Suchergebnisse

Dogajanje v času komunistične revolucije bistveno vpliva tako na stanje kot tudi na razumevanje sodobne slovenske družbene situacije. V disertaciji avtorica v luči idejnega nasprotja med krščanstvom in komunizmom ter na podlagi konflikta, ki se je obenem razvil v obdobju revolucije, razišče vzroke in podlage za omenjeni vpliv. Avtorica v delu pokaže na temeljno povezanost sodobnega položaja in komunistične revolucije na Slovenskem. Kot pojmovni okvir ter orodje za razumevanje izbere Girardovo mimetično teorijo in teorijo o grešnem kozlu. Girard namreč kulturo opisuje kot mimetični cikel, kjer posameznik posnema drugega (tako se začne že v samem otroštvu, ko otrok posnema starše in s tem postane družbeno bitje). Posnemanje je gonilo vsake družbe. Poleg tega pa posnemanje lahko omogoči tudi uničenje družbe, kulture. Girard vpelje grešnega kozla kot razrešitev konflikta, kjer imata dva subjekta enako željo in se skupaj obrneta proti grešnemu kozlu, ki zanju predstavlja vzrok mimetične krize, in je njegovo žrtvovanje pogoj za ponovno vzpostavitev družbenega reda in socialne varnosti. Ta teo-retični okvir omogoča tudi raziskovanje preteklih družbenih konfliktov, posebej pa tudi njihovih posledic v sodobnosti, vključno z vidiki spravnih procesov ter tranzicijske pra-vičnosti. Zato ga avtorica plodno uporabi pri omenjenem raziskovanju. Kot dve nasprotujoči idejni podlagi avtorica predstavi krščanstvo in komunizem, ki sta že v svojem idejnem temelju diametralno nasprotni, posebej pa ju prikaže preko Girar-dove teorije. Krščanstvo s krističnim pojmovanjem osebne svobode izstopi iz cikličnosti mehanizma grešnega kozla, komunizem pa prav nasprotno temelji na mimetičnosti. Žrt-vena znamenja v Girardovem pojmovanju, ki opravičijo umor grešnega kozla, temeljijo na dejstvih, ki postanejo sprejemljiva za umor, ne glede na (ne)resničnost le-teh. Implementacija Girardove teorije na slovensko situacijo zajema dva ključna vidika. Prvi vidik je žrtvovanje nasprotnikov komunistične revolucije z žrtvenimi znamenji kolabo-racije, nemirov … Omenjeno žrtvovanje omogoči vzpostavitev totalitarnega komunisti-čnega režima v kraljevini Jugoslaviji in s tem tudi na Slovenskem. Komunizem kot tota-litarni režim ne dopušča alternative, človeka uniformira in osami. Obenem vzpostavi totalni nadzor in teror. Krščanstvo po drugi strani človeka opolnomoči z bogopodobnos-tjo in s tem edinstvenostjo, nedotakljivostjo, nezamenljivostjo ter svobodo. Drugi vidik pa zadeva dejstvo, da konflikt iz časa komunistične revolucije še vedno ni razrešen ter je vladavina prava in vzpostavitev demokratične družbe še vedno nedokon-čan projekt. Kljub demokratični državni ureditvi in propadu komunizma kot dolgoroč-nega družbenopolitičnega in ekonomskega sistema avtorica poudari dva izziva sodobne družbe na Slovenskem. Prvi je prisotnost komunistične ideologije v razmišljanju in delovanju posameznikov, drugi izziv pa je nezadostna uveljavitev tranzicijske pravično-sti. Omenjeni vidiki analize temeljijo najprej že v samem idejnem nasprotju in zasnovi tako komunizma kakor tudi krščanstva. Krščanstvo in komunizem sta v svojem temelju različna. Poseben poudarek je na vidikih dojemanja človeka kot svobodnega in razumskega bitja v obeh idejnih okvirih. Komunizem s komunistično revolucijo nastopi proti človeku, proti človekovemu dostojanstvu in proti človekovi svobodi in s tem krščanstvo postavi v obrambno držo. S tem pa tudi Cerkev, ki je kot ene vidnejših institucij komunistična revolucija ni prevzela in obvladovala, postane braniteljica človekovega življenja in človekovih pravic, obenem pa je postavljena nasproti komunistični revoluciji. Krščanstvo in tudi Cerkev se posluži različnih načinov obrambe in upora, ki niso vselej povsem skladni s krščanskim naukom. Metode obrambe so bile: krščanska drža v odnosu do vojne, do sočloveka, do okupatorja in do revolucionarnih sil, fizična obramba, sodelovanje tako z okupacijskimi kakor tudi revolucionarnimi silami, kulturna, medijska in politična udejstvovanja. Kljub temu je revolucionarno nasilje eskaliralo predvsem v zadnjih letih druge svetovne vojne in prvih letih po revoluciji. Situacije, v katere so bili postavljeni posamezniki na Slovenskem, niso bile enoznačne ali enostavne. Ni šlo zgolj za izbiro med revolucionarno ali protirevolucionarno stranjo, temveč so bile okoliščine zaradi okupacijskih sil bolj zapletene. Ljudem je grozilo neodobravanje, preganjanje ali nasilje z vseh strani. Komunistična partija je monopolizirala odpor proti okupacijskim silam. Že zametki kakršnekoli druge neodvisne organizacije upora so bili lahko kaznovani. Nemalo kristjanov je z namenom domoljubnosti ali nezmožnosti izognitve mobilizaciji postalo del osvobodilnega gibanja, ne glede na ideološko podlago gibanja ali organizacije, ki je gibanje organizirala. Cerkev kljub temu ni bila preveč zaželen partner v uporu, o čemer priča tudi Kardeljevo navodilo: "Duhovne v četah vse postreljajte" (Griesser-Pečar 1996, 109). Ne zgolj navodilo, tudi načrtno degradiranje duhovnikov z zaporom, priporom, deportacijami in usmrtitvami so priča odnosu komunistične partije do cerkvenih dostojanstvenikov. Revolucionarno nasilje je pustilo neslutene posledice ne zgolj v tedanjem obdobju, temveč tudi za sedanji čas, pri čemer pri avtoričinem raziskovanju teh posledic pomembno vlogo igrajo tudi osebne zgodbe, odgovornost na osebni ter družbeni ravni in medgeneracijski prenos travm, ki onemogočajo pravo tranzicijo iz totalitarnega v demokratični sistem. Tranzicija in tranzicijska pravičnost je torej mehanizem, ki si prizadeva v polnosti izpeljati tranzicijo na osebni in družbeni ravni ter vzpostaviti zaupanje v državne institucije, delovanje državnih struktur. Situacija na Slovenskem sicer nakazuje na nekatere pozitivne učinke tranzicijske pravičnosti, kot sta denacionalizacija in odprtje arhivov. Še vedno pa umanjka uveljavitev pravičnosti na osebni ravni, pri čemer so pomemben vidik spravni procesi ter prekinitev medgeneracijskega prenosa travm. Podobno kot na osebni ravni umanjka pravičnost v javni sferi, na primer pluralizacija medijskega prostora, urejene gospodarske pobude, dialog med različnimi družbenimi skupinami, vključno z vstopanjem verskih skupnosti v javno razpravo, vzpostavljanjem zaupanja v državne institucije ipd. Pogled na komunistično revolucijo na Slovenskem skozi prizmo Girardovega grešnega kozla ponudi edinstven okvir, ki poveže razumevanje komunistične revolucije in komu-nističnega sistema s sodobnim položajem slovenske družbe. Po eni strani Girardov mehanizem grešnega kozla lahko razumemo kot dopolnjenega v komunistični revoluciji, po drugi strani pa mehanizem stremi k dopolnitvi v smislu celovite uveljavitve tran-zicijske pravičnosti. ; The events during the communist revolution significantly influence the state and understanding of the contemporary Slovenian social situation. In the dissertation, in the light of the ideological contradiction between Christianity and Communism, and on the basis of the conflict that developed during the revolution, the author explores the causes and grounds for this influence. In this work the author shows the fundamental connection between the contemporary situation and the communist revolution in Slovenia. She chooses Girard's mimetic theory and scapegoat as a conceptual framework and tool for understanding. Girard describes culture as a mimetic cycle, where the individual imitates the other (this starts from the very childhood, when the child imitates his parents and thus becomes a social being). Imitation is the driving force of every company. In addition, imitation can also become a destruction of society, culture. Girard therefore implements the scapegoat as a conflict resolution where the two entities share the same desire and together turn against the scapegoat, which causes them a mimetic crisis and its sacrifice is a condition for restoring social order and social security. This general theoretical framework also makes it possible – to explore past social conflicts, and in particular their consequences in the present, including aspects of reconciliation processes and transitional justice. Therefore, the author fruitfully uses it in the mentioned research. The author embraces Christianity and communism as two opposing ideological bases, which are already diametrically opposed in their conceptual bases, and are especially illuminated by Girard's theory. Christianity, with its cristian notion of personal freedom, stands out from the cyclical nature of the scapegoat, but communism is, on the contrary, based on mimeticism. Victims of character in Girard's conception that justify the murder of a scapegoat are based on facts that become acceptable for murder, regardless of the (un) reality of them. The implementation of Girard's theory on the Slovenian situation thus encompasses two key aspects. The first aspect is the sacrifice of the opponents of the communist revolution with the sacrificial signs of collaboration, riots, … This sacrifice makes it possible to establish a totalitarian communist regime in Yugoslavia, and thus in Slovenia. Communism, as a totalitarian regime, does not allow an alternative, it uniforms and isolates man. At the same time, it establishes total control and terror. Christianity, on the other hand, empowers man with uniqueness, inviolability, irreplaceability and freedom. Another aspect concerns the fact that the conflict from the communist revolution has still not been resolved, and that the rule of law and the establishment of a democratic society are still, in the eyes of many Slovenians, an unfinished project. Despite the democratic state system and the collapse of communism as a long-term socio-political and economic system, the author emphasizes two challenges of contemporary society in Slovenia. The first is the presence of communist ideology in the thinking and action of individuals, and the second challenge is the insufficient implementation of transitional justice. The aforementioned aspects of the analysis are based first of all on the very conceptual contradiction and conception of both communism and Christianity. Christianity and communism are fundamentally different. Particular emphasis is placed on aspects of the perception of man as a free and rational being in both conceptual frameworks. Communism, by communist revolution, stands against man, against human dignity and against human freedom, thereby placing Christianity in a defensive posture. In doing so, the Church, which as one of the most prominent institutions has not been taken over and controlled by the Communist Revolution, becomes a defender of human life and human rights, while at the same time it stands against the Communist Revolution. Christianity, as well as the Church, uses various methods of defense and rebellion that are not always completely in line with Christian teaching. The methods of defense were the Christian stance in relation to war, to fellow human beings, to the occupier and to the revolutionary forces, physical defense, cooperation with both occupation and revolutionary forces, cultural, media and political activities. Nevertheless, revolutionary violence escalated, especially in the last years of World War II and the first years after the revolution. The situations in which individuals in Slovenia were placed were not straightforward or straightforward. It was not merely a choice between a revolutionary or a counter-revolutionary party, but the circumstances were more complex rather than straightforward because of the occupying forces. People were threatened with disapproval, persecution or violence from all sides. The Communist Party monopolized resistance to the occupation forces. The rudiments of any other, independent organization of resistance could have been punished. Quite a few Christians, for the sake of patriotism or inability to evade mobilization, became part of the liberation movement, regardless of the ideological basis of the movement or the organization that organized the movement. The church was not, however, a much-desired partner in the resistance, as evidenced by Kardelj's instruction: "Shoot the priests in the troops." (Griesser-Pečar 1996, 109) Not only the instruction, but also the deliberate degradation of priests through imprisonment, detention, deportation and execution, are witnesses to the Communist Party's attitude towards Church dignitaries. Revolutionary violence has left unprecedented consequences not only in that time but also in the present, with the author's exploration of these consequences also playing a significant role in personal stories, personal and social responsibility, and the intergenerational transmission of traumas that they preclude a real transition from a totalitarian to a democratic system. Transition and transitional justice is thus a mechanism that seeks to fully complete the transition on a personal and social level, and to establish trust in state institutions, the functioning of state structures. Although the situation in Slovenia points to some of the positive effects of transitional justice, such as denationalization, the opening of archives, it still lacks the enforcement of justice on a personal level ; for example, with regard to aspects of media pluralization, orderly economic initiatives, dialogue between different social groups, including the entry of religious communities into public debate, building confidence in state institutions, etc. The view of the communist revolution in Slovenia through the prism of Girard the scapegoat offers a unique framework that connects the understanding of the communist revolution and the communist system with the contemporary position of Slovene society. On the one hand, Girard's mechanism of the scapegoat can be understood as supplemented in the communist revolution, and on the other, the mechanism seeks to supplement in the sense of the full implementation of transitional justice.

Størstedelen af komplekse ingeniørprojekter møder uventede begivenheder i løbet af deres livscyklus. Politisk modtand, økonomisk turbulens, tekniske problemer, partner-exit, lovændringer, nye krav og tidlig forældelse er typiske 'plan knusere'. Ud over disse ses en række usandsynlige begivenheder, uheld, arkæologiske opdagelser, sjældne naturfænomener og til tider ondsindet sabotage. Sådanne begivenheder er gængse årsager til, at projekter underperformer eller helt fejler. Reelt indfrier de fleste komplekse ingeniørprojekter ikke de forventer, der indledningsvist motiverede dem. Den traditionelle løsning på det problem er stadig mere sofistikeret forudgående analyse og planlægning i forsøget på at minimere projekters risiko såvel som beslutningstageres bias. Der er dog intet der tyder på, at disse tiltag har elimineret uventede begivenheder eller deres indflydelse på projekters performance. Selvom uventede begivenheder er individuelt usandsynlige, forekommer de, set under ét, med bemærkelsesværdig pålidelighed. Det placerer projektledelse af komplekse projekter i et dilemma. På den ene side er kravet om at beslutningstagere skal 'have ret i', hvordan fremtiden bliver uopnåeligt i lyset af vedblivende uventede begivenheder. På den anden side er blind tillid til held uacceptabelt, i lyset af de ofte høje indsatser. Fra et resiliensperspektiv udforsker afhandlingen et alternativ til fremsyn og held. Afhandlingen handler om de egenskaber, der tillader komplekse ingeniørprojekter at modstå eller overkomme uventede begivenheder, uden nødvendigheden af at forudse dem. Emnet for afhandlingen er således 'succesfulde fejltagelser', dvs. projekter der 'tager fejl, men uden at fejle'. Målet for afhandlingen er at udvide resiliensteori til komplekse ingeniørprojekter, og herigennem at udforske ikke-prædiktive løsninger på projektplanlægning, prioritering og implementering. Afhandlingen er fokuseret på tre gennemgående forskningsspørgsmål: FS1: Hvad adskiller resiliente fra skrøbelige systemer, og hvilke implikationer har det for ledelsen af komplekse ingeniørprojekter? FS2: Hvorfor fejler nogle komplekse ingeniørprojekter, mens andre lykkedes, på trods, eller endog på grund af, uventede begivenheder? FS3: Hvordan kan komplekse ingeniørprojekter opbygge resiliens overfor uventede begivenheder? De tre spørgsmål er udforsket via forskningslitteraturen, gennem historiske og løbende case studier af komplekse projekter samt interviews med erfarne projektledere. Som svar på de første forskningsspørgsmål (FS1), udvider afhandlingen resiliens-teori til projektledelse af komplekse ingeniørprojekter. Dermed udfordrer afhandlingen en central antagelse i traditionel projektledelse; at information går forud for handling. Den antagelse holder ikke I størstedelen af komplekse ingeniørprojekter. Modsat fremkommer de vigtigste informationer typisk gennem implementering og drift, snarere end gennem forudgående analyse og planlægning. I realiteten går handling således ofte forud for information, hvormed implementering og drift bliver den primære informations-producerende proces i komplekse projekter. Paradoksalt nok er minimumskravet for at kende udfaldet af de fleste komplekse ingeniørprojekter derfor, at de implementeres i praksis. Fra et resiliensperspektiv skifter problemet således karakter; fra utilstrækkeligt fremsyn til uerkendt uvidenhed. Også løsningen skifter karakter fra bedre fremsyn til generel forberedelse. Som alternativ til fremsyn og held indkredser en udvidet resiliensteori således et ikke-prædiktivt projektledelses-paradigme, og foreslår, at nogle projekter har egenskaber, der tillader dem at modstå og overkomme uventede begivenheder, uden behov for at forudse dem. Den indsigt skifter vægten af projektledelsesforskningen fra projekter, der enten 'fik ret og var succesfulde' og 'tog fejl og fejlede', mod projekter der 'tog fejl, men uden at fejle'. Som svar på det andet forskningsspørgsmål (FS2) udforsker afhandlingen forholdet mellem uventede begivenheder og projekters performance gennem studier af en bred vifte af projekter. Afhandlingen konkluderer, at uventede begivenheder er årsag til, at projekter fejler, når interessenter ikke længere foretrækkes frem for fravalgte alternativer. Omvendt lykkedes projekter på trods, eller på grund af, uventede beginheder, når de beholder eller genvinder deres overlegenhed, over fravalgte alternativer, i interessenternes øjne. Derned udvikler afhandlingen et offeromkostningsperspektiv på projektperformance. På den baggrund identificerer afhandlingen en række egenskaber for 'resiliente projekter', der er i stand til at lykkedes på trods-, eller endog på grund, af uventede begivenheder. Omvendt identificeres egenskaber for 'skrøbelige projekter', der er afhængige af, at planlæggere 'har ret i' hvad fremtiden bringer, eller blot heldige. Ulig traditionel projektledelse, hvor vægten lægges på planer og planlæggere, placerer afhandlingen hovedvægten på komplekse projekters egenskaber. Som svar på det tredje forskningsspørgsmål (FS3) foreskriver afhandlingen sokratisk ydmyghed over for fremtiden kombineret med 'forsigtig handling'. Fra et resiliensperspektiv lægges vægten således på handling snarere end på information, og dermed på hvad vi gør snarere end på hvad vi ved. I det lys ses skrøbelige projekters egenskaber som diagnostiske markører; varselstegn på succesafhængighed af fremsyn og held. Omvendt udgør resiliente projekters egenskaber en menu af muligheder for at opbygge projektresiliens. På den baggrund udvikler afhandlingen en række praktiske forslag til at opbygge projektresiliens, og diskuterer konsekvenser for projektplanlægning, udvælgelse og implementering. Afhandlingen udvikler seks primære videnbidrag (B) til projektledelse af komplekse ingeniørprojekter; to svarende til hvert forskningsspørgsmål. Som svar på FS1 udvikler afhandlingen en model for at analysere resiliens og skrøbelighed (B1) samt en typologi over resiliente systemer på tværs af discipliner og anvendelsesområder (B2). Som svar på FS2 udvikler afhandlingen et offeromkostningsperspektiv på projektperformance (B3), og identificerer egenskaber for projekter, der kan lykkedes på trods, eller på grund af, uventede begivenheder (B4). Endelig, som svar på FS3 identificerer afhandlingen en menu af tilgange til ledelse af komplekse projekter (B5), og foreslår egenskaber for mål, midler og omstændigheder som et samlende mulighedsrum for at opbygge projektresiliens mod uventede begivenheder (B6). I sin helhed bidrager afhandlingen med et alternativt perspektiv på både problemet og løsningen på komplekse ingeniørprojekters lave succesrate, og rejser nye spørgsmål til projektplanlægning, udvælgelse og implementering. Afhandlingen lægger vægt på forberedelse frem for forudsigelse og på handling frem for information. Det centrale budskab i afhandlingen er, at vi ikke behøver at kende fremtiden for at handle klogt, men at foregive at kende fremtiden uden at gøre det, får os til at handle uklogt. ; Most complex engineering projects encounter unexpected events sometime in their life cycle. Effective opposition, economic turbulence, technical problems, partner pull-out, legislative change, new requirements, and early obsolescence are typical 'plan breakers'. Adding to these are a plethora of oddball happenings, freak accidents, archaeological discoveries, rare natural phenomena, and sometimes malicious sabotage. Such events are common causes of underperformance or failure. Indeed, most complex engineering projects fail to meet the expectations that motivated them. The traditional solution to this problem has been increasingly sophisticated up-front analysis and planning aimed at 'de-risking' projects and 'de-biasing' planners. There is little evidence, however, that these efforts have eliminated unexpected events, nor their impact on project performance. While individually unlikely, collectively, unexpected events occur with surprising regularity. This places project management at the horns of a dilemma. On the one hand, the requirement that planners must 'be right' about the future for projects succeed seems unattainable, in light of persistent unexpected events. On the other, relying on blind luck seems unacceptable in light of the high stakes involved. Through the lens of resilient systems theory, this thesis explores an alternative to foresight and luck. This thesis is about the properties allowing some complex engineering projects to resist and recover from unexpected events, without the need to foresee them. Thus, the subject of this thesis is 'successful failures', i.e. projects that are 'wrong, but not failed'. The aim of the thesis is to extend resilient systems theory to complex engineering projects, and, through this lens, explore non-anticipatory solutions to the problem of project planning, selection, and implementation. The investigation is guided by three overarching research questions: RQ1: What distinguishes resilient from brittle systems, and what are the implications for complex engineering project management? RQ2: Why do some complex engineering projects fail, while others succeed, despite, or even because of, unexpected events? RQ3: How can complex engineering projects build resilience to unexpected events? The three questions are investigated through the literature, retrospective and longitudinal case studies of complex projects, and interviews with experienced project managers. In answer to the first question (RQ1), the thesis extends resilient systems theory to complex engineering project management. In doing so, the thesis challenges a paradigmatic assumption of traditional project management; that information precedes action. In most complex systems, this assumption does not hold. Rather, the most critical information typically surfaces through implementation and operation – not up-front analysis and planning. In actuality, action often precedes information. Indeed, action is often a prerequisite for dislodging information. This makes implementation and operation the primary information-producing processes. Paradoxically, the minimum requirement for learning the outcome of most complex engineering projects, is to implement them. Through the lens of resilience theory, the problem of unexpected events is thus reframed from one of inaccurate foresight to one of unrecognised ignorance, and the solution from one of improved foresight to one of general preparedness. Offering an alternative to foresight and luck, extended resilience theory delineates a 'non-anticipatory' paradigm of project management. It suggests that some projects have shared properties allowing them to resist and recover from unexpected events, without the need to foresee them. This shifts the emphasis of project management research from projects that are 'right and successful' or 'wrong and failed' to project that are 'wrong, but not failed'. In answer to the second question (RQ2), the thesis investigates the relationship between unexpected events and project performance in a range of real-world projects. The thesis finds that unexpected events cause projects to fail when projects lose superiority over competing alternatives foregone by their implementation, in the eyes of their stakeholders. Conversely, projects succeed despite or because of such events when they retain or regain such superiority. Thus, the thesis develops an essentially 'opportunity cost' view of project performance, finding formal performance criteria neither necessary nor sufficient for project success. On this basis, the thesis identifies a set of shared properties of 'resilient projects' able to succeed despite, or because of, unexpected events. Conversely, the thesis identifies properties of 'brittle projects', dependent on planners 'being right' about the future, or simply lucky. Departing from the traditional emphasis on the quality of plans and planners, these findings emphasise key characteristics of projects themselves. In answer to the third question (RQ3), the thesis prescribes a combination of Socratic humility about the future and an ethos of 'prudent action'. Through the lens of resilience theory, the emphasis of project management falls on action rather than information, i.e. on what we do rather than what we know. In this light, the properties of brittle projects function as diagnostic markers – warning signs of success-dependence on foresight or luck. Conversely, the properties of resilient projects offers a menu of possibilities for building resilience. Based on these, the thesis sets out practical prescriptions for building project resilience and discusses their implications for project planning, selection, and implementation. The thesis makes six main contributes to the knowledge base on complex engineering project management – two corresponding to each research question: In answer to RQ1, the thesis develops a framework for analysing resilience and brittleness (C1), and develops a typology of resilient systems across disciplines and application domains (C2). In answer to RQ2, the thesis develops an opportunity cost view of project performance (C3), and identifies properties distinguishing projects able to succeed despite, or because of, unexpected events from projects which cannot (C4). In answer to RQ3, the thesis identifies a repertoire of approaches to managing uncertain projects across a range of industries and project types (C5), and outlines adaptation, acceptance and positioning as a principal solution space for building resilience to unexpected events (C6). Overall, the thesis provides an alternative perspective on both the problem and the solution consistently poor performance of complex engineering projects, and raises a new set of questions for project planning, selection, and implementation. Prescriptively, the thesis emphasises preparedness over prediction, and prudent action over accurate information. Fundamentally, the message of the thesis is that we do not need to know the future to act wisely, but pretending to know the future when we do not, causes us to act foolishly.

The problem of economic development has been the subject of discussion in economic theory for hundreds of years. It is one of the most important issues in economics. To this day, it is crucial to specify the factors and conditions of this phenomenon. The purpose of this article is to identify the direction and strength of the relationship between the quality of the institutional environment and the level of economic development. The soft modelling method and analysis of the literature were applied to identify this relationship. Selected research methods allowed for the positive verification of the adopted hypothesis- institutional environment has a significant, positive impact on shaping economic development dynamics. ; University of Bialystok, Doctoral School in the Social Sciences, Poland ; MA, PhD Student, Doctoral School in the Social Sciences, University of Bialystok (Poland) ; m.borkowski@uwb.edu.pl ; 27 ; 48 ; 2 ; Barro, R.J. (1996). Democracy and growth. 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Article Details: Received: 2020-09-07 | Accepted: 2020-10-19 | Available online: 2020-12-31https://doi.org/10.15414/afz.2020.23.04.241-247The contents of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were determined in raw cow's milk, feed and soil samples from three regions of Slovak Republic (SR) depending on the environmental regional classification of SR. Total 60 pool milk samples from undisturbed environment (Novoť area), moderately disturbed environment (Tulčík area), and from strongly disturbed environment (Čečejovce area) collected in April, July and September were extracted, purified by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and analyzed using the gas chromatography with electron capture detector method (GC-ECD). Thirty feed samples of total mixed ration (TMR) were collected in April and September and after the extraction and purification by GPC were analyzed using gas and liquid chromatography (GLC). Fifteen soil samples collected in April were analyzed using the GC-ECD. All samples of raw milk, feed and soil were under the limit of quantification (LOQ) from all regions and did not exceed the limits set by European Commission. There were no seasonal differences in the PCBs levels in the milk, feed and soil samples. The milk PCBs consumption from these locations has no negative impact on consumer's health. The results indicate the decreasing trend in PCBs occurrence in the environment and food sources. Despite this positive findings, there is a constant need to monitor environmental burden of PCBs in the different regions of Slovakia where mainly food of animal origin is produced and to recognize another sources of PCBs that may impact the food chain.Keywords: polychlorinated biphenyls, PCB, cow milk, cows, SlovakiaReferencesAHMADKHANIHA, R., NODEHI, R.N., RASTKARI, N. and AGHAMIRLOO, H.M. (2017). Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) residues in commercial pasteurized cows' milk in Tehran, Iran. 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Exposure of ruminants to persistent organic pollutants and potential of decontamination. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 21, 6440–6447. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-1882-8SERPE, P.S., SCARAMUZZO, A., MAGLIO, P., LAMBIASE, S. and ESPOSITO, M. (2015). Monitoring plan on PCDD/Fs and DL-PCBs milk contamination in Campania Region (Italy). International Journal of Analytical Mass Spectrometry and Chromatography, 3, 32–36. https://doi.org/10.4236/ijamsc.2015.32004SHEN, H., STARR, J., HAN, J., ZHANG, L., LU, D., GUAN, R., XU, X., WANG, X., LI, J., LI, W., ZHANG, Y. and WU, Y. (2016). The bioaccessibility of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PCDD/Fs) in cooked plant and animal origin foods. Environment International, 94, 33–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.05.003STRÉMY, M., ŠUTOVÁ, Z., PALKOVIČOVÁ MURÍNOVÁ, Ľ., RICHTEROVÁ, D., WIMMEROVÁ, S., ČONKA, K., DROBNÁ, B., FÁBELOVÁ, L., JUREČKOVÁ, D., JUSKO, T.A., TIHÁNYI, J. and TRNOVEC, T. (2019). The spatial distribution of congenerspecific human PCB concentrations in a PCB-polluted region. Science of the Total Environment, 651, 2292–2303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.123SUMNER, R.N., TOMLINSON, M., CRAIGON, J., ENGLAND, G.C.W. and LEA, R.G. (2019). Independent and combined effects of diethylhexyl phthalate and polychlorinated biphenyl 153 on sperm quality in the human and dog. Scientific Reports, 9, 3409. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-39913-9ŠALGOVIČOVÁ, D. and PAVLOVIČOVÁ, D. (2007). Exposure of the population of the Slovak Republic to dietary polychlorinated biphenyls. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 45(9), 1641–1649. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2007.02.030THOMAS, G.O., SWEETMAN, A.J. and JONES, K.C. (1999) Input-output balance of polychlorinated biphenyls in a longterm study of lactating dairy cows. Environmental Science and Technology, 33(1), 104–112. https://doi.org/10.1021/es980322rTOFT, G. (2014). Persistent organochlorine pollutants and human reproductive health. Danish Medical Journal, 61(11), B4967.TREMOLADA, P., GUAZZONI, N., PAROLINI, M., ROSSARO, B., BIGNAZZI, M.M. and BINELLI, A. (2014). Predicting PCB concentrations in cow milk: validation of a fugacity model in high-mountain pasture conditions. Science of the Total Environment, 487, 471–480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.04.042WEBER, R., HEROLD, C., HOLLERT, H., KAMPHUES, J., UNGEMACH, L., BLEPP, M. and BALLSCHMITER, K. (2018). Life cycle of PCBs and contamination of the environment and of food products from animal origin. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 25(17), 16325–16343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-1811-yWEBER, R., BELL, L., WATSON, A., PETRLIK, J., PAUN, M.C. and VIJGEN, J. (2019). Assessment of pops contaminated sites and the need for stringent soil standards for food safety for the protection of human health. Environmental Pollution, 249, 703–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.03.066WIMMEROVÁ, S., WATSON, A., DROBNÁ, B., ŠOVČÍKOVÁ, E., WEBER, R., LANCZ, K., PATAYOVÁ, H., RICHTEROVÁ, D., KOŠTIAKOVÁ, V., JUREČKOVÁ, D., ZÁVACKÝ, P., STRÉMY, M., JUSKO, T.A., MURÍNOVÁ PALKOVIČOVÁ, Ľ., HERTZ-PICCIOTTO, I. and TRNOVEC, T. (2015). The spatial distribution of human exposure to PCBs around a former production site in Slovakia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research (International), 22, 14405–14415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5047-9

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Narayanpet-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 501 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 482 ha (96%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 1 ha (0.18%) by railway and 18 ha (4%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 32 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 to >150 cm), 18 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 46 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 3 per cent sandy soils, 42 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 51 per cent clayey soils.  Almost area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 2 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 94 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  An area of about 6 per cent are slightly (e1) eroded, 86 per cent are moderately (e2) eroded and 4 per cent area is severely (e3) eroded.  An area of about 6 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 29 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 35 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4),22 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 4 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 14 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in 6 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available iron is deficient (4.5 ppm) in 77 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in an area of about 96 per cent area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 248(49) 126(25) Guava - - Maize - 360(72) Sapota - - Bajra - 374(74) Pomegranate - 248(50) Groundnut - 13(3) Musambi 159(32) 89(18) Sunflower 159(32) 89(18) Lime 159(32) 89(18) Redgram - 248(50) Amla 159(32) 215(43) Bengal gram 248(50) 126(25) Cashew - - Cotton 159(32) 215(43) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 374(75) Jamun - 159(32) Tomato - 119(24) Custard apple 248(49) 126(25) Drumstick - 248(50) Tamarind - 159(32) Brinjal 88(18) 286(57) Mulberry - - Bhendi 88(18) 286(57) Marigold - 374(74) Onion 88(18) 231(46) Chrysanthemum - 374(74) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified 4 LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Narayanpet-3 is located at North latitude 160 33' 1.89" and 160 31' 0.128" and East longitude 770 16' 10.075'' and 770 14' 49.22" covering an area of about 500.78 ha coming unde Munagala, Sangavara and Kondapura villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Narayanpet-3 micro watersheds of Mungal subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 farmers were sampled in Narayanpet-3 micro-watershed among households surveyed 12 (35.29%) were marginal, 8 (23.53%) were small, 7 (20.59 %) were semi medium and 1 (2.94 %) were medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 81 (62.31%) men and 49 (37.69 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.7, marginal farmers 4, small farmers were 3.1, semi medium farmers were 4 and medium farmers were 7.  Majority of the respondents (32.31%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 48.46 per cent illiterates, 0.77 percent were functional literates, 53.08 per cent pre university education and 2.31 per cent attained graduation.  About, 67.65 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 17.65 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 55.38 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 70.59 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 14.71 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 91.18 per cent possess TV, 23.53 per cent possess mixer grinder, 88.24 per cent possess mobile phones and 26.47 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 35.29 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.94 per cent possess tractor, 29.41 per cent possess bullock cart and 11.76 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 11.76 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.63, women available in the micro watershed was 1.37, hired labour (men) available was 8.58 and hired labour (women) available was 10.65.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 90.73 per cent (39.98 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 4.25 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Sorghum and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 91.49 per cent.  Out of the sample households 32.35 percent possessed bank account and 2.94 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 32.35 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households and 27.27 per cent from cooperative/ Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 25.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Sorghum and Paddy was Rs.31255.33 , 37268.89, 36375.24, 22806.82 and 44325.40 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.50, 1: 1.40, 1: 2.10, 1: 1.40 and 1:2.10 respectively.  Further, 38.24 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 17.65 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 79470.59 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 47705.88 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 20 horticulture trees and 45 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3338.24 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 11.76 per cent depends on own funds and 38.24 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 58.82 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 14.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 70.59 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (61.76%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 73.53 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 88.24 per cent of the households and 11.76 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 73.53 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.06 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 76.47 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.06 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. 3  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (85.29%), pulses (88.24%) and oilseeds (32.35%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (79.41%) wild animal menace on farm field (76.47%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (61.76%), inadequacy of irrigation water (2.94%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (73.53%), high rate of interest on credit (47.06%), low price for the agricultural commodities (61.76%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (61.76%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (50.00%) and Less rainfall (11.76%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Nagaraladoddi-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 295 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. Entire area of 295 ha (100%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 5 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 56 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100 to 150 cm), 10 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 34 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 5 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy (loamy sand) soils and 95 per cent clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils.  Entire area in the microwatershed is has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  Entire area in the microwatershed is moderately (e2) eroded.  An area of about 1 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 59 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 40 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 70 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  Available potassium is medium in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 65 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in 292 ha (99%) area and deficient (<0.2 ppm) in 2 ha (1%) area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 194(66) 87(29) Sapota - - Maize - 252(85) Guava - - Redgram - 194(66) Pomegranate - 194(66) Bajra 29(10) 252(85) Jackfruit - - Groundnut - 87(29) Jamun - 165(56) Sunflower 72(24) 122(42) Musambi 72(24) 122(42) Cotton 165(56) 116(39) Lime 72(24) 122(42) Bengal gram 194(66) 87(29) Cashew - - Chilli - 281(95) Custard apple 72(24) 209(71) Tomato - 159(53) Amla - 281(95) Drumstick - 194(66) Tamarind - 165(56) Mulberry - - Marigold - 281(95) Mango - - Chrysanthemum - 281(95)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. NGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Nagaraladoddi-2 is located at North latitude 160 33' 23.838" and 160 31' 6.086" and East longitude 770 25' 9.296'' and 770 24' 10.745" covering an area of about 294.61 ha coming under Duppalli village of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Nagaraladoddi-2 micro watersheds of Ajalapur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Nagaraladoddi-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 9 (25.71%) were marginal, 9 (25.71%) were small, 11 (31.43 %) were semi medium and 3 (8.57 %) were medium farmers. 3 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 80 (53.69%) men and 69 (46.31 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.3, marginal farmers were 3.9, small farmers were 4.2, semi medium farmers were 4.7 and medium farmers were 4.7.  Majority of the respondents (46.31%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 46.31 per cent illiterates, 43.63 per cent pre university education and 4.03 per cent attained graduation.  About, 51.43 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 42.86 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 22.82 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 80.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 5.71 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 74.29 per cent possess TV, 48.57 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 28.57 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 25.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 5.71 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 11.43 per cent possess local cow and 5.71 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.35, women available in the micro watershed was 1.19, hired labour (men) available was 9.84 and hired labour (women) available was 14.9.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 85.73 per cent (57.30 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 11.44 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 4.00 live bore wells and 4.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 11.43 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Paddy, Cotton, Jowar and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 91.43 percent possessed bank account and 74.29 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 74.29 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 11.11 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 188.89 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 83.33 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 16.67 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Paddy, Cotton, Jowar and Groundnut was Rs.40477.88, 46971.35, 32690.13, 49477.76 and 66158.16 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.20, 1: 0.95, 1: 1.70, 1: 1.10 and 1:0.65 respectively.  Further, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 5.71 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 98685.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 70914.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 2 horticulture trees and 9 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 14.29 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 9171.43 for land development and Rs. 457.14 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned 62.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 45.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 51.43 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 88.57 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (91.43%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 85.71 per cent of the households and 25.71 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.14 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 45.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.29%), pulses (91.43%) and oilseeds (34.29%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (80.00%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (77.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (80.00%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (77.14%), high rate of interest on credit (88.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (80.00%), inadequate extension services (60.00%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (88.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Dupalli-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 543 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 522 ha (96%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 21 ha (4%) by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 4 land use class.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 46 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100 to 150 cm), 10 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and 40 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 5 per cent sandy soils at the surface, 8 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 83 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Major area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  Entire area in the microwatershed are moderately (e2) eroded.  An area of about 7 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 13 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 37 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 39 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the major area of the microwatershed is 16 dsm-1).  About 31 per cent of soils are low (0.75%) in organic carbon.  About 56 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in 95 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available copper is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed expect a small area of 2 ha where it is deficient.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 2 per cent area of the microwatershed  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 306(56) 187(34) Sapota - - Maize - 438(80) Guava - - Redgram - 307(56) Pomegranate - 307(56) Bajra 56(10) 436(80) Jackfruit - - Groundnut - 186(34) Jamun - 251(46) Sunflower 97(18) 210(38) Musambi 97(18) 210(38) Cotton 251(46) 243(44) Lime 97(18) 210(38) Bengal gram 306(56) 187(34) Cashew - - Chilli - 494(90) Custard apple 97(18) 396(72) Tomato - 284(52) Amla - 493(90) Drumstick - 307(56) Tamarind - 251(46) Mulberry - - Marigold - 494(90) Mango - 23(4) Chrysanthemum - 494(90)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Dupalli-3 is located at North latitude 160 33' 54.875" and 160 31' 5.924" and East longitude 770 24' 53.326'' and 770 23' 20.867" covering an area of about 542.57 ha coming unde Duppalli and Chandapura villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Dupalli-3 micro watersheds of Ajalapur sub-watershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 farmers were sampled in Dupalli-3 micro-watershed among households surveyed 12 (35.29%) were marginal, 12 (35.29%) were small, 2 (5.88 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.88 %) were medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 90 (61.22%) men and 57 (38.78 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.8, marginal farmers were 4.3, small farmers were 4.8 and medium farmers were 3.5.  Majority of the respondents (31.29%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 25.85 per cent illiterates, 74.83 per cent pre university education and 4.76 per cent attained graduation.  About, 82.35 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 17.65 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 52.38 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 70.59 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.65 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 55.88 per cent possess TV, 5.88 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.12 per cent possess mobile phones and 20.59 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 11.76 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.94 per cent possess tractor, 5.88 per cent possess bullock cart and 5.88 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 14.71 per cent possess local cow and 2.94 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.26, women available in the micro watershed was 1.00, hired labour (men) available was 5.44 and hired labour (women) available was 10.44.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 74.11 per cent (38.56 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 25.89 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 5.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 14.71 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundut, Green gram, Paddy and Cotton and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 97.06 percent possessed bank account and 58.82 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 100.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 77.78 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 11.11 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundut, Green gram, Paddy and Cotton was Rs.28283.08, 22267.07, 22308.83, 52918.06 and 36889.65 with benefit cost ratio of 1:3.10, 1: 2.50, 1: 2.10, 1: 1.70 and 1:1.60 respectively.  Further, 35.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 14.71 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 122700.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 62847.06 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 6 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1794.12 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 8.82 per cent depends on own funds and 2.94 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 70.59 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 11.76 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 26.47 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (61.76%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 67.65 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 85.29 per cent of the households and 14.71 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 91.18 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. 3  In the study area, 52.94 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.06 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 5.88 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (73.53%), pulses (58.82%) and oilseeds (47.06%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (55.88%) wild animal menace on farm field (61.76%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (73.53%), inadequacy of irrigation water (61.76%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (73.53%), high rate of interest on credit (79.41%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.35%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (82.35%), inadequate extension services (5.88%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (61.76%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kadechoora microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 536 ha in Kadechoora microwatershed in Yadgir taluk of Yadgir district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought- prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 71 per cent is covered by soils, 29 per cent by water bodies, settlements and mining and industrial areas. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 250 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 71 per cent area is suitable for agriculture and 29 per cent is not suitable for agriculture but well suited for forestry, pasture, agro-forestry, silvi-pasture, recreation, mining, installation of wind mills and as habitat for wildlife.  About 3 per cent of the soils are moderately deep (75-100cm), about 59 per cent deep (100-150cm) to very deep (>150 cm) and 9 per cent are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm) soils.  About 62 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 8 per cent loamy soils and one per cent sandy soils at the surface.  Entire area has non-gravelly soils.  About 59 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200mm/m) in available water capacity, less than one per cent medium (100-150 mm/m) and about 12 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) to very low (9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 29 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 7 per cent medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 64 per cent high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about one per cent area.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in about 22 per cent.  About 29 per cent area has soils that are deficient (4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  About 69 per cent area has soils that are deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Kadechoora microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 378 (70) Sapota - - Maize - 44 (8) Guava - - Red gram - 333 (62) Pomegranate - 333 (62) Bajra - 377 (70) Jackfruit - - Ground nut - 22 (4) Jamun - 331 (62) Sunflower - 334 (62) Musambi - 333 (62) Cotton - 377 (70) Lime - 333 (62) Bengalgram 16 (3) 362 (67) Cashew - - Chilli - 377 (70) Custard apple - 378 (70) Tomato - 44 (8) Amla - 377 (70) Drumstick - 333 (62) Tamarind - 333 (62) Mulberry - - Marigold - 377 (70) Mango - - Chrysanthemum - 377 (70) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges, that are edible, ecological and produce lot of biomass that helps to restore the ecological balance in the microwatershed FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kadechur is located at North latitude 160 32' 18.441" and 160 31' 7.07" and East longitude 770 20' 40.809'' and 770 18' 25.451" covering an area of about 536.24 ha coming unde Kadechoora and Sowrashtralli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Kadechur micro watersheds of Kadechur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 39 farmers were sampled in Kadechur micro-watershed among households surveyed 7 (17.95%) were marginal, 20 (51.28%) were small, 4 (10.26 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.13 %) were medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 109 (57.07%) men and 82 (42.93 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.5, marginal farmers were 4.9, small farmers were 5.4, semi medium farmers were 4 and medium farmers were 6.5.  Majority of the respondents (47.12%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 49.74 per cent illiterates, 41.88 per cent pre university education and 6.81 per cent attained graduation.  About, 69.23 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 17.95 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 45.03 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 74.36 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.95 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 84.62 per cent possess TV, 15.38 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.44 per cent possess mobile phones and 15.38 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 20.51 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.13 per cent possess tractor, 20.51 per cent possess bullock cart and 7.69 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.13 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 13.03, women available in the micro watershed was 1.51, hired labour (men) available was 1.80 and hired labour (women) available was 8.80.  Further, 5.13 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 90.14 per cent (52.64 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 9.86 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 3.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 7.69 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 5.13 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 56.41 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 20.83 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 41.67 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (86.67%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 25.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 75.00 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton and Jowar was Rs.31283.52, 33327.81, 36058.22 and 25644.97 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.42, 1: 3.50, 1: 1.40 and1: 0.56 respectively.  Further, 17.95 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 131225.64 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 88994.87 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 15 horticulture trees and 21 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 2.56 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3482.05 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 38.46 per cent depends on own funds and 5.13 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 35.90 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 38.46 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 66.67 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (79.49%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.05 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 89.74 per cent of the households and 12.82 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.44 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 38.46 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.44 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 2.56 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (64.10%), pulses (69.23%) and oilseeds (38.46%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (79.49%) wild animal menace on farm field (79.49%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (43.59%), inadequacy of irrigation water (69.23%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.05%), high rate of interest on credit (82.05%), low price for the agricultural commodities (76.92%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (53.85%), inadequate extension services (28.21%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (71.79%) and Less rainfall (5.13%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bhimanahalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 642 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 592 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 50 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 3 soil series and 4 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 87 per cent soils in the microwatershed are very deep (>150 cm) and 5 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm).  Entire area in the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  About 86 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 5 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m).  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands.  Entire area in the microwatershed is moderately (e2) eroded.  An area of about 5 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction, 84 per cent soils is slightly to moderately alkaline (pH 7.3-8.4) and about 4 per cent soils are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 - 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the entire soils in the microwatershed are non saline (0.75).  About 32 per cent area is low in available phosphorus, 39 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 21 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha).  Less than 1 per cent area is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 92 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 50 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (1.0 ppm) in 7 per cent area.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in 71 per cent area and deficient in 21 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 31 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 26 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 561(87) 31(5) Sapota - - Maize - 592(92) Pomegranate - 561(87) Bajra - 592(92) Musambi 451(70) 110(17) Groundnut - 31(5) Lime 451(70) 110(17) Sunflower 451(70) 110(17) Amla 110(17) 482(75) Redgram - 561(87) Cashew - - Bengal gram 561(87) 31(5) Jackfruit - - Cotton 561(87) 31(5) Jamun - 561(87) Chilli - 592 (92) Custard apple 561(87) 31(5) Tomato - 482(75) Tamarind - 561(87) Drumstick - 561(87) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 592(92) Guava - - Chrysanthemum - 592(92)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Bhimanahalli-2 is located at North latitude 160 32' 4.587" and 160 30' 8.645" and East longitude 770 13' 4.587'' and 770 11' 53.709" covering an area of about 641.91 ha coming unde Bheemanahalli, Belagundi and Gondedagi Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Bhimanahalli-2 micro watersheds of Belagunda subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Bhimanahalli-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 10 (28.57%) were marginal, 8 (22.86%) were small, 9 (25.71 %) were semi medium, 3 (8.57 %) were medium and 1 (2.86 %) were large farmers. 4 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 87 (50.88%) men and 84 (49.12 %) were women. The average population of landless was 5.3, marginal farmers were 4.6, small farmers 5, semi medium farmers were 4.8, medium farmers were 5.7 and large farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (43.27%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 32.16 per cent illiterates, 69.00 per cent pre university education and 3.51 per cent attained graduation.  About, 60.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 40.00 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 34.50 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 85.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 51.43 per cent possess TV, 5.71 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 5.71 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 17.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 11.43 per cent possess bullock cart and 2.86 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.86 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.4, women available in the micro watershed was 1.26, hired labour (men) available was 9.29 and hired labour (women) available was 17.86.  In the study area, about 0.58 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 60.00 kms for about 5.00 months. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 52.06 per cent (47.64 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 47.94 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 10.00 live bore wells and 10.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 28.57 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Paddy, Cotton, Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 77.14 percent possessed bank account and 14.29 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 97.14 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 76.47 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 5.88 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (94.12%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 52.94 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Paddy, Cotton and Jowar was Rs.36691.84 , 33964.25 and 21455.24 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.3, 1: 1.6 and 1:1.7 respectively.  Further, 28.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 93602.86 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 62488.57 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 6 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 42.86 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4800.00 for land development and Rs. 5942.86 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 20.00 per cent depends on own funds.  Regarding marketing channels, 5.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 85.71 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 17.14 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 80.00 per cent of the households and 17.14 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 40.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (42.86%), pulses (31.43%) and oilseeds (17.14%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (45.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (31.43%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (40.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (80.00%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.71%), high rate of interest on credit (80.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (88.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (82.86%), inadequate extension services (5.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (51.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Sidganhalli-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 411 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soil and 5 per cent by habitation and water body. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 13 soil series and 25 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm) soils.  About 5 per cent sandy (loamy sand), 77 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 13 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 51 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 16 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 79 per cent is very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 17 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 78 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 18 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 41 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 34 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 1 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are 0.75%) in 82 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 42 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 52 per cent area of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 57 per cent and high (>337 kg/ha) in 37 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 62 per cent and high (>20 ppm) in 33 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 45 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (>0.6 ppm) in 54 per cent and sufficient (>0.6 ppm) in 40 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 188(46) 159(39) Sapota 194(47) 150(37) Maize 4(1) 343(84) Pomegranate 194(47) 150(37) Bajra 188(46) 199(49) Musambi 194(47) 150(37) Groundnut - 197(48) Lime 194(47) 150(37) Sunflower 188(46) 154(37) Amla 194(47) 193(47) Redgram 188(46) 154(37) Cashew 194(47) 150(37) Bengal gram - - Jackfruit 194(47) 150(37) Cotton - 345(84) Jamun 191(46) 104(25) Chilli 188(46) 159(39) Custard apple 194(47) 193(47) Tomato 188(46) 159(39) Tamarind 191(46) 104(25) Brinjal 188(46) 159(39) Mulberry 127(31) 217(54) Onion 4(1) 343(84) Marigold 188(46) 159(39) Bhendi 188(46) 159(39) Chrysanthemum 188(46) 159(39) Drumstick 188(46) 156(38) Jasmine 188(46) 159(39) Mango 191(46) 104(25) Crossandra 188(46) 159(39) Guava 194(47) 150(37)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 7 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soil s like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Sidganhalli-3 is located at North latitude 150 32' 14.146" and 150 30' 35.926" and East longitude 760 13' 23.554'' and 760 12' 10.415" covering an area of about 478.72 ha coming under Kudrimutti and Watparwi Villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Sidganhalli-3 micro watersheds of Irakallaguda subwatershed, Koppala taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 10 (28.57 %) were marginal, 11 (31.43%)were small, 6 (17.14 %) were Semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium and 1 (2.86 %) were large farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 101 (56.11%) men and 79 (43.89 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (39.44%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 38.33 per cent illiterates, 62.22 per cent pre university education and 2.22 per cent attained graduation.  About, 40.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 40.00 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 25.56 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 48.57 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 11.43 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 60.00 per cent possess TV, 14.29 per cent possess mixer grinder, 77.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 65.71 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 25.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 25.71 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 17.14 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.47, women available in the micro watershed was 3.67, hired labour (men) available was 20.03 and hired labour (women) available was 20.27.  Further, 100 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was adequate during the agricultural season.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 65.98 per cent (49.09 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 34.02 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 11.00 live bore wells and 10.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 31.43 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Groundnut, Sunflower, Red gram and Cowpea and cropping intensity was recorded as 98.82 per cent.  Out of the sample households 97.14 percent possessed bank account.  About 60.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 19.05 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 80.95 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (95.24%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 61.90 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 4.76 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Groundnut, Sunflower, Red gram and Cowpea was Rs.45181.43, 54718.37, 51690.75, 61610.02 and 40909.65 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.80, 1: 1.60, 1: 0.56, 1: 1.03 and 1:2.40 respectively.  Further, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 14.29 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 89885.71 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 71714.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 15 horticulture trees and 25 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 14.29 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 628.57 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 25.71 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 117.14 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 117.14 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (45.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 57.14 per cent of the households and 5.71 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 88.57 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 65.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (5.71%) and pulses (2.86%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (48.57%) wild animal menace on farm field (54.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (88.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.71%), high rate of interest on credit (88.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.71%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (85.71%), inadequate extension services (85.71%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ramatirth Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 689 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 56 per cent in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 33 per cent by rock outcrops and 11 per cent by others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 24 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire cultivated area is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 9 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very shallow (150 cm) soils in the microwatershed.  About 4 per cent are sandy soils at the surface, 10 per cent are loamy soils and 42 percent soils are clayey soils at the surface.  An area of about 48 per cent is non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 54 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 2 per cent area is gently sloping (3-5% slope) soils.  An area of about 48 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 8 per cent is severely eroded (e3) soils in the microwatershed.  An area of 8 per cent in the microwatershed is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 17 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 31 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) soil reaction  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 24 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and about 32 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 10 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and about 45 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Entire area is low (4.5 ppm) in 51 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 34 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 41(6) 74(11) Guava - 45(6) Maize 41(6) 74(11) Sapota - 45(6) Bajra 45(6) 70(11) Pomegranate - 63(9) Groundnut 4(1) 87(12) Musambi - 63(9) Sunflower - 63(9) Lime - 63(9) Redgram - 69(10) Amla 45(6) 59(9) Bengal gram 13(2) 5(1) Cashew - 4(1) Cotton - 59(9) Jackfruit - 45(6) Chilli 41(6) 68(10) Jamun - - Tomato 41(6) 50(7) Custard apple 4(1) 104(15) Brinjal 41(6) 50(7) Tamarind - - Onion 41(6) 50(7) Mulberry - 45(6) Bhendi 41(6) 68(10) Marigold 41(6) 68(10) Drumstick - 58(8) Chrysanthemum 41(6) 68(10) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified 7 LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Ramatirth is located at North latitude 160 59' 26.672" and 160 57' 19.615" and East longitude 770 11' 39.441'' and 770 8' 32.977" covering an area of about 685.96 ha coming under Ramathirtha and Allura .B villages of Chithapura taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Ramatirth micro watersheds of Chikka Alur subwatershed, Chithapura taluk & Kalaburagi District indicated that, out of the total sample of 33 farmers were sampled in Ramatirth micro-watershed among households surveyed 13 (39.39%) were marginal, 11 (33.33%) were small and 4 (12.12 %) were semi medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 79 (53.02%) men and 70 (46.98 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.4, marginal farmers were 4.8, small farmers were 4.7 and semi medium farmers were 4.5.  Majority of the respondents (42.95%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 43.62 per cent illiterates, 44.97 per cent pre university education and 7.38 per cent attained graduation.  About, 30.30 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 42.42 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 20.81 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 93.94 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 9.09 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 93.94 per cent possess TV, 30.30 per cent possess mixer grinder, 109.09 per cent possess mobile phones and 12.12 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 21.21 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 33.33 per cent possess plough, 36.36 per cent possess Weeder and 12.12 per cent possess Thresher.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 6.06 per cent possess local cow and 3.03 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.54, women available in the micro watershed was 1.43, hired labour (men) available was 8.89 and hired labour (women) available was 14.56.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 94.06 per cent (31.73 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 5.56 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 1.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 3.03 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Jowar and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 90.91 percent possessed bank account and 42.42 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 27.27 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 100.00 per cent from cooperative/ Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Jowar and Green gram was Rs.30724.65 , 41187.76 and 58993.49, with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.10, 1: 0.80 and 1: 1.30 respectively.  Further, 27.27 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 69121.21 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 34575.76 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 79 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 6.06 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 2242.42 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 39.39 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 36.36 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 48.48 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 81.82 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (81.82%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 84.85 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 84.85 per cent of the households and 30.30 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households. 3  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 57.58 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (69.70%), pulses (63.64%) and oilseeds (36.36%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (81.82 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (81.82%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (42.42%), inadequacy of irrigation water (60.61%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (81.82%), high rate of interest on credit (81.82%), low price for the agricultural commodities (75.76 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (57.58%), inadequate extension services (60.61 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (75.76%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Chandaraki-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 608 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 505 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 1 ha is covered by rock outcrops and 101 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 3 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 505 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 150 cm).  About 200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 13 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m), 0.75%) in organic carbon content of the soil.  About 35 per cent of area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus content of the soil, 38 per cent of area is low (57 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available potassium content is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 45 per cent of area and high (>337 kg/ha) in 38 per cent of area in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (1.0 ppm) in an area of 18 per cent and medium (0.5-0.1 ppm) in an area of 65 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in an area of 61 per cent of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 135 (22) 94 (15) Guava - 77 (13) Maize 77 (13) 151 (25) Sapota - 77 (13) Bajra 77 (13) 151 (25) Pomegranate - 221 (36) Groundnut 74 (12) 10 (2) Musambi 131 (22) 90 (15) Sunflower 131 (22) 90 (15) Lime 131 (22) 90 (15) Redgram - 221 (36) Amla 77 (13) 138 (23) Bengal gram 131 (22) 13 (2) Cashew - - Cotton 131 (22) 16 (3) Jackfruit - 77 (13) Chilli 77 (13) 151 (25) Jamun - 131 (22) Tomato 77 (13) 7 (1) Custard apple 205 (34) 23 (4) Brinjal 77 (13) 7 (1) Tamarind - 131 (22) Onion 77 (13) 7 (1) Mulberry - 77 (13) Bhendi 77 (13) 151 (25) Marigold 77 (13) 151 (25) Drumstick - 208 (34) Chrysanthemum 77 (13) 151 (25) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Chandaraki-1 is located at North latitude 160 52' 29.368" and 160 50' 46.558" and East longitude 770 27' 47.027'' and 770 26' 17.986" covering an area of about 603.07 ha coming under Chandraki and Madhepalli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Chandaraki-1 micro watersheds of Chandaraki subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 farmers were sampled in Chandaraki-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 14 (38.89%) were marginal, 7 (19.44%) were small, 10 (27.78 %) were semi medium and 3 (8.33 %) were medium large farmers. 2 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 89 (55.97%) men and 70 (44.03 %) were women. The average population of landless was 2.5, marginal farmers were 4.6, small farmers were 4.3, semi medium farmers were 4.8 and medium farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (38.36%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 44.65 per cent of illiterates, 17.61 per cent of them had primary school education, 13.84 per cent high school education, 8.18 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.63 per cent of them had Diploma, 9.43 per cent attained graduation and 3.14 them had other education.  About, 80.56 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.78 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 80.56 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 72.22 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 8.33 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 72.22 per cent possess TV, 80.56 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.44 per cent possess mobile phones and 30.56 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 8.33 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 36.11 per cent possess plough and 77.78 per cent possess Weeder, 8.33 per cent possess tractor, 5.56 per cent possess Harvester and 36.11 per cent possess Thresher.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.78 per cent possess local cow and 5.56 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 14.06 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.22. 2  Further, 5.56 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 0.63 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 850.00 kms for about 4.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 94.31 per cent (59.84 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 4.24 per cent area is irrigated land.  Open well was the major source of irrigation for 5.56 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Bengal gram, Jowar and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 94.44 percent possessed bank account.  About 94.44 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 13.64 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 86.36 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (95.45%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Bengal gram, Jowar and Paddy was Rs.48868.88, 44389.25, 18089.82, 26988.16 and 23946.94 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.90, 1: 1.00, 1: 3.80, 1: 0.50 and 1:0.70 respectively.  Further, 25.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.33 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 76055.56 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 41027.78 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 8 horticulture trees and 100 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 12361.11 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 88.89 per cent depends on own funds and 2.78 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 116.67 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 116.67 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (88.89%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 94.44 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 88.89 per cent of the households and 11.11 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.22 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 30.56 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (86.11%), pulses (83.33%) and oilseeds (5.56%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (91.67%) wild animal menace on farm field (55.56%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (55.56%), inadequacy of irrigation water (72.22%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (63.89%), high rate of interest on credit (66.67%), low price for the agricultural commodities (69.44%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (52.78%), inadequate extension services (41.67%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (36.11%), Less rainfall (2.78%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (2.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 789 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 77 per cent in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 23 per cent by rock outcrops, others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 15 soil series and 20 soil phases (management units) and 9 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire cultivated area is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 5 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very shallow (150 cm) soils in the microwatershed.  About 4 per cent are sandy soils at the surface, 12 per cent are loamy soils and 61 percent soils are clayey soils at the surface.  An area of about 48 per cent is non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area of 77 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands soils.  An area of about 4 per cent is slightly (e1) eroded, 72 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 1 per cent is severely eroded (e3) soils in the microwatershed.  About an area of 39 per cent in the microwatershed is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 35 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 4 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) soils.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 21 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and about 56 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 43 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and about 35 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Entire area is low (4.5 ppm) in 74 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 20 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 1 (<1) 211 (27) Guava - 67 (8) Maize 59 (8) 152 (19) Sapota - 67 (8) Bajra 59 (8) 152 (19) Pomegranate - 111 (14) Groundnut 59 (8) 65 (8) Musambi - 111 (14) Sunflower - 112 (14) Lime - 111 (14) Redgram - 141 (18) Amla 59 (7) 79 (10) Bengal gram - 44 (6) Cashew - - Cotton - 67 (9) Jackfruit - 67 (8) Chilli 59 (7) 123 (15) Jamun - - Tomato 59 (7) 79 (10) Custard apple 59 (7) 123 (15) Brinjal 59 (7) 79 (10) Tamarind - - Onion 59 (7) 79 (10) Mulberry - 67 (8) Bhendi 59 (7) 123 (15) Marigold 59 (7) 123 (15) Drumstick - 67 (8) Chrysanthemum 59 (7) 123 (15) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified 9 LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yadgir-3 is located at North latitude 160 59' 12.832" and 160 57' 2.636" and East longitude 770 12' 16.869'' and 770 9' 22.368" covering an area of about 790.04 ha coming under Ramathirtha, Alur. B and Bheemanahalli Villages of Chithapura taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir-3 micro watersheds of Chikka Alur subwatershed, Chithapura taluk & Kalaburagi District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgir-3 micro-watershed among households surveyed 10 (28.57%) were marginal, 13 (37.14%) were small, 5 (14.29 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 94 (58.39%) men and 66 (40.99 %) were women. The average population of landless was 5.2, marginal farmers were 3.4, small farmers were 5, semi medium farmers were 4.8 and medium farmers were 6.  Majority of the respondents (43.48%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 47.83 per cent illiterates, 0.62 percent were functional literates, 48.45 per cent pre university education and 4.35 per cent attained graduation.  About, 65.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 28.57 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 42.24 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 77.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 65.71 per cent possess TV, 62.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 17.14 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 25.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 11.43 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.54, women available in the micro watershed was 1.26, hired labour (men) available was 8.03 and hired labour (women) available was 7.43  Further, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 1.86 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 2040.00 kms for about 7.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (48.30 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 98.13 per cent.  Out of the sample households 82.86 percent possessed bank account and 40.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 45.71 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 6.25 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 43.75 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 87.50 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 12.50 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram and Jowar was Rs.19867.45 and 17752.28 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30 and 1: 2.00 respectively.  Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 57361.43 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 36361.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 12 horticulture trees and 66 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1800.00 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 45.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 85.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 28.57 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (45.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 45.71 per cent of the households and 54.29 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. 3  In the study area, 45.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (100.00%) and oilseeds (48.57%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (88.57 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.71%), high rate of interest on credit (85.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.71 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (88.57%), inadequate extension services (88.57 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

The very name of this journal, Frontiers in Education, begs the questions of where the "frontiers" should be at present in education research, and how we can ensure that breakthroughs at these frontiers be rapidly put into practice. In this context, this short opinion article argues that in order to answer these two questions adequately, we, educators, should stop zeroing in on the content or skills we want students to have acquired right at the end of a cycle of studies, be it elementary, high school, or university. Instead, we should not be afraid to ask people who are many years, even decades, past formal education what they think we should focus on, where our teaching can be most effective. My own experience with two eye-opening events suggests that from this lifelong perspective, teaching activities that are likely to be most influential over the course of a person's life do not necessarily follow traditional formats. In terms of facilitating implementation of innovative teaching activities, since it seems very arduous to convince schools to add anything to already overloaded curricula, perhaps this is not where we should concentrate our efforts. I argue that the easiest way to implement change may be to first demonstrate practically to future teachers, enrolled in teacher education programs, that even brief learning activities can have enormous merit. Input from the "real world"If one considers that the objective of high-school and university education is to eventually equip students, at the age of 22 or 23, with the "body of knowledge" and skills that are relevant in their field of specialty, then the frontier one needs to consider in research encompasses all the novel approaches currently under development to better achieve this specific objective. Alternatively, one might adopt the perspective that what happens at the end of undergraduate studies is not necessarily that meaningful, given the fact that graduates will generally work for 42 or 43 years afterwards, change jobs a number of times, and end up doing things for which the content and skills acquired during their undergraduate studies may not be relevant at all. In that lifelong context, one could assume that the "frontier" on which our research in education should focus relates to novel activities that would prepare individuals for the constantly changing landscape that they will face all along their life, including, but not exclusively, during their professional career. One way to get ideas about novel teaching activities we should develop in that latter context consists of simply asking individuals who were in school or at the university 20, 30, or even 40 years ago, to identify the part of their education, taken broadly, that was most valuable to them. The idea is not entirely new, of course, since it was adopted 60 years ago already in the pioneering work of Bertrand Schwartz, in preparation for his landmark reform of the School of Mines in Nancy (France) during the late 1950s (Lambrichs, 2009). Nevertheless, given the strong emphasis in education research on psychometric tests and the application of statistical methods to surveys of large cohorts, a perspective centered on individuals' opinions is likely to be criticized as "anecdotalist", potentially biased, and not sufficiently rigorous. Fortunately, it is not necessary to simply rely on individuals' perceptions, which may indeed be occasionally off if questions are not asked appropriately. Over the last few decades, various educational theorists (e.g., Dominicé, 2000; Dhunpath and Samuel, 2009) have proposed and perfected several techniques to indirectly derive meaningful information about the education of individuals by carefully analyzing biographical stories they may have written. Perhaps, as in the field of self-directed learning (Baveye, 2003), this "life history" approach could help us establish on a firm foundation the expanding frontier(s) in education. This message is clearly conveyed by Goodson and Gill (2014), who argue that "life narratives" can help educators shift from a disenfranchised tradition to one of empowerment.Of course, clearly, this incorporation of the experience of people "in the real world" into school and university curricula needs to be carried out cautiously. It would not be appropriate for economic and competitive interests of groups outside the school community to sway the educational process in a direction that is not ultimately in the best interest of students. One also needs to be careful not to disenfranchise teachers or weaken their agency and collaboration. Because they are intimately involved in the educational process, any discussion about its evolution in the future absolutely needs to involve them directly. Anyway, in this context of input "from the real world", the question of which activities were most influential in my education has intrigued me a lot over the last two or three decades. Clearly, the answer is not to be found in the formal lectures I attended, since I promptly forgot just about everything I learned from them, except in a few rare instances where I had a strong prior motivation to learn the material, on my own if need be. Even in these few cases, most of the content and skills I learned back then turned out to be obsolete after a decade, and had little influence on my later career in science. Careful reflection suggests that by far the most significant learning experiences of my entire schooling were associated with two very short, active learning events, which perhaps paradoxically, had nothing at all to do with the training I got at the university.Short teachable moments…The first of these two influential events took place when I was 17, in 1974, many years before Internet or Facebook existed. One of the teachers in my junior year in high school asked our class to attend a politically-motivated street demonstration held during the week end in the nearest big city. The protest was against an exhibition that was organized to promote tourism in a foreign country, which at that time was under a brutal dictatorship. Many non-governmental organizations and citizens' groups were staunchly opposed to the exhibition. The experience of attending the peaceful demonstration, among a crowd we estimated to be around 250,000 to 300,000 people, was eye-opening in itself, but what made it unique was what happened in school the following Monday. In the early morning, the teacher had purchased all the local newspapers he could find. He assigned us to read and analyze the different accounts these newspapers provided of the street demonstration. Whereas left-leaning newspapers reported that upwards of 500,000 people had marched peacefully through the streets, right-wing journals described the demonstration as a small gathering of merely 50,000 people, and commented incorrectly that some of them had become violent. Several newspapers did not report the protest at all. Meanwhile, the police account of the demonstration mentioned an intermediate number of approximately 200,000 people. After less than an hour of reviewing the different articles, many of us admitted in the ensuing discussion that we were stunned by what we had found. Even though nowadays "alternate facts" have become common place, at the time none of us anticipated disparities to be so blatant between different newspapers. In hindsight, I feel that in one hour of hands-on, discovery-based exposure to a variety of perspectives on the same event, I learned more about the need for a critical analysis of texts, and for a proper account of the socio-economic and historical context in which texts are written, than in any of the formal courses I took on the subject later on in college. Undoubtedly, my upbringing in a family of intellectuals made me particularly receptive to this kind of teachable moment, and individuals reared in very different environments may not as fertile ground as I was, but the fact is that I have never looked at the written word after this single exercise as I did before, nor for that matter at anything that lecturers would talk about in the courses I took afterwards (some of which turned out after a little scrutiny to deliver information that was obsolete or even erroneous). The second event occurred during the Summer just before I started attending the university. My high school had made it possible for a group of students to help with development activities in what was still commonly referred to at the time as the "Third World". Specifically, we were supposed to help missionaries in Rwanda with various practical, mostly agricultural, projects. In the evenings, in the tiny village where we were staying, there was very little to do, except play card- and board games. A favorite activity of the missionaries was to play Scrabble. On one of the first nights I was there, we started a game with them, and basically I played the way my mother had shown me, to try to win by placing words that would earn me more points than what the other players could do with their letters. After a couple of moves, the missionaries stopped the game and told me that this was not how they played it at all. They proceeded to show me how each of them was trying to place words in such a way that all players together would eventually make the most points possible. So instead of proudly putting "taxes" in one move, someone would only put down "ax", then another would add a "t", to obtain "tax", then a third could make it "taxes", and finally, someone could add "sur" to come up with "surtaxes". All in all, that means that the points of the very valuable letter "x" would count five times instead of one, increasing the combined score of all the players at the end of the game. The details of the Scrabble strategy do not matter that much, but what was really a revelation in what the missionaries showed me is that rules can easily be changed to maximize the benefits, in this case the enjoyment, for all involved. The original rules of Scrabble require individual competition among players, and they invariably lead to one player being happy at the end while all the others are less so, to put it mildly. The lesson I got was that it is easy to transform the game into something that is eminently collaborative, such that everyone feels pretty much the same way at the end, depending on how well the group did. As a result, what could be a divisive pastime, especially if one of the players happens to be unreasonably competitive, becomes an activity that strengthens the cohesion of the group and enhances team spirit.Long-lasting lessons learned…Over the years, during my subsequent career as a researcher, I have had many occasions to reminisce about these two events. The older I get, the more I realize how extremely significant they were in my education, overshadowing many other aspects of it. As short as it was, the newspapers-related activity singlehandedly shaped my attitude toward the written word. Every single time I now read an article or a book, I remember the fateful Monday when my classmates and I compared multiple newspaper clippings. As a result, I never take any text (or, for that matter, lecture notes) for granted any more, and I am compelled to systematically look for alternative perspectives on the same topics before I formulate my own opinion. This critical attitude toward texts has played a key role in my work, as it has stimulated me not only to keep learning efficiently on my own, as a self-directed learner, from a variety of sources, but also to try to foster self-directed learning in my students (Baveye, 1994). This capacity is particularly crucial in fields in which phenomenal technological breakthroughs occur at very regular intervals, and the need to renew one's knowledge base is constant.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ghanapur-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 416 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 397 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, an area of about 19 ha by others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 9 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area about 397 ha (95%) in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  Entire area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm).  About 17 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 79 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area in the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) available water capacity.  About 79 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) land and 17 per cent is nearly level sloping (0-1%) soils.  An area of about 78 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and 17 percent soils are slightly eroded (e1).  An area of about 6 per cent soil is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and 89 per cent soils are moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominately 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, about 43 percent medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 50 percent soils are low (337kg/ha) in available potassium and 83 percent of the soils are medium (145-337kg/ha) in available potassium.  An area of about 10 per cent soils are medium (10-20 ppm) in available sulphur and 85 percent is low (4.5ppm) in about 24 per cent and deficient (<4.5ppm) in an area of 72 percent in the microwatershed  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 372(89) 26(6) Sapota - - Maize - 398(95) Pomegranate - 398(95) Bajra - 397(95) Musambi 354(85) 43 (10) Groundnut - - Lime 354(85) 43 (10) Sunflower 326(78) 72(17) Amla 9(2) 388(93) Redgram - 398(95) Cashew - - Bengal gram 398(95) - Jackfruit - - Cotton 347(83) 50(12) Jamun - 398(95) Chilli - 378(91) Custard apple 396(95) 1(<1) Tomato - 327(79) Tamarind - 398(95) Drumstick - 398(95) Mulberry - - Mango - - Marigold - 398(95) Guava - 1(<1) Chrysanthemum - 398(95) Brinjal 42(10) 355(85) Bhendi 50(12) 347(83) Onion 42(10) 77(19)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Ghanapur-1 is located at North latitude 160 46' 46.668" and 160 44' 29.281" and East longitude 770 19' 10.73" and 770 18' 2.17" covering an area of about 416.09 ha coming under Ganapura, Kandhakura and Gopalapura Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Ghanapur-1 micro watersheds of Gopalapur subwatershed, Yadagiri taluk, Yadagiri District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 total respondents, 20 were marginal, (58.82 %) were small 6 (17.65%), 5 (14.71 %) were Semi medium and 2 (5.88 %) were medium.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 86 (54.43%) men and 72 (45.57 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (43.04%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 37.34 per cent illiterates, 54.43 percent pre university education and 2.53 per cent attained graduation.  About, 29.41 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 34.18 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 21.52 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 55.88 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 20.59 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 76.47 per cent possess TV, 44.12 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.18 per cent possess mobile phones and 35.29 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 47.06 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.94 per cent possess tractor, 11.76 per cent possess bullock cart and 17.65 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 14.71 per cent possess local cow and 26.47 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 9.44 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.38.  Further, 0.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 2.53 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 2800.00 kms for about 6.00 months. 2  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 91.20 per cent (42.20 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 8.80 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 2.00 live bore wells and 2.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 1.00 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Redgram, Maize, Paddy, Sorghum Green gram and Cotton and cropping intensity was recorded as 98.09 per cent.  Out of the sample households 94.12 percent possessed bank account and 23.53 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 97.06 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 17.65 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 2.94 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (93.75%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 0.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 0.00 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Redgram, Maize, Paddy, Sorghum, Green gram and Cotton was Rs.26613.11 , 92463.62, 265712.31, 40810.55, 43180.21 and 37818.89 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.8 , 1:1.4 , 1:1.7 , 1:1.0 , 1:1.9 and 1:1.4 respectively.  Further, 29.41 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 11.76 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 85030.15 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 53704.41 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 10 horticulture trees and 93 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 8970.59 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned 38.24 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 108.82 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 0.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (79.41%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 94.12 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 91.18 per cent of the households and 20.59 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 44.12 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.06 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 73.53 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possessed BPL card,  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.06%), pulses (97.06%) and oilseeds (38.24%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (76.47%) wild animal menace on farm field (76.47%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (82.35%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.88%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (55.88%), high rate of interest on credit (76.47%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.35%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (73.53%), inadequate extension services (55.88%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (58.82%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project