, to examine into her various forms and to discover the meaning she conveys. By communing with her he discovered that she was spiritually alive, that his own soul was not only touched and inspired by viewing her, but that the spirit animating her was similar to his own. Wordsworth's experience was the re-sult of genuine insight, and not crazy, mystical metaphysics. If we do not understand Wordsworth, we cannot hope to un • derstand and appreciate Emerson, as he was even more mys-tical and complex than Wordsworth. Emerson belongs to the same school of literature as Wordsworth. Nearly all of Emerson's poems show a love and keen under-standing of Nature; the power of interpreting her "various language, also the all absorbing joy in communing with her." The lover of Nature, he says, is he "whose inward and outward senses arc still truly adjusted to each other; who has retained the spirit of infancy even into the era of manhood. His intercourse with her becomes part of his daily food. In her presence a wild delight thrills his soul. In the woods a man casts off his years as a snake its slough, and is forever 76 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. young. Here is perpetual youth ; within these plantations of God a decorum and sanctity reign, a perennial festival is dressed, and the guest sees not how he could tire of them in a thousand years." Thus it was that Emerson beheld Nature. Let us now consider what he denned Nature to be. We can best do this by using his own definition—"Nature in the common sense refers to essences unchanged by man—space, the air, the river and the leaf. Philosophically speaking, the universe is composed of Nature and the Soul." His chief idea was that the whole universe of thought and things was a complex manifestation of a Central Unity; that "the all" was a manifestation of "the one;" man in his loftiest perceptions of Nature, communed not only with the soul ani-mating the visible universe, but also saw and felt that his own soul was identical with it. Thus the value and weight of natural objects on the mind. In the development of his thought he seems, at times, to be a pantheist, at others, a deist. He was, in truth, however, a transcendentalist. His deity is "imminent" in the universe of matter. In one of his poems he complains that many writers and scientists have lost the sense that Nature is spiritually alive. He considers Nature as a powerful teacher from whom we may learn the greatest and most beautiful truths. One of his first poems was "Good bye, Proud World." These lines were written when he was a teacher in a Boston school, and his "Sylvan Home," described in the poem, was his country boarding place, not far distant. In these lines he gave the first evidence of his intellectual and moral independence. His work of teaching seems to have been a drudgery to him, judging from the way his soul was thrilled when he escaped to the country. Then he burst forth in the exulting joy of the deliverance from his task, as follows: Oh, when I am safe in my sylvan home, I tread on the pride of Greece and Rome , And when I am stretched beneath the pines Where the evening star so holy shines, I laugh at the lore and pride of man, THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. JJ At the sophist schools and the learned clan ; For what are they all, in their high conceit, When man in the bush with God may meet? In "Wood Notes" we behold Emerson in his most rapturous mood. There is inspiration in every line. Here he is in direct contact with Nature; he throws off all the chains of conven-tionality, and sings as if he were the first and only one of his race—an Adam who has seen the growth of all things, and witnessed the creation whose secret purpose and plan he per-ceives. Here he is free from all care and worry; here is all that charms and delights; all that appeals to a poet of Nature, and his heart wells up to overflowing with praise to his God and Maker. Here he discovers that each rock, and tree, and stream gives to him some divine inspiration. The rock sug-gests firmness and stability of purpose ; the clear stream, pure-ness of life; the tree, uprightness of character. All convey to him beauty and grandeur. In the first stanza of the "Wood Notes" he says: "Caesar of his leafy Rome, There, the poet is at home." Here in the forest he imagines the trees speak to him all the living languages, conveying to his mind great and divine truths. All that is worth learning, Nature confides to him when he thus communes with her. In the poem entitled "Monadnoc" he goes forth to the moun-tain of this name and there communes with Nature. The trees relate to him great truths, and the dashing mountain streams sing to him music of angelic strains. He considered it better to live in such a place as this in a hut than in a pala-tial home in the fashionable city. The general trend of his writings goes to show that the aim of the spirit which under-lies Nature is to build up intrepid manhood in human nature. In this same poem he says the soul of Nature goes on to mould and shape better men. What is the mental mood in which the human mind, lifted above its ordinary limitations, sees into the heart of Nature ? 78 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Emerson calls it a mood of ecstacy—a sort of heavenly intoxi-cation which, while it may blind the eye of the soul to things as they appear, sharpens and brightens its perception of things as they really are. In "Bacchus" we have an example and a statement of this inspiration. "Bring me," he says: "Bring me wine, but wine which never grew In the belly of the grape * * * That I intoxicated, * * * May float at pleasure through all nations; The bird language rightly spell, And that which roses say so well." Emerson says that his ideal poet never lived. The greatest poets have only suggested here and there, the possible "Olym-pian Bard," who would sing "divine ideas" on earth without any break in the stream of his inspiration. His character would ever be on a level with his loftiest aspirations. The secret of the universe such a poet would reveal, but most poets caught only glimpses of this secret in certain moments when they saw the "Real shining through the mask of the Apparent." The mask was visible nature, the real was the soul within and behind it. He sees in Nature an exemplification of the doctrine of the "survival of the fittest." What we call evil he considers to be often the greatest good. "Evil is good in the making, not a positive substance, but a mere imperfection of good." "If one shall read the future of the race hinted in the organic effort of Nature to mount and meliorate, and the corresponding impulse to the Better in the human being, we shall dare affirm that there is nothing he will not overcome and convert, until at last cul-ture shall absorb the chaos and gehenna. He will convert the Furies into Muses, and the hells into benefits." Passing by Emerson's poetic philosophy of Nature and man, and the poems which represent it, he is still the author of some short poems which are admirable and beautiful. Such are, "Each and All," "The Rhodora," "The Seashore," "The Snow-storm," "The Humble-bee" and "Forerunners." In the last of ■ THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 79 these he tells us of his joyous and resolute pursuit of unattain-able beauty. He ever abhorred the ugly. No poet was ever more susceptible to the beautiful. In Nature he saw beauty re-alized. He felt, like his own humble bee, an abhorrence of "Aught unsavory or unclean." In his poem, called the "Sea-shore," he sees beauty in Nature which far outranks that of Art. The sculpture far outranks that of Phidias. The beauties of the sunset and sunrise are far more beautiful in Nature than those the artist has portrayed on his canvas. The dewdrop, glittering in the morning sun, far outshines the beauty of the ruby or diamond. The fantastic shape of the drifted snow and the beauty of the flakes microscopically viewed are beauty real-ized. The pure whiteness of the snow signifies true nobility and strength of character. The music of the sea and forest stream is far sweeter than that of the sad Orpheus. Emerson is truly a poet of Nature. In the woods and fields his soul leaps up in joy and he is awed by the majesty and mystery of Nature. Here all is pure and not polluted by "the traces of vulgar feet." Destroy his poems on Nature and we have, in fact, destroyed them all, or at least the best and most attractive of his poems. This was his only theme—Nature its mysteries and grandeur. From her he obtained all his wis-dom and learning. To be perfect as Nature was his ideal. »-'T^ How glorious is man ; how high his power! The fairest diadem of things that are, Who sees his Maker's beauty in the flower, His greatness in each planet and bright star. To man all animals submission pay, To him the elements in homage bend, And nature owns his universal sway, That they with him might their due honor send To God's refulgent throne, and ever raise Through him their voices loud, hymning eternal praise. —JOHN B. FAY in Georgetown College Journal. 8o THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. THE LIFE THAT IS RECORDED. FRED. G. MASTERS, '04. "*l'| '•HE great are only great because we are on our knees • ^ let us rise up."—PRUDHOMME. "From the lowest depth there is a path 'to the loftiest heights.' "—CARLYLE. The subject, The Life That Is Recorded, stands in contra-diction to other life that is unrecorded. By the recorded life we mean that life which has been of so much importance in the world that its achievements will be perpetuated for ages in the best literature. Do we mean to include the records of the majority of lives as published in the newspapers of the day? No! At the present time we may believe just about one third of what we read in our dailies. One can travel the path of learning but a very short distance without hearing the names of such men as Solomon, Nero, Caesar, Paul, Plato, Homer, Virgil, Horace, Shakespeare, Milton, Voltaire, Washington. It is the lives of such men, men whose achievements are written in capital letters in the world's history, that we wish to speak of in this paper. Men are prone to recognize qualities of greatness in a man, whether this greatness be for the uplifting of humanity or for tearing it down. He who would have his life recorded must be a genius indeed. He must be made of different dust from the generality of men. He must have a spirit that brooks no opposition, and stands waiting every opportunity to go a step higher. Why is the lifework of Shakespeare recorded ? Is it because he was the first dramatist of any note that wrote in the English language, or is it because he was the greatest ? It is for the latter reason that scarcely a day passes without our hearing of the Bard of the Avon. He has given us masterpieces in their line. His works are read with increased interest as we become familiar with them. He has depicted for us human life as no other author ever did. Milton, sitting alone in darkness, gave THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 8l us his Paradise Lost. Bunyan, languishing in jail at Bedford, wrote his famous allegory, Pilgrim's Progress. It is men of this kind who make their names immortal, men who are burn-ing with the intensity of their subject, men who feel that they have a mission to perform, and consequently do it with all their might. Let us not think that good men alone have become great. The greatest villians of history have their names written side by side with the benefactors of mankind. Judas is known throughout the world. But, alas, for what? For having betrayed a kind and loving Saviour for money. Charles IV has become famous. For what ? For having ordered the most bloody slaughter of his fellow men that the civilized world has ever seen. Benedict Arnold is known to every schoolboy. He is not spoken of because of his heroic conduct at Quebec, but because of his base desertion of his native country, then struggling for freedom and justice. And so we might go on speaking of both the good and the bad, telling why their names are recorded. It is much more pleasant to hear good of men than bad, hence we would confine ourself to the good record rather than the bad. We see, in history, that men have become eminent and in-fluential, not by force of circumstance, but by energy and in-dustry. Especially in our own country do we see those who have sprung from the lowest walks of life, occupying positions of the greatest honor and trust. We see Lincoln, coming from the log-cabin in Kentucky, flashing upon the public gaze like a meteor. But, mark you, his achievements, up until the time he became president, were by no means meteoric. They were the results of persistent labor and a high aspiration. Other men might be mentioned, as having sprung from similar en-vironments ; such as Garfield, Webster, Rittenhouse, Carnegie, Edison, Black, Franklin, Clay, and others. As we have already remarked, it cannot be mere chance and genius that have thrust men before the gaze of their fellows, and will cause them to maintain the same enviable position for centuries. The man who is not willing to work and to strain 82 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. every nerve to accomplish a definite end, need not hope for success and probably an epitaph written in the world's history. To borrow an expression, we dare not lie on our backs and hug the delusive phantom, Genius, trusting it, alone, to work out our destiny for us. In all things, as in literature, native bent or genius is not sufficient. It must be combined with culture and discipline. Man is what he is by effort, and not by nature. Water is raised above the level of the original fountain by artificial means, and so man raised himself above the level of ordinary humanity by artificial means. Nature favors certain ones, it is true, but she is far more impartial than we give her credit for. The life of a great man is a continual struggle, it matters not what character he is playing in life's great drama, whether he be a poet or a statesman, a Washington or a Bunyan, it is equally arduous. We are sure to encounter rivalries if we come to be of any importance at all. A revelation of this kind awaits every young man who leaves his quiet, sheltered home, to enter the lists and engage in the strifes of men. He will find himself on the edge of the whirlpool of fierce contemplations. He may have been unduly flattered at home. Possessing unusual natural ability, he may have been even first in his native vil-lage. How dwarfed seem his own pitiful accomplishments, when once he has been ushered into the fierce competition of the larger world, in the presence of his more gifted fellows—men of brilliant intellect and high attainment. Holland says : "A young man will not be noticed until he becomes noticeable, and he will not become noticeable until he has done something to prove that he has an absolute value in society." To attain to true greatness one must have confidence in the possibilities that lie before him. The actual is what is, what may be is the possible. The actual and the possible of things are widely separated. They bear not the faintest resemblance to each other. We are too easily satisfied with what we are, and what we have already done. Men are too prone to rest on the actual. Men like Lincoln are the exceptions, but the THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 83 actual rail-splitter was the possible president. Probably every man feels that, in a sense, he is not what he ought to be, and what he might have been. He has let slip many opportunities t he has wasted many precious moments, he has listened to many evil suggestions, and can recall many failures. Many men in perfect health have made a miserable failure in life. Such men may well be shamed by the recital of what others have accomplished in illness and even in the very shadow of death- Milton, though blind, wrote "Paradise Lost." Greene wrote his "History of the English People" while suffering with an in-curable disease. We should seek to know, first of all, what our strong points are, and where our greatest power lies; and then seek to de-velop ourselves along those lines. A man can do at least one thing well, and failures come from trying to do some other thing. Never confuse Ambition and Presumption. Ambition, which leads to the greatest success ofttimes, is worthy of all praise; Presumption, which leads a man to try what he is not fitted for, is folly. Many a first-class carpenter, who might have become an architect of renown, has frittered his life away as a third class professional man. Many a poor preacher might have amassed a princely fortune in the business world. The value of discipline is incalculable. We are unable to exercise authority over others before we have conquered our-selves. Why does the educated man have an advantage in the competitions of life? Surely it is not on account of the names, dates, formula, etc., that he learned in school. These slip away from him with rapidity that is surprising. What is it, then, that gives him his powers to rise ? It is training, discipline. He is able to seize mens' problems and master them, because of demands made upon him, in the course of his training, which required a certain grasp and quickness. How many, many men are toiling, hard and earnestly, for a place on the world's honor roll ? How many have elements of greatness in them, and genius, which, unassisted by the things mentioned in the preceding paragraph, have not been devel-oped ? 84 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Let each one of us strive to cultivate in himself qualities, which, if they do not lend immortality to his name, will show our fellowmen that we have not lived in vain, that we have not been mere cumberers of the ground. Let us go forth, then, "to meet the shadowy future without fear and with a manly heart." Let us neglect no opportunity, spare no pains, submit to no discouragement. This done, we may say to Fortune: "Smile and we smile, the lords of many lands ; frown, and we smile, the lords of our own lands ; for man is man, and master of his fate." VESPERS. Dim shadows stretch along the hills, Her first shy note the wood thrush trills, • . In sweet alarm ; The lowing cattle homeward stray ; 'Tis twilight hour—the lingering day Hath lost her charm. Afar chime sweetly vesper bells ; The gathering gloom their anthem swells And peace bestows ; A dreamy echo, faint but fair, O'er evening throws the hush of prayer, Full, calm repose. —HAROU> E. WII^ON, in Wesleyan Lit. A MEMORY. The rustle soft of silk and lace, The fragrant blossoms falling slow, The moon's white light and thy dear face, So many years ago ! Before mine eyes stand now as then, Because I chance to see Our names deep-carved in that old bench Beneath the cherry tree. —1,. v. R. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 85 » , "KITTY." C. B. Gr,ADFEI,TER, '04. f t TT£ ITTY, dear, do you sec that beautiful green valley, **" flecked with white cottages, while beyond, the river, like a .stream of molten silver, flows rapidly on toward the falls ?" inquired Mr. George Wellington, as he turned his gaze from the glimpses of beautiful scenery which presented them-selves from the carriage window, and addressed his wife, who was the only occupant of the vehicle, beside himself. "I'll bet I do! It's high, aint it? It just knocks everything I ever see in the shape of stunnin' scenery! White Mountains can't hold a candle—" There is no telling how much farther the lady would have carried her extravagance of can't phraseology, had she not been suddenly checked by her husband. "Kitty, my dear, I cannot listen to such language as yours, which I assure you is highly improper for a lady or gentleman to make use of. You may be able to appreciate and admire the beauties of nature, yet if you cannot express your thoughts and comparisons in more lady-like and more becoming and elegant language, you had better remain silent. When I first saw you four months ago, and falling in love with your pretty face and comely form, asked you to become my wife, and took you from the humble position of a farmer girl to make you the wife of George Wellington, I had no doubt that with your ex-cellent disposition and willingness to be taught, I should soon be able to eradicate those blemishes of education common among girls of your former position ; and also to give up those "can't terms, " or "slang phrases," which I may say is the only bad habit to which you are addicted," said her husband, firmly, yet kindly. "Well, now, I'm sorry you're so tender-eared, but I can't go dictionary talk. You sail in on big jaw-breakers like a horse> but you see, I never had such schoolin'," she retorted feelingly "It is not the simplicity or plainness of your language o 86 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. which I object," he continued, "and I can also overlook your ignorance of the rules of grammar, which you may easily learn ; but I dislike your "slang terms," which mar the effect of nearly every sentence you utter. If you wish, I will illustrate my meaning plainly." "Go in," she exclaimed. " 'Go in' is a phrase which no lady will make use of when it has no reference to the subject of her conversation." "Up a tree, again, am I ?" "Why do you say, 'up a tree ?' It has no meaning as you used it." "I can't see it. You're too minceing. Talk English, I say; go the whole hog." "Will you reflect previous to speaking, Kitty, and be very careful ?" "Yes, I'll put in all I know how." "Why not have said, you would try ?" "That's played out. I'd rather do a thing than be keeping books on a thing I can-not do, try all I can muster. Puttin' on airs is a thing I de-spise," she remarked, more earnestly than grammatically. "You are incorrigible," he returned. "That's so," she re-plied, as if the subject, as well it might, was becoming distaste-ful to her. "Kitty, I have no desire to cause you a moment's pain," he continued, kindly, "but I must request you to use language be-fitting a lady, for if you should utter such phrases as you have made use of since our marriage, and which I have repeatedly requested you to abstain from, to no purpose, it will cause me vast mortification, and I shall feel far from proud to introduce you to my relatives and friends in the city whither we are going, and where I had hoped to bring a mistress who should preside with beauty and refinement in the mansion at 264 N. Centre St., C—, which is being put in readiness to receive us." "Do you want me to put a stopper on my mouth for a whole term ? If you mean so, sail in and say so," she replied, evi-dently with the intention of letting the matter drop, and her husband, who seemed to think it a hopeless case, was also THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 87 silent, and the subject was not alluded to again during the journey. ******* * Mr. George Wellington had returned to the city and had brought home a wife, who, while she was very beautiful and graceful, and dressed with taste, could not speak a loud word, in fact, "did not utter a syllable above a whisper." So said the neighbors, who had called upon Mr. Wellington and lady, and as the story was in everybody's mouth, it cer-tainly must be true. The visitors had undertaken to hold conversation with Mrs. Wellington, and although she was not deaf, and could under-stand perfectly all that was said to her, yet she was obliged to answer them by way of her maid, Crete, who first listened to the words of her mistress, uttered in a faint whisper, and then repeated them to the ladies that had called. This method, of course, was not approved by the "fashionable world," or that portion of it which resided in the vicinity of Mr. Wellington's residence, for several reasons. In the first place, it did not please the ladies who conversed with Mrs. Wellington to ad-dress themselves to the servant, in order to reach that lady's ears, for they sometimes forgot that Mrs. Wellington was not deaf, and seemed to speak as well as listen to the words of Crete, who was well educated and conversed with an elegance and purity of diction remarkable for a domestic; and, in the second place, it did not give them an opportunity to draw out family secrets, so as to ascertain Mrs. Wellington's social standing at G— previous to her marriage with the renowned lawyer; for had it been known that she "was nothing but a farmer girl," not of that circle of "aristocratic" ladies who were so profuse in their compliments and good wishes, not one would have ever honored the new wife with their visits. But the lady's anteced-ents were all in the dark, and rumor asserted that she was the "daugher of an English banker," so that all gossip concerning her right of admission to their "set" was soon dispersed. It must be admitted that the strange conduct of his wife, in refusing to speak aloud or to hold any conversation with guests, 88 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. save with Crete as "interpreter," was a matter of surprise to Mr. Wellington; but his questionings were all in vain, and threats were useless, as Mrs. Wellington still persisted in "keep-ing mum" as she elegantly expressed it in whispered accent. A few months after, Mr. Wellington was startled and pleased to hear his wife conversing in rather loud and cheerful tones, and by the animated accents he judged that something had at last induced his wife to resume her former tones, and at the same time, he noticed that her language was free from all "slang phrases" and was quite befitting a lady. Unable to ex-plain this sudden change, he entered the parlor and found his wife engaged in lively conversation with a mutual friend. After the visitor had left he quickly asked Mrs. Wellington the reason of her sudden resumption of voice, and also her motive in cor-recting her language, which was the most pleasing circum-stance of the two, he smilingly observed. "Louis," she re-plied, addressing him by his family name, "I will confess all. I knew my use of 'can't phrases' arid 'slang terms' was a habit which was in my power to overcome If it vexed you, it was distressing to myself, and I soon formed a plan for its cure. I sent for an old friend of mine, Crete Martin, to whom I con • fided my plan, and she promised to assist me, for besides in-structing me how to speak and how to avoid loose expressions, she volunteered to become my 'interpreter' to all who called, providing I would remain silent or not speak above a whisper, and to her only. This plan was put into execution, and you, dearest husband, have seen the result." "How can I express my pleasure, oh, dearest of wives?" passionately asked the hus-band. "By forgiving me for the harmless ruse I have made use of to effect my cure of the "lingual disease" and by confessing that you are not sorry that you married the little 'farmer girl,' " replied his wife. The fashionable friends of Mr. and Mrs. Wellington were astonished to hear of the lady's recovery of her voice, but they never heard Kitty Wellington make use of any "slang phrases." THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 89 THE ROMAN EMPIRE TAKEN AS A MODEL FOR THE PAPAL EMPIRE. D. MONTFORT MEIXHtOR, '02. T^fANY people are amazed at the greatness of the Catholic A*A Church, wonder at its strength, power and firmness. We all know how amid the strife, contention and turmoil of Protestant Churches the Roman Catholic Church moves on without a ripple to disturb the placid calmness of its govern-ment. The great question with many people is why this should be the case with this one church and not with the rest. A great deal of dissatisfaction is expressed and complaint made about wranglings in the Protestant Churches; and the Papal Empire is upheld as a model and criticism of perfect church manage-ment. It is not that Protestantism is weak, but that Catholi-cism is strong. Rome has been regarded the greatest model of perfect gov-ernment the world has ever known. From 754 B. C. to the fall of the Eastern Empire, in 1452 A. D., Rome or its equiva-lent tried almost all kinds of government imaginable, and not until the time of the Empire did it show its maximum of true strength and irresistable power. In her earlier history when Rome was acknowledged all powerful, and when there were no other formidable powers to oppose her, it was a comparatively small matter to be ruler of the world. But to call itself the mightiest of world powers and then defend that title against the rest of a civilized and strengthened world was another mat-ter. The republic in a comparatively short time failed to at-tain the ideal of strength, owing, at first, to a lack of centrali-zation of power and afterwards to the high-handed measures of the Triumvirate. When Octavianus assumed supreme rulership he had to face the problem of founding the mightiest nation the world had ever seen. And even under him and his immediate successors Rome did not attain its summum of strength and greatness— 9o THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. at least in firmness of civil organization. It remained for Diocletian and Constantine to establish a sytsem of government the principles of which could well defy all other forms of rule ever attempted. When yet a youth it was prophesied by a Druidess that Diocletian should at some time be emperor, and consequently throughout his early life he always kept this ambitious end in view. When he did ascend the throne, vigorous measures were necessary to get the Empire under his direct control, and ere long the Senate was deprived of its powers, and everything was brought under his immediate control. One writer says, he instituted a variety of forms at court, which precluded access to his throne, and entrusted the care of his palace to the vigilance of eunuchs; required every subject, even the highest rank, to fall prostrate to the ground, and to approach him as a divinity; ordained them to even kiss his feet, and had his shoes for the purpose of this ceremony, em-broidered with gold and studded with precious stones. To quote from Morey, "To exalt the person of the emperor was one of the first objects of the reforms of Diocletian. This prince assumed the diadem of the East, and the approach to his person was rendered difficult by complicated ceremonies. Every means was used to prevent any detraction from the im-perial honor and sanctity." But ere long Diocletian found his throne threatened by pre-tenders, and feeling the need of an assistant, "Diocletian had associated with himself in the government his companion in arms, Maximian ; and under the name of 'Augusti' these two persons had divided between them the Eastern and Western provinces. Each Augustus also chose an associate under the name of 'Caesar.'" Thus all the Roman provinces were grouped into four great territorial divisions. This formed the basis of the provincial system of Constantine, who not only perfected the territorial organization of the empire, but also separated the civil from the military authority. For purposes of civil administration the whole empire was THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 91 divided into four great praefccturcs each under its own governor called a Pretorian Praefect. The praefecture was divided into dioceses each under an officer called a Vicar. Each diocese was subdivided into provinces under officers called Presidents or Consulors. Each governor represented in his own dominion the Imperial authority. By the hierarchy of civil officers thus established the government of the Roman territory was reduced to the most systematic organization." This was the key note of the great success of the empire as a civil organization under Diocletian and his successors. Let us now turn to the Papal Empire. In organizing itself the Church followed the model of the Empire, the ecclesiastical divisions conforming to those of the civil administration. In the organization of the Roman Empire we have had at its head the Emperor, who was all supreme, and whose decisions were never questioned; in the Papal Empire we have the Pope, whose commands are regarded as the commands of God; in the Ro-man Empire we had directly under the Emperor 4 Prastorian Prsefects, each ruling over a Prefecture; in the Papal Empire, next in authority to the Pope, are the 4 Cardinals, correspond-ing to the Vicars of the Roman Empire; we have in the Papal Empire the Archbishops; where there were Presidents or Con-sulars in the Roman Empire, there are in the Papal Empire bishops. Thus we notice that the outline of the two great sys-tems is the same. In every respect the Papal Empire modeled itself after the Roman Empire. They went hand in hand for a long time—the one claiming the highest authority in spiritual affairs, the other in temporal affairs. Myers says: "Nor was this advantage lost when misfortune befell the imperial city. Thus the removal by Constantine of the seat of government to the Bosphorus, instead of diminish-ing the power and dignity of the Roman bishops, tended pow-erfully to promote their claims and authority. In the phrase of Dante, 'it gave the shepherd room.' It left the Pontiff the fore-most personage of Rome." Imperial Rome was gone, but the Pope, modeling his rule after that of the abdicated Imperium, placed in its stead Papal Rome. 92 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "If the misfortunes of Rome tended to the enhancement of the reputation and influence of the Roman bishops, much more did the downfall of the Capital tend to the same end. Upon the surrender of the sovereignty of the West into the hands of the Emperor of the East, the bishops of Rome be-came the most important persons in Western Europe, and, be-ing so far removed from the Court at Constantinople, gradually assumed almost imperial powers. They became the arbiters between barbarian chiefs and the Italians, and to them were re-ferred for decision the disputes arising between cities, states and kings. It is easy to see how directly and powerfully these things tended to strengthen the authority and increase the in-fluence of the Roman See." As in the Roman Empire the Emperor was always appealed to as the highest authority in cases of civil strife, so "all cases might be appealed from the courts of the bishops and arch-bishops of the different European countries to the Papal See, which then became the court of last resort in all cases affecting ecclesiastics or concerning religion. The Pope thus came to be regarded as the fountain of justice, and the supreme judge of Christendom, while emperors and kings and all civil magistrates bore the sword simply as his ministers to carry into effect his sentences and decrees." Thus we see that in looking at an outline of the Roman Empire and the Papal Empire they are identical. Easily is it demonstrated that the Papal Empire was modeled directly after the Roman Empire, and that it js through this fact it has at-tained its excellence as a religious institution. "THE man that hath no music in himself, Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, Is fit for treasons, stratagems and spoils ; And his affections, dark as Erebus ; Let no such man be trusted." —SHAKESPEARE. ■ THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 93 ALEXANDER HAMILTON. W. W. BAKXEY, '04. g^UR Revolutionary fathers were heroes. The mighty con- ^■^ flict they waged for eight long years was filled with deeds of bravery and loyal sacrifice unparalleled in the history of ancient or modern times. Their struggle was long and hard, but they fought with an unflinching determination to free themselves forever from the stern hand of European tyranny and monarchy. They won; they at last realized the dream of the ages, the overthrow of iron-handed despotism with its host of god born kings and titled nobles. It was the death-blow to all those grinding customs and petty systems which had been the curse of nations for many ages, and the glorious establish-ment of the free and equal rights of all men upon the American Continent. What a victory! what a far-reaching stride along the path of civilization! Ours is the legacy to enjoy and main-tain. Rich and blessed is our heritage, the grandest and most perfect government upon the face of the globe. Esteemed and honored everywhere is the man who proudly bears the name of American. The soldier of seventy-six was pre eminently a destroyer. He touched with the fire-brand all that impeded the natural growth and unrestricted development of his country. He laid the axe at the root of the tree of British sovereignty. Glowing with red-hot indignation at his country's wrong, burning with an eager desire for freedom, he shouldered the musket and went forth to conquer or to die, a sacrifice upon the altar of a country's righteous cause, the bravest of the brave and the truest of the true! His work was destruction. Washington was the greatest destroyer of them all, and with him stood Patrick Henry, who thrilled assemblies crying aloud for "liberty or death;" Thomas Jefferson, mighty with the pen, and the ar-dent Samuel Adams, stirring the heart of anxious New Eng-land. England's grip on her prized colonies was loosed, leaving 94 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. them in the full and complete possession of liberty. The wor of destruction was finished. The larger work began the task of the Constitution. The Revolution was ended, but a more haz-ardous war remained, the war for the union and integrity of the States. A temple had to be erected for liberty to dwell in. Our fathers builded and they builded better than they knew. Chief among American builders was Alexander Hamilton. After the lapse of over a hundred years, free from prejudice, envy, and hate, we can look back with national pride upon the colossal grandeur of his character and declare him to be the noblest, the surest, the most profound of all the architects of our government. Next to Washington, he deserves to be classed at the very head of America's greatest statesmen. He was indeed a political giant. His figure stands out in bold out-line above all others. The whole of Europe has proclaimed him to be the ablest jurist and statesman ever produced in America. In thoroughness of scholarship, in extent and depth of knowledge, in profundity of research, in wisdom and judg-ment in application, Hamilton can be equaled by no man ever connected with the conduct of our nation's affairs. After being tried and tested for more than a century of time, the republic stands firmer, steadier, stronger than ever before. Politically, industrially and commercially, Hamilton has helped more than any man to make us what we are, and as the years recede this fact continues to grow clearer and obtains a more complete recognition from the American people. He placed the stamp of his influence and genius upon the character of our institu-tions never to be erased, and out of the greatest crisis which ever befell a country, he brought forth harmony, unity and system. As a boy, Hamilton was precocious and ambitious. Very early in life he showed signs of future greatness. Intense ap-plication of an already fertile mind to all his school and col-lege tasks fitted him for the larger work before him. While yet a mere boy he was grappling with weighty problems of state and government. Almost immediately at the beginning of the Revolution he THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 95 became Washington's trusty aid-de-camp. All through those dark and troublous days, which sorely tried the honored gen-eral's soul, Hamilton was constantly by his side to advise and encourage, to write all his official papers and to act as his diplomat in cases which involved mighty and often uncertain issues. Truly he was the war complement of Washington. He solved the most knotty problems. "He interpreted the past, understood the present, and divined the future." Who will say that his sound judgment and keen foresight did not contribute largely to the final outcome of the war? The condition of the country at the close of the Revolution is well known to every student of American history. A hungry, ragged, unpaid army, a ruined national credit, a bank-rupt treasury, a disordered finance, a distracted commerce, thirteen ghastly States, groping about in the darkness like ghastly spectres in a graveyard with nothing to guide them but the despised articles of confederation and a wretched Congress with power to devise but none to enforce. No executive, no judiciary! A nation free but none to guide! "One today; thirteen to-morrow." Oh, the misery and the dilapidated con-dition of the colonies at the end of the Revolution ! Independ-ence, but no union! It was a crisis, terrible and momentous. Not until the wise men of eighty-seven came together in convention was there anything accomplished. Then the Con-stitution was born. Read our history and you will learn that in the work of that assembly, and in the framing of that instru-ment, Hamilton led, and the very skeleton itself of that great Supreme Law is the fruit of wisdom. The convention ad-journed and placed the work of their hands before the bar of the people. They howled, and cried, "Monarchy," "Tyranny," "Aristocracy," "Centralization." The States cried out against the loss of any of their so-called rights. At this juncture Hamilton came forward in the Federalist. He argued, he pleaded, he persuaded, he overcame popular prejudice, and was victorious in the adoption of the Constitution by the States in eighty-nine. Guizot declares, "There is not in the Constitution of the 96 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. United States an element of order, of force, of duration which Hamilton has not powerfully contributed to introduce into it and give it predominance." In these words he spoke but the world's sentiment. All remember Hamilton's faithful services at the head of the Treasury Department in Washington's administration. Imagine the chaos and confusion, ruin and disorder, at this stage in our history. Upon this state of affairs he turned the full light of his well-balanced mind and out came plans and schemes, order and system. The debt was cleared away, the national bank established, the nation's credit restored, and the country began to prosper. It was marvelous and astounding! Upon the dead skeleton of a paper constitution he put flesh and blood and nerves, and into it he breathed the breath of life and it be-came a living, working organism. What a miracle! He had tested the machinery of the government and proved it prac-tical. None have paid Hamilton a higher tribute than Web-ster. "He smote the rock of national resources and abundant streams of revenue burst forth; he touched the dead corpse of the public credit and it sprang upon its feet." All that is good in our financial history for a hundred years, and more, can be traced directly to the creative mind of Hamilton; all that is poor and unsteady can be found in violation of the principles outlined in the Hamiltonian policy. Surely this Hamilton was a true, a manly man, a genuine patriot, a powerful statesman, and the glorious benefactor of a nation mighty and respected among the powers of the earth. He stood for an idea, and that idea was a representative de-mocray with strong central powers. He abhored that monster, States' Rights. He said, "Down with the States and up with the nation;" "We the people," and not "We the States." When Daniel Webster uttered that memorable speech in Congress in reply to Hayne, "Liberty and union now and forever, one and inseparable," it was only the reverberation of Hamilton's warn-ing. When Stephen A. Douglas was crying out for Squatter Sovereignty, he did it in violation of the Hamiltonian principle. And when Abraham Lincoln set free four millions of slaves 1 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 97 * with one stroke of the pen, he was only advancing the doctrine laid down by Hamilton fifty years before. The Civil War was Hamilton's war; its victory, his victory. At Gettysburg, he, as well as Meade, led the hosts for the Union ; at Appomattox, he, as well as Grant, received the sword from the grim-visaged Lee. Oh, that his words of warning had been heeded long before they were proved righteous and correct in that disastrous civil feud. Perhaps the war might have been averted. Neces-sary, or not necessary, we ought to thank God for the down-fall of Southern slavery and the maintenance of our country in-tact. April 9, 1865, marks the dying day of States' Rights, and the complete vindication of the government at Washington. The Union still stands, one and inseparable. To-day we can boast of forty-five States and six Territories, solid and compact as the Macedonian Phalanx, stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, bound together by the unbreakable bonds of like lan-guage, customs, and laws, eighty millions of people welded to-gether in unity with common interests and mutual feelings of love and sympathy. Sectional hatred and bitterness have long since died away. The North and the "South are no more. When the late call came for troops to fight Spain in behalf of her suffering, maltreated subjects, the soldiers of Georgia and Alabama marched side by side with the boys from New Hamp-shire and Vermont, General Joe Wheeler linked arms with General Miles, and all advanced abreast, oblivious of the past, mindful only of the struggle for Cuba's holy cause. Alexander Hamilton has passed away, but the principles for which he strove still live and they will continue to live so long as the United States keeps moving onward and upward in the path of righteousness and sound government. Here was a man of destiny. This republic of ours was his master ideal, this government, the substance of his political thought. His services were distinctly national, and it was the aim of his whole life to harmonize, and solidify, and unify the country. Oh, the strength, the grandeur, the power and might of 98 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. America! One to-day, one to-morrow, and may she remain one, firm and steady, until she has fulfilled the whole mission for which God intended her! America, the leader,the civilizer, the Christianizer of the whole world! America, united, "The land of the free and the home of the brave!" THS BELI/. IN the early gray of morning When in dreamland far you stray, Far away from books and lessons And the tasks of every day, You are suddenly awakened, Roused from slumber's drowsy spell By a most unearthly clatter— The unwelcome rising bell. If you're trying hard to scribble Just a line to Jack or Paul, And you think you'll surely finish Ere the postman makes his call; When you're midway in your missive And you've lots of news to tell— Then your roommate shouts, "Oh, Nellie! Eton't you hear the breakfast bell ?" When you're deep in some good story, And the hero of the tale Is involved in awful peril And his plans seem sure to fail; You will hear a sound familiar, An impatient ting-a-ling— At the most absorbing moment, Then the school bell's sure to ring. But when you're in recitation And you know the lesson well, All except the last two pages And you're yearning for the bell From the horrors of a zero Kind deliverance to bring Ere the teacher swoops upon you— Then the bell will never ring. E. H. R. in The College Folio. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 99 "YARNS." FRESHMAN. ^^NE day, this Winter, one of the professors of this institu- ^^ tution agreed to go skating with me. We followed the railroad, which was the nearest way to the pond to which we were going, when we came to a trestle over which we had to pass. This trestle suggested to the professor's mind a story. I will not vouch for its truth, but will say that this and the other stones following were really told. "This trestle," he said, "reminds me of one which I had to cross one time. As I was crossing it I was very much alarmed to find that a train was approaching and was so near that I could not possibly get to the other side of the trestle before the train would overtake me. I had to think very quickly and at once saw that the only thing for me to do was to drop down and hold on the railroad ties with my hands. But it so hap-pened that my one hand was hurt so that I had to hold on only by the other. However, since that was my only possible way of saving my life, I had to drop and hold on until the train had passed." I thought that this was a very good "yarn," but felt that I ought not to be outdone, and so I said: "Well, that may be true, but I had a much more thilling ad-venture one time. It was when I was out in the Rocky Moun-tains. I had come to a very long trestle and was crossing it- It was a bitter cold day and I was hurrying to get to my desti-nation. Nevertheless, I was delayed by an unlooked-for occur rence. A train was rapidly coming on and I was in great peril, for I, like you, could not possibly reach the end of the trestle in time to save myself as you did, for I had in my hands some very valuable packages. Although there was a great deal of water below I felt that in- order to escape the train, which was almost upon me, I would have to jump. You know how your tongue will adhere to iron or steel on a cold day ? Well, as I jumped I thought of this and quickly put out my IOO THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. tongue. As soon as it touched the bottom of the rail, the rail held it and there I hung, held only by my tongue, until the train had passed. I then put my package on the track and having climbed up, went on my way." This was almost too much for the professor, -but he was ready for me and said: "Why, that was nothing at all. I was once in the same predicament. I was on a trestle, a train was coming, I could not get across and I had four valuable packages in my hands. I saw that I would have to jump and at once did so, but my collar button caught on the lower part of the rail and held me until the train passed when I managed to crawl up to the track." Now, these stories may sound a little "fishy," but when you consider that a professor and I told them, I think you will put a little belief in them. However, they helped to pass the time and made us feel in good enough spirits to enjoy the skating immensely. MEMORIES. THE night creeps on. From off the still gray shore A heavy fog rolls in, and seems to shroud The world about me in a murky cloud. Of darkness, such as ne'er was felt before. In my very soul the shadows pour Their sober gloom; in loneliness low-bowed, My spirit faints before a clinging crowd Of memories—of days that are no more. But hark! A strain of music threads the gloom, And like a ray from heaven doth swift reveal My mother dear, singing that song one night, While summer moon-beams flooded all the room. Ah, once again her loving glance I feel, Sweet benediction—all is peace and light. —MINNIE B. MORRISON. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. IOI "THE MILL WILL NEVER GRIND WITH THE WATER THAT IS PAST." LYMAN A. GUSS, '04. ^3^7"HAT is man? Man is two things. First, he is clay ^ * and destined to die. Secondly, he is spirit and des-tined to live. But man is only a singular being and hence must involve these two seemingly separate forms of existence. The first idea associates man with time; the second with eter-nity. Concerning the latter we have no interest so far as material gain and human achievements go. Concerning the former we have the supremest interest, both in regard to worldly advancement and spiritual salvation; for the first stage is but a stepping-stone to the second. To man is granted to know the present and the past, but with reference to the future he may only conjecture. In truth does not even the proverbial saying limit this privilege by proclaiming: "Boast not thyself of to-morrow; for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth." So recasting our former proposition it may be said with equal propriety, The mill will only grind with the water that is present. Man is the mill; the grinding of the mill is his influence and life product; and the water is time. Philosophers would tell us-that there is no present; that there is no mental ground between past and future. They would thereby make time contradict itself. Man acts only in the present, and his work is over as soon as transition from present to past occurs. He has never accomplished anything in the future. The world was made in present time, even in the twinkling of an eye. The God of the universe spoke and the earth was. Every separate act of any kind, simple or complex, contributing perhaps to the completion of some great work is always done in the present—never in the past, never in the future. O Time, defacer of the sculptured stone, Destroyer grim of all things here below— The clay-built cottage and the princely throne By thee are laid, without distinction, low ! 102 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Without a pause thou run'st thy swift career, Within king man does not perceive 'tis so ; He hopes another and another year Till death, unlooked for, strikes the fatal blow. In mail like thine my being ever shall Of Life's bright Present wear its coronal." But let us assume a somewhat broader view; let us consider the present as a day, as a month, or even as a year, and pass unnoticed the record of our acts upon the slate of time until at the end of one of these periods, when a retrospection will reveal the employment of our time, putting on the one side our good deeds, on the other side the bad. Then it is, when an attempt is made to counterbalance these two accounts, that we will comprehend the value of diligence and good works. To-day, this hour, even this minute is the time to act. To-day form your ideals, arouse your ambition, and with all the po-energy of your soul strive to realize them. He who covets success must face obstacles almost unsurmountable, must suffer hardships almost beyond endurance, and must overcome the strongest of opposition with an iron will. Failures are but stepping-stones to greater effort. Let every one have a definite aim, and, having made a firm decision, let him push straight forward to the goal, in order that he may utilize in a profitable manner and to the best of his ability the allotment given him by Father Time, remembering that "Time and tide wait for no man," and that "The mill will never grind with the water that is past." The present is full of opportunities, and there is great advan-tage in alertness. Truly has Longfellow said: "Trust no Future howe'er pleasant! Let the dead Past bury its dead! Act, act in the living Present! Heart within and God o'erhead !" Now is the opportunity given of taking Time by the fore-lock and thereby accruing personal advantage. The idler has never performed any task worth mentioning. Men lacking energy are always destined to fail in Life's battle. Such a per- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. I03 son is lost by the wayside while his companions surge on with the mighty throng endeavoring to scale the mountain of suc-cess. He who fails to progress in worldly conquest is but the retracer of his own footsteps, going about in a circle, as it were, whose radius differs in proportion to his ability. Personal advantage is gained only by instant action in event of possibil-ity for advancement. Opportunities great and small, the smaller tending always to greater ones, continually thrust themselves in our pathway, and ours it is but to embrace them and profit thereby. Every moment of youth is precious as gold, and al-most every hour determines one notch in the wheel of our destiny. Great men whose deeds have startled the world and whose lives have become history have been men of quick perception and of instantaneous action. Ancient and modern history fur-nishes many instances. Did Leonidas make his brave stand at Thermopylae except by grim determination and opportune re-sistance? Did Chas. Martel redeem Christianity except by nerves of steel and timely onslaught? Did Napoleon, the greatest soldier of the modern world, change the map of Europe except by realizing the might and strength of his power?—he of whom it is said: "Decision flashed upon his councils and it was the same to decide and to perform." Or did even a Dewey send a fleet to destruction except by his cognition of favorable circumstances? No indeed. Their convictions have been wholly different from those of the man of slow growth, he -who believes in the hand of Fate. They have been convinced of the fact that to do or die is the only policy in a supreme moment. So time rolls by, sealing every minute the fate of many men. How many lives are spent in vain? How many are wasted by degenerate living? On the sands of time are the foot-prints of the many. Echoing through the corridors of time resound the foot-steps of the few. These are the men of sterling worth, who have discovered the secret of human prowess, who have found the key to success, and who have performed their parts on demand. Now let us employ the future but a moment and • 104 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. hope that the time is coming when the youth of our land will adopt higher ideals, will more eagerly strive to attain them, and will be incited to greater individual effort thereby; while on the ocean of Life they hear the breezes sighing, "The mill will never grind with the water that is past." EVENTIDE. A GLORY gilds the distant hills, While the western sun sinks into the sea ; The golden light shines out more bright For the gathering shadows on the lea ; And then, as the mellow sunlight dies, The stars shine forth in the darkening skies, When the night is nigh. When joys are done, and the setting sun Of our dearest hopes thus sheds around A glory fair ere dark despair Comes like a cheerless night profound ; As fades the slowly dying light, Lo, stars of promise greet the sight In faith's clear sky, —W. G. in The Roanoke Collegian. TWILIGHT. THERE'S a sweetness in the air When the sun is low, And the sky is flushed and bare When the light winds blow. And the shadows come and go While the night bird calls Across the dewy meadows when the twilight falls. There's a sadness in my heart And the tears fall fast As I muse upon a day dream All too sweet to last; And my thoughts are of the past When the night bird calls Across the dewy meadows when the twilight falls. —B. F. G. in The College Folio. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postoffi.ce at Gettysburg as second-class matter VOL. XI GETTYSBURG, PA., MAY, 1902 No. 3 Editor-in-chief H. S. LEWARS, '03 Assistant Editors Exchange Editor Miss MARY WILSON, '04 SAM. P. WEAVER, '04 LYMAN A. GUSS, '04 Business Manager E. CARL MUMFORD, '03 Asst. Business Manager FRED. MASTERS, '04 Advisory Board PROF. J. A. HIMES, LITT.D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M.D. PROF. J. W. RTCHARD, D.D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Busi-ness Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. Who does not love the Spring tide, the SPRING TERM. . , a , . ,,. . time of opening flowers, of budding trees and singing birds ? Surely everyone is glad for this beautiful season, and is happy to bid adieu to cold Winter. Our charm-ing poet, Ghaucer, loved the Spring, and somewhere says: * * "Whan that the month of May Is comen, and ±hat I here the foules singe, And that the flowers ginnen for to springe Farwel my boke and my devocioun." It would seem, when we consider the state of affairs here, that Chaucer is not alone in such sentiments. I do not mean that chapel exercises suffer lack of attendance or recitations a lack of preparation. But this feeling is present and manifests io6 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. itself to such an extent that when recitations are over if you want to find a fellow you look for him on the athletic field or in the woods. Now, this is without doubt beneficial, but liter-ary work suffers greatly on this account, and as a consequence, the literary journal must fall somewhat below its usual standard of excellence. Give plenty of time to exercise; it is a good thing, but there ought to be a reflex action from exercise upon work. Give a reasonable amount of time to athletics; the college depends upon it, but don't neglect literary work. ■^ It has been the custom for many years for SENIOR MEMORIAL. each, grad,uat.i.ng cl, ass to l, eave somet.h,.ing as a memorial. Most classes have planted an ivy vine to cling to the walls of the chapel, and every June a few of the mem-bers attending commencement paid it a visit and watered it if it was needed. Often during a hot summer the little vine cried out for water, but the scorching sun was sent instead, and as there was no kind hand to give it relief, it wilted and died. The present Senior class has another plan for its memorial, and instead of adding to the supply of ivy vines has decided to make a new walk leading from South College to the main road. This is a new departure and is one of the most commendable things done by any class for the institution. It has another feature in it, for every member of the class can aid in the work, and they have done so, for the preliminary work is finished. In future years when they visit the institution they will find no small pleasure in the thought that with their own hands they helped to make this walk. Next year when they are gone, the student rushing into the dormitory in the driving rain, will be spared the inconvenience of sinking six inches into the ground at every step, and will speak a benediction upon this thoughtful class. This walk is a fitting memorial for the class. CATALOGUE. The catalogue for this college year is pub-lished. As a whole it speaks improvement. The book itself has a chaste cover, and the printing and half- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. I07 tone work reflects great credit upon the printers, Barbehenn & Little. Another elective has been added to the coarse, giving those who care to avail themselves of the opportunity another year in French. Hitherto, only one year was offered in French, and it was spent in the elementary study of the language. Another feature has been added to this department. Inter-national correspondence both in French and German has been arranged for those who care to avail themselves of it. This is very beneficial and &11 should welcome the improvement in the department and hence in the college. K^> EXCHANGES. THE exchanges for last month have arrived very slowly^ A few of them are very creditable, but a great majority have fallen far below their former standard. Lack of space will not permit any further review of them but we have quoted from the most creditable, in the body of the magazine. BOOK REVIEW. Vergil's Aineid. Books I—VI. Harlan Balard. Mifflin & Co., Boston and New York, #1.50. Houghton, It is a most difficult task to give a faithful translation of the works of a famous writer. The style of the original, the strength of diction, the intensity of feeling are often lost. 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The Situation In The Middle East Report Of The Secretary-General On The Implementation Of Security Council Resolutions 2139 (2014), 2165 (2014), 2191 (2014), 2258 (2015), 2332 (2016) And 2393 (2017) ; United Nations S/PV.8171 Security Council Seventy-third year 8171st meeting Tuesday, 30 January 2018, 10.35 a.m. New York Provisional President: Mr. Umarov. . (Kazakhstan) Members: Bolivia (Plurinational State of). . Mr. Llorentty Solíz China. . Mr. Shen Bo Côte d'Ivoire. . Mr. Tanoh-Boutchoue Equatorial Guinea. . Mr. Ndong Mba Ethiopia. . Mr. Woldegerima France. . Mr. Delattre Kuwait. . Mr. Alotaibi Netherlands. . Mrs. Gregoire Van Haaren Peru. . Mr. Meza-Cuadra Poland. . Ms. Wronecka Russian Federation. . Mr. Safronkov Sweden . Mr. Skoog United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . Mr. Allen United States of America. . Mr. Miller Agenda The situation in the Middle East Report of the Secretary-General on the implementation of Security Council resolutions 2139 (2014), 2165 (2014), 2191 (2014), 2258 (2015), 2332 (2016) and 2393 (2017) (S/2018/60) This record contains the text of speeches delivered in English and of the translation of speeches delivered in other languages. The final text will be printed in the Official Records of the Security Council. Corrections should be submitted to the original languages only. They should be incorporated in a copy of the record and sent under the signature of a member of the delegation concerned to the Chief of the Verbatim Reporting Service, room U-0506 (verbatimrecords@un.org). Corrected records will be reissued electronically on the Official Document System of the United Nations (http://documents.un.org). 18-02496 (E) *1802496* S/PV.8171 The situation in the Middle East 30/01/2018 2/10 18-02496 The meeting was called to order at 10.35 a.m. Adoption of the agenda The agenda was adopted. The situation in the Middle East Report of the Secretary-General on the implementation of Security Council resolutions 2139 (2014), 2165 (2014), 2191 (2014), 2258 (2015), 2332 (2016) and 2393 (2017) (S/2018/60) The President: In accordance with rule 39 of the Council's provisional rules of procedure, I invite Ms. Ursula Mueller, Assistant Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Deputy Emergency Relief Coordinator, to participate in this meeting. The Security Council will now begin its consideration of the item on its agenda. I wish to draw the attention of Council members to document S/2018/60, which contains the report of the Secretary-General on the implementation of Security Council resolutions 2139 (2014), 2165 (2014), 2191 (2014), 2258 (2015), 2332 (2016) and 2393 (2017). I now give the floor to Ms. Mueller. Ms. Mueller: I thank you, Mr. President, for this opportunity to provide the Security Council with an update on the humanitarian situation in Syria. Years of conflict have caused immeasurable human suffering and left countless civilians dead, injured or missing. The United Nations estimates that 13.1 million people are in need of protection and humanitarian assistance, including 6.1 million people who are displaced within the country. Another 5.5 million people have fled the conflict across borders into neighbouring countries. The Council will have heard at first-hand the account of the Emergency Relief Coordinator in his statement to the Security Council on 22 January with regard to his visit to Syria, in which he highlighted the plight of the Syrian people. During the visit, he heard individual stories from some of the people caught up in the violence and conflict. In Homs, he saw entire districts of the city reduced to rubble. The visit was the first for an Emergency Relief Coordinator in more than two years. It was an important opportunity to see ways in which the United Nations can support people in need. It was also a chance to hold discussions with the Government of Syria and our humanitarian partners on how to address some of the most pressing humanitarian needs. As fighting continues, I am particularly concerned about the safety and protection of civilians caught up in the violence in north-west Syria, where hostilities have reportedly caused numerous deaths and injuries. Air strikes and fighting in southern Idlib and northern Hama have resulted in more than 270,000 displacements since 15 December 2017, driving people from their homes to other areas of Idlib. Camps for displaced people are overstretched, forcing most of those displaced to seek shelter in some 160 makeshift settlements. During the cold and wet winter months, many families have nothing else but improvised tents, which they share with others. Attacks on medical facilities and vital infrastructure continue, with reports of at least 16 attacks on health-care facilities during the month of December alone. Yesterday Médecins Sans Frontières reported that air strikes had hit a hospital it supports in the Saraqib district of Idlib, causing five deaths, injuring others and seriously damaging the facility, which is now closed. That was the second reported strike on the facility in nine days. Further north, in Afrin, in Aleppo governorate, the United Nations is carefully monitoring the situation of over 300,000 people living in the district, which is experiencing fighting. We have reports of civilian casualties and that approximately 15,000 people have been displaced within the district, with another 1,000 displaced to Aleppo governorate. We have also received reports that local authorities inside Afrin are restricting civilian movement, particularly for those who want to leave. I am also concerned about the situation in eastern Ghouta and areas of Damascus, where civilian deaths and destruction of civilian infrastructure continue to be reported. In the first 10 days of the year, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights documented at least 81 civilians killed in the enclave, including 25 women and 30 children. Scores of residential buildings in the area have been damaged or destroyed in recent weeks. I also note with concern that shelling continues from eastern Ghouta into Damascus, resulting in civilian deaths and injuries. Although 29 patients in urgent need of medical care were allowed out of eastern Ghouta in late December, hundreds more, most of them women and children, require immediate medical attention. So far, there have 30/01/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8171 18-02496 3/10 been 21 civilian deaths among those waiting for and needing medical evacuation. Their needs are critical, and the law is clear. I urge all parties, and all those with influence over the parties, to see to it that all such medical evacuations take place without conditions or delay. With reference to all of the flashpoints I have highlighted, I call on the parties to ensure the protection of civilians and civilian and medical infrastructure, in line with international humanitarian law, and to ensure the safe, sustained and unimpeded delivery of humanitarian assistance to all in need. I would also like to take this opportunity to reiterate my concern about the protection situation in the city of Raqqa, where returns continue despite the widespread presence of explosive remnants of war. Nearly 60,000 individuals have reportedly returned since the end of hostilities in October 2017. However, humanitarian partners continue to emphasize that, given the high prevalence of landmines, booby traps and unexploded ordinance, Raqqa is not safe for civilian returns. Deaths and injuries due to explosions have been reported with alarming frequency, and trauma cases nearly doubled in recent months. More than 534 civilians have been injured in blasts since the expulsion of the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant from the city in October 2017, of whom 112 people died. Each week, between 30 and 50 civilians continue to arrive at trauma centres in Raqqa after being wounded by improvised explosive devices concealed in their homes and neighbourhoods. Risk from explosive hazards is not limited to Raqqa; there are indications that substantial contamination also exists throughout Deir ez-Zor governorate, where there has been little or no mine surveying or clearance. Despite the desperate humanitarian needs in many areas in Syria, the United Nations and humanitarian partners continue to face serious challenges in accessing those in need. Last month, I briefed the Council that none of our cross-line convoys were able to reach besieged locations and that only two convoys had accessed hard-to-reach areas. This month, the United Nations and its partners have had no access to any such locations at all. Not one convoy has been able to deploy. Discussions about convoys have stalled over requirements to lower the number of beneficiaries and about splitting convoys in a way that would not allow us to provide food or other essential items. Our deliveries must continue to be based on humanitarian principles and international humanitarian law, impartially based on civilian need. At the same time, the United Nations is also seeing access to areas previously reached under regular programming coming to a halt. Local authorities in north-east Syria have twice held humanitarian convoys at the checkpoint with Government-controlled areas in eastern Aleppo. Furthermore, local authorities have requested changes related to the operations of our non-governmental partners, which in turn has blocked our assistance delivery to much of north-east Syria. The situation has been further compounded by the refusal of the Governor of Hassakah to issue facilitation letters for our deliveries. While the cross-border operations of our partners continue, such assistance is not sufficient to meet the needs in the north-east. To solve the situation, I call on all parties and those with influence over them to engage now to see that access to those areas resume. Finally, due to insecurity in the north-west, which has included numerous rocket attacks from within Syria into Turkey, on 20 January the United Nations temporarily suspended cross-border deliveries at the two authorized border crossing points in Turkey. The United Nations remains in discussion with Turkish authorities on restarting operations as quickly as possible to ensure the continued delivery of assistance, which hundreds of thousands of Syrians rely upon every month. Those access challenges underscore the importance of using all the modalities of delivery at our disposal. Despite prevailing challenges, the United Nations and its partners have continued to reach millions of people in need each month. For example, in December, regular programming from within the country resulted in the delivery of humanitarian assistance to millions of people, including over 3 million people who received food assistance through 1,500 deliveries. The United Nations and its partners also provided health, protection and education services. Cross-border assistance also continued to reach hundreds of thousands of people in need, as 653 trucks delivered food assistance to more than 500,000 people, health assistance for over 600,000 treatments, as well as other support for hundreds of thousands. After almost eight years of conflict, people's needs are as vast as they are critical. The United Nations and its partners will continue to deliver to millions of S/PV.8171 The situation in the Middle East 30/01/2018 4/10 18-02496 people in need. The United Nations also stands ready to bolster such support, but requires efficient and effective mechanisms to ensure the safe and rapid delivery of aid. To that end, the Emergency Relief Coordinator has identified five areas where the United Nations is looking to make concrete progress. First, we need to finalize the United Nations humanitarian response plan for 2018, for which we will be seeking $3.5 billion to meet the needs of more than 13 million people in all parts of Syria. Secondly, it is important that there be an agreement on medical evacuations for hundreds of critically ill people trapped in besieged eastern Ghouta. People in other besieged areas should get the same assistance. Thirdly, humanitarian access needs to improve. The United Nations has requested agreement for three to four United Nations and Syrian Arab Red Crescent inter-agency cross-line convoys each week. We need consistent access to all people in need. Fourthly, we must reach agreement on the United Nations-supported aid convoys from Damascus to Rukban in south-eastern Syria. While the exceptional delivery of assistance from Jordan in early January was a positive development, a sustainable solution is required. Fifthly, more effective arrangements are needed to enable the United Nations to support the work of Syrian non-governmental organizations and to enable international non-governmental organizations to perform the stronger role they can, and are ready to, play in relieving the suffering. I hope that we will be able to report to the Security Council next month on real progress achieved in those five key areas, and that, month after month, we will move forward until they are all fully addressed. The President: I thank Ms. Mueller for her briefing. I shall now give the floor to those members of the Council who wish to make statements. Mr. Allen (United Kingdom): I thank Assistant Secretary-General Mueller for her briefing. When considering the Syria humanitarian issue, we always have in mind the powerful plea last December by the Russian Permanent Representative that we should keep our differences over the politics in Syria out of our consideration of humanitarian issues — a view that we strongly continue to endorse. Last week, Mark Lowcock briefed us on his visit to Syria. It was the first time that an Under-Secretary- General for Humanitarian Affairs had visited Syria in more than two years, having been blocked previously from visiting. The United Kingdom commends the Under-Secretary-General's efforts to start a meaningful dialogue between the United Nations and the Syrian regime in order to improve the humanitarian situation for the people of Syria. On the basis of discussions and as we iterated today, the Under-Secretary-General set out five clear asks to enable the United Nations to sustain and improve its aid efforts. The United Kingdom fully supports those asks. Unfortunately, the Security Council has been unable to reach agreement on a text that would unanimously call upon the Syrian regime to ensure that those five asks are granted without delay. I want to reflect on this disappointing situation. One of the five key asks of the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs is the regime's agreement to allow three or four United Nations and Syrian Arab Red Crescent convoys each week across front lines to provide assistance to up to 2.5 million people in besieged and hard-to-reach areas. These convoys are needed to deliver aid, including both food and medical supplies, to civilians who have lived in a war zone for almost seven years. That request for consistent, regular access to all people in need is crucial. In 2017, only 27 per cent of United Nations inter-agency convoy requests were approved by the Syrian regime in full. That is significantly worse than in 2016, when 45 per cent of requests were approved. Assistant Secretary- General Mueller's briefing was especially concerning in that respect. We cannot let that happen again in 2018. Ninety-four per cent of those living under siege are located in eastern Ghouta. The Al-Assad regime is using humanitarian aid as a weapon of war by restricting access to the besieged population. There were no aid deliveries to the area for the whole of December, and nearly 12 per cent of children under five years of age in eastern Ghouta suffer from acute malnutrition. It is appalling that innocent children are once again suffering the most. The Under-Secretary-General also requested the immediate evacuation of hundreds of people who are in need of medical assistance from eastern Ghouta. We call on those who can influence the regime to use all of their authority to allow for rapid, unhindered and sustained humanitarian access and medical evacuations 30/01/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8171 18-02496 5/10 for those in need. According to the Secretary-General, 18 people have already died while waiting for the regime's permission to leave the besieged city. People are dying for want of health care and services that are available fewer than 10 miles away, in Damascus. Let us recall that the backdrop of the Under- Secretary-General's visit was the escalation in air strikes in eastern Ghouta and the north-west, including Aleppo, Idlib governorate and northern Hama. Yesterday at least five people, including a child, were killed by an air strike on a hospital supported by Médecins sans frontières in Syria's Idlib governorate. The facility was also seriously damaged and at least six people, including three medical staff, were injured as a result of the attack. The air strikes on the hospital occurred while the doctors were receiving people who had been injured an hour earlier in another air strike on a market. Those strikes had already killed 11 people. These events are taking place are in areas where there are meant to be ceasefires with the stated aim of putting a prompt end to violence and improving the humanitarian situation. Unfortunately for the people of Syria, that could not be further from the reality. The deliberate targeting of civilians and civilian infrastructure in Idlib and eastern Ghouta continues, in blatant violation of international humanitarian law and human rights law. The intensification of hostilities has displaced approximately 270,000 people within Idlib since 15 December 2017, stretching scarce resources beyond their limits. The escalation of air strikes in eastern Ghouta has resulted in hundreds of civilian deaths since 30 December. UNICEF reports that, in the first 14 days of 2018, more than 30 children were killed by escalating violence in the enclave. It is against that backdrop that I call on the regime to allow for immediate, safe and unhindered access to humanitarian assistance to meet fully the needs of those who require food and medical supplies. Let all with influence exert it to ensure that. It is our must crucial, immediate request. It is also imperative that all parties adhere to agreed ceasefires and cessations of hostilities, uphold international humanitarian law and protect civilians. Yesterday, a number of us visited the United States National Holocaust Museum's exhibition on Syria. We saw the photographs of those killed and tortured by the regime and we read their biographies, their life stories. It had a profound effect on me, and it brought home how the tragedy in Syria is not just a geopolitical one — it is a human one. For humanity's sake, all of us around this table must ensure that we have done our all. Mr. Delattre (France) (spoke in French): I would like to thank Ms. Ursula Mueller for her comprehensive briefing. I reiterate France's full support for the recommendations of the Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs, Mr. Mark Lowcock, which Ms. Mueller has just referenced. I would also like to express my country's grave concerns about the latest developments in the humanitarian situation in Syria. Several points are of particular concern. We note the extremely dire situation of the population in eastern Ghouta — still besieged and denied the humanitarian assistance and medical evacuations that they need — and the escalation of violence, particularly in the Idlib region. In addition, we are concerned about the attacks on hospitals, medical facilities and the provision of health care, as well as the persistent restrictions on humanitarian access in Syria, which are unacceptable and have tightened further in recent weeks — denying the civilian population the access to the essential resources that they so vitally need. Accordingly, I should like to make three main observations. First, we are particularly concerned about the current escalation of violence in eastern Ghouta and the Idlib region, which adds to the suffering of the affected populations. In eastern Ghouta, 400,000 civilians are victims of almost daily bombings by the regime and its allies. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 750 people in eastern Ghouta are still waiting for emergency medical evacuation. Since 30 December, the wounded have been unable to be transported out of eastern Ghouta to receive care; 21 others have died from their wounds, unable to wait another day. We note and stress that it is the responsibility of the Syrian regime to allow those medical evacuations to proceed without delay. The situation in the south of Idlib and in the north of Hama is very worrying as well. The continued bombings led to the displacement of about 250,000 civilians last month. More than 33 people were reportedly killed in less than 24 hours. The town of Sarakab was bombed yesterday morning, and the strikes hit the town market, killing more than 11 people and injuring a number of others. One hour later, the only public hospital in the district — a hospital supported by the non-governmental S/PV.8171 The situation in the Middle East 30/01/2018 6/10 18-02496 organization Médecins Sans Frontières — was struck, killing five people, including a child, and injuring six others, including medical staff. France very firmly condemns attacks on health-care workers and medical infrastructure, as well as the indiscriminate bombings carried out in recent weeks by the Syrian regime against civilians in eastern Ghouta and in residential areas of Idlib province. France reiterates that indiscriminate bombings and the use of incendiary weapons against civilians represent serious violations of international humanitarian law and could constitute war crimes or even crimes against humanity. It is vital and urgent to bring to an immediate end the bombings in Idlib and the siege in eastern Ghouta. The Astana guarantors have taken upon themselves the responsibility to supervise its implementation, and we therefore urge these States to effectively impose on the Syrian regime a complete cessation of hostilities as well as respect for the basic principles and norms of international humanitarian law and human rights law. The second observation is particularly worrying: the deterioration of humanitarian access in recent weeks in Syria. We have reiterated this concern on numerous occasions in this Chamber: the humanitarian situation will not improve without comprehensive, unimpeded, safe and ongoing humanitarian access to the aid distributed by the United Nations and its partners. Nonetheless, the regime is continuing to create unacceptable obstacles to the provision of humanitarian aid. The Syrian authorities have not authorized even a single inter-agency convoy in several weeks. France condemns this unacceptable attitude and reiterates its call for the safe and unhindered access of the United Nations and its humanitarian partners to civilians throughout Syrian territory. The right of the Syrian population both to humanitarian assistance and to protection must be respected unconditionally. The Security Council cannot remain silent given these recurring violations of international humanitarian law, which require a strong response from the Council. Finally, I would like to touch on the obvious discrepancy between the continuing violence on the ground in Syria and the diplomatic offensives, which are not facing up to the situation. We know that only an inclusive political solution that is elaborated under the auspices of the United Nations and that sets up a political transition in the context of resolution 2254 (2015) can bring a lasting and credible end to the suffering of the Syrian people. However, the regime is continuing its policy of methodical and deliberate obstruction, as we saw during the negotiation session held in Vienna on 25 and 26 January. In this context more than ever, we need to support the United Nations and United Nations mediation in Geneva, as well as eschew any temporary solutions agreed without the opposition, which would be unrealistic as they would not meet the aspirations of all Syrians. It is up to those countries that support the regime, primarily Russia and Iran, to bring to bear the pressure necessary to ensure that the regime puts an end to this negative and irresponsible strategy. Make no mistake: there can be no negotiated political transition in Syria without a total ceasefire, humanitarian access throughout the whole of the territory and the creation of a neutral environment that would restore trust and ensure the safety of all Syrians. How credible is a regime that is stepping up the bombing in Idlib, preventing medical evacuations in eastern Ghouta and refusing to authorize a single humanitarian convoy? How credible can diplomatic efforts be that are devoid of any specific assurances and that do not lead to any significant and lasting improvement in the humanitarian situation in Idlib and eastern Ghouta? We reiterate that humanitarian aid is unconditional and apolitical. We therefore make an urgent request to see proof of this on the ground. That is exactly what France will seek to defend in the weeks to come, in line with the Geneva communiqué (S/2012/522, annex), namely, the establishment of a neutral environment that must include the lifting of sieges, the cessation of hostilities, prisoner exchanges and chemical disarmament, all of this under international supervision so as to ensure genuine constitutional reform and the holding of free elections. That is the only way to bring a lasting end to the suffering of the Syrian people and open the way to an inclusive political process in Syria, in the interests of all the Syrian people. It is for that reason that we will continue to fully support the process stemming from resolution 2254 (2015), and we will make every effort to unite the Council in this respect. Mrs. Gregoire Van Haaren (Netherlands): The Kingdom of the Netherlands wishes to thank Assistant Secretary-General Ursula Mueller for her briefing. 30/01/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8171 18-02496 7/10 Seven years after the start of the conflict in Syria, the humanitarian situation in the country continues to be a truly heartbreaking drama. While several parties to the conflict are responsible for a wide array of violations of international humanitarian law, it is especially painful to see the horrifying effects of the military actions taken by the Syrian authorities. Instead of protecting their own citizens, the Syrian authorities are bombing them. Instead of providing basic services to their people, the authorities are destroying hospitals and schools. Instead of allowing humanitarian aid into the most affected areas, the authorities are starving some of their own people. The outlook for 2018 remains grim, with a worsening humanitarian situation and a continuation of the battle for influence by regional Powers. Allow me to focus on three important aspects: the current situation on the ground, cross-border aid delivery and the implementation of the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs' (OCHA) five asks. On the situation on the ground, the international community has been providing funding for a principled humanitarian response. The Kingdom of the Netherlands has provided amply to the United Nations and to international non-governmental organizations in order to provide relief for the suffering of the Syrian people. But this relief is hardly reaching those in need. In besieged eastern Ghouta, we are witnessing the use of starvation as a method of warfare. Not a single aid convoy has reached the 400,000 people trapped there in the last three months. Where have we seen this before? In Idlib, because of the continuous intensified aerial bombardments, aid to more than 250,000 internally displaced persons is extremely difficult to deliver. Improvised explosive devices in Raqqa and elsewhere in Syria have caused large numbers of casualties. The Netherlands urges all Council members to continue their contributions to make all of Syria free of mines and explosive devices. Concerning cross-border aid delivery, it is equally disturbing that today, one month after the Council renewed the authorization of cross-border aid, some of these very aid convoys cannot cross the border because of the security situation. The consequences of this lack of cross-border aid for the large number of displaced people in north-west Syria are tremendous. There is an urgent need to ensure that all convoys can have safe passage to reach those in need, both in Afrin and beyond. In Afrin, the intensification of the military operation there last Sunday has led to more displaced families that have nowhere to go. We call upon all parties to protect civilians, to facilitate humanitarian access and to allow for the safe passage of all people who wish to leave areas under attack. Turning to the implementation of OCHA's five asks, the recent visit by Mark Lowcock to Syria was in itself a positive step, but it is imperative that the dialogue on aid delivery yield effective results as soon as possible. In effect, the requests made by the Emergency Relief Coordinator do not differ much from those of his predecessors, effectively highlighting the lack of progress in terms of sustained, principled humanitarian access to those most in need. The message of the humanitarian and international community has been consistent: respect your obligations under international humanitarian law, protect your own citizens — including health workers and humanitarian aid workers — and allow for rapid, safe and sustained humanitarian access. In conclusion, it is crucial that the Security Council unequivocally unite itself behind the concrete and attainable five asks of OCHA. It remains essential to see progress on the rapid, effective and principled implementation in the coming weeks of all five asks of OCHA. We call on Council members to consider steps to be taken collectively in case no progress takes place and on those who have influence on the Syrian authorities to make sure that humanitarian aid reaches those most in need. Let us not forget that lives are at stake. Mr. Miller (United States of America): The Security Council met only last week (see S/PV.8164) and heard the Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs describe his visit to Syria and reiterate a series of requests that, in his estimation, would be a positive step towards improving the humanitarian situation in Syria. Sadly, not only has none of those requests been approved by the Syrian regime, but also the situation in places such as eastern Ghouta continues to deteriorate beyond our worst imagaination. To the surprise of no one, cross-line deliveries in Syria, particularly to besieged and hard-to-reach areas, remain stalled. In S/PV.8171 The situation in the Middle East 30/01/2018 8/10 18-02496 fact, there have been no United Nations inter-agency convoys anywhere for more than six weeks and no convoys to a besieged area for more than eight weeks. We deplore what are, frankly, starve-and-siege tactics, preventing the distribution of aid, which must be needs-based. As a result, many families are going without the most basic food, medicine and other supplies required for survival. Hospitals reuse syringes and other medical items meant for single use and, during the coldest months of winter, families who have run out of fuel and cooking oil burn household items to stay warm. That is happening in Ghouta and elsewhere throughout Syria. We need an immediate, unconditional humanitarian pause in eastern Ghouta, where the impact of air strikes and artillery shelling on the civilian infrastruture has forced the closure of more schools and medical clinics. Those bombings continued over the weekend, further proving that any supposed ceasefire in the area was merely aspirational. We reiterate the need to evacuate hundreds of critically ill people trapped in eastern Ghouta. We have seen no movement on that issue since late December, and the list continues to grow. Only a few weeks ago, we heard that the medical evacuation list contained 600 names, including hundreds of children. That list has now grown to at least 750 people, according to the United Nations staff on the ground. Over the weekend, the United Nations reported that another critically ill person on Ghouta's medical evacuation list died due to the lack of medical treatment. Such deaths are senseless and reflect the Syrian regime's depraved disregard for human life. Such gratuitous cruelty suggests that the regime's siege of eastern Ghouta is directed not at the armed opposition but against the civilian population. We need not remind the members of the Council that a siege directed against civilians is a violation of international humanitarian law. We also appreciate the fact that Sweden and Kuwait worked on a draft presidential statement to address such dire humanitarian challenges. The overwhelming majority of Council members agree that we must be clear in demanding that the Syrian authorities allow immediate medical evacuations and cross-line assistance. When there are hundreds of thousands of Syrians besieged by the regime and starving due to the regime's actions, such demands are the very least that the Council can make. We would also like to take a moment to thank the Government of Jordan for facilitating an extraordinary delivery of humanitarian assistance in mid-January to the internally displaced populations stranded at Rukban. That population now has food and relief items for one month. However, we continue to wait for the Syrian regime's formal approval for the United Nations to begin cross-line aid deliveries to that vulnerable population from Damascus. The United Nations submitted its proposal in mid-November and has still receievd no response. All arrangements have been made for the deliveries to begin as soon as possible. The Syrian regime has only to grant its approval and to stand out of the way for life-saving assistance to reach those in need. As we heard earlier today, members of the Security Council visited the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C., yesterday and saw the exhibition about the Syrian regime's arbitrary detention and torture of more than 100,000 civilians. The name of the exhibition is "Please Don't Forget Us". We should bear that, and what the Syrian regime is capable of doing, in mind as we discuss yet again what is taking place in easter Ghouta and elsewhere in Syria. Mr. Llorentty Solíz (Plurinational State of Bolivia) (spoke in Spanish): My delegation wishes to thank Ms. Ursula Mueller, Assistant Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs, for her briefing. Bolivia regrets the crisis in Syria, which, after all these years, has caused so much destruction and the loss of so many lives. Ms. Mueller told us that, since the beginning of the conflict, more than 500,000 people have died; currently, there are 13.1 million people who need humanitarian assistance, 2.9 million of whom are trapped in besieged and hard-to-reach areas; and at least 6.1 million people have been internally displaced. We believe that the most recent events have resulted in an increase in the number of dead, of people who need humanitarian assistance and of internally displaced persons. We call for the cleaning and demining of and access for basic humanitarian assistance to the city of Raqqa to take place as soon as possible to allow for the safe and dignified return of those families who were displaced due to the conflict. We regret that, since the month of October 2017, approximately 220 people have died and others have been injured in blasts. 30/01/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8171 18-02496 9/10 The recent events in Syria show once again the urgent need to revitalize the Geneva political process, reinforcing the tangible results of the Astana meeting, in consultation, of course, with all the parties involved, including the opposition, in order to facilitate the development of mutual confidence-building measures and, as a result, the improvement of the political and humanitarian situation. We are certain that this will also allow for the release of detainees and hostages and the search for the disappeared, as well as for the establishment of conditions for a political process and a sustained and lasting ceasefire. We express our support for the efforts made recently in Vienna and for the work to take place in Sochi. We welcome the decision of the Secretary-General to allow his representative to participate in those events. We once again remind the parties to the conflict that they must allow unconditional access for humanitarian assistance, ensuring and safeguarding the security and physical integrity of humanitarian workers, in particular in the besieged and hard-to-reach areas. In that regard, we reiterate once again our highest recognition for the work being done by the staff of the various humanitarian assistance agencies and bodies on the ground, and we urge the parties involved to meet their obligations under international law, in particular international humanitarian law and international human rights law. We remind the parties involved that they must implement the Astana agreements, respect the de-escalation areas and prevent any attacks on civilian institutions, such as residential areas, schools and hospitals, in line with international humanitarian law, to ensure the protection of civilians and unimpeded access for accredited humanitarian organizations to provide the greatly needed assistance. In that regard, we underscore the work of the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, which has reached 800,000 people through cross-border convoys. We hope that those operations can continue, for which better coordination and cooperation between the United Nations and the Government of the Syrian Arab Republic are recommended. In that context, we underscore the agreements arrived at among Iran, Russia, and Turkey on 22 December 2017, and we urgently call for strengthening them so as to free detainees and abductees, as well as to positively identify missing persons. We stress the importance of the work of the Russian Centre for Reconciliation of Opposing Sides in the Syrian Arab Republic, which has become a guarantor of security and the distribution of humanitarian aid, while ensuring the evacuation of persons from areas facing armed conflict. Lastly, it is important to point out that the humanitarian situation, which is affecting more than 13.2 million people in Syria, must be resolved exclusively through an organized, inclusive and political process based on dialogue and led for and by the Syrian people, which would allow for a peaceful solution respecting the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of Syria. We call on members of the Security Council to make every effort to ensure that it remain unified on such an issue as fundamental as humanitarian assistance. Mr. Meza-Cuadra (Peru) (spoke in Spanish): We thank Ms. Ursula Mueller, Assistant Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Deputy Emergency Relief Coordinator, for her detailed briefing. The humanitarian landscape in Syria that she described to us this morning is, once again, disheartening. Over the past several years, the relevant reports of the Secretary-General and Security Council meetings on this issue have repeatedly related victim fatalities, the renewal of the large-scale displacement of refugees, besieged cities, an increasing spread of diseases, a high level of malnutrition, the destruction of medical infrastructure and other scourges. Given such a situation, the only remedy left is to ensure the immediate, safe and unrestricted access of humanitarian assistance and strict compliance under international humanitarian law, in particular respect for the principle of proportionality as related to conducting military attacks and taking the appropriate precautions with regard to their impact on the civilian population. We therefore regret the persistent restrictions placed on access to humanitarian aid in various areas of Syria, in particular the tragic and untenable situation facing the people of eastern Ghouta and Idlib. We hope that the ceasefire agreement in eastern Ghouta, recently deliberated in Vienna, will have a positive secondary effect in addressing the pressing humanitarian needs of its people. We appreciate the work of the Syrian authorities and Russia that resulted in the medical evacuation of 29 people from eastern Ghouta in December 2017. At the same time, we encourage them S/PV.8171 The situation in the Middle East 30/01/2018 10/10 18-02496 to intensify such efforts as there are hundreds of other people who are in need of urgent care. Another issue that deeply concerns us pertains to demining and, in general, to the deactivation of explosive ordnance, in the light of what is happening daily in cities, such as Raqqa in which 30 to 50 victims, who fall prey to such ordnance, are recorded weekly. We see as positive the dialogue aimed at humanitarian goals between the United Nations and the Government of Syria, especially the visit to the country by Under- Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs Mark Lowcock. That dialogue and the joint statement on humanitarian mine action issued following the latest Astana meeting positively herald that more substantial progress could be made in that area. Concerning military operations in densely populated areas, such as Afrin, we call for preventing any escalation that could further exacerbate the suffering of the people and hinder achieving a political solution pursuant to resolution 2254 (2015) and the Geneva communiqué (S/2012/522, annex). It is absolutely necessary that the Council show the world its unity and sense of commitment, and send a message that prioritizes human beings over political interests. We therefore hope that a consensus can be reached on the adoption of a text that reflects the five priorities outlined by Mr. Lowcock, which constitute the bare minimum for alleviating the human suffering of the Syrian people, and that is why Peru fully supports them. Mr. Ndong Mba (Equatorial Guinea) (spoke in Spanish): In taking the floor at this meeting on the humanitarian situation of Syrian Arab Republic, I should like to begin by sincerely thanking Ms. Ursula Mueller, Assistant Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Deputy Emergency Relief Coordinator, for her detailed briefing on the very unfortunate humanitarian situation that Syria is currently undergoing. Moreover, we listened to Under-Secretary- General Lowcock's briefing on 22 January following his visit to Syria, in which he pointed out for us five areas where improvement is needed in order to address the serious humanitarian situation, including the imperative to address the needs of some 13 million people in Syria, to facilitate medical evacuations and freedom of movement across borders, and to adopt measures so that the United Nations and international non-governmental organizations can provide effective assistance to the Syrian people. Both Ms. Mueller and Mr. Lowcock's briefings afford us a very desolate overview that must focus the attention of the international community on making every effort necessary to alleviate the suffering of the Syrian people. The specific situation in eastern Ghouta, in which almost 94 per cent of the people are trapped, is a particularly a worrisome issue. The situation of more than 600 people in need of urgent medical care has been, and is being, exacerbated by air-strike campaigns that have led to the displacement of those in Idlib and Hama. In addition to all this, we also point to the catastrophic humanitarian situation resulting from the ongoingOperation Olive Branch, which is leading to the substantial displacement and suffering of civilians. On the one hand, that can only elicit our deep concern, and, on the other hand, we must call for redoubling the efforts of the United Nations and the international community to find a solution to the very serious humanitarian crisis in the Syrian Arab Republic. The President: There are no more speakers inscribed on the list of speakers. I now invite Council members to informal consultations to continue our discussion on the subject. The meeting rose at 11.30 a.m.
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John M. Hobson on Eurocentrism, Historical Sociology and the Curious Case of Postcolonialism
International Relations, it is widely recognized, is a Western discipline, albeit one that claims to speak for global conditions. What does that mean are these regional origins in and by themselves a stake in power politics? This Eurocentrism is often taken as a point of departure for denouncing mainstream approaches by self-proclaimed critical and postcolonialist approaches to IR. John Hobson stages a more radical attack on Eurocentrism, in which western critical theories, too, are complicit in the perpetuation of a dominantly western outlook. In this extensive Talk, Hobson, among others, expounds his understanding of Eurocentrism, discusses the imperative to historicize IR, and sketches the outline of possible venues of emancipation from our provincial predicament.
Print version of this Talk (pdf)
What is, according to you, the biggest challenge / principal debate in current International Relations? What is your position or answer to this challenge / in this debate?
In my view, there are two principal inter-related challenges that face IR. The first is the need to deal with the critique that the discipline is constructed on Eurocentric foundations. This matters both for critical and conventional IR. The latter insists that it works according to value-free positivistic/scientifistic principles. But if it is skewed by an underlying Western-centric bias, as I have contended in my work, then the positivist mantra turns out to constitute a smokescreen or veil behind which lies the dark Eurocentric face of conventional IR. And of course, if Eurocentrism in various forms infects much of critical IR, then it jeopardizes its critical credentials and risks falling back into problem-solving theory. For these reasons, then, I feel that the critique of Eurocentric IR and international political economy (IPE) poses nothing short of an intellectually existential challenge to these disciplines.
The second inter-related challenge is that if we accept that the discipline is essentially Eurocentric then we need to reconstruct IR's foundations on a non-Eurocentric basis and then advance an alternative non-Eurocentric research agenda and empirical analysis of the international system and the global political economy. This is a straightforward challenge vis-à-vis conventional IR/IPE theory but it is more problematic so far as critical IR/IPE is concerned (which is why my answer is somewhat extended). The more postmodern wing of the discipline would view with inherent skepticism any attempt to reconstruct some kind of (albeit alternative) grand narrative. And the postmodern postcolonialists would likely concur. It is at this point that the thorniest issue emerges in the context of postcolonial IR theory. For however hard this is to say, I feel that simply proclaiming the Eurocentric foundations of the discipline does not hole its constituent theories deep beneath the waterline; a claim that abrades with the view of most postcolonialists who view Eurocentrism as inherently illegitimate either because it renders it imperialist (which I view as problematic since there are significant strands of anti-imperialist Eurocentrism and scientific racism) or because they conflate Eurocentrism with the unacceptable politics of (scientific) racism (which I also find problematic notwithstanding the point that there are all manner of overlaps and synergies between these two generic Western-centric discourses, all of which is explained in my 2012 book, The Eurocentric Conception of World Politics). The key point—one which will undoubtedly get me into a lot of trouble with postcolonialists—is that I feel we need to recognize that in the end Eurocentric IR (and IPE) theory constitutes a stand-point approach, just like any other, and its merits or de-merits can ultimately only be evaluated against the empirical record, past and present (notwithstanding the points that I find Eurocentrism to be deeply biased and that what I find so deeply galling about it is its dismissive 'put-down' modus operandi of all things non-Western, wherein all non-Western achievements are dismissed outright, alongside the simultaneous (re)presentation of everything that the West does as progressive and/or pioneering).
So the second principal challenge facing the discipline—one which will no less get me into trouble with many postmodern/poststructuralist thinkers—is the need to reconstruct an alternative non-Eurocentric set of disciplinary foundations, which can then generate fresh empirical narratives of the international system and the global political economy. For my view is that only by offering an alternative research agenda and empirical analysis of the world economy can IR and IPE be set free from their extant Eurocentric straitjackets and the Sisyphean prison within which they remain confined, wherein IR and IPE scholars simply re-present or recycle tired old Eurocentric mantras and tropes in new clothing ad infinitum. For if nothing else, the absence of an alternative reconstruction and empirical analysis means that IR and IPE scholars are most likely simply to default to, or retreat back into, their Eurocentric comfort zone. Accordingly, then, the battle between Eurocentrism and non-Eurocentrism needs to be taken to the empirical field and away from the high and rarified intellectually mountainous terrain of metanarratival sparring contests.
How did you arrive at where you currently are in your thinking about International Relations?
Another way of asking this question would be: what influenced you to become a non-Eurocentric thinker? I get asked this question a lot, especially by non-white people. A good deal of this is related to my life-experience, much of which is sub-conscious of course and both too personal and too detailed to openly reflect upon here (sorry!) More objectively, the initial impetus came around 1999 when I came across a book on Max Weber by the well-respected Weberian scholar, Bryan Turner, in which he argued inter alia that Weber's sociology had Orientalist properties; none of which had occurred to me before. Following this up further I became convinced that Weber was indeed Eurocentric, as was Marx. More importantly, I came to see this as a huge problem that infected not just Marx and Weber but pretty much all of historical sociology (which was reinforced in my mind when I came to read James Blaut's books, The Colonizer's Model of the World (find it here), and Eight Eurocentric Historians). So I set out to develop an alternative non-Eurocentric approach to world history and historical sociology as a counter (which resulted in my 2004 book, The Eastern Origins of Western Civilisation).
Two further key IR texts that I became aware of were L.H.M. Ling's seminal 2002 book, Postcolonial International Relations and Naeem Inayatullah and David Blaney's equally brilliant 2004 book International Relations and the Problem of Difference, both of which led me to explore further the Eurocentric nature of IR and later IPE. But it would be remiss of me not to mention the influence of Albert Paolini; a wonderful colleague whom I had the pleasure to know at La Trobe University in Melbourne back in the early 1990s before his exceedingly unfortunate and premature death (and who, I must say, was way ahead of the game compared to me in terms of developing the critique of Eurocentrism in IR (see his book, Navigating Modernity (1997)). However, it would be unfair to the many others who have influenced me in countless ways to single out only these books and writers, though I hope you'll forgive me for not mentioning them so as to avoid providing yet another overly extended answer!
What would a student need to become a specialist in IR or understand the world in a global way?
This is an excellent but very challenging question and I want to try and make a succinct answer (though I shall build on it in some of the answers I will provide later on). The essential argument I make about 'thinking inter-culturally' is that while the more liberal side of the discipline thinks that its cosmopolitanism does just this, its Eurocentrism actually prevents it from fulfilling this. Because ultimately, cosmopolitanism wants to impose a Western standard of civilization upon the world, thereby advancing cultural monism rather than cultural pluralism. And this is merely the loudest expression of a spectre that haunts much of the discipline. But I guess that in the end, to achieve genuine cultural pluralism and to think inter-culturally requires us to take seriously how other non-Western peoples think of what their cultures comprise and what it means to them, and how their societies and states work along such lines. Dismissing them, as Eurocentrism always does, as inferior, backward and regressive denies this requirement outright. Interestingly, my great grandfather, J.A. Hobson flirted with this idea in his book, Imperialism: A Study (though this has largely escaped the notice of most people since few have read the more important second part of that book where all this is considered). But this is merely a first step, for as I will explain later on in the interview, ultimately thinking inter-culturally requires an analysis of the dialogical inter-connections and mutual co-constitutive relations between West and non-West which, in turn, presupposes not merely the presence of Western agency but also that of non-Western agency in the making of world politics and the global political economy.
All of which is clearly a massive challenge and I am certainly not advocating that the discipline of IR engage in deep ethnographical study and that it should morph into anthropology. And in any case I think that there are things we can do more generally to transcend Eurocentrism while learning more about the other side of the Eurocentric frontier without going to this extreme. I shall talk about such conceptual moves later on in this interview. One such theoretical move that I talk about later is the need to engage historical sociology (albeit from a non-Eurocentric perspective) or, more precisely global historical sociology. Again, though, I'm not advocating that the discipline should morph into historical sociology. And I'm aware that one of the biggest obstacles to IR making inroads into historical sociology is the sheer size of the task that this requires. It has always come naturally to me because that is where I came from before I joined the IR academic community. But there is quite a bit of historical sociology of IR out there now so I do think it possible for new PhD students to enter this fold. All of this said, though, I'm unsure if I have answered your question adequately.
The west is often seen as the source of globalization and innovation, which have historically radiated outwards in a process without seeming endpoint. What is wrong with this picture, and, perhaps more interestingly, why does it remain so pervasive?
In essence I believe this familiar picture—one which is embraced by conventional and many critical IR/IPE and globalization theorists—is wrong because this linear Western narrative brackets out all the many inputs that the non-West has made (which returns me to the point made a moment ago concerning the dialogical relations that have long existed between West and non-West). In my aforementioned 2004 book I argued that the West did not rise to modernity as a result of its own exceptional rational institutions and culture but was significantly enabled by many non-Western achievements and inventions which were borrowed and sometimes appropriated by the West. In short, without the Rest there might be no modern West. Moreover, while the West has been the principal actor in globalization since 1945, the globalization that preceded it (i.e., between 1492 and c.1830) was non-Western-led (as was the process of Afro-Eurasian regionalization that occurred between c.600 and 1492 out of which post-1492 globalization emerged). And even after 1945 I believe that non-Western actors have played various roles in shaping both globalization and the West, all of which are elided in the standard Eurocentric linear Western narrative of globalization.
But why has this image remained so persistent? This is potentially a massive question though it is a very important one for sure. Conventional theorists are most likely to disagree outright with my alternative picture in part because they are entirely comfortable with the notion that the 'West is best' and that the West single-handedly created capitalism, the sovereign inter-state system and the global economy. Critical theorists are rather more problematic to summarize here. But one that springs to mind is the type of argument that Immanuel Wallerstein (Theory Talk #13) made in a1997 article, in which he insisted that it be an imperative to hold the West accountable for everything that goes on in the world economy so that we can prosecute its crimes against the world. Arguments that bring non-Western agency in, as I seek to do, he dismisses as deflecting focus away from the West and thereby diluting the nature of the crimes that the West has imparted and therefore serves merely to weaken the case for the critical prosecution. I fundamentally disagree with him for reasons that I shan't go into here (but will touch upon below). But in my view it is (or should be) a key debate-in-the-making not least because I suspect that many other critical theorists might agree with him and, more importantly, because it brings fundamentally into question of what Eurocentrism is and of what the antidote to it comprises. Either way, though, critical theorists, at least in my view, often buy into the Western linear narrative, albeit not by celebrating the West but by critiquing it. All of which means that both conventional and many critical IR scholars effectively maintain the hegemony of Eurocentrism in the discipline though for diametrically opposed reasons; and which, at the risk of sounding paranoid, suggests a deeply subliminal conspiracy against the introduction of non-Eurocentrism.
Nevertheless one final but rather obvious point remains. For the biggest reason why Eurocentrism persists is because it makes Westerners feel good about themselves. And at the risk of sounding like sour grapes (notwithstanding very decent sales for my non-Eurocentric books), I have been struck by the fact that there seems to be an insatiable appetite—particularly among the Western public readership—for high profile Eurocentric books that celebrate and glorify Western civilization; though, to be brutally frank, many of these rarely add anything new to that which has been said countless times in the last 50 years, if not 200—notwithstanding Ricardo Duchesne's recent avowedly Eurocentric book The Uniqueness of Western Civilization as constituting a rare exception in this regard. All of which means that writing non-Eurocentric books is unlikely to get your name onto the bestseller list (though granted, the same is true for many of the Eurocentric books that have been written!)
International theory and political theory originates mainly from Europe, but makes universal claims about the nature of politics. How does international theory betray its situated roots and how do these roots matter for how we should think about theory?
I'm not sure that I can answer this question in the space allowed but I'll try and get to the broad-brush take-home point. I guess that when thinking about modern IR theory we can find those theorists who in effect advocate a normative Western imperialist posture even if they claim to be doing otherwise. Robert Gilpin's work on hegemonic stability theory is perhaps the clearest example in this respect. Anglo-Saxon hegemony, he claims, is non-imperialist because it always seeks to help the rest of the world, not exploit it. But the exercise of hegemony, it turns out, returns us to the old 19th century trope of the civilizing mission where Western practices and principles are transferred and imposed on non-Western societies in order to culturally convert them along Western lines. And this in turn issues from the assumption that the British and American interests are not selfish but are universal. This mantra is there too in Robert Keohane's (Theory Talk #9) book, After Hegemony, where cultural conversion of non-Western societies to a neoliberal standard of civilization by the international financial institutions through structural adjustment is approved of; an argument that is developed much more expansively in his later work on humanitarian intervention. And this trope forms the basis of cosmopolitan humanitarian interventionist theory more generally, where state reconstruction, which is imposed once military intervention has finished, is all about re-creating Western political and economic institutions across the world. I don't doubt for a moment the sincerity of the arguments that these authors make. But they can make them only because they believe that the Western interest is truly the universal. In such ways, then, IR betrays its roots.
Ultimately, Western IR theory constructs a hierarchical conception of the world with the West standing atop and from there we receive an image of a procession or sliding scale of gradated sovereignties in the non-Western world. For much of IR theory that has neo-imperialist normative underpinnings, it is this construction which legitimizes Western intervention in the non-Western world, thereby reproducing the legal conception of the (imperialist) standard of civilization that underpinned late 19th century positive law. Nevertheless, there has been a significant strand of anti-imperialist Eurocentrism within international theory (and before it a strand of anti-imperialist scientific racism, as in the likes of Charles HenryPearson and LothropStoddard). But once again, as we find in Samuel Huntington's famous 1996 book, The Clash of Civilizations—which comprises a modern equivalent of Lothrop Stoddard's Eugenicist texts, The Rising Tideof Color (1920) and Clashing Tides of Color (1935)—the West is held up as the highest expression of civilization, with non-Western societies viewed as socially inferior such that the West's mandate is not to imperially intervene across the world but to renew its uniquely Western civilized culture in the face of regressive and rampant non-Western regions and countries (particularly Middle Eastern Islam and Confucian China). Hedley Bull's anti-imperialist English School argument provides a complementary variant here because, he argues, it is the refusal of non-Western states to become Western wherein the source of the (unacceptable) instability of the global international society ultimately stems. All of which, as you allude to in your question, rests on the conflation of the Western interest with the universal. It is for this reason, then, that the cardinal principle of critical non-Eurocentrism comprises the need to undertake deep (self) reflexivity and to remain constantly vigilant to Eurocentric slippages.
In turn, this returns me to the point I made before: that IR theory does not think inter-culturally because it denies the validity of non-Western cultures. Because it does so, then it ultimately denies the full sovereignty of non-Western states. For one of the trappings of sovereignty is what Gerry Simpson usefully refers to as 'existential equality', or 'cultural self-determination'. It seems clear to me that the majority of IR theory effectively denies the sovereignty of non-Western states because it rejects cultural pluralism and hence cultural self-determination as a function of its intolerant Eurocentric monism. The biggest ironies that emerge here, however, are two-fold; or what I call the twin self-delusions of IR. First, while conventional IR theory proclaims its positivist, value free credentials that sit comfortably with cultural pluralist tolerance, nevertheless as I argued in my answer to your first question, this positivist mantra turns out to constitute a smokescreen or veil behind which lies the face of intolerant Eurocentric cultural monism. And second, it means that while IR proclaims that its subject matter comprises the objective analysis of the international system which focuses on anarchy and the sovereign state, nevertheless it turns out that what it is really all about is narrating an analysis of Western hierarchy and the 'hyper-sovereignty' of Western states versus the 'conditional sovereignty/gradated sovereignty' of non-Western states.
Linking your work to Lizée's as a critique of extrapolating 'universals' on the basis of narrow (Western) experiences, Patrick Jackson (Theory Talk #44) wrote as follows: 'Perhaps the cure for the disease that Hobson and Lizée diagnose is a rethinking of what "theory" means beyond empirical generalizations, so that future international theorists can avoid the sins of the past.' What is your conception of what theory is or should be?
As noted already, I am all in favor of developing non-Eurocentric theory. To sketch this out in the most generic terms I begin with the proposition that Eurocentric IR/IPE theory is monological, producing a reductive narrative in which only the West talks and acts. It is essentially a 'winner/loser' paradigm that proclaims the non-West as the loser or is always on the receiving end of that which the West does, thereby ensuring that central analytical focus is accorded to the hyper-agency of the Western winner. And its conception of agency is based on having predominant power. We find this problem particularly within much of critical IR theory, where because the West is dominant so it qualifies as having (hyper) agency while the subordinate position of the non-West means that it has little or no agency. In turn, particularly within conventional IR and IPE we encounter a substantialist ontology, where the West is thought to occupy a distinct and autonomous domain. From there everything else follows. And even in parts of critical IR and IPE where relationalism holds greater sway we often find that the West still occupies the center of intellectual gravity in the world.
My preference is for a fully relationalist approach which replaces the monologism of Eurocentrism and its reification of the West with the aforementioned conception of dialogism that brings the non-West into the discussion while simultaneously focusing on the mutually constitutive relations between Western and non-Western actors. It also allows for the agency of the non-West alongside the West's agency (even though clearly after c.1830 the West has been the dominant actor). This in effect replaces Eurocentrism's either/or problematique with a both/and logic, enabling us to reveal a space in which non-Western agency plays important roles without losing focus of Western agency, even when it takes a dominant form as it did after c.1830. In this way then, to reply to Wallerstein's argument discussed earlier, one does not have to dilute the critique of the West when bringing non-Western agency in for both can be situated alongside each other. While I could of course say much more here, these conceptual moves are paramount to me and inform the basis of my empirical work on the international system and the global political economy.
All in all, IR theory needs to take a fully global conception of agency much more seriously; structuralist theory in its many guises is necessary but is ultimately insufficient since it diminishes or dismisses outright the prospect or existence of non-Western agency. Moreover, I seek to blend materialism and non-materialism, which means that neither constructivism nor poststructuralism can quite get us over the line. Even so, blending materialism and non-materialism is not an especially hard task to achieve though IR's preferred ontologically reductionist stance certainly makes this a counter-intuitive proposition.
You combine historical sociology with international relations. What promises does this interdisciplinary approach hold? Why do we need historical sociologies of IR?
Following on from my previous answer I argue that a relationalist non-Eurocentric historical sociology of IR is able to problematize the entities that IR takes for granted—states, anarchy (as well as societies and civilizations)—in order to reveal them, to quote from the marvelous introduction that Julian Go and George Lawson have written for their forthcoming edited volume Global Historical Sociology, as 'entities in motion'. Indeed such entities are never quite complete but change through time. Here it is worth quoting Go and Lawson further, where they argue that
'social forms are "entities-in-motion": they are produced, reproduced, and breakdown through the agency of historically situated actors. Such entities-in-motion, whether they are states, empires, or civilizations often appear to be static entities with certain pre-determined identities and interests. But the relational premise, and perhaps promise, of GHS is its attempt to denaturalize such entities by holding them up to historical scrutiny'.
It is precisely this global historical sociological problematique that underpins the approach that I develop in a forthcoming book, provisionally entitled Reorient International Political Economy where inter alia, I show how many of the major processes of the global economy are never complete but are constantly mutating as they are shaped by the multiple interactions of Western and non-Western actors. To take the origins of capitalism or globalization as an example, I show how these have taken not a Western linear trajectory but a highly discontinuous path as West and non-West have interacted in complex ways.
A good number of IR historical sociologists have focused specifically on particular historical issues—especially that of the rise of the sovereign state in Europe. Such analyses have in my view proven to be extremely valuable because they allow us to puncture some of the myths that surround 'Westphalia' that populate standard or conventional IR reportage (particularly that found in undergraduate text-books). But ultimately I feel that the greatest worth of the historical sociology of IR project lies in using history (understood in historical-sociological terms rather than according to traditional historians' precepts) as a means of problematizing our understanding of the present international system and global political economy. Thus, for me, historical sociology is ultimately important because it can disrupt our understanding and explanations of the present. And I believe that this kind of inter-disciplinarity can bear considerable fruit (notwithstanding the difficulty that this task poses for IR scholars).
You famously criticized IR's Eurocentrism and argued for the need for inter-cultural thinking. What is inter-cultural thinking and how can it benefit IR?
As I already discussed what inter-cultural thinking is a bit before, I shall consider how it might benefit IR and indeed the world in various ways. First, if the rise of the West into modernity owes much of this achievement to the help provided by non-Western ideas, institutions and technologies, then acknowledging this debt could go a long way to healing the wounds that the West has inflicted upon the non-West's sense of self-esteem. Moreover, the hubristic claim ushered in by Eurocentrism, that the West made it to the top all by itself and that the very societies which helped it get there are then immediately denounced as inferior and uncivilized, significantly furnishes the West with the imperialist mandate to intervene and remake non-Western societies in the image of the West. So in essence, the help that the once-more advanced non-Western societies that the West benefited from is rewarded by 150 years of imperial punishment! Of course, IR scholars do not really study the rise of the West, but it is implicit in so much of what they write about. So acknowledging this debt could challenge the West's self-appointed mandate to remake the world in its own image as well as problematize many of the historical assumptions that lie either explicitly or implicitly within IR.
Second, and flowing on from the previous point, thinking inter-culturally means recognizing the manifold roles that the non-West has played in shaping the rise of Western capitalism and the sovereign state system as well as the global economy, as I have just argued, but also appreciating their societies and cultures on their own terms rather than simply dismissing them as unfit for purpose in the modern world. Less Western Messianism and Western hubris, more global understanding and empathy, is ultimately what I'm calling for. But none of this is possible while Eurocentrism remains the go-to modus operandi of IR and IPE. And this is important for IR not least because significant parts of it have informed Western policy, most especially US foreign policy.
Third, a key benefit that inter-cultural thinking could bring to IR is that while the discipline presumes that it furnishes objective analyses of the international system, the upshot of my claim that the discipline is founded on Eurocentrism is that all the discipline is really doing is finding ways to reaffirm the importance of Western civilization in world politics, defending it and often celebrating it, rather than learning or discovering new things about the world and world politics. I believe that only a non-Eurocentric approach can deliver that which IR thinks it's doing already but isn't.
You've said that 'what makes an argument [institutionally] Eurocentric…lies with the nature of the categories that are deployed to understand development. And these ultimately comprise the perceived degree of 'rationality' that is embodied within the political, economic, ideological, and social institutions of a given society.' In order to think inter-culturally, does IR needs new conceptions of rationality, or standards other than rationality altogether?
What an extremely interesting and perceptive question which has really got me thinking! Again, it's something that I've been aware of in the recesses of my mind but have never really thought through. Certainly the essence of Eurocentrism lies in the reification of Western rationality (or what Max Weber called Zweckrationalität) and its simultaneous denial to non-Western societies. But what with all the revelations that have happened in Britain in the last decade, where a seemingly never ending series of fraudulent practices have been uncovered within British public life—whether it be MPs' expenses scandals, banking scandals, newspaper scandals and the like—then one really wonders about the extent to which the West operates according to the properties of Zweck-rationality that Weber proclaimed it to have. Corruption and fraud happen in the West but clearly they are much more hidden than in those instances where it occurs in non-Western countries (notwithstanding the revelations mentioned a moment ago). But if one were to open the lid of many large Western companies, for example, and delve inside one might well find all sorts of 'rationality-compromising' or 'rationality-denial' practices going on. To mention just two obvious examples: first, promotions are often tainted by personal linkages rather than always founded on merit; and second, managers often mark out and protect their own personal position/territory even when it (frequently) goes against the 'rational' interests of the said organization.
To return to your question, then, one could conclude that many Western institutions are far less rational than Eurocentrism proclaims, which in turn would challenge the foundations of Eurocentrism. Of course, corruption and fraud are not unique to the West, but it is the West that proclaims its unique 'rational standard of civilization'. Whether, therefore, we need to abandon the term (Zweck) rationality on the grounds that it is an impossibly conceived ideal type remains the question. Right now I don't have an answer though I'll be happy to mull over this in the coming years.
You've written that engaging with the East 'creates a genuinely global history' and articulate a 'dream wherein the peoples of the Earth can finally sit down at the table of global humanity and communicate as equal partners'. Do you consciously operate with an 'ontology' of 'peoples' and 'civilizations' as opposed to 'individuals'? How do you conceive of the relationship between global humanity and plural peoplehood? Is there an underlying philosophical or anthropological view that you are drawing on in these and similar passages?
Certainly I prefer to think of peoples and even of civilizations rather than individuals and states, though I'll confess right now that dealing theoretically with civilizations and articulating them as units of analysis is extraordinarily challenging. At the moment I leave this side of things to better people than me, such as Peter Katzenstein (Theory Talk #15) and his recentpioneering work on civilizations. The term 'global humanity' concerns me insofar as it is often a politically-loaded term, particularly within cosmopolitanism, where its underbelly comprises the desire to define a single civilizational identity (i.e., a Western one) for 'global humanity'. In essence, cosmopolitanism effectively advances the conception of a 'provincial (i.e., Western) humanity' that masquerades as the global. So I prefer the notion of plural peoplehood, so as to allow for difference. I wouldn't say that I am operating according to a particular philosophical view although it strikes me that such a notion is embodied in Johann Gottfried Herder's work which, on that dimension at least, I am attracted to. But to be honest, this is generally something that I have not explored though it is something that I've thought that I'd like to research for a future book (notwithstanding the point that I'll need to finish the book that I have started first!).
In your reply toErik Ringmar, you draw on psychoanalytic metaphors to discuss the benefits of overcoming Eurocentrism, writing that, 'Eurocentrism leads to the repression and sublimation of the Other in the Self. Thus, doing away with Eurocentrism can end the socio-psychological angst and alienation that necessarily occurs through such sublimation.' How do you envision what we now call the West (or Europe) after its socio-psychological transformation? What does a world after angst and alienation look like? Is it possible, and is that the goal you think IR theory should aim at?
Another massively challenging and fascinating question, let me have a go. Since you raised the issue of socio-psychological/psycho-analytical theory (though it is something that I am no expert on), it has always struck me that Eurocentrism itself is not simply a construct designed to advance Western power and Western capitalist interests in the world. This seems too mechanistic. For recall that it was a series of largely independent sojourners, travel-writers, novelists, journalists and others rather than capitalists who played such an important role in constructing Eurocentrism. Something more seems to be at play. One can think of the battles between 'Mods and Rockers' or Skinheads and heavy metal fans in Britain in the 1960s and 1970s, who detested each other simply because they held different identities and prized different cultural values. Most importantly, I feel, the constant need to denounce, put down and dismiss the Other as inferior seems reminiscent of those kinds of people we sometimes meet who, in constantly putting down others to falsely elevate themselves to a position of superiority, ultimately reveals merely their own insecurities. The same issues, of course, underpin racism and Eurocentrism. The West rose to prominence in my view as a late-developer and having got to the top it very quickly came to view its duty as one of punishing all others for being different – all done, of course, in the name of helping or civilizing the very 'global humanity' that had done so much to help the West rise to the top in the first place! And to want to culturally convert everyone in the world according to the Western standard of civilization seems to be symptomatic of a deeply insecure mindset. A secure person or society for that matter does not feel threatened by, but openly embraces, difference.
Can we move beyond this stand-off given that such a mentality has been hard-wired within Western culture for at least three centuries? And ten if you count the sometimes terse relations between Europe and Middle Eastern Islam that emerged after 1095! We need to move beyond an identity that is based only on putting others down. It's 'bad karma' and, like all bad karma, damages the Western self, not just the non-Western other. But to transcend this identity-formation process requires us to do away with logocentrism; clearly a very big task. Nevertheless, that is exactly what my writings are all about. And it is something that I think IR theory needs to strive to achieve. Because IR theory is to an extent performative then I live in the hope, at least, that such a mentality might, just might somehow seep into international public life, though if it were to happen I strongly suspect that I would not be around to see it. Still, your question—what would a world beyond Eurocentrism look like?—though very important is nevertheless perhaps too difficult to answer without seeming like a hopeless idealist… other than to say that it could be rather better than the current one.
You write that 'IPE should aim to be an über-discipline, drawing on a wide range of disciplines in order to craft a knowledge base that refuses to become lost in disciplinary over-specialization and the depressing academic narcissism of disciplinary methodological differentiation and exclusion.' Why do you prefer that IPE should be the überdiscipline, instead of IR (or something else altogether), with IPE as a subset?
My degree was in Political Economy, my Masters in Political Sociology and my PhD in Historical Sociology and (International) Political Economy. Despite the fact that the majority of my academic career to date has been in IR research, I have always returned at various points to my old haunting ground, IPE (as I have most recently). I have always found IR a little alienating for its reification of politics, divorced from political economy. I'm not a Marxist, but I share in the view that political economy, if not always directly underpinning developments and events in the international system is, however, never far away.
The quote that you took for this question came from the end of my 2-part article that came out in the 20th anniversary edition of Review of International Political Economy. This was partly responding to Benjamin Cohen's (Theory Talk #17) 2008 seminal book, International Political Economy: A Intellectual History. One of the challenges that I issued to my IPE readership, echoing Cohen, is the need for IPE to return to 'thinking big' (in large part as a reaction to the massive contraction of the discipline's boundaries that has been effected by third wave American IPE, which labors under the intellectual hegemony of Open Economy Politics). In that context, then, I argued that IPE needs to expand its boundaries outwards not only to allow big or macro-scale issues to return to the discipline's research agenda but also to incorporate insight from other disciplines. For in my view IPE has the potential to blend the insights of many other disciplines that can in turn transcend the sometimes myopic or tunnel-vision-based nature of their particular constituent specialisms.
One of the implications of 'thinking big' is that IPE should be able to cover much of that which IR does… and more. Like Susan Strange, who expressed her exasperation with IR for its exclusion of politico-economic matters, so I feel that the solution lies not with IR colonizing IPE (which is not likely for the foreseeable future!) but with IPE expanding its currently narrow remit. If it could achieve this it could become the 'über-discipline', or the 'master discipline', of the Social Sciences, notwithstanding the point that my postcolonial and feminist friends will no doubt upbraid me for using such terrible terms!
Final question. Beyond the East outside the West, Greece is now being remade as the 'East' within the West, with a range of measures applied to it that had hitherto been the preserve for the 'East' or Global South. How can your work help to make sense of the stakes?
Your question reminds me of a similar one that I was asked in an interview for Cumhurieyet Strateji Magazine concerning Turkey's ongoing efforts to join the EU, the essence of my answer comprising: 'be careful what you wish for'. One of the things that I have felt uneasy about is the way, as I see it (and I might not be quite right in saying this), that European Studies (as a sub-discipline) sometimes appears as rather self-affirming, thereby reflecting the core self-congratulatory modus operandi of the EU. I am not anti-European or in any way ashamed to be Western (as some of my critics might think). But I'm deeply uneasy about the EU project, specifically in terms of its desire to expand outwards, not to mention inwards as we are seeing in the case of Greece today. For this has the whiff of the old civilizing mission that had supposedly been put to rest back at the time of the origins of the European Economic Community. Although Greece is a member of the EU (notwithstanding its non-European roots), it seems clear that what is going on today is a process of intensified internal colonization under the hegemony of Germany, wherein Greece is subjected to the German standard of civilization. All of which brings into question the self-glorification of the self-proclaimed 'socially progressive' EU project. And to return to my discussion of Turkey I recognize that candidate countries have their reasons for wanting to join the EU. But I guess that what my work is ultimately about is restoring a sense of dignity to non-Western peoples, in the absence of which they will continue to self-deprecate and live in angst in the long cold shadow of the West. All of which brings me back to the answers I made to quite a few of the earlier questions. So I would like to close by saying how much I have enjoyed answering your extremely well-informed questions and to thank you most sincerely for inviting me to address them.
Professor Hobson gained his PhD from the LSE (1991), joined the University of Sheffield as Reader and is currently Professor of Politics and International Relations. Previously he taught at La Trobe University, Melbourne (1991–97) and the University of Sydney (1997–2004). His main research interest concerns the area of inter-civilizational relations and everyday political economy in the context of globalization, past and present. His work is principally involved in carrying forward the critique of Eurocentrism in World History/Historical Sociology, and International Relations.
Related links
Faculty Profile at the University of Sheffield Read Hobson's The Postcolonial Paradox of Eastern Agency (Perceptions 2014) here (pdf) Read Hobson's Is critical theory always for the white West and for Western imperialism? (Review of International Studies 2007) here (pdf)
0 0 1 6773 38610 Danish Institute for International Studies 321 90 45293 14.0
ILLUSTRIERTE GESCHICHTE DES WELTKRIEGES 1914/15. ERSTER BAND. Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges (-) Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Erster Band. (Erster Band) ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ([I]) Impressum ([II]) Inhaltsverzeichnis. ([III]) Kunstbeilagen. (IV) Karten. (IV) Kriegskalender zur Original-Einbanddecke der Illustrierten Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Erster Band enthaltend die Ereignisse bis Ende 1914. ( - ) Juni. Juli. August. September. ( - ) Oktober. November. Dezember. ( - ) [Tabelle]: Schiffsbestand der Kaiserlichen Marine bei Kriegsausbruch ( - ) [Abb.]: ( - ) 1. Linienschiffe ( - ) 2. Küstenpanzerschiffe. 3. Panzerkreuzer. ( - ) 4. Geschützte Kreuzer ( - ) 5. Kanonenboote. 6. Flußkanonenboote. 7. Torpedoboote. 8. Unterseeboote. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 1 (Heft 1) ([1]) [Abb.]: Ein Blick auf Sarajewo, die Hauptstadt Bosniens, von Nordost. Das große Gebäude im Vordergrund rechts vom Miljackafluß ist das Rathaus, dem der Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand und seine Gemahlin einen Besuch abstatteten. Vom Rathaus zieht den Fluß entlang der Appelkai. Das Attentat wurde vor der letzten Brücke (im Hintergrund), wo die Franz-Joseph-Straße auf den Appelkai stößt, ausgeführt. Das große weiße Gebäude im Mittelgrunde links ist die Franz-Josephs-Kaserne, das von Pappeln umgebene Gebäude der Konak. ([1]) [Gedicht]: ([1]) [4 Abb.]: (1)Graf Leopold v. Berchthold, österreichisch-ungarischer Minister des Äußern. (2)Kronprinz Alexander von Serbien, Oberbefehlshaber der serbischen Streitkräfte im Kampfe gegen Österreich-Ungarn. (3)Erzherzog Friedrich, der neue Generalinspekteur der österreichisch-ungarischen Armee. (4)Der serbische Ministerpräsident Paschitsch. (2) [4 Abb.]: (1)v. Putnik, serbischer Generalstabschef. (2)Freiherr v. Hötzendorf, österreichisch-unagrischer Generalstabschef. (3)v. Krobatin, österreichisch-ungarischer Kriegsminister. (4)Stefanowitsch, serbischer Kriegsminister. (3) [Abb.]: Das Attentat auf den Erzherzog-Thronfolger Franz Ferdinand von Österreich und seine Gemahlin in Sarajewo am 28. Juni 1914. ([4]) [Abb.]: Der Gottesdienst am Bismarckdenkmal in Berlin am 2. August 1914. ([5]) [Abb.]: Wilhelm II., Deutscher Kaiser, König von Preußen. .Wir sind im tiefsten Frieden in des Wortes wahrhafter Bedeutung überfallen worden. Dem Gegner werden wir zeigen, was es heißt, Deutschland in so niederträchtiger Weise zu reizen, und nun empfehle Ich Euch Gott. (Aus der Ansprache Kaiser Wilhelms vom Balkon des königl. Schlosses zu Berlin am Abend des 31. Juli.) (6) [Abb.]: Franz Joseph I., Kaiser von Österreich und König von Ungarn. In dieser ernsten Stunde bin Ich Wir der ganzen Tragweite Meines Entschlusses und Meiner Verantwortung vor dem Allmächtigen bewußt. Ich habe alles geprüft und erwogen. Mit ruhigem Gewissen betrete Ich den Weg, den die Pflicht mir weist. Ich vertraue auf Meine Völker, die sich in allen Stürmen stets in Einigkeit und Treue um Meinen Thron geschart haben und für die Ehre, Größe und Macht des Vaterlandes zu schwersten Opfern immer bereit waren. Ich vertraue auf Österreich-Ungarns tapfere und von hingebungsvoller Begesiterung erfüllte Wehrmacht. Un Ich vertraue auf den Allmächtigen, daß er Meinen Waffen den Sieg verleihen werde. (Aus dem Manifest des Kaisers Franz Joseph: An meine Völker!) (7) [Abb.]: Der Zeppelinkreuzer "Z VI" bombadiert Lüttich in der Nacht vom 6. August. ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Reservisten auf dem Marsche zum Bahnhof. (2)Bei der Abfahrt auf dem Bahnhof. (10) [Abb.]: Der Abschied vom Hausgenossen. ([11]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (12) Die patriotischen Kundgebungen in der Reichshauptstadt. (12) [Karte]: Übersichtskarte des deutsch-französischen Kriegschauplatzes. ([13]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bewachung eines Tunnels durch österreichisches Militär. (2)Bewachung von Eisenbahnen und Brücken an der österreichisch=serbischen Grenze. (14) Kriegszustand und Mobilmachung. (14) Sicherung der Wege und Bahnen. (15) Unsere Gegner. (15) [Abb.]: Französischer Wachtposten vor einem Signalapparat auf dem Bahnhof St. Lazare. (15) [Karte]: Übersichtskarte der deutsch-russischen Grenze. ([16]) [Abb.]: Das Aufhalten eines Verdächtigen Automobils an der oberschlesischen Grenze. ([17]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine russische Schützenlinie. (2)Französische Infanterie zum Angriff vorgehend. (18) Die Schlacht bei Mülhausen. (19) [Abb.]: Typen vom belgischen Heer. Feldartillerie. Infanterie. (Feldanzug) Regiment Chaffeurs à cheval. Grenadier-Reg. (Tambour). Regiment des Guides (Trompeter). Lancier-Regiment. Geniertruppe (Mineur). Carabinier-Regiment. Im Hintergrund: Reitende Artillerie (Offiziere). General (kleiner Anzug). Jäger zu Pferde (Offizier). 2. Lancier-Regiment (Offizier, Feldanzug). (19) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Stadt Mühlhausen im Oberelsaß, der Schauplatz des ersten deutsch-französischen Zusammenstoßes, durch den ein französisches Armeekorps und eine Divison von ihrem Stützpnkt Belfort nach Süden abgedrängt wurden. (2)Die Stadt Markirch im Elsaß-Lothringen, Kreis Rappoltsweiler, die noch vor der Kriegserklärung von den längst vorbereiteten französischen Truppen überrumpelt und nebst den Ortschaften Gottesthal, Metzeral, sowie dem Schluchtpaß vorübergehend besetzt wurde, obwohl die französische Regierung die Innehaltung einer unbesetzten Zone von 10 km zugesagt hatte. (20) Der Sturm auf Lüttich. (21) [2 Abb.]: (1)General der Infanterie v. Emmich, der den Sturm auf Lüttich persönlich befehligte und die glänzende Waffentat der Eroberung der Festung vom Kaiser durch Verleihung des Ordens pour le mérite ausgezeichnet wurde. (2)Ansicht von Lüttich. (21) [Karte]: Brialmontisches Fortin (nach Schröter, Moderne Festungen). (22) [Abb.]: Ansicht der Festung Namur. (22) Namur. (23) [Abb.]: Die verheerende Wirkung eines deutschen 42-cm-Geschosses auf das Panzerfort Lancin der Festung Lüttich. (23) [Karte]: Die Festung Lüttich und ihre Forts. (24) [Gedicht]: Zwischen Metz und den Vogesen. 20. August 1914. (24) [Abb.]: Die Heldentat des deutschen Minenlegers "Königin Luise" vor der Themsemündung am 8. August. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 2 (Heft 2) ([25]) [Abb.]: Ankunft der ersten gefangenen Franzosen in Stuttgart. ([25]) [Abb.]: In Berlin vor dem königlichen Schloss nach der Schlacht bei Metz. ([27]) [Abb.]: Anreitende russische Kavallerie wird von drei deutschen Infanteristen beschossen. (28 - 29) [Brief]: Am 1. August nachmittags veröffentlichte der "Reichsanzeiger" in einer Sonderausgabe folgenden kaiserlichen Erlaß: (31) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schwestern vom Roten Kreuz beim Kochen von Krankenkost. (2)Deutsche Verwundete werden in Automobilen in Stuttgarter Lazarette überführt. (32) [Tabelle]: die Mobilmachungstage waren im ganzen Reiche die gleichen. Es hieß da: (32) [Abb.]: Abschied der Königin Charlotte von Württemberg von einem Lazarettrupp des Württembergischen Landesvereins vom Roten Kreuz. (33) Illustrierte Kriegsgeschichte. (34) Das Gefecht bei Lagarde. (34) [Abb.]: Eroberung der ersten französischen Fahne und der der ersten Geschüzte bei Lagarde. ([35]) Die Beschießung von Libau durch den kleinen Kreuzer "Augsburg" am 2. August. (36) Drei gegen fünfzig. (36) [Abb.]: Bedrohung verhafteter Deutscher durch belgische Behörden. ([37]) Minensperrung in der Themse. Die Beschießung von Libau. (38) Auf dem Weg zur Grenze. (38) [8 Abb.]: (1)General der Infanterie v. Moltke, Chef des deutschen Generalstabs. (2)Generaloberst Herzog Albrecht von Württemberg. (3)Generaloberst Großherzog Friedrich II. von Baden. (4)Generalfeldmarschall Kronprinz Rupprecht von Bayern. (5)Großadmiral Prinz Heinrich von Preußen, Generalinspekteur der Marine. (6)Admiral v. Pohl, Chef des Admiralstabs der Marine. (7)Vizeadmiral Friedrich v. Ingenohl, der neue Chef der Hochseeflotte. (8)Großadmiral v. Tirpitz, Staatssekretär des Reichsmarineamts. (38) [8 Abb.]: (1)Generalleutnant v. Falkenhayn, Kriegsminister. (2)Generaloberst v. Bülow. (3)E. Freiherr v. d. Goltz, Generalfeldmarschall und Gouverneur von Belgien. (4)Gottlieb Graf v. Häfeler, Generalfeldmarschall, (5)General der Infanterie v. Heeringen. (6)Generaloberst v. Prittwitz und Gassron. (7)Generaloberst v. Eichhorn. (8)General der Infanterie v. Kluck. (39) Zur Schlacht bei Metz. (40) [Abb.]: In Erwartung der Abfahrt. (40) Belgische Ausschreitungen gegen die Deutschen. (40) Vom Roten Kreuz. (41) [Abb.]: Eine auf der Fahrt zum Kriegschauplatz befindliche Truppe hält auf freier Strecke. (41) Der Sturm auf Schabatz. (42) Belfort. (42) [Abb.]: Strassenkampf in Schabatz. ([43]) [Abb.]: Blick auf die Festung Belfort. (44) [Abb.]: Plan von Belfort und Umgebung. (44) [Abb.]: Landung englischer Truppen in Nordfrankreich. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1915 Heft 3 (Heft 3) ([45]) [Abb.]: Generaloberst von Beneckendorff und Hindenburg, der Held von Gilgenburg. ([45]) [Abb.]: Das Einbringen der ersten französischen Geschütze in Strassburg. ([47]) [Abb.]: Vernichtung einer russischen Kavalleriebrigade durch deutsche Infanterie. (48 - 49) [5 Brief]:(1) Der Kaiser an den Zaren: Vom 28. Juli, 10 Uhr 45 nachm. (2)Der Zar an den Kaiser: Peterhof, Palais, 29. Juli, 1 Uhr nachm. (3) Der Kaiser an den Zaren: Vom 29. Juli, 6 Uhr 30 nachm. (4)Der Kaiser an den Zaren: Vom 30. Juli, 1 Uhr vorm. (5)Der Zar an den Kaiser: Peterhof, 30. Juli, 1 Uhr 20 nachm. (50) [Abb.]: Der ostpreusische Kriegschauplatz. (51) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (52) Die Schlacht bei Ortelsburg und Gilgenburg. (52) [Abb.]: Flüchtende englische Kavallerie bei St. Quentin. ([53]) Die ersten eroberten Geschütze in Strassburg. (54) Bei St. Quentin. (55) Die Bewaffnung der französischen Feldartillerie. (55) [Abb.]: König Wilhelm II. von Württemberg besichtigt eines der bei Longwy erbeuteten französischen Feldgeschütze. (55) [Abb.]: Ungarischer Bajonettangriff auf russische Infanterie in der Schlacht bei Krasnik ([56 - 57]) Poincaré. (58) [2Abb.]: (1)Albert I., König der Belgier. (2)Georg V., König von Grossbritannien und Irland. (58) Albert (58) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nikolaus II., Kaiser von Russland. (2)Raymond Poincaré, Präsident der Französischen Republik. (58) [2 Abb.]: (1)Grossfürst Nikolai Nikolajewitsch, Generalissimus der russischen Armee. (2)General Joffre, Oberbefehlshaber der französischen Armee. (59) Georg V. (59) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generalfeldmarschall Sir John French, Oberbefehlshaber der englischen Expeditionstruppen, die zur Verstärkung des französischen und des belgischen Heeres nach dem Festland entsandt wurden. (2)Lord Kitchener, der neue englische Kriegsminister, der die Aufgabe hat, das englische Landheer zu reorganisieren. (59) Nikolaus II. Alexandrowitsch (60) Die gegnerischen führenden Generale. (60) [Abb.]: Festnahme eines zur Notlandung gezwungenen feindlichen Fliegers. ([61]) Von unseren kühnen Fliegern. (62) Die Riesenschlachten der österreichisch=ungarischen Armee. (62) Generaloberst von Beneckendorff und Hindenburg (63) [Abb.]: Karte des österreichisch=russischen Kriegschauplatzes. (63) Landung englischer Truppen auf dem Kontinent. (63) Die Befestigungen von Paris. (64) [Abb.]: Plan von Paris. (64) [Karte]: Karte vom westlichen Kriegschauplatz. (64) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 4 (Heft 4) ([65]) [Abb.]: Das erste Gefecht der Einundachtziger. ([65]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Rast ostpreussischer Flüchtlinge. (2)Erfrischung ostpreussischer Flüchtlinge durch das Rote Kreuz. (68) [Abb.]: Russische Kosaken plündern und brennen ein Dorf nieder. ([69]) [Abb.]: Im Kampf gegen französische Gebirgstruppen bei Epinal. ([73]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (74) Die Landwehr in den Vogesen. (74) Prinz Friedrich Karl von Hessen und die "81 er". (75) [Abb.]: Schülerinnen der höheren Mädchenschule des Direktors Richter in Berlin beim Stricken von Strümpfen für die im Felde stehenden Soldaten. (75) Sanitätshunde. (76) [Abb.]: Von den Kämpfen der österreichischen Gebirgsbrigaden auf dem montenegrinischen Kriegschauplatz. ([77]) Deutsche Flieger über Paris. (78) Die Kämpfe auf dem montenegrinischen Kriegschauplatz. (79) [Abb.]: Unsere Kriegs=Sanitätshunde. (79) Ostpreussische Flüchtlinge. (79) [Abb.]: Der Kriegschauplatz im Südwesten. (80) [Abb.]: Verpflegunsstation im Aufmarschgebiet. ( - ) [Abb.]: Deutsche Flieger über Paris. ([81]) Die Attacke bei Perwez. (82) [Abb.]: Ansicht von Antwerpen. Blick von der Kathedrale auf Stadt. (82) [Abb.]: Attacke deutscher Ulanen gegen französische Dragoner bei Perwez. ([83]) [Abb.]: Plan von Antwerpen und Umgebung. (84) Die Festung Antwerpen. (84) [Gedicht]: Das Lied vom Hass. (84) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 5 (Heft 5) ([85]) [2 Abb.]: (1)General Viktor Dankl. (2)General Moritz Ritter v. Aussenberg, der Sieger von Zamosc. ([85]) [Abb.]: Russische Verwundete in deutscher Verpflegung. (88) [Abb.]: Im Kampf mit Franktireurs. ([89]) [Abb.]: Eroberung russischer Geschütz durch deutsche Kavallerie in den Kämpfen bei Soldau. (91) [Abb.]: Wasserversorgungswagen. (93) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (93) Die Verpflegung unserer Heere. (93) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fahrbare Feldküche. (2)Abkochen im Biwak. (94) [Abb.]: Rast im Heerlager mit den Proviant= und Bagagenwagen. (95) Die Nacht von Andenne. (Ein Kampf mit Franktireurs.) (96) [Abb.]: Gefangennahme meuchelmörderischer belgischer Bauern. (97) [Abb.]: Die deutschen Maschinengewehre in der Schlacht bei Löwen. ([98 - 99]) Die Kämpfe bei Löwen. (100) [Abb.]: Das Rathaus von Löwen, das bei dem Brande der Stadt unversehrt blieb. (101) Von der Schlacht bei Longuyon (101) [Abbl.]: Eines der erbeuteten russischen Maschinengewehre mit russischem Vorspann wird in Berlin am 2. September eingebracht. (102) Die Generale Dankl und v. Aussenberg. (102) [Abb.]: Blick über den Pariser Platz in Berlin während des Einholens eroberter Geschütze. - Im Hintergrund das Brandenburger Tor. Am 2. September wurden die ersten in der Reichshauptstadt eingetroffenen erbeuteten französischen, belgischen und russischen Geschütze, Maschinengewehre und Trophäen unter feierlichem Glockengeläute und Salutschüssen deutscher Artillerie eingebracht und im Schlosshof aufgestellt. ([103]) [Karte]: Karte vom westlichen Kriegschauplatz. (Südliche Hälfte). ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 6 (Heft 6) ([105]) [Abb.]: Österreich=ungarische Infanterie besetzt ein Dorf an der serbischen Grenze. ([105]) [Abb.]: Österreich=ungarische Infanterie=Patrouille im kalksteinreichen Grenzgebiet. (107) [Abb.]: Attacke österreichischer Ulanen auf russische Infanterie in der Schlacht bei Zamosc. ([108 - 109]) [Abb.]: Der nordwestliche Kriegschauplatz. (111) [Abb.]: Von deutschen Truppen mit Maschinengewehren heruntergeschossener französischer Flieger bei Lunéville. (112) [Abb.]: Ein Kampf in den Lüften. ([113]) [Abb.]: Deutsches Massengrab bei Lauterfingen nach der Schlacht vom 16. August. (115) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (116) Die Schlacht bei Zamosc. (116) [Abb.]: Unser freiwilliges Automobilkorps in Feindesland. ([117]) [Abb.]: Lastselbstfahrer der Verkehrstruppe. (118) Selbstfahrer im Kriegsdienst. (118) Brief eines Verwundeten. (119) [Abb.]: Ein Kraftwagenzug. (119) [Abb.]: Das Grenadier=Regiment Königin Olga (1. Württembergisches) Nr. 119 vor einem brennenden Dorf. (120) Ein Kampf in den Lüften. (120) Mein erstes Gefecht. (121) [Abb.]: Während des Feuers der Artillerie hat sich die Infanterie vor das Dorf zurückgezogen. (121) [Abb.]: ".Mit Inbrunst werden Liebesgaben verzehrt." (122) Gebirgskrieg in Serbien. (122) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Landsturmmann als Bahnwache in Feindesland. (2)"Spanischer Reiter", Eisengitter zur Strassensperrung für Autos und Räder. (123) Wie es auf Helgoland aussieht. (124) [Abb.]: Helgoland (124) [Abb.]: Kronprinz Rupprecht von Bayern auf dem Schlachtfeld bei Saarburg. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914 Heft 7 (Heft 7) ([125]) [Abb.]: Das neueste Heft der "Illustrierten Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914" im Lazarett. ([125]) [Abb.]: Eroberung französischer Geschütze durch deutsche Kavallerie. ([127]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Dorf Rouvres bei Stain nach den Kämpfen zwischen Longwy und Verdun. (2)Dorf Romain bei Longwy an der französisch=belgischen Grenze. (128) [Abb.]: Reserveinfanterieregiment vor dem Gefecht bei Mittersheim in Lothringen (Kreis Saarburg). (129) [Abb.]: Der Donaumonitor "Körös" im Kampf gegen die Belgrader Festungswerke. (130) [Abb.]: Österreich=ungarische Artillerie an der serbischen Grenze. ([131]) [Abb.]: Semlin a. d. Donau (132) [Abb.]: Verbrüderung der deutschen Skukariktruppen mit den österreich=ungarischen Soldaten in Wien. (133) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (134) Von der Schlacht bei Saarburg. (134) Übergang über die Maas. (135) [Abb.]: Deutsche Truppen überschreiten die Maas bei Méziéres. ([136 - 137]) Die Kirche in St. B . . . . e. (138) Kriegsneurosen. (138) [Abb.]: Von den Belgiern zerstörte Maasbrücke bei Lüttich. (139) Die Seekämpfe bei Helgoland und Hoek von Holland. (140) [Abb.]: Vorpostengefecht bei Helgoland. (140) Die Feldpost. (140) [Abb.]: Vernichtung der englischen Panzerkreuzer "Aboukir", "Hogue" und "Cressy" durch das deutsche Unterseeboot "U 9" am Morgen des 22. September etwa 20 Seemeilen nordwestlich von Hoek van Holland. ([141]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Aushilfs=Feldpostwagen. (2)Ein Etappenwagen der Feldpost. (142) [Abb.]: Deutsche Feldpost nimmt vor der Abfahrt von vorbeimarschierenden Truppen Briefe in die Heimat mit. (143) [Abb.]: Dumdumgeschosse. (144) Die Dumdumgeschosse unserer Feinde. (144) [Karte]: Karte vom serbisch=montenegrinischen Kriegschauplatz. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 8 (Heft 8) ([145]) [Abb.]: Mittagsmahl einer deutschen Truppe bei Mercy=le=Haut im Departement Meurthe=et=Moselle im nordöstlichen Frankreich. ([145]) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des Boussois vor Maubeuge. ([148 - 149]) [Abb.]: Maubeuge und Umgebung nach einer französischen Skizze. (150) [Abb.]: Die Panzerkreuzer "Goeben" und "Breslau" vor Messina. In der Nacht zum 6. August gelang es den Panzerkreuzern "Goeben" und "Breslau", mit abgeblendeten Lichtern aus dem Hafen von Messina auszulaufen und die englische und französische Flotte zu durchbrechen. (151) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine von den Russen niedergebrannte Strasse in Hohenstein. (2)Ruinen eine an der deutsch=russischen Grenze gelegenen Städtchens. (152) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russische Infanterie lagert auf dem Marktplatz in Johannisburg. (2)Das Innere eines von den Russen zerstörten Geschäftshauses in Gerdauen, Ostpr. (153) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte (154) Die Eroberung von Maubeuge. (154) [Abb.]: Erbeutete russische Geschütze vor dem Arsenal in Wien. (155) Das moderne Unterseeboot. (155) [Abb.]: Auf dem Schlachtfeld bei Czernowitz. ([156 - 157]) [Abb.]: Das Periskop dient in einem Unterseeboot zur Beobachtung der Vorgänge auf der Wasseroberfläche. (158) Wie die Russen an der deutschen Grenze gehaust haben. (158) Aus der Vier=Tage=Schlacht bei Baubecourt. Brief eines verwundeten Mittkämpfers. (159) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Held von "U 9", Kapitänleutnant Weddigen, erhielt das Eiserne Kreuz 1. und 2. Klasse. (2)Das kühne deutsche Unterseeboot U 9, in der Mitte zwischen zwei anderen Unterseebooten, das am 22. September drei englische Panzerkreuzer vernichtete. (159) An der Grenze der Bukowina. (160) Das bedrohte Tsingtau. (161) [Abb.]: Beim Auswerfen von Schützengräben. (161) 2 [Abb.]: (1)Tsingtau mit Umgebung (2)Prinz Heinrich von Preussen mit dem Gouverneur von Tsingtau, Kapitän z. S. Meyer=Waldeck. (162) [2 Abb.]: (1)Tsingtau. (2)Eine Abteilung der Matrosenartillerie in Tsingtau. (163) Die Kämpfe um Nancy. (164) [2 Abb.]: (1)Gesamtansicht von Nancy. (2)Skizze von Nancy und Umgebung. (164) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 9 (Heft 9) ([165]) [Abb.]: Die ehemalige deutsch=russische Grenze Endtkuhnen-Kibarty: Zollhaus Kibarty. ([165]) [Abb.]: Wirkung einer deutschen Granate am Burgunder Tor in Longtwy. (166) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Kaiser in Beuveille am 31. August 1914. (2)Von Pionieren wiederhergestellte Brücke über die Maas bei Stenay. (167) [Abb.]: Übergabe der Festung Longwy. ([168 - 169]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Truppen in Brüssel. Im Hintergrund der Lunapark. (2)Auf dem Platz Sainctelette in Brüssel. Deutsche Soldaten sorgen für die Feldküche. ([171]) [Abb.] Verfolgung der russischen Armee nach der Schlacht bei Tannenberg. ([173]) [Abb.]: Russische Gebirgsartillerie. (174) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (174) Etwas von der russischen Armee. (174) [Abb.]: Truppen vom 8. Ostsibirischen Schützenregiment. (174) [3 Abb.]: (1)Russische Artillerieoffiziere im Feldlager an der ostpreussischen Grenze. (2)Ein russisches Kosakenregiment beim Abzug durch eine ostpreussische Grenzstadt. (3)Gefangene von der Njemenarmee werden nach den deutschen Festungen abgeführt. (175) [Abb.]: Die niederlage der Serben im Kampf an der Save. (176 - 177) Die Übergabe der Festung Longwy. (176 - 177) [Abb.]: Übersichtskarte des österreichisch=serbischen Kriegschauplatzes. (178) Ein zurückgeworfener Einfall der Serben. (178) [6 Abb.]: (1)Erzherzog Franz Salvator verabschiedet sich von den Ärzten und Offizieren des Roten Kreuzes vor ihrer Abfahrt aus Wien nach dem Kriegschauplatz. (2)Fahnenweihe des ersten Honved=Infanterie=Regiments in Budapest. (3)Abschied der nach Galizien fahrenden ungarischen Soldaten (4)Rückkehr leichtverwundeter ungarischer Soldaten nach der Schlacht bei Lemberg. (5)Ankunft serbischer Kriegsgefangener in Budapest. (6)Gefangene verwundete algerische und französische Soldaten. ([179]) [Abb.]: Die Kathedrale von Reims. (180) Das Heldengrab bei Pewlingen. (180) [Abb.]: Einzug deutscher Husaren in Reims. ([181]) Reims. (182) [Abb.]: Steilfeuergeschütze der Fussartillerie, aus gedeckter Stellung feuernd. (182) [Abb.]: In die Luft geworfene Panzerdecken eines Forts, die umgekehrt zurückfielen (183) "Die fleissige Berta". (183) [Abb.]: Die mehrere Meter starke Betondeckung eines belgischen Forts, die ebenso wie die beweglichen Panzertürme durch einen Schuss der deutschen 42=cm=Haubitzen zerstört wurde. Der Schuss drang bis zur Munitionskammer durch, so dass das ganze Fort in die Luft flog. (184) [Gedicht]: Ein Vater seinen ausmarschierenden beiden Söhnen. (184) [Abb.]: Einzug der deutschen Truppen in Brüssel. Aufmarsch auf dem Marktplatz vor der Parade. - Links Rathaus, rechts Gildenhäuser. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 10 (Heft 10) ([185]) [Abb.]: Generaloberst v. Kluck. ([185]) [2 Abb]: (1)Die Zitadelle in Lüttich von deutschen Truppen bewacht. (2)Ein Blick in das innere der Zitadelle von Lüttich. (186) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten vor dem Hauptbahnhof in Lüttich. (187) [2 Abb.]: (1)Stimmungsbild aus den Strassen von Brüssel. (2)Rast deutscher Soldaten in Schaerbeek bei Brüssel. ([188]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Feldöfen auf der Grande Place in Brüssel. (2)Deutsche Maschinengewehre in Schaerbeek bei Brüssel. ([189]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldatenpatrouille auf dem Boulevard Anspach in Brüssel. (190) [Abb.]: Gefecht bei Tirlemont. (191) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Strassensperre hinter Gravelotte. (2)Kaserne der 15. Ulanenregiments in Saarburg, in der sich die Franzosen verschanzt hatten, nach der Beschiessung. (192) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ausgebrannte Häuser bei der Kirche in Bruderdorf bei Saarburg, aus denen Freischärler auf deutsche Truppen geschossen hatten. (2)Innere Ansicht der von den Franzosen verwüsteten und geplünderten alten Reichsbank in Saarburg. ([193]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (194) Mit dem Rad auf den Schlachtfeldern von Saarburg. (194) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein Wagen mit Leichtverwundeten in Stenay. (2)Der deutsche Kronprinz im Gespräch mit dem Kommandierenden General des XVI. Armeekorps in Romagne=fous=Montfaucon am 20. September 1914. (195) König Ludwig III. begrüsst seine Bayern. (196 - 197) [Abb.]: König Ludwig III. begrüsst seine siegreichen Truppen in der Nähe von Cháteau=Salins am 13. September 1914. (196 - 197) Die Schlacht an den masurischen Seen. (196 - 197) [Abb.]: Deutsche Truppengepäckwagen auf der Petersburger Strasse in Suwalki. (198) Bericht eines bei Ausbruch des Krieges in England zurückgehaltenen Deutschen. (198) [Abb.]: Wasserträger in Suwalki (198) [Abb.]: Die Grodnoer Reservearmee wird in der Schlacht bei Lyck geschlagen. ([199]) [Abb.]: Schauplatz der Kämpfe im Osten an den masurischen Seen. (200) Generaloberst v. Kluck. (200) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten in einer russischen Droschke in Suwalki. (201) Die österreichisch=ungarischen Kraftfahrhaubitzen. (201) Krieg und Volkswirtschaft. (201) [Abb.]: Stehen gebliebene Wand eines von den Russen zerstörten Gehöftes bei Lyck. (201) [Abb.]: Ein schweres Geschütz wird durch Motorkraft befördert. (202) Hindenburg und die Masurischen Seen. (203) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch=ungarische Truppen mit ihren 30,5=cm=Kanonen in Brüssel. (2)Eine der österreichisch=ungarischen Motorkanonen vor der Artilleriekaserne in Brüssel. (203) Englische Kriegsgefangene. (204) [2 Abb.]: (1)Englische Kriegsgefangene im Munsterlager. (2)Gefangene Engländer und Franzosen im Sennelager bei Paderborn. (204) [Abb.]: Beschiessung von Antwerpen. Der Anblick ist von Westen nach Osten gegeben, von wo aus die Beschiessung erfolgte und wo das Gelände von vielen sich kreuzenden Bahndämmen durchzogen ist. Vor der Stadt liegen die inneren Forts, von denen man die Schüsse aufblitzen sieht. Im Vordergrund eine zur Aufklärung vorgesandte Ulanenabteilung. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 11 (Heft 11) ([205]) [Abb.]: Aus der Schlacht bei Sadweitschen. Das Generalkommando beobachtet im Feuer schwerer Artillerie den Fortgang der Schlacht; im Hintergrund einschlagende Granaten. ([205]) [Abb.]: Aus der Schlacht bei Sadweitschen. Der Beobachtungsposten im Fesselballon meldet telephonisch dem Generalkommando, dass unser linker Flügel von einer feindlichen Batterie in der Flanke bedroht wird. Ein Ordonnanzoffizier schreibt die Meldung nieder, die dann sofort an das Generalkommando weitergegeben wird. (206) [Abb.]: Fesselballon als Beobachtungsstation über einem der masurischen Seen; im Vordergrund Fernsprechwagen. (207) [Abb.]: Der afrikanische Besitz der Grossmächte. (208) [Abb.]: Die " roten Teufel". ([209]) [ 6 Abb.]: Unsere Soldaten im Felde: Wie sie sich zu helfen wissen. (1)Morgenwäsche. (2)Rasieren im Felde. (3)Ungewohnte Arbeit. Deutsche Soldaten beim Stopfen ihrer Socken vor einem Hause in Belgien. (4)Abziehen des Rasiermessers am Gewehrriemen. (5)Beim Frühstück auf der Schulbank. (6)Melken einer Kuh. ([211]) [Abb.]: Stellung der 3. Kompanie des Reserve=Infanterie=Regiments Nr. 121 vom 1.-11. September bei St.=Dié. (212) [Abb.]: Der Turbinenkreuzer "Dresden" jagt den englischen Riesendampfer "Mauretania". ([213]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (214) Die Schlacht bei Soissons. (214) [Abb.]: Eine neue französische Aeroplan=Mitrailleuse, wie solche während des jetzigen Krieges von unseren Feinden verwendet werden. Man hat diese Aufnahme als Postkarte von französischen Flugzeugen auf deutschem Gebiet abgeworfen, um die Grenzbevölkerung in Schrecken zu versetzen. (214) Die neuen Kriegsmittel. (215) [Abb.]: Eingegrabene deutsche Artillerie im Feuer. (215) [Abb.]: Nachtangriff in der Schlacht bei Soissons gegen die Engländer. ([216 - 217]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Militärflieger im Aufklärungsdienst. (218) Feldpostbrief aus den Vogesen. (219) [3 Abb.]: (1)Unsere Feldtelefunkenstation in Feindesland. (2)Legen einer Feldtelegraphenleitung durch serbisches Militär. (3)Eine deutsche Feldtelephonleitung. (219) Dampferjagd auf hoher See. (220) [3 Abb.]: (1)Verankerte Minen. (2)Galvanische Schlagmine. Schema der Lage der galvanischen Strömung. (3)Die gebräuchlichste Art der Seeminen. (220) [Abb.]: Die Wirkung von Minen. (221) Die tapferen Bosniaken. (221) Der Fall von Antwerpen. (221) [Abb.]: Einrückendes bosnisches Regiment auf dem Weg zum Bahnhof. (222) Die Schlacht bei Sadweitschen. (222) Generalleutnant v. Stein. (223) [2 Abb.]: (1)General v. Beseler, leitete den Angriff auf Antwerpen. (2)Zerstörte Kirche vor Antwerpen. (223) [Abb.]: Mag ringsum noch so stark die Lüge sein: Die Wahrheit siegt, sie ist - von Stein! (224) [Lied]: Der Honvedhusar. Ein Reiterlied aus Österreich=Ungarn grosser Zeit. (224) [Abb.]: Tätigkeit einer Sanitätskolonne auf dem Schlachtfelde. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 12 (Heft 12) ([225]) [Abb.]: Generalleutnant v. Stein. ([225]) [Abb.]:Untergang eines französischen Kriegschiffes bei Cattaro. (226) [Abb.]: Die Bucht von Cattaro. (227) [Abb.]: Leutnant v. R. Matthes erobert mit seinem Zuge eine feindliche Batterie bei Rongiville in der Nähe von St. Dié. ([228 - 229]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lublin. (2)Lemberg. (230) [Abb.]: Der Kriegschauplatz in Galizien und Russisch=Polen. ([231]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Divissions=Brückentrain im Anmarsch. (2)Von unseren Pionieren errichtete Schiffbrücke. (232) [Abb.]: Übergang über die Meurthe. ([233]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Baccarat nach der Räumung seitens der Franzosen. (2)Zerstörtes Franktireurdorf an der Meurthe. (234) [Abb.]: Batterie Galopp! Artillerie zum Angriff vorgehend. (235) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (236) Über die Meurthe. (236) [6 Abb.]: (1)Strasse in Mecheln. Die Belgier schossen auf die Stadt, um unsere Truppen zu vertreiben. Links die Kathedrale, die nur leicht beschädigt ist, rechts das Gildehaus. (2)Von feindlichen Granaten zerstörtes Haus. (3)Unsere Blaujacken als Feuerwehrleute bei den Aufräumungsarbeiten und dem Löschen in den Vororten Antwerpens. (4)Die Wirkung der Geschosse bei einer Villa in des Nähe von Vilvorde in Belgien. (5)Die Wirkung von Schrapnellen.Die Eisenbahnschienen haben sich unter der Wucht des Schusses vollständig verbogen. (6)Ein zerschossener Panzerturm, der zur Deckung feindlicher Kanonen diente und von einem Schuss unserer schweren Geschütze vollständig abgedeckt wurde. Unser Bild zeigt den zerschossenen Panzerturm in der Festung Maubeuge. ([237]) Ein Seekampf vor Cattaro. (238) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch=ungarisches Automobil im Dienste der Verpflegung auf dem russischen Kriegschauplatz.(2)Sanitätsautomobil, geöffnet. (238) [Abb.]: Leichtverwundete werden durch Mitglieder des Roten Kreuzes zum Lazarett geführt. (239) Kriegsanitätswesen. (239) [Abb.]: Ein deutscher Verwundetentransport in Conflans (Französisch=Lothringen). (240) [2 Abb.]: (1)Leiterwagen zum Fortschaffen von acht Schwerverwundeten. (2)Tätigkeit der freiwilligen Sanitätskolonne bei Ankunft Verwundeter. (241) Ein Schwabenstreich. (241) [Abb.]: Abfeuern einer Breitseite von einem englischen Flaggschiff. (242) Kriegseindrücke in Ostfrankreich. (242) [Abb.]: Zum Einsetzen in die Lafette fertiges Rohr einer englischen Schiffskanone. Der Preis einer solchen Kanone beträgt etwa 200 000 Mark. (243) [Abb.]: Zerschossene Silbermünzen aus dem Brustbeutel eines Gefreiten. Die Geldstücke retteten dem Getroffenen das Leben. (244) Englische Schiffsgeschütze. (244) [Abb.]: Der deutsche kleine Kreuzer "Emden" beschiesst Madras. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 13 (Heft 13) ([245]) [Abb.]: Im eroberten Fort Wavre St. Catherine vor Antwerpen. Soldaten auf den erbeuteten belgischen Geschützen. ([245]) [3 Abb.]: Serben in österreichisch=ungarischer Gefangenschaft. (1)Serbische Bauern von der bosnischen Grenze, wo Spionage im grössten Umfang getrieben wurde. (2)Gefangene serbische Komitatschi (Freischärler) in einem österreichisch=ungarischen Gefangenenlager. (3)Von Österreich=Ungarn eingebrachte serbische Gefangene. (246) [Abb.]: Bilder vom russisch=polnischen Kriegschauplatz. (1)Eingedeckter Unterschlupf, aus dem die Russen von den österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen vertrieben wurden. (2)Gefangene Russen beim Brettspiel in einem österreichisch=ungarischen Gefangenenlager. (3)Halb in die Erde gegrabenes russsisches Feldlager. (247) [Abb.]: Rückzug russischer Kolonnen über die bukowinische Grenze b ei Nowosielica. ([248 - 249]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Russischer militärischer Grenzposten. (2)Erbeutete russische Feldküchen. (250) [2 Abb.]: (1)Insterburg, das die Russen zwei Wochen lang besetzt hielten. Partie an der Angerapp. (2)Deutsche Infanterie in einem Kriegslager an der russischen Grenze. (251) [3 Abb.]: (1)Ostpreussische Trümmerstätte nach dem Abzug der Russenhorden. (2)Ein durch die Russen in Brand gesteckter und vernichteter deutscher Güterzug an der Ostgrenze. (3)Ruinen eines von den Russen in Brand gesteckten ostpreussischen Rittergutes bei Tannenberg. (252) [Abb.]: Erkundungsfahrt nach Russland auf einer Tenderlokomotive. (253) [Abb.]: Fregattenkapitän v. Müller, Kommandant der "Emden". (254) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (254) Der deutsche Kreuzer "Emden". (254) Der Kampf des 1. bayrischen Armeekorps bei Rommelfingen und Rieding. (255) [Abb.]: Russische Haubitzen in der Schanze. (255) [Abb.]: Das 1. bayrische Armeekorps in der Schlacht bei Rommelfingen und Rieding. Das 1. bayrische Armeekorps hatte den Befehl, seine Stellung zwischen Rommelfingen und Rieding entscheidend zu verteidigen. In der Nacht vom 19. zum 20. August traf der Befehl ein, am kommenden Tage zum allgemeinen Angriff auf der ganzen Linie überzugehen. Das Bild zeigt das Scheitern des französischen Angriffs und das Vorgehen unserer Truppen gegen die Höhen dicht westlich Saaraltdorf. Das in der Talmulde gelegene Dorf brennt bereits mehrfach. Das französische 8. und 13. Armeekorps wurde an diesem Tage geworfen. (256 - 257) Die Teilnahme unserer Marine am Landkriege. (258) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Matrosen auf dem Durchmarsch durch Brüssel. (2)Die Stellungen der deutschen und französischen Truppen in der Schlacht bei Saarburg. (258) Aus der Nordmark des Reiches. (258) [Abb.]: Ein warmes Frühstück auf Feldwacht vor Antwerpen. Offiziere und Mannschaften vom Seebataillon und der Marinedivision (259) Beim Vormarsch über Montfaucon. (260) Vom westlichen Kriegschauplatz: General v. Gotzler während der Schlacht bei Montfaucon. (260) [Abb.]: Durchzug deutscher Truppen durch Montfaucon. ([261]) [Abb.]: Von deutschen Pionieren wiederhergestellte Eisenbahnbrücke bei Piwianowice. (262) Der Pionier in Feindesland. (262) Was kostet ein Weltkrieg? (262) [Abb.]: Pioniere beim Bau einer durch belgische Soldaten zerstörten Brücke bei Visé. (263) Toul. (264) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein erbeuteter französischer Munitionswagen. Nach einer Aufnahme vom Kriegschauplatz. (2)Die Festung Toul mit ihren Forts. (264) [Gedicht]: Landsturmmanns Abschied. (264) [Abb.]: Leutnant Mayer von den reitenden Jägern fällt als erster deutscher Offizier auf seinem Patouillenritt in den Vogesen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 14 (Heft 14) ([265]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldten verteilen Brot an die arme Bevölkerung Mechelns. ([265]) [Abb.]: Rast im Strassengraben. Oben auf der Strasse: Die Feldküche in Tätigkeit. (267) [4 Abb.]: (1)Wachtposten am Abhang des Donon. (2)Patrouille im Klein=Auto auf dem Donon. (3)Grandfontaine bei Schirmeck mit Gipfel des Donon im Hintergrund. (4)Der Tempel auf dem Gipfel des Donon. (268) [Abb.]: Kampf um den Donon. ([269]) [3 Abb.]: Aus dem Lagerleben der österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen. (1)Feldbäckerei. (2)Feldmetzgerei. (3)Raststation an der russischen Grenze. ([271]) [Abb.]: Durchziehende Infanterie vor Dieuze am Bergaviller Torhaus. (272) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (272) Musson, Baranzy, Signeulr. (272) [2 Abb.] (1)Nach der Schlacht von Dieuze-Saarburg. Auf der Höhe das Dorf Oberstinzel. Dahinter die bayrische Artillerie=Stellung, von wo aus die Saareckmühle an dem von den Franzosen besetzten Walde in Brand geschossen wurde. (2)Nach der Schlacht von Dieuze-Saarburg. Blick von der Höhe von Oberstinzel auf die Waldungen in der Richtung Dieuze. Diese waren weithin von Franzosen besetzt. Die Höhen - Saarburg=Finstingen - hielten bayrische Infanterie und Artillerie, die nach dem Gefecht siegreich vordrangen. Im Vordergrund eine deutsche Artilleriescheinstellung, markiert durch Wasserleitungsröhren. ([273]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Herzog Albrecht von Württemberg und General v. Schenck während eines Gefechtes. (2)Zum Artikel Russon, Baranzy, Signeulr. (274) Die Offizierfernpatrouille der Kavallerie. (275) [Abb.]: Gefecht bei Musson-Baranzy. (275) [Abb.]: Vernichtung einer montenegrinischen Brigade bei Foca. ([276 - 277]) Der Sieg über die Montenegriner bei Foca. (278) Am Donon. (278) [4 Abb.]: (1)Eine Flüchtlingswohnung im Freien in der Nähe von Antwerpen. (2)Erste Ankunft des neutralen Zuges von Eschen aus Holland, mit dem die ersten belgischen Flüchtlinge wieder zurückkamen. (3)Zerstörtes Haus in Berchem bei Antwerpen. Die Wirkung einer 18=cm=Granate. (4)Der verbarrikadierte Hauptbahnhof in Antwerpen. Hinter den Säcken stehen zwei Maschinengewehre. ([279]) Die Schlacht bei Kirlibaba. (280) Die Schlacht von Dieuze. (280) [Abb.]: Was die belgischen Soldaten in Antwerpen zurückgelassen haben. Bekleidungsstücke und zertrümmertes Hausgerät liegen in wirrem Durcheinander auf den Strassen. (281) Moderne Festungen. (281) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Fortgürtel der Festung Mamur, deren Aussenbefestigung aus einem Gürtel von neun Panzerforts bestand. Die Einnahme erlangte am 25. August. (2)Versenkbare Panzertürme in den belgischen Forts: 1. Panzerkuppel mit Schnellfeuergeschützen, die zum Verschwinden eingerichtet sind. 2. Panzerturm in Schussbereitschaft. 3. Panzerturm mit möglichst geringer Angriffsfläche. 4. Vorpostenhaus im Festungsgelände. 5. Fort mit Panzerturm, aus der Ferne gesehen. (3)Versenkbare Panzertürme in den belgischen Forts: 1. Ein durch Buschwerk versteckter Geschützturm. 2. Panzerturm 3. 22=cm=Festungsgeschütze in einem drehbaren Panzerturm. 4. 22=cm=Festungsgeschütze in Panzerung und Betoneindeckung. 5. Drehbarer Panzerturm mit Schnellfeuergeschützen. (282 - 283) [2 Abb.]: (1)Durchschnitt eines zwischen zwei belgischen Forts gelegenen Zwischenwerkes mit den Verteidigungsmassnahmen und den Hindernissen, die die deutschen Truppen im Sturm zu nehmen hatten. 1. Ein Fort von der Seite gesehen. 2. Sturmkolonne mit Wurfbrücken zur Überwindung der Drahthindernisse. 3. Ausgedehntes Drahthindernis. 4. Elektrische Mine, aus der der anstürmende Gegner während des Überschreitens mit einem Steinregen überschüttet wird. 5. Zweites kleines Drahthindernis. 6. Infanterie=Feuerstellung mit Eindeckung und schusssicheren Unterständen. 7. Feldgeschütze in ausgebauter Batterie mit Schutzräumen und Munitionsdepots. 8. Flankierendes Maschinengewehr in gedeckter Stellung. 9. Feldhaubitzstellung. 10. Stellung der Belagerungsgeschütze. 11. Verbindungsgraben mit Zufuhrgraben. (2)Durchschnitt eines Panzerforts von Lüttich mit drehbarem Panzergeschütz. Ein solches Panzerfort galt bisher wegen seiner Beton= und Panzerdeckung wie auch infolge der ausgedehnten Drahthindernisse und hohen Böschungen im Vorfeld als uneinnehmbar. (284) Von der Ostgrenze Galiziens. Ein tapferer Infanterist. (284) [Abb.]: Nach der Belagerung der Festung Mamur: Die Besetzung durch deutsche Truppen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 15 (Heft 15) ([285]) [Abb.]: In den Vogesen: Eine bayrische Infanteriekolonne mit französischem Schlachtvieh, das zum Ziehen des Wagens benutzt wird. ([285]) [Abb.]: Fuhrkolonnen auf dem Markt in Goldap, im Hintergrunde eine abrückene Fuhrkolonne. (286) [Abb.]: Etappenstrasse auf dem Kriegschauplatz. Auf der linken Seite Gepäckkolonne, rechts marschierende Infanterie. Die Mitte der Strasse ist für den Autoverkehr freigehalten. (287) [Abb.]: Eingreifen der Artillerie in der Schlacht bei Allenburg-Nordenburg-Angerburg. (288 - 289) [6 Abb.]: Fremdländische Hilfstruppen auf dem westlichen Kriegschauplatz. (1)Allgerische Schützen. (2)Indische Reiterei auf dem Marsch. (3)Turko und Franzose im Gefangenenlager zu Friedrichsfeld. (4)Zwei in englischen Diensten stehende indische Offiziere. (5)Einmarsch eines kanadischen Rifleregiments in London. (6)Schwarze Senegaltruppen. ([291]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (292) In der Etappe. (292) [Abb.]: Der Kriegschauplatz in Belgien und Nordwestfrankreich. (292) [Abb.]: Angriff deutscher Kavallerie bei Hazebrouck am 10. Oktober 1914. ([293]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Vorhut in St. Amand auf dem Vormarsch nach Lille. (294) Die Reiterschlacht bei Lille. (294) Die Schlacht bei Wehlau-Allenburg-Nordenburg-Angerburg. (295) [Abb.]: Deutsche Vorposten tränken ihre Pferde in St. Amand. (295) [Abb.]: Eroberung einer Fahne in der Schlacht bei Zamosc. (296 - 297) Eroberung einer Fahne bei Zamosc. (296 - 297) Fremdländische Hilfsvölker unsrer Gegner. (296 - 297) [Abb.]: Drei Brüder, die sich freiwillig beim Feldartillerieregiment Nr. 76 meldeten und nicht nur bei der gleichen Batterie, sondern sogar beim gleichen Geschütz als Fahrer dienen. (298) Bei Montigny. (298) [Abb.]: Der älteste Bürgergardist in Budapest, der 73jährige Fuhrmann Ludwig Weiss. In Budapest bildete sich unter der Führung des Grafen Andrassy eine "Bürgergarde", die nach einer kurzen militärischen Ausbildung den Wachdienst über öffentliche Bauten, Brücken, Krankenhäuser usw. zu versehen hat. Die Budapester Bürgergarde oder, wie sie amtlich genannt wird, das "f r e i w i l l i g e W a c h k o r p s" setzt sich aus militärdienstfreien Bürgern der ungarischen Hauptstadt zusammen, die sich freiwillig melden und den Dienst freiwillig versehen. Die erste, bereits ausgebildete Truppe hat im Oktober einige wichtige Wachposten übernommen. Zweck der Bürgergarde ist, durch Übernahme des Wachdienstes dem aktiven Militär zu ermöglichen, sich auf den Kriegschauplatz zu betätigen. (298) [Abb.]: Russischer Angriff auf einen österreichisch=ungarischen Proviantzug auf der Bahnlinie Lemberg-Grodek wird von einem k. u. k. Infanterieregiment mit dem Bajonett abgewiesen. (299) Ein österreichisch=ungarischer Proviantzug bei Lemberg. (300) Untergang des englischen Kreuzers "Hawke". (300) Die Tätigkeit unserer Pioniere. (300) [Abb.]: Der englische Kreuzer "Hawke" wird von einem deutschen Unterseeboot in den Grund gebohrt. ([301]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Wiederherstellung eines zerstörten Tunnels durch unsere Truppen. (2)Aufschütten von Befestigungen bei Lierre. Im Vordergrund Feldpostbriefe schreibende Soldaten. ([302]) [2 Abb.]: Deutsche Pioniere beim Neubau einer durch die Belgier zerstörten Eisenbahnbrücke. (1)Errichtung der hölzernen Brückenpfeiler. (2)Eiserne Brückenträger werden mittels Dampfkran über die Holzpfeiler gelegt. ([303]) [Abb.]: Unsere Pioniere beim Bau einer Umgehungsbahn. (304) [Gedicht]: Penny und Blut. (304) [Abb.]: Aushebung des Landsturms in einem ungarischen Dorfe. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 16 (Heft 16) ([305]) [Abb.]: Generaloberst v. Bülow. ([305]) [6 Abb.]: (1)Schwieriges Überschreiten der von den Belgiern zerstörten Eisenbahnstrecke bei Merxem. (2)Die Feldpoststelle in Antwerpen. (3)In Merxem bei Antwerpen halfen unsere Marinesoldaten, die daselbst den Überwachungsdienst ausübten, den Flüchtlingen in jeder Weise und trugen ihnen bis zu den Wagen das schwere Gepäck. (4)Die neue elektrische Bahn Brüssel-Antwerpen, die hauptsächlich dem Verwundetentransport dient. (5)Die telegraphische Verbindung zwischen Antwerpen und Brüssel wird von den Deutschen wiederhergestellt. Das Bild wurde in dem ganz zerstörten Dorfe Waelhem aufgenommen. (6)Bewohner von Berchem bei der Wiederherstellung ihrer zerstörten Wohnungen: ein Zeichen, dass sie sich unter dem Schutz der Deutschen geborgen fühlen. ([307]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Artillerie zwingt die englische Flotte an der belgischen Küste zum Rückzug. (308 - 309) [Abb.]: Transport eines Flugzeuges. (310) [Abb.]: Die Kaserne in Maubeuge, deren Fenster zum Teil noch mit Sandsäcken verbarrikadiert sind. (311) [Abb.]: Das Innere der Festung Longwy, in der ein grosser Bombenvorrat von den Franzosen zurückgelassen wurde. (312) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (312) Zu den Kämpfen bei Longwy. (312) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen bei Lonwy. ([313]) [Abb.]: Longwy am 27. August 1914 nach der Belagerung. (314) Die Einberufung der ungarischen Landwehr und des Landsturms. (315) Deutsch=französische Schützengrabenkorrespondenz. (315) [Abb.]: Der grosse Marktplatz in Longwy mit erbeuteten Geschützen. (315) [Abb.]: Kundgebung vor dem Gebäude des Festungskommandos in Przemysl nach glücklich überstandener Belagerung. Der Festungskommandant und Verteidiger der Stadt, Exzellenz v. Kusmanek, bringt ein dreifaches Hoch auf den Kaiser aus. (316) Belagerung und Entsatz von Przemys. (316) [Abb.]: Die Russen im vergeblichen Ansturm auf das Aussenfort Duckowiczky der Festung Przemys. ([317]) [Abb.]: Berliner Wiedergabe des von Generalfeldmarschall Freiherrn v.d. Goltz erlassenen Aufrufs an die Bevölkerung des in deutsche Verwaltung übergegangenen belgischen Gebietes. (318) Generaloberst Karl v. Bülow. (319) [Abb.]: Die Zitadelle von Namur mit zerstörter Brücke. (319) Deutsche Artillerie an der belgischen Küste. (320) [Abb.]: Ankunft Leichtverwundeter auf Lazarettkähnen in Berlin. (320) Mit Liebesgaben an die Front. (320) [3 Abb.]: (1)Soldaten bei der Morgenwäsche im Alarmquartier. (2)In gedeckter Haubitzenstellung vor dem Feind. (3)Unser Liebesgabenauto im Alarmquartier. (321) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Maschinengewehre auf dem Dache eines Hauses zur Abwehr feindlicher Flieger. (2)Eine österreichisch=ungarische Maschinengewehrabteilung in Gefechtsbereitschaft. ([322]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Französische Alpenjäger mit Maschinengewehr in den Bergen. (Der Lauf des Gewehrs liegt frei, ohne Kühlwassermantel; er hat nur Luftkühlung und erscheint daher weniger dick als bei den deutschen und österreichisch=ungarischen Maschinengewehren.) (2)Französisches Maschinengewehr auf einem Automobil in Tätigkeit. ([323]) [Abb.]: Maschinengewehrabteilung auf dem Marsch. (324) Maschinengewehre. (324) [Abb.]: Begegnung Kaiser Wilhelms II. mit dem deutschen Kronprinzen bei dem Dorfe Sorbey am 2. September 1914. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 17 (Heft 17) ([325]) [Abb.]: Honvedhusaren verfolgen die bei Lancut geschlagenen russischen Truppen. ([325]) [Abb.]: Ausmarsch türkischer Truppen aus Konstantinopel. (326) [3 Abb.]: (1)General Enver Pascha, türkischer Kriegsminister und Generalissimus der türkischen Streitkräfte. (2)Feldmarschalleutnant Hermann v. Kuzmanek, der heldenmütige Verteidiger von Przemysl. (3) General der Infanterie Svetozar Boroevic v. Bojna, der Führer der 3. österreichisch=ungarischen Armee, die bei Przemysl siegreich gegen die Russen kämpfte. (327) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bordeux vom Zollamt aus gesehen. (2) Wegeskizze. Zu dem Artikel: Das Schlachtfeld von Noers (328) [Abb.]: Das Schlachtfeld südlich von dem brennenden Dorfe Noers mit Front nach St. Laurent und Grand Failly. Links die Strasse Noers-Laurent, von der links sich die Stellungen des Grenadierregiments Königin Olga, rechts die Stellungen des Kaiser=Regiments befanden. ([329]) [Abb.]: Eine von den Russen zerstörte Eisenbahnsterecke auf dem Wege nach Warschau wird von einer deutschen Patrouille untersucht. (331) [Abb.]: Rast einer Brückentrainabteilung in Russisch-Polen. (332) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (332) Das Schlachtfeld von Noers*). (332) [2 Abb.]: Infanterie im strömenden Regen vor Kielce in Russisch=Polen mit Aufklärungspatrouillen. (2)Artilleriemunitionskolonne in Russisch=Polen (333) Honvedhusaren bei Lancut. (334) Kämpfe an der schleschisch=russischen Grenze. (334) Die Millionenschlacht an der Marne und Aisne. (334) [Abb.]: Strassengefecht in einem Dorfe Russisch=Polens. ([335]) [Abb.]: Abwehr eines französischen Kavallerieangriffs an der Marne. ([336 - 337]) Begegnung Kaiser Wilhelms mit dem Kronprinzen bei Sorbey. (339) [Abb.]: Feldküche während der Fahrt in Feindesland. Die Mahlzeit wird während der Fahrt in der Feldküche angesetzt, so dass die Truppen schon unterwegs oder sofort bei der Ankunft am Ziel mit warmer Nahrung versehen werden können. Zur Verhütung des Anbrennens hängt der Kochtopf in einem mit Öl gefüllten Kessel. (339) Die Generale Hermann v. Kuzmanek und Svetozar Boroevic v. Bojna. (340) Die Gesundheit des Soldaten im Felde. (340) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feldbacköfen, im Hintergrunde die grossen wasserdichten Zelte, in denen der Brotteig hergerichtet wird. (2)Bäckereikolonne im Felde. Einige der Feldbäcker sind gerade beim Mittagessen. Die Backöfen werden alle vier Stunden neu mit Brot beschickt. (341) [Karte): Karte des russisch=türkischen Kriegschauplatzes. ([342]) [Abb.]: Die türkischen Kreuzer "Sultan Yawus Selim" und "Midilli" beschiessen den russischen Hafen Odessa am Schwarzen Meer. ([343]) [Abb.]: Deutsche, österreichische und ungarische Soldaten in einem österreichischen Lazarett. (344) Enver Pascha und das Eingreifen der Türkei in den Weltkrieg. (344) [Gedicht]: Emden. (344) [Abb.]: Die Seeschlacht bei Coronel. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 18 (Heft 18) ([345]) [Abb.]: General v. Francois, Führer der achten Armee, im Gespräch mit General v. Briefen auf der Landstrasse nach Sarajewo in Russisch=Polen an der ostpreussischen Grenze. ([345]) [Abb.]: Das 34. Landwehr=Infanterieregiment rastet auf dem Marsche nach Suwalki vor einem polnische Gehöft. (346) [Abb.]: Der Eingang zu dem Dorfe Filipowo in Russisch=Polen. Im Vordergrunde Mannschaften vom 3. Landsturmbataillon. (347) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des Forts Camp des Romains. ([348 - 349]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ostpreussische Landsturmpatrouille, die sich zum Schutz gegen die Kälte mit Decken versehen hat.(2)Blockhaus an der deutsch=russischen Grenze, in dem eine Landsturmwache untergebracht ist. (350) [2 Abb.]: (1)Wasserschöpfen an einem galizischen Brunnen für die grosse Wäsche. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Soldaten in Galizien beim Wäschereinigen. (351) [2 Abb.]: (1)Plan der Festung Warschau mit Umgebung. (2)Eine Strasse in Sosnowice an der polnisch=galizischen Grenze. (352) [Abb.]: Die Wiedererstürmung der Höhe Magiera durch die österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen am 20. Oktober 1914. Die Tiroler Landeschützen zeichneten sich hierbei durch einen Heldenmut ohnegleichen aus und lösten eine Aufgabe, die drei Regimentern gestellt war. ([353]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (354) Unser Seesieg bei Coronel. (354) Die russischen Festungen. (354) [ 2 Abb.]: (1) Vizeadmiral Graf v. Spee, der Chef des deutschen Kreuzergeschwaders, das an der chilenischen Küste ein englisches Geschwader vernichtete (2)Zum Seesieg bei Coronel: Das Wirkungsfeld unserer Kreuzer im Stillen Ozean. (355) Der Sturm auf Dixmuiden. (356) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine Abteilung deutscher Soldaten am Strande von Ostende. (2)Unsere Blaujacken graben auf der Kurpromenade in Ostende die Küstenbatterien ein. (356) Aus deutschen Schützengräben. (356) [Abb.]: Unsere Freiwilligen in den Kämpfen an der Yser bei Nieuport am 10. November 1914. (Achtmal hintereinander wiederholter Bajonettangriff auf französische Artillerie und Maschinengewehre.) ([357]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Infanterie hebt einen Schützengraben aus. (2)Eine Ruhepause im Schützengraben. (358) Tiroler Landeschützen erstürmen die Höhe bei Magiera. (359) [Abb.]: Wie sich ein findiger Batteriechef im Schützengraben wohnlich einzurichten wusste. (359) Der Sturm auf Camp des Romains. (360) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Infanterie auf dem Durchmarsch in Medjedje an der bosnisch=serbischen Grenze. (360) [2 Abb.]: (1)Hofarkaden in der zum Reservelazarett eingerichteten Universität Wien. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Fuhrparkkolonne mit deutscher Militärbedeckung. (361) Das Elsass im Kriege. (362) [Abb.]: Offizierspatrouille in den Strassen einer elsässischen Stadt kurz nach der Kriegserklärung. (362) [2 Abb.]: (1)Thann im Oberelsass, vom Raugenkreuz gesehen, mit dem umgestürzten Turm der Engelsburg rechts. Im Hintergrunde der Rossberg. (2)Rotenbacher Kopf (Südvogesen) mit dem Steilabfall nach der deutschen Seite; rechts ein Stück des Grenzgrabens. (363) [2 Abb.]: (1)Grenzkamm bei Hohneck (Elsass). (2)Vogelschaukarte zu den Kämpfen im Oberelsass und in den Vogesen. (364) [Abb.]: Zusammenbruch der Attacke afrikanischer Jäger unter dem Feuer deutscher Landwehr bei Mühlhausen am 20. August 1914. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914. Heft 19 (Heft 19) ([365]) [Abb.]: König Wilhelm II. von Württemberg (X) verabschiedet sich von den Offizieren seiner siegreichen Truppen im Felde. ([365]) [Abb.]: Eine Sotnie des Nertschinski=Kosakenregiments. (366) [Abb.]: Russische Kosaken. (367) [Abb.]: Erstürmung eines französischen Schützengrabens zwischen der Aisne und dem Argonner Wald. ([368 - 369]) [Abb.]: Die 27 bei der Reiterattacke bei Tagsdorf (Oberelsass gefangen genommenen Chaffeurs d´Afrique (afrikanische Jäger) auf dem Abmarsch vom Bezirkskommando in Lörrach zum Bahnhof. (371) [Abb.]: Wegeskizze zum Pionierüberfall bei Brandeville (372) Illustrierte Kriegsberichgte. (372) Ein Todesritt afrikanischer Jäger im Oberelsass. (372) [Abb.]: Vernehmung russischer Gefangener durch einen deutschen Generalstabsoffizier und einen Dolmetscher in Soldap. (372) [Abb.]: Pionierüberfal bei Brandeville. (373) Zwischen der Aisne und dem Argonner Wald. (374) [Abb.]: Englische Marineinfanterie bei den Kämpfen am Yserkanal. (374) Der Pionierüberfall bei Brandeville. (375) [Abb.]: Gefangene Turkos von der Kampffront bei Nieuport. (375) Das Heldenmädchen von Rawaruska. (376) [Abb.]: Abwehr eines Durchbruchversuchs der französischen Ostarmee im Vorgelände der Festung Spinal. ([377]) [Abb.]: Rosa Zenoch, die Heldin von Rawaruska. (378) Ein Durchbruchsversuch der französischen Ostarmee. (378) [Abb.]: Aus Frankreich zurückgekehrte Deutsche begeben sich in die in Singen bereitgestellten Unterkunftsräume. (378) Aus Frankreich zurück. (379) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch=ungarische Regimenter vor dem Abmarsch nach dem russisch=galizischen Kriegschauplatz. (2)Österreichisch=ungarischen Vorposten bei Frampol in Russisch=Polen. (379) Das Schwarze Meer und der Kaukasus. (380) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zwei Typen persischer Kosaken, die, als tapfer bekannt, im jetzigen Kriege gegen Russland zu Felde ziehen. (2)Türkische Kavallerie. (380) [2 Abb.]: (1)Senussi, die bisher gegen Italien gekämpft haben, ziehen auf die Verkündigung des Heiligen Krieges hin über die ägyptische Grenze, um gegen die Engländer zu kämpfen. (2)Eine Gruppe Kaschkainomanden, die jetzigen Kämpfer gegen die Engländer und Russen in Persien. (381) Kosaken. (382 - 383) [Abb.]: Die Kreuzer "Gneisenau" und "Scharnhorst" beschiessen Papeete, die Hauptstadt von Tahiti (382 - 383) [Abb.]: Rast nach einem Gefecht in der Nähe von Verdun. (384) Verdun. (384) [Abb.]: Die Festung Verun und ihre Forts. (384) [Abb.]: Der grosse Marktplatz in Mecheln mit Tausenden von belgischen Soldaten, die bei der Eroberung Antwerpens gefangen genommen wurden. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Heft 20 (Heft 20) ([385]) [Abb.]: Generaloberst v. Moltke, zu Beginn des Krieges Chef des Generalstabs der deutschen Armee. ([385]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Erzherzog Friedrich und Conrad v. Hötzendorf nehmen im Hauptquartier eine Meldung entgegen. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Truppen in ihren in die Erde eingegrabenen Höhlenwohnungen bei Diszkovica. (387) [3 Abb.]: (1)Eine österreichisch=ungarische Batterie in gedeckter Feuerstellung (2)Französische Artillerie und französische Flugmaschine im Felde. (3)Schwere Feldhaubitzen im Argonnenwald beschiessen die feindlichen Stellungen. Links und rechts im Vordergrund Flechtkörbe zum Herbeischaffen der Geschosse. (388 - 389) [Abb.]: Feldtelephon im Schützengraben. (390) [Abb.]: Eine Artillerie=Telephonstation im Strassengraben. Sämtliche Befehle werden den zurückliegenden Batterien oft auf 2-3000 Meter telephonisch übermittelt. (391) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (391) Zu den Kämpfen in den Argonnen. (391) [Abb.]: Karte des Kriegschauplatzes: Toul-Verdun-Reims. ([392]) [Abb.]: Erstürmung eines Bauerngehöfts in den Argonnen. ([393]) Wie Ulanen und Husaren zwei französische Kavalleriebrigaden vernichteten. (394) [2 Abb.]: (1)In weit vorgeschobener Stellung durch das Feldtelephon in Verbindung mit dem Kommando. (2)Prinz Leopold von Bayern (X), der Führer der Bayern vor Verdun, kehrt von einer Truppenbesichtigung in sein Hauptquartier zurück. (394) [Abb.]: Aus der Verteidigungstellung von Toul übergelaufene französische Soldaten werden durch bayrische schwere Reiter als Gefangene abgeführt. (395) Unsere Haubitzen. (395) [Abb.]: Die Vernichtung zweier französischer Kavalleriebrigaden durch deutsche Reiter am 4. Oktober 1914. ([396 - 397]) Generaloberst v. Moltke. (398) [Abb.]: In jeder Familie unseres deutschen Vaterlandes befindet sich heute wohl eine Karte vom Kriegschauplatz. Mit regem Interesse verfolgt alt und jung, wie auf unserem Bilde, die allgemeine Kriegslage und freut sich, wenn unsere Truppen weiter in Feindesland vorrücken. (398) Die Operationsziele der Türkei. (399) [Abb.]: Karte des türkisch=ägyptischen Kriegschauplatzes. (399) Das Gefecht bei Soldau. (400) [Abb.]. Blick auf Tiflis im Kaukasus. (400) [6 Abb.]: (1)Gefangene Russen auf dem Bahnhof Eydtkuhnen. (2)Das Dorf Wirballen; Zugang von der Gefechtslinie aus. (3)Fliegende Händler in Eydtkuhnen. (4)Durch Granaten zerstörtes Haus in Pillkallen. (5)Kochkisten auf erbeuteten Russenkarren. Das Essen wird über dem Feuer angekocht und dann in die Kochkisten gestellt. (8)Truppenkolonnen auf dem Marsch. Den Schluss bildet die Feldküche. ([401]) Das Telephon im Kriege. (402) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Schlachtfeld bei Soldau wird von deutschen Landsturmmännern nach Gefallenen abgesucht. (2)Deutsche Infanterie zieht auf dem Marsche nach Mlawa durch das von den Russen zerstörte Städtchen Soldau. (402) [Abb.]: Russische Kavallerie wird von deutscher Infanterie in den Kämpfen bei Soldau am 18. November 1914 zurückgeworfen. ([403]) [Abb.]: Feldkriegskasse eines bayrischen Armeekorps, die einen Wert von mehreren Millionen Mark darstellt. Die Regimenter sowie die höheren Verbände führen grosse Kriegskassen mit sich, da die Überweisungen der Löhne und Gehälter an die Truppen regelmässig in bar erfolgen. (404) Frieden mitten im Krieg. (404) [Abb.]: Ein Zeppelinkreuzer über Antwerpen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15 Hef 21 (Heft 21) ([405]) [Abb.]: Panzerturm auf Fort Lierre, den ein Schuss eines 42=cm=Mörsers völlig blosslegte. ([405]) [Abb.]: Maschinengewehre und Infanterie im Schützengraben beim Angriff auf Fort Wavre bei Antwerpen. (406) [Abb.]: Strassenbild aus Lierre nach der Beschiessung. (407) [Abb.]: Im Kampf um Lihons. ([408 - 409]) [Abb.]: Von englischen Seesoldaten und belgischen Artilleristen bediente Panzerkanonen auf den Wällen der Forts von Antwerpen. (410) [2 Abb.]: (1)Englische Soldaten in Laufgräben vor Antwerpen. Im Vordergrund ein Maschinengewehr. (2)Englische und belgische Verwundete verlassen die Laufgräben vor Antwerpen. Vorn ein Engländer, der durch eine Granate schwer am Kopf verwundet ist. (411) [Abb.]: Eine von den Engländern auf ihrer Flucht verlassene Artilleriestellung vor Antwerpen. (412) [Abb.]: Wegnahme englischer Geschütze vor Antwerpen. ([413]) [Abb.]: Vom Einzug der deutschen Truppen in Antwerpen. Im Hintergrund die berühmte Kathedrale, auf deren höchster Kreuzblume ein wagemutiger Krieger eine grosse deutsche Flagge hisste. (414) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (414) Die Gefechte bei Curtigny und Lihons. (414) [Abb.]: Vom Einzug der deutschen Truppen in Antwerpen. Im Hintergrund das Mansee de S.een. (415) Überfall eines sächsischen Liebesgabentransports. (416) Englische Artillerie vor Antwerpen. (416) [Proclamation]: (416) [Abb.]: Überfall eines sächsischen Liebesgabentransports. ([417]) [Abb.]: Serbische Gefangene. (418) Feldzeugmeister Potiorek und der Feldzug gegen Serbien. (418) [ 2 Abb.]: (1)Feldzeugmeister Oskar Potiorek, der siegreiche Oberbefehlshaber der österreichisch=ungarischen Balkanarmee. (2)Truppenlager in Serbien. (419) Der Maasübergang der 26. Infanteriedivision. (419) [Abb.]: Wegeskizze zum Maasübergang der 26. Infanteriedivision. (420) [Abb.]: Der Maasübergang der 26. Infanteriedivision. ([421]) Eine Eilbotenfahrt in der Nähe von Przemysl. (422) [Abb.]: Zurückkehrende Bewohner von Antwerpen zeigen den deutschen Wachtposten ihre Pässe vor. (422) Die Granate, das Schrapnell und ihre Zünder. (423) [3 Abb]: (1)Landleute bringen von der Militärbehörde verlangtes Getreide, das von dieser sofort bei Übernahme bezahlt wird. (2)Unsere Feldgrauen bei einer russischen Teeverkäuferin. (3)Zwei Landsturmleute beim Obstkaufen. (423) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutscher Landsturmmann auf Wachtposten in Winterausrüstung. Zum Schutz gegen die Kälte sind die Posten mit Schafpelzen und Ohrenschützern versehen. (2)Verkleinerte Wiedergabe einer von Generalfeldmarschall v. Hindenburg eigenhändig geschriebenen Feldpostkarte an die Verwundeten in der Prof. Riedingerschen Privatklinik in Würzburg. (424) [Abb.]: Beschiessung Belgrads durch österreichisch=ungarische Monitore. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Heft 22 (Heft 22) ([425]) [Abb.]: Fort Boussois bei Maubeuge. ([425]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Sappeure beim Festungsbau. (426) [Abb.]: Bau einer Seilhängebrücke zum Überqueren von Schluchten im Gebirge durch Pioniere der österreichisch=ungarischen Armee. (427) [Abb.]: Kavallerieschlacht bei Kolo am 6. November 1914. ([428 - 429]) [Abb.]: Übersetzen deutscher Truppen über die Schelde. Die Schiffe im Flusse waren zuvor durch Eisenbrücken verbunden, um den Belgiern und Engländern zur Flucht zu dienen. (430) [Abb.]: Die deutschen Truppen auf dem Wege von Antwerpen nach Gent und Ostende. Der Übergang über die schmale Brücke in Vilvorde dauerte siebeneinhalb Stunden. (431) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die berüchtigte Ernagora zwischen Virpazar und Antivari. (2)Die montenegrinische Grenzfeste Virpazar am Scutarisee. ([432]) [Abb.]: Wegnahme des montenegrinischen "Langen Tom" bei Bileca. (433) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Festung Belgrad. (2)Mühlenwache in Masny-St.Pierre (Nordfrankreich)- (434) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (435) Beschiessunglund Erstürmung Belgrads. (435) [Abb.]: Ein deutsches Motorboot mit Maschinengewehr auf einer Patrouillenfahrt. (435) Das Treffen bei Kolo. (436) [Abb.]: General v. Rennenkampf. (436) [Abb.]: Der Sturm auf Chevillecourt am 20. September 1914. ([437]) General v. Rennenkampf. (438) Von den tapferen Schwaben. (438) Die von Schneckenbusch. (439) [Abb.]: Das erste Kriegerdenkmal 1914 auf dem Dünkelsberg bei Saarburg. Zur Erinnerung an die im Kriege gegen Frankreich bisher gefallenen Kameraden errichtet vom Landsturm=Infanteriebataillon Neustadt a. d. H. (439) Die "technischen Truppen" Österreich=Ungarns. (440) Französische Fliegerpfeile. (440) Saphis auf Feldwache. (440) [Abb.]: Algerische Spahis und Chasseurs d`Afrique im Oberelsass auf Feldwache im Morgengrauen. ([441]) Die Eroberung des "Langen Tom". (442) 2 [Abb.]: (1)Deutscher Mars=Doppeldecker (auch im englischen Heere vertreten). (2)Deutscher L.=V.=G.=Renn=Eindecker mit deutschem Gnomemotor. Vertritt den Typ der schnellen französischen Eindecker. (442) Die Flugzeuge der kriegführenden Staaten. (443) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutscher Albatros=Militär=Doppeldecker mit Mercedesmotor. (2)Deutscher Jeannin=Eindecker 1914. (Verbesserte Taube.) (443) [2 Abb.]: (1)Fliegerleutnant Caspar und der Beobachtungsoffizier Oberleutnant Roos werden bei ihrer Rückkehr vom ersten Flug nach England von der Mannschaft ihrer Fliegerabteilung begrüsst. (2)Stahlpfeile aus einem französischen Flugzeug. (444) [Abb.]: Erstürmung von Valjevo durch die Österreichisch=ungarischen Balkanstreitkräfte. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Heft 23 (Heft 23) ([445]) [Abb.]: Auf Vorposten im Schnee in Westflandern. ([445]) [Abb.]: Vom Kriegschauplatz in Westflandern: Der Schauplatz der erbitterten Kämpfe um Vecelaere. (446) [Abb.]: Das Rathaus in Ypern. Infolge der Überschwemmung der Küstengebiete um Nieuport ist Ypern zum Mittelpunkt der schweren Kämpfe in Westflandern geworden, in deren Verlauf auch das altertümliche Rathaus schwer gelitten hat. Die Stadt, einst Sitz ausgebreiteter Tuchfabrikation, zählt etwa 20 000 Einwohner und liegt an der kanalisierten Yperlée. Sie war schon in früheren Jahrhunderten, während der Kriege mit Frankreich und Spanien, der Schauplatz häufiger Belagerungen und Beschiessungen. (447) [Abb.]: Sturmangriff des achten preussischen Jägerbataillons auf englische Schutzgräben am 30. Oktober 1914 bei Zandvoorde in der Schlacht bei Ypern. ([448 - 449]) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen am Yserkanal: Mit Stroh ausgelegte deutsche Stellung bei Nieuport, hinter aufgeworfener Erddeckung. (450) [3 Abb.]: (1)Unterkunfsthütte einer Schweizer Grenzwacht. (2)Signalposten auf einem Berggipfel an der Schweizer Grenze. (3)Schweizer Grenzposten. (451) [Abb.]: Drahtverhau auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz zur Verhinderung des feindlichen Vorgehens. (452) [Abb.]: Verteidigungstellung bei Tapiau. ([453]) [Abb.]: Der erste Brief nach Hause aus Lodz. (454) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (454) Feldpostbrief aus der Schlacht bei Lodz. (454) Die Erstürmung von Valjevo. (455) [Abb.]: In den Kämpfen um Lodz gefangene Russen, darunter auch Leibkosaken des Zaren (an ihren hohen Mützen kenntlich). (455) [Abb.]: Die Beschiessung von Zeebrügge durch deutsche Kriegschiffe am 23. November 1914. (456 - 457) Der Sturm auf Zandvoorde. (456 - 457) Das Bombardement von Zeebrügge. (456 - 457) Die Schweizer an der Grenze. (458) [Abb.]: Deutsche Kavallerie reitet über eine Brücke des Kais in Ostende. (458) [Abb.}: Eine Abteilung des deutschen Seebataillons in den Dünen von Ostende. Oben ein Telephonist in Tätigkeit. ([459]) Der Tag von Vailly. (460) Der polnische Winter. (460) [Abb.]: Der Sturm auf Vailly. ([461]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Mühseliger Transport eines österreichisch=ungarischen Munitionswagens auf grundlosen Wegen. (2)Inneres eines verlassenen serbischen befestigten Lagers nördlich von Glusci. (3)Infanterielager österreichisch=ungarischer Truppen an der russischen Grenze. (462 - 463) Die Verteidigung der Deimestellung bei Tapiau. (462 - 463) [Abb.]: Auszug von Kriegsfreiwilligen aus Berlin am 30. November 1914. (464) [Gedicht]: Wir Mütter. (464) [Abb.]: Die Einnahme von Lodz am 6. Dezember 1914. (464) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. (Heft 24) ([465]) [Abb.]: Vertreibung der Russen aus den Karpathenpässen. ([465]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Feldbahn mit deutscher Begleitmannschaft in Russisch=Polen. (466) [3 Abb.]: (1)General vom Mackensen. (2)General Ludendorff. (3)General v. Morgen. (467) [2 Abb.]: (1)Besetzung der kleinen französischen Ortschaft Cunel vor Verdun durch deutsche Truppen. (2)Das von den Deutschen besetzte Epinonville im Departement Meuse wurde vollständig zerstört; links die Überreste der Kirche. ([468]) [Abb.]: Sprengung unterminierter französischer Schützengräben bei Chauvoncourt, einem Vorort von St.=Mihiel, auf dem jenseitigen Ufer der Maas. ([469]) [Abb.]: Beobachtungsposten der schweren Gardeartillerie mit Scherenfernrohr. Auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz. (470) [Abb.]: Soldaten mahlen sich ihr Mehl zum Brotbacken selbst. (471) [2 Abb.]: (1)Strasse in Lodz. (2)Gesamtansicht von Lodz. (472) [Abb.]: Typen der von unseren Truppen in Polen gefangenen Russen: Baschkiren, Kirgisen und Tataren. (473) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (474) Die Vertreibung der Russen aus den Karpathenpässen. (474) Die Sprengung französischer Schützengräben bei Chauvoncourt. (474) [6 Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Truppen im winterlichen Karpathengelände. (1)Schutzhütten in den Karpathen. (2)Vorzügliche Deckung der Truppen in den Karpathen. Die Höhlen im Schnee sind durch Gänge miteinander verbunden. (3)Feind in Sicht. (4)Geschützstand diesseit des Pruth. Auf der anderen Seite der Hügelkette lagern Russen. (5)Notbrücke in der Bukowina. (6)Wetterfeste Pferdestände am Pruth. ([475]) [Abb.]: Die verbündeten deutschen und österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen in den Kämpfen bei Czenstochau am 25. November 1914. ([476 - 477]) Die Kämpfe bei Czenstochau. (478) [Abb.]: Nachtquartier dreier deutscher Soldaten im Hof eines russischen Bauernhauses bei Ziechanow in Russisch=Polen. (478) Die Generale v. Mackensen, Ludendorff und v. Morgen, Hindenburgs erfolgreiche Mitkämpfer in Polen. (478) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eine deutsche Infanteriekolonne marschiert bei bitterer Kälte gegen Ziechanow nördlich von Warschau. (2)Proviantausgabe an deutsche Truppen in der Gegend von Ziechanow. (479) [Abb.]: Unsere Artillerie in Charpentry bei Varennes. (480) Artilleriepatrouille. (480) [Abb.]: Vorgeschobener Artillerieposten. ([481]) Schützengräben. (482) [3 Abb.]: (1)Entwicklung der Schützengräben. Fig. 1. Liegender und stehender Schütze. Fig. 2. knieender und stehender Schütze. Fig. 3. Stehender Schütze mit Umgang. (2)Entwicklung der Schützengräben.Fig. 4. Der deutsche einfache und der Schützengraben mit Umgang. Fig. 5. Schützengraben mit Eindeckung. (3)Entwicklung der Schützengräben.Fig. 6, In einem Strassengraben hergestellter Schützengraben bei Dirmuiden. (482) Die Schlacht um Lodz. (483) [Abb.]: Deutscher Schützengraben auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz. (483) [2 Abb.]: (1)Als Schmuckgegenstände gefasste Geschossteile. Nach Entwürfen von Otto Zahn in Pforzheim. (2)Ein deutscher Soldat teilt seine Suppe mit hungrigen belgischen Kindern. (484) Kriegsgedenkschmuck. (484) [Abb.]: Ein nächtlicher Angriff auf die englischen Stellungen an der Yser. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Heft 25 (Heft 25) ([485]) [Abb.]: Deutsche und österreichisch=ungarische Truppen in treuer Waffenbrüderschaft auf dem Marsch in Russisch=Polen. ([485]) [2 Abb.]:(1) Panorama von Daressalam. (2)Ansicht von Lome: Blick über die Stadt. (487) [3 Abb.]: (1)Eine Kompanie der Schutztruppe von Deutsch=Ostafrika in Daressalam. (2)Schutztruppenkommando Soppo. (3)Viktoria mit grossem und kleinem Kamerunberg. (488 - 489) [2 Abb.]: Patrouille im Überschwemmungsgebiet am Yserkanal. (2)Der westflandrische Ort Ramscapelle in dem Überschwemmungsgebiet am Yserkanal bei Nieuport. (490) [Abb.]: Strasse in der von den Engländern, Belgiern und Franzosen mit äusserster Hartnäckigkeit verteidigten Satdt Nieuport. (491) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (492) Marschtage. (492) [Abb.]: Wegeskizze zum Artikel: Marschtage. (492) [Abb.]: Rast des Infanterieregiments Kaiser Friedrich Nr. 125 vor St. Juvin. ([493]) [Abb.]: Karte der Dardanellenfestungen. (494) Aus den Kämpfen an der Yser. (495) [2 Abb.]: (1) Die wichtigsten Kriegsverdienstorden Deutschlands und Österreich=Ungarn. I. 1. Der Orden Pour le Mérite. 2. Das Eiserne Kreuz. 3. Der bayrische Militär=Max=Josephs=Orden. 4. Der sächsische Militär=St.=Heinrichs=Orden. 5. Der württembergische Militär=Verdienstorden. 6. Der badische Militär=Karl=Friedrichs=Orden. 7. Der hessische Philippsorden. 8. Der Maria=Theresia=Orden (Österreich=Ungarn). (2)Die wichtigsten Kriegsverdienstorden Deutschlands und Österreich=Ungarns. II. 9 u. 9a. Das Mecklenburg=Schwerinsche Militärverdienstkreuz. 10. Das Verdienstkreuz für Frauen und Jungfrauen (Preussen). 11. Der bayrische Militärverdienstorden. 12. Die österreichisch=ungarische Tapferkeitsmedaille. 13. Das preussische Militärehrenzeichen. (495) Die Dardanellenfestungen. (495) [Abb.]: Gefangennahme des Gouverneurs von Warschau, Baron v. Korff, durch Metzer Dragoner in der Nähe von Kutno. ([496 - 497]) Die Gefangennahme des Gouverneurs von Warschau. (498) [Abb.]: 15=cm=Gechütz beim Abfeuern. (498) Artilleriewirkung. (498) [Abb.]: Das Artilleriefeuer. 1. Wirkung des Schrapnells mit Streuungskegel. 2. "Rafale=Feuer" - der Feuerüberfall, den die französische Feldartillerie gegen Infanterieangriffe anwendet. 3. Haubitzfeuer aus verdeckter Stellung sowie unwirksames Flachbahnfeuer. 4. Wirkung einer Granate gegen lebende Ziele hinter Deckungen. 5. Wirkung einer Granate mit Aufschlagzünder gegen Panzertürme im Bogenschuss des Steilfeuergeschützes sowie im Flachbahnschluss, der ohne Wirkung bleibt. - Die Artillerie verwendet nach der verschiedenen Art und Lage der Ziele verschiedene Geschütze und Geschosse. Lebende, sich bewegende und ungedeckte Ziele werden mit Flachbahngeschützen, den F e l d k a n o n e n (Abb. 1 und 2). Ziele hinter oder unter feldmässigen Deckungen (Abb. 3 und 4), die nur von oben zu treffen sind, werden durch Steilfeuergeschütze mit mässigem Bogenschuss, die leichten H a u b i t z e n , bekämpft; gegen sehr widerstandsfähige wagerechte Deckungen, z. b. Panzertürme (Abb. 5), wird aus Steilfeuergeschützen mit stark gekrümmter Flugbahn, den s c h w e r e n H a u b i t z e n und M ö r s e rn, gefeuert. Die Steilfeuergeschütze schiessen meist aus verdeckter Stellung. Als Geschoss kommt gegen alle lebenden, nicht dicht hinter Deckungen oder unter Eindeckungen befindlichen Ziele (Schützenlinien, Kolonnen) das S c h r a p n e l l zur Anwendung, das zu einem bestimmten Zeitpunkt vor oder über dem Ziel platzt und durch seine Füllkugeln und Sprengteile, die sich in einem Streuungskegel in der Flugbahnrichtung ausbreiten, auf das Ziel wirkt (Abb. 1 und 2). Gegen lebende Ziele hinter Deckungen oder unter schwachen Schutzwehren wird die G r a n a t e mit B r e n n z ü n d e r benutzt, deren zahlreiche Sprengstücke nach dem Platzen nach allen Seiten mit verheerender Wirkung fortgeschleudert werden. Zum Zerstören widerstandsfähiger Ziele werden die G r a n a t e n mitA u f s c h l a g z ü n d e r im Bogenschuss der Steilfeuergeschütze verwendet (Abb. 4 und 5), die weniger durch ihr Gewicht und ihre Geschwindigkeit als durch die Kraft ihrer Sprengladung wirken. ([499]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der österreichisch=ungarische Thronfolger Karl Franz Joseph (X) im Felde. (2)Deutsche und österreichisch=ungarische Generalstbsoffiziere im Hauptquartier. (500) Aus dem österreichisch=ungarischen Hauptquartier. (501) [Abb.]: Der österreichisch=ungarische Kriegsminister, Exzellenz Krobatin (X), im Hauptquartier. (501) Englisch=indischer Truppentransport verlässt den Hafen von Port Said. (501) Deutsche und österreichisch=ungarische Kriegsorden. (502 - 502) [Abb.]: Englisch=indischer Truppentransport verlässt, von zwei französischen Linienschiffen der Charlemagneklasse begleitet, nachdem er Kohlen gefasst hat, den Hafen von Port Said. (502 - 502) [Abb.]: Eisbrecher auf der Angerapp bei Mühle Kisselen. Im Hintergrund eine von den Russen erbaute Notbrücke. (504) [Einband]: ( - ) [Einband]: ( - )
Issue 49.3 of the Review for Religious, May/June 1990. ; REVIEW I:OR RELIGIOUS (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at St. Louis University by the Mis-souri Province Educational [nslilule of lhe Sociely of Jesus; Editorial Office; 360~ Lindell Blvd., Rm. 428; St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Second-class postage paid at St. Louis MO. Single copies $3.50. Subscriptions: United States $15.00 for onc year; $28.00 for two years. Other countrics: US $20.00 for one year: if airmail, US $35.00 per year. For subscription orders or change of address, write: Ri~vn-:w FOR R~uc, ous: P.O. Box 60"/0; Duluth, MN 55806. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to RF:VlEW vok REI.I~;IOt~S; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, MN 55806. Ol990 REVIEW voR REt.l~;Iot~s. David L. Fleming, S.J. iris Ann Ledden, S.S.N.D. Richard A. Hill, S.J. Jean Read Mary Ann Foppe Editor Associate Editor "~ Contributing Editor ~.~o' Assistant Editors Advisor\, Board David J. Hassel, S.J. Sean Sammon, F.M.S. Mary Margaret Johanning, S.S.N.D. Wendy Wright, Ph.D. Suzanne Zuercher, O.S.B. Ma\'/June 1990 Volume 49 Number 3 Manuscripts, books fl~r review and correspondence with the editor should be sent to REVIEW ro~ REt.l~aOt~s; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the departmenl "Canonical Counsel" should be addressed to Rich-ard A. Hill, S.J.; J.S.T.B.; 1735 LeRoy Ave.; Berkeley, CA 94709-1193. Back issues and reprinls should be ordered from REVIEW VO~ REI.tC;IOt~S; 3601 IAndell Blvd.; St. I~mis, MO 63108-3393. "Out of print" issues are available from University Microfilms Internalional; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.; Ann Arbor, M1 48106. A major portion of each issue is also available on cassette recordings as a service for the visually impaired. Write tn the Xavier Society for the Blind; 154 East 23rd Street; New York, NY 10010. PRISMS . Questions play an important part in our biblical tradition. The first question presented in the Bible is the one which God directs to us hu-man beings, "Where are you?" In the gospels, Jesus" question, "Who do you say that I am?," demands a response from every Christian, per-haps more than once in a lifetime. "Woman, why are you weeping? Who is it you are looking for?" challenges us in our sorrow and our dis-appointments. "Simon, son of John, do you love me?" pricks the con-science of sinner and saint alike. Not all questions are neatly answered. For example, "how does one pray" and "how does one love" have pieces of answers which together make up a simple but intricate mosaic that stretches as far as human ex-perience can reach. Jesus, in trying to share with us his experience of God, seemed to be most at home in everyday images of the living world around us and the parables which capture some basic human experience writ large. Who does not remember a woman sweeping a house for a lost coin? That is the way God searches out each of us in our lost moments. Who has not been touched by a story of a person, robbed and left half-dead by the roadside, and the various passers-by among whom there is one who cares? From such a parable, we all know a little better what it means to be neighbor. Stories, symbols, and images become so often the prisms whereby we gain new or fresh insight into some of our deepest human and divine realities. Some of our authors in this issue are directly led into their reflec-tions by a question. "What is a priest?" led Richard Hauser, S.J., to his considerations on the "Spirituality of the Ministerial Priesthood.'" Basil Pennington, O.C.S.O., is making a report on the Religious Life Futures Project as he looks at the question "Where is Religious Life Go-ing? . Whence Come the Candidates?" stirs Gabrielle Jean, S.C.O., to focus once again on the instrumentation for the screening of candi-dates for the priestly and.religious life vocations. William Mann, F.S.C., raises the question "Brothers, Do We Have a Future?" and enters into his own religious life experience to provide a response. If I could make five wishes for a new novice director, Melannie Svoboda, S.N.D., asks, what would they be? Her answer to that ques-tion is her article "Wishes for a 'Novice' Novice Director." Mary Polu-tanovich, D.C., faces the questions, "do the poor need the artist'? does 321 322 / Review for Religious. May-June 1990 the artist need the poor? how is Christ served and the gospel preached by this charism?" Her reflections are captured in her article "More than Bread: Art, Spirituality, and the Poor." Religious imagination unveils how God may be working in "The As-sociate Movement in Religious Life" according to Rose Marie Jasinski, C.B.S., and Peter C. Foley. Thomas F. McKenna, C.M., seeks out meta-phors as he tries to stimulate our thinking about "Images for the Future of Religious Life." Correcting some metaphors may be important in our understanding of "Obedience and Adult Faith" as presented by James D. Whitehead and Evelyn Eaton Whitehead. Other authors in this issue suggest creative ways to pair a deeper un-derstanding of violence and ministry as a response, the connection be-tween the stages of conversion and the gift of tears as imaged in the spiri-tuality of Catherine of Siena, naming experiences that represent the sur-rendering of ourselves to the Divine Other, discovering the gifts and the pitfalls of praying through a tradition which is non-Christian, and re-flections on the historical sweep of foreign mission involvement and its effect on the renewal movement in women religious congregations dur-ing the past quarter-century. It is true that questions sometimes only lead to more questions. But questions also lead to ways of responding that affect the direction of our lives and our ministry. Some questions can truly affect our relationship with God, with our fellowmen and women, and with our world. Perhaps our authors will raise some of those questions and also provide us with some of those images which will call forth such a personal conversion. The God who asks questions is also a God of surprises. Our Pentecost prayer: recreate in us your own Spirit, Lord. David L. Fleming, S.J. Spirituality of the Ministerial Priesthood Richard J. Hauser, S.J. Father Richard Hauser, S.J. is Chairman of the Theology Department at Creighton University in Omaha. Nebraska. His last article in Rv.\,lv.w FOR R~.L~(;IOUS was pub-lished in July-August, 1986. His address is Creighton University: California at 24th Street: Omaha, Nebraska 68178. [~uring a recent board meeting of the Emmaus Priest Renewal Program I had a disconcerting experience. The discussion moved to the question: what is a priest? For the next hour we worked in vain to come to a con-sensus. In exasperation someone said, '~No wonder priestly morale in the United States is so low. We don't even know what it means to be a priest?" At that point the Emmaus board commissioned me as their theo-logical consultant to put together a five-day retreat on priestly idefitity and spirituality. Immediately I found myself resisting the task, claiming ignorance of the topic. This resistance was even further disconcerting. Since I have been a priest more than twenty years and writing on spiritual topics for almost as long, why wouldn't I have something to say on the spirituality of the priest, supposedly my own spirituality? Gradually I realized that my hesi-tancy had many roots. First I was self-conscious about my identity as priest because rightly or wrongly as a priest I have felt under attack by two very important movements in the Church, the lay movement and the women's movement. As a result I have inadvertently downplayed this aspect of my identity so as not to occasion criticism from these groups. Further as I reflected on the documents of Vatican II, I became more aware that they gave thorough treatment both to the roles of the lay per-son and the bishop in the Church but have said very little about the role 323 :324 / Review for Religious, May-June 1990 of the priest. Though Vatican II did set some new directions for a recon-sideration of the identity of the priest, it did not develop this theology to any great extent. Finally I saw that many currents in the Church have subtly made me hesitant to reflect on the area: the debates on priestly celi-bacy and married clergy, the prevalent--and inadequate--theology of the priest as the "holy man" set apart in a separate caste to "mediate" grace to the laity, the tendency to "clericalize" most ministries in the Church, the ecumenical movement. I should also note that as a priest from a religious congregationl had defined my spirituality almost solely by the charism of n~y order and therefore neglected aspects of spiritual-ity related to my role as priest of the universal Catholic Church. In this I suspect I am typical of many religious order priests. The following reflections are an effort toward a theology of priestly identity and spirituality. I believe the lack of such a theology has had dele-terious effects both on morale of many current priests as well as on re-cruitment of future priests. The American bishops in their statement is-sued 1988 "Reflections on the Morale of Priests" agree that there is a morale problem: " . . it is aiso clear to us that there exists today a se-rious and substantial morale problem among priests in general. It is a prob-lem that cannot be simply attributed to one or another cause or recent event, but its profile and characteristics can be clearly described, and its presence needs to be addressed directly." It is my conviction that one of its causes is an ambiguity about what it means to be a priest. These reflections attempt to address that problem using guidelines from Vati-can II as well as recent documents from the Priestly Life and Ministry Committee of the American bishops. All Christian spirituality flows from incorporation into the Body of Christ through faith and baptism. The priest's spirituality is no excep-tion. Basically, then, priestly spirituality is Christian spirituality. How-ever, since the priest has a special role in the Body of Christ it is appro-priate to discuss how this role specifies the practice of Christian spiri-tuality. But an integral examination of priestly spirituality must first situ-ate the priest within the Body and only then discuss the aspects of spiri-tuality proper to the priest as priest. This article is concerned with priest-hood in the Roman Catholic Church; hence the terms Body of Christ and Church have primary reference to this community. Body of Christ: Priest as Member Priests are members of the Body of Christ. Their dignity as mem-bers of the Body has frequently been obscured by treatment of their spe-cial role within the Body. The Decree on the Ministt3, and Life of Priests Ministerial Priesthood / 325 from Vatican II clearly situates the priest's leadership role through ordi-nation within the priest's membership in the Body through the sacra-ments of initiation: "Therefore, while it indeed presupposes the sacra-ments of Christian initiation, the sacerdotal office of priests is conferred by that special sacrament through which priests, by the anointing of the Holy Spirit, are marked by a special character and are so configured to Christ the priest that they can act in the person of Christ the head" (par. 2). Membership and leadership must be seen together for comprehensive understanding of priestly identity and spirituality. It is significant that Vatican II chose the image of the Body of Christ to discuss priestly identity and ministry. This image highlights both the equality of all in the Body as well as the difference of roles in the Body. The equality of all members within the Body is clear: "There is but one body and one Spirit, just as there is but one hope given all of you by your call. There is one Lord, one faith, one baptism; one God and Father of all, who is over all, and works through all, and is in all" (Ep 4:4-6). Equally clear is the difference of roles within the Body: "There are dif-ferent gifts but the same Spirit; there are different ministries but the same Lord; there are different works but the same God who accomplishes all of them in everyone. To each person the manifestation of the Spirit is given for the common good" ( I Co 12:4-7). Furthermore Paul's image of the Body of Christ highlights the Spirit as the source of all life within the Body. Membership in the Body flows from the Spirit received through faith and baptism. Specific roles (charisms) within the Body flow from the special gifts given by the Spirit to different members of the Body for the sake of the entire Body, Finally, the Church as the Body of Christ shares Christ's mission. This mission so clearly presented in all the Gospels is serving the king-dom of God. Each member is called by baptism to assume a share of re-sponsibility by accepting ministry according to his or her specific charisms. This ministry is oriented to serving the kingdom of God both within the Body of Christ itself as well as beyond the Body in the world. The example is, of course, Jesus himself. Jesus ministered to his disci-ples; the washing of the feet in John's gospel is the most dramatic exam-ple of his role of service to his disciples. Still this concern for his own in no way lessened his ministry toward those outside his community of followers; his preaching, healing, and love extended to everyone he en-countered. These reflections presume that the priest's basic identity is that of a member of the Body of Christ and consequently the priest's ba-sic spirituality will be living that identity. 326 /Review for Religious, May-June 1990 Body of Christ: Priest as Leader As members of the Body of Christ priests have received the Spirit incorporating them into the Body and giving them charisms for the ser-vice of the Church and of the kingdom. What, then, differentiates the priest's identity and spirituality from that of other members of the Body? Most agree that ministerial priesthood in the Church implies a permanent office flowing from charism and formally recognized by the Church. The very important statement of 1977 from the Bishop's Committee on Priestly Life and Ministry "As One Who Serves" expresses the consen-sus well: "In summary, the holder of an office in the Church would be (1) a person endowed by the Spirit, (2) with personal gifts (charisms), (3) called to a public and permanent ministry, and this call is formally recognized by the Church" (par. 20). The fact that this office implies a role of leadership in the community is also agreed upon by the magis-terium and by most theologians. Yet there remain theological disagree-ments on the relationship of the priest's role as head of the Body (always with the bishop) to the Body itself. The discussion is focused on a pas-sage from The Dogmatic Constitution on the Church from Vatican II: "Though they differ from one another in essence and not only in de-gree, the common priesthood of the faithful and the ministerial or hier-archical priesthood are nonetheless interrelated. Each of them in its own special way is a participation in the one priesthood of Christ" (par. 10). Since this article is concerned primarily with the spirituality of priests as leaders of the Body--an identity that is acknowledged by most--it does not seem necessary to treat the doctrinal disputes. Christian spirituality flows from response to the Holy Spirit, the sanc-tifier. Priestly spirituality is simply the priest's effort to respond faith-fully to the Spirit in living the priestly identity as defined by the Church. The Church teaches that ordination establishes the priest in three new, distinctive, and permanent relationships: with Christ, with the Church, and with the world beyond the Church, This identity today includes-- for both diocesan as well as religious order priests--a call to observe the evangelical counsels. Since observing these counsels affects the living out of the three basic relationships, they must be discussed with them. It should be recalled again that this discussion focuses on those aspects of priestly spirituality that distinguish the priest as priest; it does not fo-cus on aspects of spirituality common to all Christians through baptism. Priest and Christ: Person-Symbol of Christ the Head of Body Through ordination the priest is established in a new, distinctive, and permanent relationship to Christ: the priest becomes the person-symbol Ministerial Priesthood / 327 of Christ, the head of the Church. Priests receive an anointing of the Spirit which enables them to act in the name of Christ the head. Thus priests are empowered to act in persona Christi. "As One Who Serves" makes the crucial observation that priests can be the person-symbol of Christ the head of the Body only because of their membership in the Body: "It is only because of the Church that the priest can be said to act in persona Christi. He is called to be an effective sign and witness of the Church's faith in the reconciling Christ, who works through the Church and through the one whom the Church has sent to be the steward of its gifts and services" (par. 22). It is the Body of Christ that is holy through the presence of the Spirit. The priest, as the preeminent head of this Body, becomes the symbol of the holiness of the Body. And as head of this Body, priests can now act in persona ecclesiae and so also in per-sona Christi. Through ordination the priest is established in a special relationship to Christ. As head of the Body, the priest becomes an "effective sign" or sacrament of Christ's authoritative presence in the Church. All aspects of priestly spirituality flow from this relationship. Since it is the role of a symbol to make present what it represents, the priest is called by the Church through ordination to awaken Christ's presence within the com-munity in all service for the community. Consequently all priestly min-istry to the Church must be done in a way that awakens faith within the community. This awakening of faith in others is possible only if the priest has a deep relationship personally with Christ. The biggest chal-lenge of priestly spirituality is becoming internally the Christ symbolized externally. To a great extent the effectiveness of priestly ministry flows from a heart transformed by the Spirit and then ministering to others. All Christians desiring to follow Christ fully are called to observe the evangelical counsels of poverty, chastity, and obedience within their own state of life. The priest is no exception. However, the priest's ob-servance of the evangelical counsels is orientated toward conforming the priest more closely to Christ and so increasing effectiveness as the person-symbol of Christ the head of the Body. The priest today is called by the Church to celibacy and so to meet personal affective needs in ways con-sonant with the celibate state. Christ is the model of priestly celibacy in his relationships with the Father, his community, and his apostolate. Above all the celibacy of Christ was founded on his relationship to his most dear Father, Abba. From within this intimate and often solitary pres-ence before his Father Christ's entire life flowed. Christ's relationship to the Father is the model for the priest's relationship to Christ. As 328 / Review jbr Religious, May-June 1990 Christ's heart flowed instinctively to the Father, so does the priest's heart flow to Christ and the Father. Love unites without obliterating personal distinctiveness. As Christ was able to say "The Father and I are one," and as Paul could say, "I live, now not I, but Christ lives in me," so the priest prays to become equally one with the Father and Jesus. By em-bracing celibacy the priest imitates Jesus in allowing sufferings of fail-ure, loneliness, and isolation to foster even deeper intimacy with God and with Jesus himself. Christ is the model of priestly celibacy in his relationship to his com-munity. He looked to certain of his apostles and disciples for the per-sonal support he needed to sustain the failures and loneliness of his min-istry. So Christ is the model for priests in developing deep human rela-tionship, especially with fellow priests. Finally Christ's affectivity was also directed toward those he served. We recall how Jesus wept over Jerusalem because he was not able to draw the chosen people of God to himself as a mother hen draws her chicks to herself. In embracing the vow of celibacy the priest strives to imitate Christ in each of these three dimensions of affectivity and so become a more effective person-symbol of Christ as head of the Body. To be faithful to the call of today's Church to live this identity of person-symbol of Christ we priests must ask some basic questions. First, do I see my vocation primarily as a call to become Someone, Christ, and not merely as a duty to perform certain ministerial functions closed to others? The Church today is saying to priests that who we are is more primary than what we do; presence has replaced power. We are being called to be so configured to Christ that our actions radiate his presence and so awaken awareness of God's own love. Have I built into my daily life the rhythms necessary both to grow continually in knowledge and love of Christ and to allow this knowledge and love to permeate my ac-tions? And second, have I actively embraced my celibacy'? Do I cherish my celibacy as a gift intended to foster intimacy with Christ and the Fa-ther and thereby increase my effectiveness as a person-symbol of Christ in my leadership? DO I imitate Christ in meeting my affective needs pri-marily in my relationships with Christ and the Father and with my pres-byterate? Do I allow myself to be supported by and do I support my fel-low priests'? Do I allow the crosses of celibacy to deepen intimacy with Christ? Priest and Church: Servant-Leader of Body Through the anointing of the Spirit at ordination the priest is also es-tablished in a new, distinctive, and permanent relationship to the Church: Ministerial Priesthood / 399 the priest becomes the servant-leader of the Church, the "effective sign" of Christ the head of the Body. As the preeminent leader of the community the priest thereby acts in persona ecclesiae. This leadership of the Body is marked by four functions essential for the community. The priest is called to serve the Church by proclaiming the Word of God, by presiding at worship, by pastoral care of the People of God, and by fa-cilitating the different charisms within the Church. But the priest's lead-ership will take many differing forms depending on the talents of the priest and the needs of the community. The American bishops high-lighted the importance of sensitivity to varying forms of priestly leader-ship with which the Spirit endows priests: "All priests are endowed by the Spirit in various ways to serve the People of God. There are forms of leadership . The gifts differ and each must discern in the Spirit how he has been gifted. No one has all the gifts. Some seem to disap-pear in the history of the Church; some are transient even in the lives of priests" ("As One Who Serves," par. 32). Christ is the model for the priest's leadership of the Church. Just as Jesus' love of the Father impelled him to live for the Father's kingdom, so does the priest's love of Christ impel the priest to live for the Body of Christ. The priest wil.I, furthermore, exercise leadership in the same way Jesus exercised leadership--through service: "The Son of Man has not come to be served but to serve--to give his life in ransom for the many " (Mk 10:45). And through the special anointing of the Spirit in ordination Christ now stands with the priest empowering the priest to be an "effective sign" of Christ in all ministry to the Church. Thus the priest can fulfill the vocation to be the sacramental symbol-person of Christ actually awakening Christ's presence in the community through his .daily service. In a new way since Vatican I! priests are being called to facilitate service and leadership of others within the Church. The role has been com-pared to that of a conductor of an orchestra: "The conductor succeeds when he stimulates the best performance from each player and combines their individual efforts into a pattern of sound, achieving the vision of the composer. The best leader is one who can develop the talents of each staff person and coordinates'all their efforts, so that they best comple-ment each other and produce a superior collective effort" ("As One Who Serves," par. 46). In facilitating ministry of others the priest is not unlike Christ who prepared the disciples and then sent them off on their own. The priest recognizes that the Spirit in baptism incorporates mem-bers into the Body and simultaneously gives them differing gifts of min- 330 / Review for Religious, May-June 1990 istry for the Body. Yet according to the above document the priest re-mains the one "in whom the mission of the Church, and therefore its ministry, finds focus and visibility" (34); thus the priest acts within the community preeminently in persona ecclesiae. To enhance the priest's effectiveness as a person-symbol of Christ, the Church calls the priest to evangelical obedience through the promise or vow of obedience to their bishops or ecclesiastical superiors. This prom-ise or vow of obedience places the priest in special union with the uni-versal Church and so enhances the ability to act in persona ecclesiae. The priest symbolizes the unity of the entire Church in Christ: the local parish or community, the diocese, the national Church, the universal Catholic Church. In addition, the priest symbolizes the continuity of the Church through the ages from the apostles and Peter to the present-day bishops and pope. It follows from this that the priest must fully own this position in the Church by loving, protecting, and defending it at every level and, even when called to prophetic criticism, by doing so with love. While acknowledging the Church's faults and foibles past and present, the priest still believes that it is the privileged place of the Spirit's activ-ity in this world for the kingdom of God: "I for my part declare to you, you are "Rock," and on this rock I will build my church, and the jaws of death shall not prevail against it" (Mt 16:18). The model for the priest's obedience is again Christ. Nothing stood between Christ and doing his Father's will. The priest's obedience is to God. The priest is convinced that the will of God is now revealed through the authoritative structures of the Church. In obeying these structures the priest is obeying the Father. The priest's obedience to the bishop or ec-clesiastical superiors gives eloquent testimony to the belief that Christ continues to work through the ages within the authoritative structures of the Church. By embracing the promise or vow of obedience the priest refuses to allow any personal desire not in accord with God's will as ex-pressed through Church superiors to determine actions. The sufferings of obedience to God's will are accepted and offered to the Father in the same manner as Christ's. To be faithful to living this identity of servant-leader of the Body we priests must reflect on our underlying attitudes toward ministry. First, do I truly see myself as servant to my community, that is, do I radiate the attitude of Christ who came to serve and not to be served'? Do I strive to be an effective servant-leader in each of the four major ministerial roles, that is, teaching, presiding at worship, pastoral care, facilitating gifts of community? Or do I find myself holding back in some particular Ministerial Priesthood / 331 aspects of my ministry'? Have I identified charisms of leadership that are unique to me and used these in a special way for the Church? Do I fully grasp that as a person-symbol of Christ in my leadership role I can trust that Christ stands behind each aspect of my ministry enabling me to be an effective sign of his presence'? Second, do I embrace my promise or vow of obedience? Do ! see it as a gift enhancing my effectiveness as a person-symbol of the universal Church, the Body of Christ'? Do I love the Church and protect and defend it at every leve~? If necessary to criti-cize, do I speak in love? Is my obedience ultimately to the Father? Do I allow the crosses of obedience to conform me more totally to Christ'? Priest and Society: Promoter of Justice in the World Through ordination the priest is established in a new, distinctive, and permanent relationship to Christ and to his Church. Contained in this iden-tity is a new relationship to the world beyond the Church. Because the priest now acts in persona ecclesiae and in persona Christi, the priest becomes the preeminent witness of the Church's and Christ's concern for the world. Vatican II and subsequent documents of the Church both on an international and national level have put increasing emphasis on this aspect of the Church's mission. The statement of the World Synod of Bish-ops in 1971 entitled Justice in the World is apt: ". action on behalf of justice and participation in the transformation of the world fully ap-pear to us as a constitutive dimension of the preaching of the Gospel, or in other words, of the Church's mission." The priest today is called to integrate this dimension into ongoing ministry. The American bishops echo this thrust by presenting their descrip-tion of the priestly ministry under four co-equal divisions: To Proclaim the Word of God, To Preside at Worship, To Serve the Christian Com-munity, To Serve Humankind. The last-named section begins as follows: "The Church is called to serve all of society: that is its mission and the hope of its ministry. While the priest may have a certain primary respon-sibility to the Catholic community which he serves, nonetheless he has been sent by Christ and the Church to all people who comprise the larger community in which the parish community exists. The concern for all people gives reality to the presence of the risen Lord" ('~As One Who Serves," par. 50). The priest has a double role in this ministry to humankind. As ser-vant- leader of the Body tile priest is called to be engaged personally in actions on behalf of justice to witness most effectively to the Church's concern. In addition, the priest is called to facilitate action and leader-ship by others for the transformation of society. Church teachings ac- 339 / Review Jbr Religious, May-June 1990 knowledge that time constraints may limitthe priest's personal involve-ment but also point out that the apostolate within society is also most ap-propriate for the laity: "The apostolate of the social milieu, that is, the effort to infuse a Christian spirit into the mentality, customs, laws, and structures of the community in which a person lives is so much the duty and responsibility of the laity that it can never be properly performed by others. In this area the laity can exercise an apostolate of like towards like" (Decree on the Apostolate of the Laity, para. 33). In addition to working for justice throughout society, the priest is called to have spe-cial concern for the poor: "Although the presbyter has obligations to-wards all persons, he has the poor and the lowly entrusted to him in a special way. The Lord himself showed that he was united to them, and the fact that the Gospel was preached to them is mentioned as a sign of his messianic a.ctivity'" (Decree on the Miniso3, and Life of Priests, par. 6). Again Christ is the model of the priest in this dimension of minis-try. Jesus' concern for others was not limited to his immediate commu-nity of disciples. He continually extended himself beyond his followers to others. His entire ministry is marked with personal compassion for any person who came to him in need. In addition to his one-on-one concern for others, Jesus also spoke out against society's injustices. At times the condemnation was marked by actual disobedience to laws when he viewed them as contradictory to the revelation he received from his Fa-ther. Indeed, his criticism was so threatening to the establishment that it eventually precipitated his death. And finally the Gospel reflects that Jesus had special care and concern for the poorest of the poor, the out-casts of society. The parable of the Last Judgment testifies to the cen-trality in Jesus' eyes of service to the hungry, thirsty, shelterless, impris-oned. To enhance the priest's effectiveness as a witness of Christ, the Church asks all priests to have special concern for evangelical poverty within their own priestly vocation, diocesan or religious. And again the model is Christ himself. Christ was poor. He let no material desire or possession come between himself and doing the Father's will. He was detached from possessions in order to be more free to serve. And Christ chose to live a simple lifestyle, perhaps to be more approachable by the poor or to witness to the sufficiency of the Father's providence for his material needs, taking his cue from the birds of the air and the lilies of the field. Through embracing evangelical poverty the priest refuses to al-low any inordinate attachment to food, clothing, shelter, possessions to Ministerial Priesthood / 333 affect service of the kingdom either within or outside the Body of Christ. With this inner quality of heart the priest thus becomes an even more ef-fective witness of Christ to the Church and world. To be faithful and responsive to the call of promoting justice in the world we priests must ask whether we have adapted to this rather new dimension of priestly ministry. First, does my ministry include leader-ship in witnessing to Christ's concern for the world both through actual "hands-on" service to promote justice in society as well as through fa-cilitating service of my congregation? Most especially am I an effective sign in witnessing to Christ's concern for the most needy and under-privileged of my parish and my society'? Second, what is my attitude to evangelical poverty? Do I desire to imitate Christ by adopting a simple lifestyle? Do I embrace evangelical poverty as a gift because it conforms me more closely to Christ and so makes me a more effective symbol-person of Christ in my leadership, especially in his concern for the poor'? Do I allow the crosses of poverty to deepen my bonds with Christ'? Ministerial Priesthood: Challenge and Consolation The challenge of priesthood is perhaps greater today than ever be-fore. In the ministry of leadership for the Church the priest is called to become the person-symbol of Christ and so live and serve in a way that awakens awareness of God's continual presence and love both for the com-munity and for the world. A recent document from the American bish-ops catches the immensity of this challenge putting it in the context of the role of the pastor today: "The pastor in the parish today becomes-- whether he knows and likes it or not--a religious symbol to his people. The pastor becomes a religious symbol of tradition, the keeper and speaker of the revealed Word in all of its rich expressions. He becomes the religious symbol of God's care for his people, expressing compas-sion for the wounded and outrage at injustice. He becomes the religious symbol of order, calling the community to an effective stewardship of its gifts and shared use of its resources" ("A Shepherd's Care: Reflec-tions on the Changing role of Pastor," 1988). But if the challenge is immense, so is the consolation. Through or-dination the priest exists in a new, distinctive, and permanent relation-ship to Christ, to the Church, and to society. But like all sacraments the sacrament of orders confers the grace it proclaims and signifies. There-fore, priests have the immense consolation of knowing that the Holy Spirit stands behind them enabling them to live this threefold relation-ship conferred at ordination. In their relationship to Christ, the Spirit en-ables priests to be configured to Christ poor, celibate, and obedient and 334 / Review for Religious, May-June 1990 so be more powerful person-symbols of Christ. In their relationship to the Church, the Spirit enables priests to be effective servant-leaders in the fourfold dimensions of priestly ministry: proclaiming the Word of God, presiding at worship, caring for the pastoral needs of community, and facilitating charisms of the community. Finally in their relationship to society, the Spirit enables priests to be eloquent witnesses of Christ's care for.the world in promoting justice in society and most especially in serving the poor both personally and in their leadership of the Body of Christ. Priestly ministry, like all ministry, is a charism, a gift of the Spirit. The challenge for us priests is living in a way that facilitates the Spirit's action. We must take a serious look at our daily schedules and ask whether they, in fact, foster our living in tune with the Spirit, thereby growing in knowledge and love and Christ and so radiating a Christ-presence in all our ministry. Being fully effective sacramental signs of Christ demands daily attention to our physical, emotional, and spiritual needs. And this may require rearrangement of our schedules, especially to assure we have the leisure to grow in an ever deeper union with Christ whom we sacramentalize in our leadership. A recent document from the Priestly Life and Ministry Committee pointedly advises us that the crite-ria for the effectiveness of our ministry ought not be the quantity of our work but its quality: "One of the most probable causes of difficulties with spirituality in a priest'~ life today is simply his ability to find (or at least justify) sufficient time to spend in solitude and prayer. A consci-entious priest, especially when under pressure of incessant demands, can forget that the quality of his work is more important than the quantity. What people are looking for in him more than anything else is a spiri-tual guide and model who will help them come to know the Lord and find his peace. Thus he must be, first of all and above everything else, a man of God's peace. Regular time each day for prayer, meditation, and spiritual reading is a sine qua non for the unfolding in a priest's life of an authentic Christ-centeredness" ("The Priest and Stress," 1982). There are many ministries in the Body of Christ. The priest's is but one of these, yet it is distinctive. Only the priest is called by today's Church to a ministry of leadership whose essence is symbolizing Christ's presence. Hopefully a deeper appreciation of this calling will have its ef-fect on morale of current priests as well as attract many others to this vo-cation. Where is Religious Life Going? M. Basil Pennington. O.C.S.O. Father Basil Pennington, O.C.S.O., is well known for his conferences and writings on centering prayer. His address is Assumption Abbey: Route 5: Ava, Missouri 65608. This is a question that is being asked with concern not only by religious themselves and the Church at large but even by the wider community. One significant indication of this is the fact that a secular foundation has recently given a secular university over a half million dollars to study the question. Lilly Endowment, Inc. has awarded Boston University a $575,000 grant to have its Center for Applied Social Sciences serve as the site to study the question "Factors Influencing the Transformation of Religious Life in the Catholic Church in the United States." This cur-rent research grant follows the successful completion of an earlier $100,000 planning grant. It is almost twenty-five years since the close of the Second Vatican Council which called for an adaptation and renewal of religious life. In that time the average age of members of many religious congregations and monastic communities has increased dramatically while the number of members has decreased just as dramatically. Many traditional works of religious have been called into question. New works have been un-dertaken and the whole understanding of mission reconsidered by some groups. The sense of separation from the laity is greatly diminished. Lay persons take a much greater part in the life and mission of religious and religious generally feel closer to the active lay Catholic. What does all this portend for the future'? More importantly, what must religious do in order to be truly renewed, adapted to the twenty-first century Church, so that they may continue to bring to the Church 335 336 / Review Jot" Religious, May-June 1990 and to society as a whole the gift that they are? The proposal submitted to the Lilly Endowment set forth six basic or broad objectives for the study: I. Identify the interpretative schemes used by reli-gious to describe the meaning structure of their commit-ment and their perceptions of the distinctions of religious life in relation to the other ministerial roles in the Church. The interpretive schemes will be examined from the perspective of the psychological, theological, and or-ganizational changes that have occurred over time, with special attention to the degree to which religious orders are becoming more or less distinct. 2. Describe and analyze the psychological, struc-tural, and organizational changes that have occurred and those yet to occur both in religious life in general and within congregations in order to predict the future shapes of religious life. 3. Identify individual religious who are perceived as the emergent leaders of religious life and explore with them systematically the changes that have occurred and must yet occur if religious life is to remain a vital social and ecclesial reality. 4. Describe and analyze some effects of change and perceptions of religious life on the commitment of in-dividual religious, former religious, and recent candi-dates to religious life. 5. Describe the environmental influences on re-ligious life in the United States, including cultural shifts that influence commitments, the supply and demand econ-omy for religious service, and the enhancement of the role of the laity in the Church within the historical con-text of theology. 6. Provide a paradigm for developing strategies of leadership that will enable leaders to move the pro-cess of renewal that was begun in Vatican II through a process of systematic transformation. The term "interpretive schemes" may not be familiar to many but it refers to a very important factor in religious life. Interpretive schemes are made up of the understanding the members of the group or commu-nity share in regard to the world and their place in it. They are primary Where is Religious Life Going? in drawing the members together, giving them a shared sense of belong-ing. These guide religious as they interpret their own past and look at their present environment, select their value priorities, and allocate their resources. Oftentimes these interpretive schemes are not explicitly articu-lated by a group. They are revealed rather in the metaphors the mem-bers use to describe their community, the stories they tell and the rites they celebrate. Transformation involves a shift in interpretive schemes. The pro-posal describes transformation as "qualitative, discontinuous shifts in organization members, shared understandings of the organization, accom-panied by changes in the organization's mission, strategy, and formal and informal structures." Transformation usually begins with a crisis that unfreezes dominant organizational members' current interpretative schemes by presenting a significant challenge to their validity. The Sec-ond Vatican Council did this to religious. But not the Council alone. The transition from the modern to the postmodern era, one of the three great cultural shifts in the history of humankind necessarily brought on a "cri-sis" for all human organizations. The next step in the transformation pro-ess is the development of alternative interpretative schemes leading to new types of action which in turn leads to changes in the structure of the organization. There is likely to be considerable conflict among the origi-nal and developing interpretive schemes and the subgroups espousing them. Leaders of the community will necessarily have a large impact on the process and its outcome. If they support only one perspective they are likely to decrease the potential creativity of the transformational pro-ess and the sense of belonging and involvement of the members whose perspectives have not been taken into account. If they try to separate out the different perspectives they are likely to perpetuate splints within the community. If they facilitate the interaction among the conflicting per-spectives they will increase the chances of paradoxical outcomes of trans-formation, of new and creative shared understandings, of a truly renewed and vital religious life. During the course of the process members will experience discomfort both with the ambiguities and the confusion. The conflict of understandings and those who espouse them will create ten-sions. But when (and if) a new synthesis is reached that is experienced by the whole group as acceptable, there will not only be a sense of satis-faction but there will be a new force in the community for life. In its study of the factors influencing the transformation for religious life, the study is going to give special attention to two: the environment, 338/Review for Religious, May-June 1990 that is, the factors external to the community that impinge on it in some way and can effect the transformation process by inducing the crisis and affecting the development of new interpretative schemes, and the lead-ership. Two types of leadership within the communities need to be and will be considered. There are formal leaders, those who are designated to see that the roles, resources, and necessary structures are maintained to provide for both the mission and the members. Emergent leaders are members who are generally recognized in the community as complemen-tary to the formal leaders, but distinct from them in purpose and func-tion. These often act as catalysts for new ideas within the community and, as such, are seldom selected by the membership to represent them. The study hopes to explore the underlying changes in interpretive schemes both qualitatively and quantitatively arid at several levels: within the social institution of religious life as such, within individual congre-gations, and within individual members of religious communities. This will involve questionnaires, regional meetings, and individual interviews to be carried out over the course of the next two to three years. The proposal sees as the outcome of the project: I. Identification of the normative beliefs about reli-gious life and how they will likely shape the future of re-ligious life in this country. 2. Build a national comparative data base of all male and female religious that includes current demographic data, membership information, existing and emerging structures, current member attitudes on multiple dimen-sions, and projections for the future. 3. Enable the leadership of religious communities to identify in the current context paradigms of planning that enable transformation, consolidation, merging, or extinc-tion. 4. Label the changes that must yet occur if reli-gious life is to remain a vital social and theological gift to the Church into the next millennium. The results of the study will, of course, be published and generally available to interested parties. But the researchers hope also to work with organizations and groups of religious to consider and further explore the findings. The principal researchers for the project are David Nygren and Miriam Ukeritis. Father Nygren is a Research Associate at the Center for Applied Social Science, a unit of the Graduate School of Boston Uni- Where is Religious Life Going? / 339 versity. He has been a member of the Congregation of the Mission (Vin-centians) since 1968 and has served his congregation in many capacities over the years. He holds six academic degrees. Sister Miriam, a mem-ber of the Congregation of Sisters of Saint Joseph of Carondelet, is com-pleting a term as a Post-Doctoral Fellow at the Harvard Community Health Plan, Boston. She is a clinical psychologist by profession and has served as a director of the House of Affirmation in Hopedale, Massachu-setts. Besides the extensive facilities of the Center for Applied Social Sci-ence, the researchers will be aided by a National Advisory Board which includes Archbishop Thomas Kelly, O.P., the newly elected chairper-son of NCCB's Committee on Religious; Abbot James Jones, O.S.B. of Conception Abbey; Howard Gray, S.J., former provincial of the Detroit Province, five religious women, two brothers, a monk and two represen-tatives from the Lilly Endowment. The Advisory Board will meet regu-larly with the researchers to assess the results of their work and offer guid-ance to the pursuit of the project. The success of the project will, of course, depend largely on the col-laboration of religious, both as groups and as individuals. But the bene-fits that they can hope to reap from it are considerable, so such collabo-ration is well assured. However, they will not be the only ones to profit from the study. Reviewing the expected outcomes it is easy to see why the Lilly Endowment and a community oriented university are willing to make such a considerable investment in this study. If the study does suc-ceed in producing the results it projects, there can be little doubt as to the significance of the contribution it will make not only to the Church but to society as a whole by enlivening and promoting the social outreach which depends so heavily on the leadership and support of the religious communities. Whence Come the Candidates? Gabrielle L. Jean, S.C.O. Sister Gabrielle Jean, S.C.O., last appeared in these pages with her article. "'The Alcoholic Religious Woman," in September/October 1985. Her address is 715 Per-shing Drive: Silver Spring, Maryland 20910. Over the past several years, authoritative articles on the assessment of can-didates for the priestly/religious life have appeared in Catholic periodi-cals. Kraft (1978)~ clearly stated the differential role and competencies of the psychiatrist and psychologist relative to evaluation and treatment of religious personnel. While both professional groups are involved in therapy, the psychiatrist focuses on the abnormal behavior while the psy-chologist deals with a much broader range of human behaviors. The psy-chiatrist's forte lies in his medical expertise and pharmacological arma-mentarium; the clinical psychologist's educational background provides for research and evaluation of human behavior, especially personality as-sessment. Kraft strongly recommended that such professionals have a working knowledge and appreciation of the role of spirituality in the life of religious men and women. Values incongruent with those of the cli-ent could prove prejudicial to his or her ongoing spiritual growth. A more recent article by O'Connor (1988)~- addressed the appraisal of candidates with attention directed to the formation process, the test-ing of the applicant's spirit, assessment of his or her motivation and fit-ness for the chosen institute. The key elements lie in the interactional pro-ess of interview and dialogue. The present article focuses on the instrumentation for the screening of candidates, that is, the psychological tests selected for that purpose. It is intended to inform superiors, vocations directors, and formation teams of the rationale and philosophy inherent in the selection of instru- 340 Whence Come the Candidates? / 34"1 ments; a "model" battery will then be suggested. Do the candidates come from the general "normal" population or from a psychiatric pool? The choice of instruments such as the MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory), TAT (Thematic Apper-ception Test) and Rorschach Inkblots reflect the latter since they are stan-dardized or normed on a psychiatric or dysfunctional population. Granted, they provide valuable information (in terms of impairment), but would it not be more helpful for the formation teams to know the strengths and weaknesses of the personality of their candidates? Would they not be in a better position to maximize the psychological and spiri-tual growth of their charges with a positive set of data on them'? If one begins the psychological screening process with scales normed on a psy-chiatric population, the results can only reveal the extent of the pathol-ogy found in that individual when compared to psychiatrically impaired individuals. The strengths of the personality are clouded by the pathol-ogy and the formation personnel are left to ferret for themselves the per-sonal resources of the recruits. Personality measurement is a typically American phenomenon; it originated in the United States and has evolved greatly, especially since the early 50s. Its scope includes both personality inventories (standard-ized on the general population) and instruments designed more specifi-cally to detect the presence and extent of behavior pathology. The re-spective personality theories provide the background for such instruments and caution the user relative to the holistic nature of the person. Because of the importance of the psychological screening process, further clarification seems warranted, especially since Vatican II alerted to the need of heeding the advances made in the behavioral sciences. So-ciology and psychology do shed scientific light on human behavior both as individuals and in groups. Purpose and Ethics Tests are standardized tools for the measurement of individual dif-ferences in intellectual, emotional, social, and motivational aspects of behavior. Personality assessment focuses primarily on the emotional ad-justment, social relationships, motivation, attitudes, interests, and val-ues of the individual. The American Psychological Association has codified ethical prin-ciples to govern psychological testing. Many personality tests are re-stricted to qualified users, and the qualifications vary with the type of test. The rationale is that test scores should be released only by and to persons qualified to interpret them. The candidate is entitled to know the 342 / Review for Religious, May-June 1990 information he or she revealed in the testing. Knowledge of the test scores only may be emotionally disturbing to the candidate; they should be properly interpreted to him or her in a situation that allows for dis-cussion of the results. Many personality instruments and measures of emotional, motiva-tional, or attitudinal traits are necessarily disguised; the subject may re-veal characteristics about the self without realizing that he or she is do-ing so. It is of primary importance that the examinee have a clear understanding of the use that will be made of the test results, who will receive the report, and how long it will remain in his or her file. Quot-ing directly from the Ethical Standards of Psychologists: "The psycholo-gist who asks that an individual reveal personal information in the course of interviewing, testing, or evaluation, or who allows such information to be divulged to him, does so only after making certain that the person is aware of the purpose of the interview, testing, or evaluation and of the ways in which the information may be used." No report should be sent without the consent of the examinee through a "release of confiden-tiality" form. The receiver of such information is bound by confiden-tiality; the information is privileged; if the examinee agrees to release such information, it is because it will be handled as privileged commu-nication. Evaluation: Testing, Interviews, or What? There are many arguments for and against testing, and I wish to share my biases with you; I do so willingly because psychological test-ing is my area of specialization and, therefore, I feel better qualified to support them than I would be in other areas of psychology. The arguments I would advance in favor of a sound testing program are these. First, it serves to provide an appraisal of candidates who feel attracted to the religious/priestly life. Secondly, it can help the candidate gain insight into his or her own behavior. Thirdly, it can serve as a basis for counseling in view of overall personal growth. The reservations I would have to comprehensive testing are many; my remarks here pertain primarily to candidate assessment for the priestly/religious life. ( I ) Psychiatric screening should not be required of all candidates; if the findings on the personality inventory suggest more than average pa-thology, a psychiatric instrument could be used to determine the extent of the pathology. If psychiatric screening is required for all candidates, are we not suggesting that our pool of subjects lies in the "disturbed" group? However, I favor scheduling a psychiatric interview/evaluation Whence Come the Candidates? / 343 for applicants to monastic life. The withdrawal from the world implied in the lifestyle could attract individuals ill-equipped for social inter-course. (2) There is a danger of categorizing people for life, very much like the penal system where no room is allowed for growth and change. (3) In the hands of poorly trained people, these instruments are ex-tremely dangerous. Granted that most formation personnel would not ad-minister the tests themselves, there is still grave danger that reports will be misinterpreted. People with little sophistication in this area tend to put more faith in the instruments than is warranted. (4) The use of test information for acceptance/refusal makes sense only if the results are validated by information from other sources: let-ters of reference, observed behavior, and the like, No matter how good and competent that psychiatrist or psychologist is, the dynamics of grace elude measurement, and everyone involved in the assessment process must be mindful of this fact. (5) I would not advocate involvement in a screening program unless there is a willingness to share the information with the candidate. A good policy is to provide a feedback interview to discuss the test findings with the examinee. Should the evaluation be psychodiagnostic (with the use of psychiatric questionnaires), the feedback would then be provided by the therapist who would be in a better position to decide on the timing for such disclosure. In all such work, Catholic psychologists consciously strive for the fundamental attitude which Pope Pius XII advocated in 1953: 'Psychotherapy and clinical psychology must always consider man as a psychic unity and totality; as a structured unit in itself; as a social unit and as a transcendent unit, that is to say, in man's tending towards God.' ,3 Candidate Assessment We are reminded through the Second Vatican Council documents that the unity of the Church thrives on the variety of gifts in its mem-bers. In Perfectae Caritatis, it is explicitly stated that religious are to bring "to the execution of commands and to the discharge of assign-ments entrusted to them the resources of their minds and wills and their gifts of nature and grace" (PC, Art. I). The text is supported by Paul's I Corinthians: "All these gifts are the work of one and the same Spirit, distributing them separately to each individual at will" (I Co 12:l I). The decree on religious life was intended for all religious men and women, whether in the ranks or in authority. It must be admitted; how- 34"4 / Review for Religious, May-June 1990 ever, that when it comes to acknowledging the "special gift of each," we are somewhat in the dark. The Superior/Director/Coordinator is ex-pected to be respectful of the Giver of gifts by avoiding arbitrary assign-ments. The religious man or woman may be an individualist who feels that one owes it to oneself to fulfill the self in the sense of using one's gifts for personal enhancement and satisfaction; a correct interpretation would lead one to regard all gifts as intended for service to the commu-nity and to the whole Church. A scientific way of arriving at a knowledge of these gifts is psycho-logical testing and evaluation. I would set as one of the primary func-tions of candidate assessment: the identification of the assets of the indi-vidual. There is room for screening out undesirable applicants but this aspect of screening should not supersede the screening in of those who have great gifts of heart and mind to use in the service of the Church. As a marginal note, may I add that it is usually enlightening for the vocation directors (or whoever requests the assessment) to subject him-self or herself to the whole process. It may be an eye-opener as to the anxiety-provoking experience of personality assessment. For some cli-ents, self-disclosure is a very traumatic experience, and counseling may be advised. For most who have been exposed to testing in all forms, the whole procedure is taken in stride. Criteria Used What are we looking for in a good candidate to the priesthood/ religious life? The criteria have generally been clearly stated by the vari-ous religious groups, rectors of seminaries, experienced masters in the formation of candidates, and vocation directors. In general, they can be grouped as follows. ( 1 ) Intelligence I think we are justified in looking for average intelligence or better; without it, a religious professional cannot grasp the import of his or her commitment to Church service within the framework of a religious life-style. During the assessment, the candidate's intellectual efficiency is con-sidered in the light of one's intellectual potential. Does the client oper-ate better in a situation where conformity is rewarded or where auton-omy and independence are viewed as positive behaviors? The individ-ual's cognitive style is also studied along with factors capable of reduc-ing his or her mental efficiency such as anxiety, perfectionism, compul-sivity, or poor thought control. (2) Personality Here, it is important to have inventories/questionnaires standardized Whence Come the Candidates? / 345 on a non-psychiatric population; the candidate is not expected to live in a psychiatric ward! Instruments are usually selected which address prin-cipally the personality characteristics important for social living and so-cial interaction. Attention focuses first on personal integration: the individual's self-concept as covered by such factors as social presence, sociability, self-acceptance, sense of well-being. The candidate's social maturity and re-sponsibility come under scrutiny in a cluster of scales tapping socializa-tion, self-control, and tolerance. Temperamental variables such as per-sistence, cooperation, aggressiveness, tact, moodiness, impulsiveness, and adaptability are given some attention. The motivational aspects of the applicant are usually considered in a separate scale covering the home environment, career, religion, social endeavors, needs, values, and in-terests. A social-religious orientation is usually a more favorable indica-tor of a true call than a political or power orientation. (3) Sexuality This area is considered critical for today's candidates who will com-mit themselves to a celibate life. Projective techniques (disguised tasks) are used in this case to assess the basic sexual orientation of the candi-date and impulse control. The leads provided by the test data are openly discussed with the candidate in view of verification of the findings and subsequent recommendations. Not all information gathered in the inter-view need to be reported; problems resolved earlier fall in this category. (4) Magisterium The candidates are also queried about their attitudes toward author-ity, toward the Church and her teachings, and toward the ministry or apos-tolate. Feedback The feedback interview can be used advantageously to cover impor-tant areas such as interpersonal relationships: at home, at school, and at work, and for the older candidates, relationship to the local church. The individual can be further interrogated relative to anger and hostility: what triggers his or her anger and how is it handled? Recommendations for the proper handling of st.tong emotions are usually in order. The area of sexuality is probed further: orientation, ~,ex education, if given (when, by whom), dating history, the applicant's understanding of celibacy/ chastity, and his or her readiness to make the commitment to a celibate life. The last area tapped in the interview pertains to "spiritual evolu-tion," or the applicant's personal spiritual journey. When was he or she first attracted to the Church, (rites, sacraments, music, service, and so 346 /Review for Religious, May-June 1990 forth) and how did that attraction grow (or lapse) in the course of his or her life? Conclusion It is obvious to whoever has read up to this point that the evaluation/ assessment of candidates is serious business and a time-consuming propo-sition. Is it not worth the effort for a lifetime of service to the Church? The full day of testing and the few hours needed for the feedback/ interview are little when one considers the benefits to be derived through a lifetime of dedicated service to others. It is a rewarding task tbr the examiner who is constantly confronted with the promptings of grace in the life of today's young people. NOTES ~ William F. Kraft, "'Psychiatrists, Psychologists and Religious." R~vw.w FOR RF.LIGIOUS, Vol. 37, (1978), pp. 161-170. 2 David F. O'Connor, "Appraising Candidates for Religious Life or Priesthood," Human Development IX (Fall. 1988), pp. 26-30. 3 Address of His Holiness Pope Plus XII, "On Psychotherapy and Religion," Fifth International Congress on Psychotherapy and Clinical Psychology (April 13, 1953). Converted i come into Your glorious presence Changed, Newly dressed In Your garments, Feeling strangely at home there. Delighted, excited, I am waiting . . . Longing once more For Your kiss of peace. Sister Columba Howard St. John of God Convent P.O. Box 14 SUBIACO 6008 Western Australia Wishes for a "Novice" Novice Director Melannie Svoboda, S.N.D. Sister Melannie Svoboda, S.N.D. is currently dividing her time between teaching and writing. She served as novice director for six years. Her address is Notre Dame Academy; Route One, Box 197; Middleburg. Virginia 22117. For six years I was novice director for my religious community. During those years, the number of novices I had was anywhere between nine and one. As I reflect back on my experience as novice director, especially now that I have a little distance from that ministry, I ask myself, "What advice would I give to a new novice director--to a novice novice direc-tor? What would I wish for him or her?" There are many things I could say, much I could wish for. But if I had to limit myself to five words of advice, five wishes, what would they be? My answer to that question is this article. Warning.t Self-knowledge. Beware.t And give thanks. In my second year as novice director, I made my annual retreat as usual. During my first one-on-one conference, the retreat director asked me what my min-istry was. When I told him I was novice director for over a year, he smiled and said, "Well, well! I bet you've come to a beck of a lot of self-knowledge this past year!" His words struck me. They encapsulated something I had been experiencing, but something I had not yet been able to name: formation ministry has a terrible and marvelous way of en-couraging growth in self-knowledge--and this growth is usually accom-panied by discomfort, confusion, or even pain. Prior to becoming novice director, I had been a successful teacher and free-lance writer. It was easy for me to begin to find a good meas-ure of security in my obvious successes in these two areas. Success has 347 348 / Review for Religious, May-June 1990 an insidious way of leading us into a kind of "spiritual coziness." My success tended to give me the illusion that, indeed, God is in his heaven, I am in my classroom or at my typewriter, and all is well in the world. Formation work, which was both new and challenging, had a way of nudg-ing me (sometimes even shoving me) out of my complacency. I noticed my prayer becoming less pharisaical: "I thank you, Lord, that I am so successful!" and more "publican-ish": "Lord, now what do I do? Help!" As disconcerting as this growth in self-knowledge was at times, I see it now as a very real blessing for me. There is another reason why formation work was such a challenge for me personally. Both teaching and writing have goals and objectives by which one can, to an extent, measure one's success. Are my students learning? Yes. Are editors accepting my articles? Yes. The'n I am doing something right. I am a success. But formation ministry does not have such clear-cut ways of measuring success. In fact, by some measures, I was quite unsuccessful as novice director. Were novices flocking to our novitiate now that I was director? No. In fact, the formation team and I were not even accepting all of the few that did apply. Once they came to our novitiate, did they stay'? No. Some stayed, but many left. And, worse yet, some of the ones that did leave, ! even encouraged to leave. Formation ministry forced me to redefine success. More than that, it caused me to question how much l needed success in order to minis-ter. The ministry of formation challenged me to devote time, energy, and creativity to a work that, for the most part, did not give me the steady encouragement of measurable results. It called forth new kinds of strengths in me--such as patience, trust, letting go, and greater depen-dence on others who could help me. I needed such qualities which might otherwise have remained undeveloped because of apparent outward suc-cess. Decisions, decisions! Shortly after receiving my appointment as nov-ice director, I met my own novice director in the lunch line at our pro-vincial house. She had been a novice director for more than twenty years. Now, confined mostly to a wheelchair, she continues to serve the com-munity in the mailroom and archives. When she saw me in the lunch line, she took me aside, wished me well, and then said, "Just remem-ber: as long as you believe your decisions are right before God, that's all you've got to worry about." In those few words, my novice director had gotten to the core of for-mation ministry: the making of decisions. For me, the crux of being nov-ice director (and I use the word "crux" intentionally) was having to Wishes for a Novice Director I 349 make a decision that affected the future of another human being. Of course, I knew that I was not totally responsible for deciding whether a woman should remain in our novitiate or leave. The novice herself played a paramount role in that decision. I also knew full well that I had other people I could and did consult for valuable advice and input. I also realized that the provincial and her council ultimately were responsible for this decision. But despite knowing these things in my head, I still felt in my heart that the decision whether a novice should stay or leave was essentially mine. For me there was nothing ever easy about making such a decision--one way or the other. And there certainly was nothing easy about being the one to tell a novice that she could not stay--especially if she was unable to understand why. As I told my provincial superior onc+ after the council had decided to let a candidate go, "You're not the one who has to look into her eyes and tell her. I do." For me personally, this was the greatest challenge as novice direc-tor: trying to make the right decision for each individual. It meant I also had to face the possibility that, despite my conscientiousness and my good will, I could, indeed, make the wrong decision about someone. I had to ask myself, "Do I trust God enough that ! can be at peace with every decision I make? Can I entrust even a possible wrong decision to his love and creativity?" I never fully appreciated what a burden this was for me until I no longer bore it. After | left formation work, I was given other big respon-sibilities- among them was being local superior of a rather large com-munity. But, so far, none of these new responsibilities quite compares with the responsibility I felt as novice director: having to make a deci-sion that profoundly affects the future life direction of another person and a religious community. At the risk of sounding pious, this is a burden we cannot bear alone. As my own novice director implied, we make our decisions before God. I add: we also make them with God. With hoops of steel. In Shakespeare's Hamlet, Polonius gives some beautiful advice to his son, Laertes, before he sets out on his own. His words of advice should be given to every new novice director: Those friends thou hast, and their adoption tried, Grapple them unto thy soul with hoops of steel. l, iii One of the greatest needs of a novice director is friends. Hopefully, most novice directors enter their ministry with a "generous supply" of good and loyal friends. But even if this is the case, a novice director soon 350/Review for Religious, May-June 1990 learns that the ministry of formation has some built-in obstacles to the retention of friends. First of all, as novice director, I was in a ministry all by myself. No one else in my community did exactly what I did. As a teacher and writer, I had enjoyed the camaraderie of other sisters in my community who were actively engaged in the same ministry. We swapped stories, shared ideas, and encouraged each other in our com-mon ministry. But when I became novice director, I suddenly had no one. There is another reason for the sense of aloneness that novice direc-tors sometimes feel. Much of our ministry involves things we cannot talk about or share with others. Even our schedule may prevent us from so-cializing with our friends. For example, as a teacher I looked forward to weekends when I had a little time to "unwind" with my sisters and friends. But as novice director, my weekends suddenly became my busi-est time. That was when 1 had classes with the novices, I tried to see them individually, and I "socialized" with them. These factors cannot be allowed to become excuses fo~" losing touch with our friends. But they are challenges for us to find new and creative ways to "grapple" our friends to our souls "with hoops of steel." Eventually, I did find considerable support from novice directors in other religious communities. Sometimes when we got together, we tended to "talk shop." We found ourselves talking only about problems in formation and expressing to each other worries and frustration. This has its place, of course, but we soon realized we needed each other not merely to "gripe with" but also to "play with." As a new novice di-rector, find ingenious ways to hang on to your old friends, and be ready and eager to make new ones. The wideness of the sea. One of my favorite old hymns says this: "There's a wideness in God's mercy like the wideness of the sea." I think we could paraphrase those words and say. "There should be a wideness in a novice director's life like the wideness of the sea." A nov-ice director could be tempted to live in a very narrow world--a world no larger than his or her novitiate. Do not succumb to this temptation. It is important for a novice director to receive some professional prepa-ration for the ministry of formation. Yes. It is also vital for him or her to keep abreast of developments in the field of formation. Definitely. But we novice directors must not limit our input solely to formation. My ad-vice is to widen your world. Get involved with other groups of people, with issues besides formation and religious life. As novice director, for example, I taught a course in pastoral ministry at our college almost Wishes for a Novice Director / 351 every semester. The course met once a week in the evenings. Teaching that course was extremely healthy and beneficial for me. When I was not teaching a course, I was often taking a course. Some of these courses had nothing to do directly with formation. I also continued to write arti-cles for publication--the vast majority of them riot on formation. I know other novice directors who widened their world by being life guards at swimming pools, music ministers in parishes, volunteers in soup kitch-ens, or teachers in seminaries. As directors, we need ample time for a ministry of formation, true. Bui we also need time to extend our bounda-ries beyond the walls of the novitiate and our religious community. Let them love you. So far I have said nothing specifically about the novices themselves. As novice director, you must love your novices. Sometimes your love will take the form of gentleness and kindness. Other times it will assume the shape of firmness or even apparent hard-ness. Whatever form it takes, love is essential. This goes without say-ing. But there is a flip side to this fact that gets too little attention: allow your novices to love you. Be open to their love. More than that, encour-age it, welcome it. As directors we can become overly conscious of our role as director, as formator. We can shield ourselves from the give-and-take of relationships by setting strick boundaries with our novices. I am director, you are directee. I form you. I love you. Formation becomes a one-way street. When we do this, we are forgetting this great truth about formation: while we are helping to form our novices, they are also helping to form us. If we allow them. My novices helped form me in many ways--sometimes gently, other times almost roughly. They formed me by their honesty and humility-- especially in the one-on-one sessions I had regularly with each one. I was always amazed at how the novices were, for the most part, incredibly honest with themselves. By their honesty, they encouraged me to be more honest with them. During my six years, I found myself trusting the novices more and more. I had always basically trusted other people, I believe, but my six years as novice director only encouraged this atti-tude. The novices ministered to me at times in my need. One time a friend of mine in the community was dying of cancer. I left her infirmary room one night on the verge of tears. Shortly afterwards I ran into one of my novices in the hall. My initial reaction was to put on a cheerful front and hide my tears from her. After all, I was her director. In fact, I was the one who had dried the tears of this particular novice on more than one 359 / Review for Religious, Mav-Jttne 1990 occasion. But when I saw the concerned expression on her face, I was unable to hold back my tears. I cried, "Nadine's dying." Without a word, she took me in her arms and held me for a few minutes, comfort-ing me. In one way, it was a reversal of roles, but I still treasure the mem-ory of that moment when I allowed the novice to minister to me. Sometimes novices will love us in "tougher" ways--challenging our judgments, questioning our decisions, asking us to explain something we would just as soon leave unexplained. As novice directors, we must be open to that kind of love, too. My father, now retired, spends much time growing things on my par-ents' three-and-one-half acre plot of land. He grows apple trees, exotic grapes, peach trees, English walnut trees, and'the like. He once told me, "I get a kick out of figuring out how to help things grow." I would hope that every new novice director could say something similar: "I get a kick out of figuring out how to help people grow." My final wish for the "novice" novice director is this: May you figure out (often through trial and error--plus the help of God's grace) how to help (not "make" or "'force") people grow. And, in the process of your helping, may you yourself grow in faith, hope, love, and much joy! Retreat at Glenstal Abbey I have no preacher here but only quiet trees that pray one solemn silent so-be-it frown cell, from sap, from sinewed standing stem frown bough and branch from twig and sprig all said all summed in this brief silent now. The Master called and with the stars each answered to the limit of every limned lettered lace-like latticed leaf: "Here 1 am." Cothrai Gogan, c.s.sp. Naraiga Catholic Church Box 220 Limuru Kenya, Africa The Associate Movement in Religious Life Rose Marie Jasinski, C.B.S., and Peter C. Foley Sister Rose Marie Jasinski. C.B.S. is currently director of the associate community for the Sisters of Bon Secours and president of Bon Secours St. Joseph Hospital and Nursing Care Center in Port Charlotte, Florida. Peter C. Foley is presently working as a free-lance consultant and facilitator for religious congregations, dioceses, and parishes. Correspondence should be addressed to Associate Membership Office: Sis-ters of Bon Secours: 1525 Marrionsville Road: Marriottsville, Maryland 21104. The task of the imagination, specifically the religious imagination, has been described as naming, even "composing," the real. Another way of saying this is that the religious imagination unveils where God is at work among us. Stories of God at work, and of the unfolding of a real-ity whose scope and power have not yet been imagined were told in May 1989 at the Bon Secours Spiritual Center in Marriottsville, Maryland where more than 100 Directors of Religious Associate Memberships, and associates too, gathered to share the histories of their associate move-ment. It was the first such gathering of lay people and religious designed .just to explore how spiritualities or charisms of the Church, previously identified with particular religious congregations, were being assimilated by groups of lay people who claim the identity, history, and traditions of a particular spirituality as their own. The reality that emerged is that the traditional spiritualities are alive and well, even flourishing, but in ways we had not imagined. Most congregations reported more applicants to the associate program than to the congregation, and some associate members outnumbered the sisters themselves. But even more striking than the rapid growth of associate memberships was the intensity of the 353 Review for Religious, May-June 1990 commitment brought to them. These were not casual or sentimental re-lationships- it was clear that there was great personal significance in be-longing to an evolving spiritual community. This powerful movement has been quietly erupting within the Church for the last ten to fifteen years. Among the groups gathered to-gether in May we discovered associate members of women, men, sin-gle, married, of various professions, of differing faiths and even a few clergy and religious of other congregations. Associate membership tends to look and act differently within individual religious communities. The basic ingredient, however, is a strong emphasis on forming bonds be-tween laity and religious around a specific charism and mission; attempt-ing to live out that spirit and charism in one's particular lay lifestyle be-comes a significant piece of the "bonding" together. An area of richness that was shared by the groups in May was the expressed felt need and desire to journey together toward deeper spiri-tual growth. The word "together" here is significant and seems to be gaining in popularity. While indeed there still lingers the sentiment that "sister is better at this than I am" we discovered also that the notion that "the same Spirit moves among all of us" is gaining ground as well. Of course, this growing sense and desire for "bonding" also tends to blur the distinctions between laity and religious which is a challenge for some and a gift for many. Developing a sense of community was an important and, at times, a primary reason for approaching associate membership. For some it is the lack of community experienced in the local parish setting; for others it is the desire to deepen their prayer life that initiated the attraction. This sense of community and "bonding" that begin to take shape between the lay and religious members is encouraged and strengthened through regular times of coming together to share prayer, ritual, reflections, Eucharist, and other social feastings. Along with these activities the de-sire to have a "significant" role within the religious community is also exerting its influence among laity and religious. Participating in commu-nity decision-making, committee functions, chapter meetings and the like were not an uncommon topic at our May meetings. The area of service or ministry had a broad range of response among the groups. For some it was an integral part of the associates" role; for others it almost appeared as a distraction from the original intent of spiri-tual development; and still others seem to be on a progressive path of moving through spiritual development outward to "mission.'" This brings us to the progression of "gerierations" that is becom- The Associate Movement / 355 ing evident to those people who have been around this movement ['or a period of time. A pattern appears to be evolving within the associate move-ment. The first generation seemed to be people who wanted to be "filled up" spiritually plus a few who just could not say "no" to sister in those communities where the religious extended the invitation to join. In this generation the religious were looked to for the leadership. The second generation seemed to move more deeply into spiritual development in that the laity and religious have journeyed that path together as equals. The third generation emerges as associates become active in, or are in-vited into, various ways of participating in community life itself. Spiri-tuality as well as leadership is shared. A fourth generation seems to be spiritually motivated and supported by a faith community to go out in mission to share the charism. Throughout this progression of generations has remained a growing, though sometimes ambiguous, sense of commitment--ambiguous in that it is not always clear if the commitment is to the congregation, to the lo-cal community, to the associate community, or to individual sisters. And growing in that there are those rich experiences when associate members feel they have no choice but to live the charism--they have become so imbued it is as though "the charism has me!'" It seems most desirable for each group to grow in its own understand-ing and expression of, and comfort with, the focus of its commitment. While all groups expressed uncertainty about the long-term embodi-ment of their spirituality, they were equally comfortable with a sense of journeying together, accompanying ehch other in a life of prayer, shar-ing, and service. This was the area of greatest commonality among the participants. Otherwise their differences were so great that many of our assumptions about the associate movement were exposed and dispelled. Our first assumption was that a healthy associate program needed to be closely knit to the sponsoring congregation, starting with a strong for-mation program (conducted by the sisters), ongoing liaison with or lead-ership from the sisters, and some degree of monitoring of prescribed norms of behavior. Not so. Although many of these chara~:teristics were present in most programs, there were some that were not even started by the sisters, much less "managed" by them. A "healthy" and vigorous program depended more on the quality of the relationship between indi-vidual lay person and sister (living or dead) than on the sophistication of its organization and structures. The spirit or charism of the congrega-tion was passed on most effectively, it seemed, from person to person. In one group, the "formation" program consisted primarily of one-to- Review for Religious, May-June 1990 one storytelling on the part of the retired sisters with the prospective as-sociate. Another had an adoption structure, in which the associate and sister became family with each other. Another assumption was that there were sisters, on the one hand, and associates on the other. But for some, the associate membership con-sisted of lay people and those sisters who chose to join it including, in-terestingly, sisters from other congregations. These groups, obviously, had no trouble "getting sisters involved"--one of the more common problems expressed. The sisters were free to commit themselves to this other expression of their charism, or not. Another surprise was the range of expectations or requirements for associates to "keep up their membership." Many groups had calendars of annual events that included monthly meetings, annual retreats, "home-coming weekends" with all the sisters at the motherhouse, and some even offering weekly prayer meetings. But it was clear, due to geo-graphical movement of both sisters and associates, that the real and ef-fective criterion of memberships for some groups was the intention and commitment of the individual associate. In a movement like this there is a lot of giving and receiving. Who is giving? Who is receiving'? The obvious answer is that the congrega-tion is extending itself to others, including them, giving them something that they could not have by themselves. The opposite seems to charac-terize many of the groups reporting. The more the sisters listened to what was going on in the desires, dreams, and active faith life of their friends and dedicated collaborators, the more they received. Their own appre-ciation of their congregational charism and history was renewed and en-livened. Many sisters reported "receiving their charism back" from their lay associates. And, on a more pragmatic vein, the more the con-gregation included its associates in governance and community struc-tures, the greater the commitment of time and energy of the associates to the religious group. Finally, we had assumed, of course, that we were talking about per-sons of the Christian faith when we were discussing associates. Not so. A number of congregations reported including not only non-Catholic Christians in their associate programs, but also non-Christian persons. How could this be? We did not ask. If we had had the time, we would have asked three other questions: -What human behaviors facilitate the "passing on" of a charism from person or group to another'? -This seems to be more a women's movement than one The Associate Movement / ;357 commonly or equally shared by men and women. If so, how does it relate to the larger feminist or women's move-ment? And, also, how is it related to earlier women's movements in the history of the Church? -Are congregations that have a vital and active associate membership capable of having an equally vital and ac-tive group of "lay volunteers"? We ended the May meetings with no conclusions other than it was very good to get together and share what is happening; that some groups would initiate regional networks: and that we should all meet again in two years to hear the continuing story of the associate membership move-ment. As participants and observers we rejoice and hope to see the continu-ing openness to the Spirit-filled variety of associate memberships in the Church. A variety that may lead us to a fifth generation of associate mem-bers and "religious" sharing community: living together in a variety of many different ways, providing a variety of different services, praying in a variety of different styles--all through the power of one Spirit-- one baptism. Sunrise When the earth tipped its rim this morning, letting the sun in, filling itself with color and.light, You handed it to me; putting my mouth to the other side, I drank the dawn wind, the morning sun rising, dripping with glory. Then handing the cup back to You, I wiped the drops from my mouth, touching my lips again with Your light: Satiated with splendor, so glad of Your love. Sister Columba Howard St. John of God Convent P.O. Box 14 SUBIACO 6008 Western Australia Images For The Future Of Religious Life Thomas F. McKenna, C.M. Father Thomas McKenna, C.M., is an assistant professor in the theology department at St. John's University in New York. He has also served as novice director for the Eastern Province of the Vincentians. His address is Vincentian House: 101-25 104th Street: Ozone Park, New York 11416. One of the signatures of any age is the time-dimension to which it is drawn. At a given period, a culture is fascinated by past, present, or what is to come. For a number of interwoven reasons, religious life in this pres-ent age is taken with the future. The harder times it has fallen upon in filling up its thinning ranks and the upsetting wonder about what forms will take it into the next. century raise questions which only forward-looking answers will give. Add to this the growing appreciation that the origins and, therefore, the identity of religious life lie in visions precisely about what could be, and the reasons for concern about that future be-come all the more apparent. Often enough, these worries and hopes find expression in a search for what is termed "The New Image.'" That taken-for-granted inner land-scape which grounded the operations of a congregation for generations is less and less able to hold the center. Members realize that some new image is required, a different "root metaphor"~ which once in place will again provide that clear prism through which the apostolates, govern-ance, prayer styles, and, indeed, the very self-concept of the order can be freshly perceived. In his book on the meaning of history,2 Theodore White describes the precariousness of trying to peer into the future from the only van-tage point available, the present. He invites the reader into a small boat 358 Images of Religious Life / 359 bobbing up and down on the swells of the mid-Pacific, thousands of miles from any coast. Inside, the waves lifting and lowering the boat feel much the same, but in fact they are not all alike. Some are only surface ripples blown up for a few hundred yards or even miles. Others are surges left from mid-ocean storms out still farther over the horizon. They, too, will smooth out and die. But others still are the tips of deep running transoceanic currents. They were born in the river canyons of continents two thousand miles to the east and will crest on the shores of another coast four thousand miles westward. The historian is the person who thinks himself able to read which of the waves are shallow and so eventually will fade, and which reach to the floor of the sea and so will roll on into the future. While the bases for his judgments are not the kind which can serve up airtight predictions, they are rooted eno'ugh in pres-ent conditions to get him beyond clairvoyance. His knowledge of the cur-rents and tides enables him to give some backing for claims about what will continue beyond the horizon. This article intends to feel for some of those currents. While there are any number of root images which might be the synthesizing meta-phors on which religious life will be carried into the future, there are some which because of their ancient lineage in the religious movement on the one side and their attunedness to present society on the other show promise beyond mere guesswork--though, to be honest, not perhaps be-yond wishful thinking! The metaphors to follow can stand by themselves, but are more use-ful when anchored in the first. Connecting them sequentially allows for a certain priority but also for enough interaction that each can be a cor-rective for the others. The Religious Infiltrators of the Culture The scenario here is one body of people led forward by a common vision who insert themselves into the dead spots, so to speak, of the world of another group. They attempt to work their variant view into the places in the dominant culture which are spiritually empty and hunger-ing for freedom and new meaning. The sportscaster's phrase "in the seams" catches the idea. In a zone defense, players are assigned to cover certain sectors of the field or rink. The weakest points are along the bor-ders of zones because that is where confusions and even collisions be-tween the defenders are most likely to occur. The pass or shot is aimed "in the seams" between the zones; it is put "in the crease" at the edges of the coverage where the system most often breaks down. This analogy places religious among those believers who carry the 3BO / Review for Religious, May-June 1990 cause of Mystery to those border areas in a culture. Into those margins where the prevailing world view has lost its depth or has failed in nerve, religious bring the riches, appropriately enough, of religion. They are the outriders of the culture, the hikers along the margin where moder-nity has unraveled and is dealing death rather than life. The orders are among the entrepreneurs of the Mystery in a resistive society. This last figure brings out the assertive and perhaps even aggressive side of the image. Not intimidated by the muscular idols of the culture, religious purposefully seek out opportunities for evangelization and join with other groups who struggle to inculturate kindred values. They are convinced of the profundity of what they carry and so actively search out the soft spots in a society for chances to penetrate. Opportunistically, they move into the seams. In the description of the mid-ocean sailor, we spoke of the need to justify the use of a particular image. Why does this metaphor show more promise than another'? In this case, what signs of the times recommend the infiltrator over competitors'? Both negative and positive warrants come to mind. The negatives cluster around a foreboding sense of the spiritual bank-ruptcy of certain sectors in the modern world. By modern we connote here modernity, that whole ethos born in the Enlightenment and bred in the industrialized West whose place in history is slipping off its assumed highest perch to a level of one era among others, but one, indeed, whose effects are threatening to annihilate the gains of all the rest. Interestingly, this critique is being mounted by commentators who truly admire many of the accomplishments of the modern era such as freedom, communi-cation, labor saving devices, democracy, and so forth. They counsel not so much a nativist return to some pre-technological world, but rather a move beyond technology. To that end, they make the case that within the soil of the very blessings modernity bestows are sprouting the mostly unnoticed seeds of its own destruction. The most noxious plants on the American scene are being fed by the system of total capitalism. When left unchecked, they poison the very kind of moral character needed to sustain the democratic society in which capitalism flourishes. Among the more widely known critics are Robert Bellah and his as-sociates3 who have detailed the ways in which individualism threatens to remove its communal counterbalance, republicanism, from the ethi-cal arena in American life. A flattened self, the person as a "bag of needs" disconnected from other subjects and unable to collaborate from motives beyond self-gratification is the narcissistic prospect. Barbara Hat- Images of Religious Life / 36"1 grove's depiction of the "New Class" analyzes the ways which the spe-cializing and rationalistic tendencies of the baby boomer culture can shut down its own best possibilities.'~ In a more popular vein are the addresses of Franciscan preacher, Richard Rohr, who of late has been announcing "the death of the liberal agenda."-s An inability to cooperate with any-one besides an elite few, an idolization of personal feelings, and a per-fectionistic search for the fullest experience and/or the flawless process are some of the disturbing undersides he fears now beginning to surface. A more philosophical warning is being sounded by a group known as the Post-Modernists. Taking negative expression in its Deconstruction-ist variety,6 the critique is more optimistically stated by a group who call themselves, fittingly so, the Constructionists.7 Affirming the benefits of modernity, they also desire to move beyond its pitfalls and so join the assault on individualism. Their particular contribution is not only to have analyzed further its pedigree and progeny, but to have proposed means by which it can be overcome. There is an anthropomorphism in the culture, they contend, which immoderately subordinates the whole of creation to its human part. The attitude denies any "inwardness" to what is not human, thereby remov-ing nature's intrinsic value and laying it open to the worst kinds of ex-ploitation. The social counterparts of this dominative style are the patri-archal rules in society, assumptions which prevailed in all ages but get honed to their sharpest edge by the competitive, rationalistic, and ef-ficiency myths of the present.8 Powering everything are the twin dynamos of economism and con-sumerism. The blanket moral pardon granted the so-called side effects of the free market (steered by its invisible hand of self-interest) is ex-tended to all sectors of life. Social, aesthetic, moral, and religious issues are approached as if their ultimate bearings were also supply and de-mand. The pressures to define self by possessions, to regard the public good solely as economic wealth, and to eliminate concern even for one's posterity are some of the more chilling prospects when the profit princi-ple is transmuted into the universal moral touchstone. Such a world, in a Constructionist phrase, has lost its enchantment.9 Emptied of mystery and dulled to the wisdom of the best of its myths, it can no longer re-spond to the deeper hopes and so begins to feed on itself. Modernity's prospects: a superficial and morally spinning world set on a disastrous course that of itself modernity is powerless to change. If the infiltrator metaphor stayed only with condemnations, its indict-ments could have the ring of a culture-bashing fundamentalism which 369 / Review for Religious. May-June 1990 railed against the society but did not involve itself in it. Happily, these critiques are simultaneously stirring up a kind of religious revival or at least the beginnings of one. ~0 In the so-called secular disciplines for in-stance, there is a growing movement to sacralize the world. Proponents in the natural sciences for one, awed not only by the indeterminacy of things but also by their interconnectedness, are proclaiming a newly dis-covered mystery in creation. Various schools of psychology for another are reclaiming a spiritual base. Educational circles are feeling a surpris-ing pressure for more theology and religion courses at secular universi-ties. ~ These and other indications mark a widening search for values which are rooted in something other than the economic. This quest has a prag-matic ring to it inasmuch as the conviction is spreading that religiously grounded foundations are the only ones on which lasting social change can be built. Interestingly, the revival appears to have gathered greatest momentum among Roman Catholics. A 1987 Gallup poll names them as the denomination which feels most able to provide religious leadership in American society because of both the wide backing they accord their bishops' social teachings and because of the stronger communal bonds they enjoy. ~- In sum, there is on a number of fronts a growing unease about the spiritual vacuum in the culture together with initial signs of an initiative to fill it. Motivation for the renewal is not the self-righteous and con-demning sort, but comes from culturally sympathetic people who at the same time sense the dissonance between their own religious experience and the hollowness in key sectors of modernity. This analysis was done to indicate possible points at which religion could be inserted into the culture. Such intersections hold invitations for religious to join with other subgroups in society~3 in witnessing to firmer grounds of meaning. Carrying in their traditions such wisdom as the in-terrelationship between humans and the rest of creation, the universal dis-persion of spiritual energy, the immanence of the divine feminine, and the riches which cannot be packaged as a commodity and which flow out of the acts of loving and hoping, members of orders do not come empty-handed to those vulnerable seams. Nor do they come alone. The infil-trator is meant to work alongside of other servants of Mystery who are soon discovered to be, in Thomas Merton's phrase, "the monks' natu-ral allies in the world.''~4 If this line of thought sounds familiar to the religious reader, it is likely because something of the sacred time of his or her beginnings is hnages of Religious Life / 36:3 evoked. All founding persons were in effect entrepreneurs of religion in a culture. The desert journeys of the monks as response to the dying and brutal fourth-century society, the ingenuity of the mendicants in evan-gelizing a world of new city-states, the missionary fervor of the congre-gations of the seventeenth century reaching across from the Old World to the New--all these were tides taken at the ebb to penetrate a weak-ened and changing society. The crisis of meaning in American culture today and some initial responses to it present new windows of opportu-nity for would-be refounders. What special qualities are required of these so-called otitriders of re-ligion? In an essay on the future of spirituality, ~5 Karl Rahner addressed the situation of believers living in a time of sociological diminishment. Their faith must be sustained by what he termed "a solitary, immediate experience of God." They are to be new types of mystics whose con-viction does not come from any place other than the hearts of their own existence. Infiltrators are, therefore, marked in the first place by a per-sonal experience of God. Their second trait might be called culture-friendliness. Refounding persons exhibit that certain feel for the divine possibilities in society, that willingness to mix it up with the shapers of meaning in the wider world. While they are not uncritical of the age, their more basic desire is to engage it in order to move quickly into the spiritual openings it presents. But infiltrators also have blind spots. A common one is to so con-centrate on the strategy and practicalities of insertion into a culture that they lose sight of the sources of the salvation they bring it. Two further images, each able to stand on its own, speak more pointedly to ways of listening for the Word which religious carry to the world they would serve. The Navigator A type of spiritual sensibility long associated with the religious move-ment is at the core of this metaphor. To arrive at it, we add to Theodore White's image of the boat bobbing in the mid-Pacific the lore surround-ing certain revered individuals in Polynesian culture known as Naviga-tors. Now gone, these adventurers were the last repositories in their so: ciety of the secrets of open ocean sailing. Without modern navigational instruments, they could make landfall on a tiny dot of coral thousands of miles across the seemingly trackless Pacific. Anthropologists found their basic talent to be an ability to read the movements of the waves. Through a long and spiritually intense initiation, they learned to tell the crucial difference between the surface disturbances and the ocean- 364 I Review Jbr Religious, May-June 1990 spanning bottom currents which led in definite directions, changed head-ings with the seasons, and were deflected as they ran past the archipela-goes that speckled the Southern Seas. From their minuscule platform on the raft, they could judge which of the great ocean waves to follow and which to let roll past. In terms we will use, these were the special ones who could read in the present which movements had the long-range prom-ise and which would not reach the far shore of the future. Joseph Campbell speaks of an analogous phenomenon in other primi-tive societies which today might come under the title recruitment. While undergoing the long initiation to adulthood, one of the adolescents suf-fers a kind of nervous breakdown. He seems to take things too seriously. He does not see reality the way his peers do and is not in step with their pace and general rhythms. Observing this, the elders remove him from the group--and make him their religious leader! Their intuition, says Campbell, is that the youngster is picking up the contours of another world. He is reading signals from a different depth and perceiving a pic-ture of the way the tribe could be when at its very best. In the language of the previous example, this person becomes the tribal navigator, not just in sailing but in all things, because he can discern directions com-ing 'back from the future,' directions which the rest of the clan recog-nizes as valuable and even salvific. In this metaphor, religious are among those special ones with sensi-tivity for what of God's future is just over the horizon. Intuiting the source and goal of the divine good working in the world, their faith vi-sion focuses more on the da~vning of God's presence than on its fruition in the present. To paraphrase Karl Rahner, they are among the first to catch the glimmer of the morning light on the far mountain which will eventually turn into the brilliance of day. ~6 Following him again, these are the eschatologically inciined believers whose intimations of God's grace which comes from beyond the world creates the saving tension with those disciples whose more incarnationa[ faith celebrates the pres-ence of that grace already come. ~v Two signs of the times which in an obverse way recommend the Navi-gator are the sleek idol-making machines of secularism and materialism. To those driven by them, all observable ~:eality is explainable in terms of itself, and things (including persons perceived as things) hold the high ground of ultimacy. To counteract this massive message, there is great need for the relativizer, the individual who cherishes the good of this world but who also spots its incompleteness and inability to save. These are the ones who catch the presence of the world-to-come in the midst hnages of Religious Life / 365 of the world-that-is-here and so can accept the graciousness of the pres-ent while rejecting its different pretensions to absoluteness. Groups who can "name grace''~8 because they know the difference between groundings which are ultimate and penultimate help save a world which too indiscriminately mixes the two. And indeed, has it not always been one of the liberating functions of religion to lead people into places where, in one writer's imagery, "they can transcend the mazeways they have known to glimpse new visions of what may be"?~9 If this metaphor again seems an old friend, it is because it carries strains of both a classic description of religious communities and of a strong trait in the spiritual experience of their founders. Magisterial docu-ments depict religious orders as witnesses to the world-to-come, as fore-tastes of the kingdom's fullness, and as apostles of the transcendent.2° The innovative apostolic strategies of founding women and men sprang from their ability to see the world which hemmed in their contemporar-ies against the backdrop of the better one illuminated by the light of the coming kingdom. The ancestry of religious life is heavily eschatologi-cal. Witness to that faith-dimension is needed in every age but for the reasons discussed above crucially so in this one. The community which images itself as Navigator values discern-ment. As a group it not only spots the religious possibilities and then im-plements them, but lays explicit hold of the power and source of its vi-sion. It is a mobile group, able to roam free, and has a lower than usual need for the security and predictability of set roles. Its critique of the status quo will disturb those less attuned to the future and it will line up more quickly with other visionaries in the world and Church. For all its sensitivity, such a community also has its limits. Naviga-tors can so focus on the land over the horizon that they miss some of the places they travel through in the present. Eschatological types have their eyes on the better world ahead and tend to be impatient with the slow birthing process needed to bring that world to light of day. In the lan-guage of psychology, they can be perfectionistic, enamored of the ideal, and intolerant of development toward it. In theological talk, they are tempted to angelism, imagining they can detour around the process of history instead of laboriously going through it.2~ Often enough, naviga-tors need to be brought back down to the agitated ocean surface and re-learn the wisdom of the journey itself. Enter the next image, a specialist in the art of journeying. The Lean and Light Remnant The title draws the scene for this third metaphor. It is the Israelite 366/Review for Religious, May-June 1990 people on a long and ragged trek across the desert. Their march this time is not toward the new Promised Land but toward their old one, having just been released from their captivity in Babylon and now heading back to rebuild a ruined Jerusalem. They have little to carry because recent slaves do not amass many possessions. They rely on no social standing other than the dubious kind of the refugee. Most telling, because so many of their kin fell off the trail on the way to Babylon or chose to remain behind there, their numbers are hardly the kind to pose a threat to world order. For all that, they are grateful for their station because they have learned from their experience and their prophets that dispossession and pilgrimage have a way of opening hearts to Yahweh. They are the Remnant. Not lamenting their losses nor ashamed of their smallness, they are in some measure even glad for them because these deprivations have proved to be better teachers about what counts before their God than the power they wielded generations ago. These travelers have no preten-sions of overwhelming their world with multitudes or even talent. What they have to offer is what they are constan,tly aware of receiving, the di-vine mercy and sustenance. At best, they see themselves as catalysts, tiny enzymes in a large mass, invisible and unobtrusive. They are satis-fied on the circumference of society because their ordeal has convinced them that circumferences can often enough in God's eyes be near the cen-ter. The fit between Remnant and the orders of the 1990s is the obvious demographic one of diminishment. Not just on the way, smallness is al-ready here. To begin to extol the benefits of shrinkage at such a time could be written off as a kind but unreal attempt to console the dying, a thought which most likely occurred to Babylon-bound Israelites as they heard the same sentiment from their preachers. But to at least some of them, the truth of the claim proved itself over time. That proof is being given again today in a number of testimonies to the spiritual good which can come of vulnerability and powerlessness. One especially forceful witness is given by the liberationists who in their own pragmatic way have unearthed the riches at the margins. The poor evangelize the wealthy, the no-accounts unlock the Gospel's mean-ing for people of consequence, the small, ordinary, and forgotten ones are revealed as standing at the hub of the kingdom's activity. The very meaning of insignificant is transposed. Another more quiet testimony comes from Jean Vanier and his years of living with the handicapped.22 These sociologically most invisible of Images of Religious Life / :367 people have their own ways of making very visible the presence of grace in creation. The precariousness of their existence and their survival-need for the compassion of others lays bare the essence of how it is be-tween God and all of humanity. Such little people, when cared for and allowed to progress on their own terms, turn out to be large gifts to the caretakers. Gospels such as these are advancing the claim that diaspora time is the spiritually best time. Facing the onset of their own smallness, reli-gious communities could do worse than take to heart this winter spiritual-ity. In its bleakness they might come to see another kind of beauty and in its silence a call to a more anonymous style of influencing the world around them. Is this not the climate in which most all orders and con-gregations began? In the desert where smallness reveals itself as bless-ing by keeping the group real, minority status does not allow social and numerical superiority to figure in its estimation of success. Pilgrim com-munities of the coming decades will have both grieved the loss of high visibility and learned better to rely on their own inner experience as sus-tainer and guidepost. Like the tiny band of emigres approaching the out-skirts of Jerusalem, they will recognize their smallness as the lean and light condition which best suits them for the task of building their old/ new city. Scripture experts tell us that when the exiles entered the settlement, they found others already there, both their own who had been left be-hind as well as others who over the decades had wandered in. To move to our final metaphor, we add the following piece of imagination. Because the project of reconstructing the Temple and city would re-quire more arms than these pilgrims could supply, they realized they needed the help of the resident aliens. But the Jews also noted that these foreigners possessed building skills different from their own which might add much beauty to the final product. The New Jerusalem could better be built collaboratively. The last image is at hand. The Square Dance The picture here is of a swirling group, moving to the rhythm of the same tune and the shouts of the one caller. The dancers begin as a single couple, then join larger and still larger circles, change to other partners along the way, then come back to the original two--and repeat the cycle again and again. While at the beginning the steps and switches are a bit ragged and the caller's instructions hard to understand, the promenaders do not drop out because the energy spreading across the floor has caught them. They know best the partners they came with, but they also know 368 / Review for Religious, May-June 1990 how much more dance there is when they can join hands with other cir-cles and be part of the bigger whirl in the room. They trade some of the freedom of couple-dancing for the chance to be part of something larger to which they now know they can contribute. The dance metaphor speaks of new ways for the religious communi-ties to be together, both with themselves and with others. Beginning within the circles of their own congregations, they move out to other prov-inces and communities, to laity, to their natural families, couples, friends outside their order, co-workers, to other Infiltrators, Navigators and Remnants both Christian and non. The image encourages them to listen for the rhythm which matches the cadence of their own religious experi-ence no matter where in society it is sounding. With a graciousness, they let go the hands of the community partners with whom they began so that these too are free to step off into the bigger enterprise. But they are also happy to welcome them back when the time for regrouping comes round again. Each member of the congregation sacrifices some independence, convinced that the overall cause is worth the initial unsettlement and risk. The sign of the times for Square Dance is quite simply its present existence. Many congregations have already moved the borders on their maps of inclusion. Associates, service corps, laymission extensions, in-terprovincial apostolates, joint ventures by men's and women's branches of the same order all testify to the shifting sense of what it means to be-long. If the initial enthusiasm for widening circles produced some overly fluid boundaries, it did enlarge perceptions of membership. This stretch-ing permitted groups to recognize certain natural allies outside their walls who were in effect anonymous carriers of the community charism. A more recent attempt to strike a better balance between centrifugal and cen-tripetal forces has sought to tie tighter but still flexible bonds between the members. One fine instance is the recent essay by George Wilson which tracks the sharp change in attitudes of Jesuits about inclusion.-~3 The image of a single closed circle embracing all the spiritual, profes-sional, familial, apostolic, and even recreational aspects of communal life has largely been supplanted by another of many smaller circles, some not connected to each other and most tellingly not to the Jesuit one. Be-longing no longer means fitting everything inside the one ring of total community but rather negotiating between the different circles (for ex-ample, professional societies, local living group, non-Society friends both male and female, the world Jesuit fellowship, and so forth), espe-cially between those of one's primary and secondary commitments. hnages of Religious Life / 369 Useful as it is on the intra-community level, a Square Dance model also serves the wider society, Any truly collaborative venture on behalf of issues other than the group's self-preservation is a prophetic word to a culture so tilted away from the ability to cooperate by the weight of individualism. And could it not also be that arguments within religious communities themselves against widening the circle (phrased at times as the loss of needed autonomy or dilution of our special spirit) are partially an echo of the privatist bias in the wider society? Whatever the case, the move to collaborate for reasons beyond self-interest is not only evangeli-cally countercultural, but hearkens back to that surrender to something greater which gave rise to the religious movement in the first place. People of the Square Dance have a mind for the communal. The op-posite of in-house types who require the safety of same-sex, walled-off environments, they still maintain primary loyalties to their own, Their toleration for fluidity in boundaries is high. They have opted to learn ne-gotiation between different memberships rather than to close ranks around the one. This insight that collaborative communities are in a position to infil-trate the individualistic culture completes the circle. The Square Danc-ers widen the Remnant's sphere of influence. Both look to the Naviga-tors for the source and direction of their projects. And all three join in the Infiltrator's attempt to bring the depth of the kingdom to the shallow places of the world. It is time to conclude. Conclusion Nearly twenty years ago when reflecting on the spirituality of the fu-ture, Karl Rahner predicted that whatever forms it takes, it "will remain the old spirituality of the Church's history."24 He meant that even though the relationship between the different parts of Christian existence will shift, its essential elements (for example, adoring the incomprehensible God, following the suffering and triumphant Lord, protesting the world's forms of wealth, power, and pleasure, living within the Church, and so forth) will remain. In a somewhat reverse way, the same holds true for the different images of religious life with which we have been playing. These paradigms do not submerge those components which the recent Vatican document termed "Essential Elements,''25 but they do recon-figure them. Communal living, for instance, is linked to mission in a much different way in a Square Dance framework than it had been in more tightly inclusive forms of the Augustinian one-heart-and-one-spirit tradition. It is precisely that repatterning which makes all the dif-ference. For it allows religious the suppleness not only to set new courses 370 / Review for Religious, May-June 1990 by the waves of the future moving past them, but also to take conscious advantage of the momentum those waves contain. To return to Rahner, religious life will and will not remain the same. Its refounders are those people who through freshly imaging its possibilities will keep the reli-gious movement intact and at the same time reshape it into its most us-able form for the coming age. The overall interplay between the images seems an apt point on which to conclude. The Remnant calls the Infiltrator to remember the hum-ble conditions under which the message is given; the Infiltrator in turn cautions the Remnant against enshrining smallness as a value unto itself. The Navigator supplies the direction for the Infiltrator; the Infiltrator pow-ers the boat which the Navigator might be content only to steer. All three are vitalized by community living, but now expanded into its Square Dance form. Our attempt has been to suggest culturally relevant paradigms which might anchor 'newly emerging syntheses for religious life. If these par-ticular ones do not speak to individuals or communities, they might at least trigger the power of other imaginations to discover even deeper ly-ing metaphors which can again hold the center for this ancient and ever new blessing in the Church. NOTES ~ Thomas Clark, "Religious Leadership in a Time of Cultural Change," Religious Life at the Crossroads, David Fleming, ed. (New York: Paulist Press, 1985), p. 169. 2 In Search of History (New.York: Harper and Row, 1978). 3 Habits of the Heart (New York: Harper and Row, 1985). 4 The Emerging New Class (New York: The Pilgrim Press, 1986). 5 "Religious Life Of The Future," Origins, Sept. 22, 1988 (Vol. 18, no. 15) pp. 234-239. 6 For a general sketch of this school and its leading proponent, Jaques Derrida, see Religion and Intellectual Life, Wint