Mención Europea/Internacional concedida. ; [SPA] Debido a la gran reforma urbanística y arquitectónica desarrollada en Granada durante el siglo XVI, fruto del contexto económico y político de la ciudad, ésta se convierte en un gran laboratorio renacentista donde experimentar nuevas formas y tipologías constructivas. En este contexto, aparece la cantería renacentista como la interpretación española del Renacimiento italiano, que se basa en el uso de la piedra como material de construcción frente al empleo del ladrillo en Italia. Esta tesis doctoral plantea el estudio de la estereotomía de distintas fábricas y piezas de cantería construidas en Granada durante el siglo XVI. Para ello se han analizado, por un lado, los tratados y manuscritos de cantería del XVI, así como sus posibles antecedentes constructivos; y por otra parte, se han llevado a cabo levantamientos fotogramétricos de una selección representativa de piezas relevantes de cantería en Granada. Este estudio ha permitido profundizar en el conocimiento de las técnicas empleadas en su diseño geométrico y en su ejecución, aportando una visión de conjunto sobre la aparición, evolución y difusión de la construcción pétrea a lo largo del siglo XVI en el foco renacentista granadino. El análisis de las bóvedas de los edificios estudiados tras los levantamientos realizados ha evidenciado el carácter innovador de las obras renacentistas ejecutadas en Granada tras la reincorporación de la ciudad al Reino de Castilla. Pero no sólo encontramos innovaciones en los problemas que se abordan, sino en los métodos que se emplean. La investigación realizada ha puesto de manifiesto, en primer lugar, la notable evolución de las bóvedas por cruceros en la arquitectura granadina, presentando soluciones geométricas complejas, como en el monasterio de San Jerónimo y en la catedral. Por otra parte, tras los levantamientos ha quedado patente una gran destreza en el control de formas ovales y elípticas de distintas proporciones, como ocurre en los zaguanes del palacio de Carlos V, o en su famosa bóveda anular, junto con los pasos extremos de la catedral, cuyo abocinamiento desigual en altura y anchura fuerza la construcción de semielipes en lugar de semicircunferencias, como ocurre en los pasos centrales. También son interesantes los resultados obtenidos con respecto a la evolución de ciertas piezas y su relación con los textos de cantería, siendo el caso más notable el de la gran variedad de lunetos ejecutados en Granada durante el siglo XVI, especialmente en el palacio de Carlos V. Por último, los resultados obtenidos sugieren la existencia de relaciones, influencias y una importante transferencia de conocimientos entre los distintos focos arquitectónicos del Renacimiento en el Sur de la Península, como Murcia, Jaén o Sevilla a través de las obras construidas y sus ejecutores. Por tanto, tras analizar todas las discusiones consideradas, es innegable el protagonismo de las obras de cantería ejecutadas en Granada a lo largo del siglo XVI. Dados los escasos antecedentes de las piezas analizadas desde el punto de vista geométrico y constructivo, su carácter innovador es evidente, llegando a ejercer una notable influencia sobre los textos de cantería renacentista y sobre la práctica constructiva al mismo tiempo. ; [ENG] Although some authors have downplayed the importance of the Andalusian focus of new Renaissance architecture, many others have attributed a great importance to it. In this context, Granada acquires a special relevance, due to the historical events of the late 15th century, whose political, social, cultural and artistic consequences were noticed in the city throughout the 16th century. Architectural and urban changes in the city made Granada a great Renaissance laboratory to experience new forms, and new constructive typologies, creating one of the most prolific centuries that Granada has known. During the 16th century, there was an adaptation of the Gothic construction techniques to the new Renaissance forms, which developed in new techniques and stonework strategies in order to reproduce the Renaissance architectural forms imported from Italy. The main problem to solve when building vaults and stone constructions is usually stability, so that the most critical factor to consider is not resistance, but the shape of the whole structure as a single object. That is why the problems in these kind of constructions are a geometric issue. That is why it is necessary to conceive, before the execution, a scheme of division in pieces. Stereotomy is the discipline that studies the layouts and necessary processes of stonecutting for the execution of stone pieces. And it is historically accredited by the large number of treatises and manuscripts that focus their attention on the development and exhibition of different solutions. This doctoral thesis proposes to study the geometry and stereotomy of different vaults and stonework pieces built in Granada during the 16th century. To this end, we will analyze, on the one hand, the theoretical tracings and proposals existing in the treatises and Renaissance stonework manuscripts. On the other hand, we have carried out several photogrammetric surveys on a representative selection of relevant pieces in the Italian Renaissance implementation process in Spain, specifically in Granada. This study aims to allow a deeper understanding of the graphic techniques used in its geometric design, as well as the construction techniques used in its execution. It also provides an overview of the Renaissance stone construction history, its appearance, evolution and diffusion throughout the 16th century in the Granada Renaissance focus. The survey and analysis of the singular masonry pieces in Granada, together with the analysis of the existing documentation, the stonework texts and the constructions before and after them, have allowed us to reach the main objective of this thesis: the determination of the geometric configuration and constructive features of the analyzed pieces, as well as their influence and relevant role in the construction history in Spain. The analysis of the vaults of the building has evidenced the innovative character of the Renaissance works executed in Granada after the reincorporation of the city to the Kingdom of Castile. But we do not only find innovations in the problems that are approached, but also in the methods that were used. The research carried out has revealed the remarkable evolution of the "grid crossing vaults" in Granada architecture, presenting complex geometric solutions, such as in the octogonal head of San Jerónimo, the vaulted passages of the cathedral, or the chapel previous to the sacristy in the Cathedral, where we find a possible antecedent of the well-known "Ochavo de La Guardia" after the analysis carried out. After the surveying, a great skill has been demonstrated in the control of oval and elliptical forms of different proportions, as in the halls of the palace of Carlos V, or in its famous ring vault, whose oval profile is balanced when presenting the lintel at the same high as the first course on the opposite side. Another singular case is that of the extreme skewed vaulted passages of the cathedral, whose different obliquity in height and width forces the construction of half-ellipses instead of semi-circumferences, as in the central steps. The results obtained are quite interesting, regarding to the evolution of certain pieces and their relationship with masonry texts, being the most notable case the one of the lunettes. From the pointed lunettes of the crypt of the palace of Carlos V, to the spherical lunettes of the dome of the cathedral, we find a series of pieces with different geometric configurations, whose analysis has been even more interesting when comparing them with later solutions and those exposed in the treatises, which, as we shall see, are closely related. If in the crypt we find probably the first stone pointed lunettes, with horizontal and continuous whole joints, in the western hall of the same building we have found a solution of cylindrical lunette, where the resulting intersection is a very close curve to the theoretical solution of the texts. In the southern hall of the same palace, however, we find pointed lunettes and rare-arches, whereas in the dome of the cathedral spherical lunettes are opened, reason why we are before a great range of solutions for the same piece that has turned out really interesting for the current research. Therefore, after analyzing all the discussions considered, the protagonist of masonry works executed in Granada during the 16th century is undeniable. Given the scant background of the analyzed pieces from a geometrical and constructive point of view, its innovative character is evident, becoming a notable influence on the Renaissance stonework texts and on the constructive practice at the same time. ; Escuela Internacional de Doctorado ; Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena ; Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Arquitectura y Tecnología de la Edificación
Mención Europea/Internacional concedida. ; [SPA] Debido a la gran reforma urbanística y arquitectónica desarrollada en Granada durante el siglo XVI, fruto del contexto económico y político de la ciudad, ésta se convierte en un gran laboratorio renacentista donde experimentar nuevas formas y tipologías constructivas. En este contexto, aparece la cantería renacentista como la interpretación española del Renacimiento italiano, que se basa en el uso de la piedra como material de construcción frente al empleo del ladrillo en Italia. Esta tesis doctoral plantea el estudio de la estereotomía de distintas fábricas y piezas de cantería construidas en Granada durante el siglo XVI. Para ello se han analizado, por un lado, los tratados y manuscritos de cantería del XVI, así como sus posibles antecedentes constructivos; y por otra parte, se han llevado a cabo levantamientos fotogramétricos de una selección representativa de piezas relevantes de cantería en Granada. Este estudio ha permitido profundizar en el conocimiento de las técnicas empleadas en su diseño geométrico y en su ejecución, aportando una visión de conjunto sobre la aparición, evolución y difusión de la construcción pétrea a lo largo del siglo XVI en el foco renacentista granadino. El análisis de las bóvedas de los edificios estudiados tras los levantamientos realizados ha evidenciado el carácter innovador de las obras renacentistas ejecutadas en Granada tras la reincorporación de la ciudad al Reino de Castilla. Pero no sólo encontramos innovaciones en los problemas que se abordan, sino en los métodos que se emplean. La investigación realizada ha puesto de manifiesto, en primer lugar, la notable evolución de las bóvedas por cruceros en la arquitectura granadina, presentando soluciones geométricas complejas, como en el monasterio de San Jerónimo y en la catedral. Por otra parte, tras los levantamientos ha quedado patente una gran destreza en el control de formas ovales y elípticas de distintas proporciones, como ocurre en los zaguanes del palacio de Carlos V, o en su famosa bóveda anular, junto con los pasos extremos de la catedral, cuyo abocinamiento desigual en altura y anchura fuerza la construcción de semielipes en lugar de semicircunferencias, como ocurre en los pasos centrales. También son interesantes los resultados obtenidos con respecto a la evolución de ciertas piezas y su relación con los textos de cantería, siendo el caso más notable el de la gran variedad de lunetos ejecutados en Granada durante el siglo XVI, especialmente en el palacio de Carlos V. Por último, los resultados obtenidos sugieren la existencia de relaciones, influencias y una importante transferencia de conocimientos entre los distintos focos arquitectónicos del Renacimiento en el Sur de la Península, como Murcia, Jaén o Sevilla a través de las obras construidas y sus ejecutores. Por tanto, tras analizar todas las discusiones consideradas, es innegable el protagonismo de las obras de cantería ejecutadas en Granada a lo largo del siglo XVI. Dados los escasos antecedentes de las piezas analizadas desde el punto de vista geométrico y constructivo, su carácter innovador es evidente, llegando a ejercer una notable influencia sobre los textos de cantería renacentista y sobre la práctica constructiva al mismo tiempo. ; [ENG] Although some authors have downplayed the importance of the Andalusian focus of new Renaissance architecture, many others have attributed a great importance to it. In this context, Granada acquires a special relevance, due to the historical events of the late 15th century, whose political, social, cultural and artistic consequences were noticed in the city throughout the 16th century. Architectural and urban changes in the city made Granada a great Renaissance laboratory to experience new forms, and new constructive typologies, creating one of the most prolific centuries that Granada has known. During the 16th century, there was an adaptation of the Gothic construction techniques to the new Renaissance forms, which developed in new techniques and stonework strategies in order to reproduce the Renaissance architectural forms imported from Italy. The main problem to solve when building vaults and stone constructions is usually stability, so that the most critical factor to consider is not resistance, but the shape of the whole structure as a single object. That is why the problems in these kind of constructions are a geometric issue. That is why it is necessary to conceive, before the execution, a scheme of division in pieces. Stereotomy is the discipline that studies the layouts and necessary processes of stonecutting for the execution of stone pieces. And it is historically accredited by the large number of treatises and manuscripts that focus their attention on the development and exhibition of different solutions. This doctoral thesis proposes to study the geometry and stereotomy of different vaults and stonework pieces built in Granada during the 16th century. To this end, we will analyze, on the one hand, the theoretical tracings and proposals existing in the treatises and Renaissance stonework manuscripts. On the other hand, we have carried out several photogrammetric surveys on a representative selection of relevant pieces in the Italian Renaissance implementation process in Spain, specifically in Granada. This study aims to allow a deeper understanding of the graphic techniques used in its geometric design, as well as the construction techniques used in its execution. It also provides an overview of the Renaissance stone construction history, its appearance, evolution and diffusion throughout the 16th century in the Granada Renaissance focus. The survey and analysis of the singular masonry pieces in Granada, together with the analysis of the existing documentation, the stonework texts and the constructions before and after them, have allowed us to reach the main objective of this thesis: the determination of the geometric configuration and constructive features of the analyzed pieces, as well as their influence and relevant role in the construction history in Spain. The analysis of the vaults of the building has evidenced the innovative character of the Renaissance works executed in Granada after the reincorporation of the city to the Kingdom of Castile. But we do not only find innovations in the problems that are approached, but also in the methods that were used. The research carried out has revealed the remarkable evolution of the "grid crossing vaults" in Granada architecture, presenting complex geometric solutions, such as in the octogonal head of San Jerónimo, the vaulted passages of the cathedral, or the chapel previous to the sacristy in the Cathedral, where we find a possible antecedent of the well-known "Ochavo de La Guardia" after the analysis carried out. After the surveying, a great skill has been demonstrated in the control of oval and elliptical forms of different proportions, as in the halls of the palace of Carlos V, or in its famous ring vault, whose oval profile is balanced when presenting the lintel at the same high as the first course on the opposite side. Another singular case is that of the extreme skewed vaulted passages of the cathedral, whose different obliquity in height and width forces the construction of half-ellipses instead of semi-circumferences, as in the central steps. The results obtained are quite interesting, regarding to the evolution of certain pieces and their relationship with masonry texts, being the most notable case the one of the lunettes. From the pointed lunettes of the crypt of the palace of Carlos V, to the spherical lunettes of the dome of the cathedral, we find a series of pieces with different geometric configurations, whose analysis has been even more interesting when comparing them with later solutions and those exposed in the treatises, which, as we shall see, are closely related. If in the crypt we find probably the first stone pointed lunettes, with horizontal and continuous whole joints, in the western hall of the same building we have found a solution of cylindrical lunette, where the resulting intersection is a very close curve to the theoretical solution of the texts. In the southern hall of the same palace, however, we find pointed lunettes and rare-arches, whereas in the dome of the cathedral spherical lunettes are opened, reason why we are before a great range of solutions for the same piece that has turned out really interesting for the current research. Therefore, after analyzing all the discussions considered, the protagonist of masonry works executed in Granada during the 16th century is undeniable. Given the scant background of the analyzed pieces from a geometrical and constructive point of view, its innovative character is evident, becoming a notable influence on the Renaissance stonework texts and on the constructive practice at the same time. ; Escuela Internacional de Doctorado ; Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena ; Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Arquitectura y Tecnología de la Edificación
China pays growing attention to security issues as it sees security policy as an integral component of sustainable development. The article analyzes new trends in Chinese foreign and security policy in Africa. China, which adheres to the principle of non-interference in internal affairs of African states, does not participate in armed confrontation, but acts as an influential player in global diplomacy. The article examines the threats posed to China by conflicts and terrorist attacks in which Chinese companies operating on the continent are often targeted. The purpose of the article is to assess the scale of these threats and analyze steps Beijing has taken to protect its citizens and businesses abroad. These policies and measures include China's participation in peacekeeping operations in Africa and creation of 50 new security programs in accordance with the 2019–2021 China–Africa Action Plan. China's People's Liberation Army (PLA) has upgraded its Military Training Center to train international peacekeepers, many of whom are Africans. China trains several hundred African officers annually at schools such as China Military Academy, Dalian Naval Academy, Air Force Aviation Academy, and the PLA National Defense University. The PLA Navy participates in international anti-piracy patrols in the Gulf of Aden and the Gulf of Guinea. The authors view China's expansion of maritime cooperation with Africa through anti-piracy patrols as part of its geopolitical and economic strategy. Peacekeeping missions are often complemented by high-level Chinese mediation efforts: Beijing has taken initiatives to resolve conflicts in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, South Sudan, Zimbabwe, and offered to mediate in the border conflict between Eritrea and Djibouti. Finally, China's role as one of the main arms suppliers to sub-Saharan Africa is explored. 中国与非洲国家合作中的和平安全问题 中国高度重视安全问题，认为解决安全问题是可持续发展的必要组成部分。 本文分析了中国对非外交政策的新动向。中国坚持不干涉非洲国家内政原则，不参与武装对抗，而是在全球外交中扮演有影响力的角色。文章探讨了冲突和恐怖袭击对中国构成的威胁，在非洲大陆运营的中国公司经常成为攻击目标。本文的目的是评估威胁的规模以及北京为保护海外公民和企业所采取的措施。中国积极参与在非维和行动。根据《中非行动计划2019-2021》创建了50 个新的安全项目。中国人民解放军升级了国际维和人员培训教学中心，维和人员中有很多非洲人。每年数百名军官在中国军事学院、大连海军学院、空军航空学院、国防大学培训。中国海军参加亚丁湾、几内亚湾国际反海盗巡逻。通过反海盗巡逻扩大中国与非洲的海上合作是其地缘政治和经济战略的一部分。维和行动往往得到中国高层调解努力的补充。例如：北京在苏丹民主共和国、南苏丹、津巴布韦的调解举措，以及愿意调解厄立特里亚和吉布提之间的边境冲突。中国是撒哈拉以南非洲地区的主要武器供应国之一。
El cambio climático como fenómeno global preocupa a todo el mundo y se manifiesta en lo cotidiano a través de diversos desórdenes del clima. El Panel Intergubernamental de Cambio Climático (IPCC), en su cuarto informe de evaluación presentado el 2007, y la Organización Mundial de Meteorología (OMM) han establecido que desde el 2001 la temperatura media global en el planeta registra el nivel de aumento más alto de nuestra historia. A este ritmo, y por lo difícil que resulta encontrar una solución aun en el mediano plazo, todo indica que el 2013 no será la excepción.Las causas del cambio climático son atribuidas a factores naturales pero también antropogénicos; existe ya consenso respecto a la influencia de los gases de efecto invernadero (GEI), sobre todo el dióxido de carbono (CO2) en este proceso acelerado de calentamiento del planeta.Esta crisis del clima, como una forma de ser enfrentada, hoy está obligando a los países a promover proyectos que reduzcan las emisiones de GEI y permitan el almacenamiento de carbono. Uno de los mecanismos internacionales establecidos para concretar este objetivo son los bonos de carbono, iniciativa dispuesta por el Protocolo de Kioto, acuerdo jurídicamente vinculante firmado en 1997 y en vigor desde el 2005. Expiró el año pasado, pero la histórica Conferencia de Doha, Catar, decidió en diciembre último prorrogar la vigencia del tratado hasta el 2020.El protocolo, en su primera fase, exige a las grandes potencias reducir durante el período 2008-2012 la emisión de gases en un 5,2% por debajo del nivel de 1990. Lo interesante es que las empresas de tales potencias, para cumplir esta obligación, pueden hacerlo en cualquier lugar o comprar bonos de carbono de países que superen las metas exigidas. La emisión de estos bonos es, después de todo, una iniciativa de descontaminación, que permite que los países industrializados sigan con sus prácticas contaminantes, en tanto inviertencapitales en los países subdesarrollados para reducir en su favor las emisiones de GEI.Esta iniciativa ha generado un mercado de compra y venta de certificados de emisiones reducidas (CER). Nuestro país tiene enormes posibilidades para captar estos recursos. Se trata, entonces, de una oportunidad para ingresar a este mercado y generar importantes recursos que pueden ser invertidos en mayor investigación, desarrollo e innovación (I+D+i) en los mismos procesos de adaptación y mitigación del cambio climático.Perú tiene 13 humedales reconocidos y protegidos por la convención Ramsar, uno de estos humedales es el lago Chinchaycocha - el segundo más extenso del país - que debe ser visto hoy como un ecosistema que brinda servicios ambientales diversos y su conservación por lo tanto debe darse en el ámbito del mercado de bonos de carbono. Es la razón por la que en esta oportunidad con fines de determinar su potencial capacidad de almacenamiento de carbono, la Universidad Continental con el apoyo del Servicio Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas por el Estado (SERNANP) ha desarrollado entre los años 2011 y 2012 el importante proyecto de investigación "Almacenamiento de carbono en especies predominantes de flora en el lago Chinchaycocha" y así tener a futuro una adecuada valoración de este gran humedal en estos tiempos en los que su conservación responsable es clave como parte de los procesos de adaptación y mitigación al cambio climático global.La revista científica Apuntes de Ciencia & Sociedad en este número expresa especial interés en poner a disposición de la comunidad científica y académica los resultados del mencionado proyecto de investigación como muestra de nuestro compromiso con la ciencia y la vida. ; Climate change as a global phenomenon concerns worldwide and is manifested in everyday life through various climatic disorders. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its Fourth Assessment Report presented in 2007, and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) have established that since 2001 the global average temperature on the planet recorded the highest level of increase in our history. At this rate, and also the difficulty of finding a solution even in the medium term, it appears that 2013 won't be the exception.The weather change causes are attributed to natural factors but also anthropogenic; there is already a consensus on the greenhouse effect gases (GHG) influence, especially carbon dioxide (CO2) in this accelerated process of global warming.This climate crisis as a way to be faced, is now forcing countries to promote projects which reduce GHG emissions and permit carbon storage. One of the international established mechanisms to achieve this goal are the carbon credits initiative disposed by the Kyoto Protocol, a legally binding agreement signed in 1997 and in force since 2005. It expired last year, but the historical Doha Conference, Qatar, decided last December to extend the validity of the treaty until 2020.The protocol, in its first phase, demands the main powers during the period 2008-2012 to reduce gas emissions by 5,2 % below the level of 1990. The interesting thing is that such powerful companies to enforce this obligation, can do it anywhere or buy carbon credits from countries that exceed the required goals. The emission of these credits is, after all, a decontamination initiative, which allows industrialized countries to continue their polluting practices, while investing capital in underdeveloped countries to reduce GHG emissions on their behalf.This initiative has created a market for Certified Emission Reductions (CER) buying and selling. Our country has enormous potential to capture these resources. It is, then, an opportunity to enter this market and generate significant resources that can be invested in more research, development and innovation (R + D + i) in the same adaptation processes and climate change mitigation.Peru has 13 recognized and protected wetlands by the Ramsar convention, one of these wetlands is the Chinchaycocha lake - the second largest in the country - that must be seen today as an ecosystem that provides various environmental services and conservation, therefore it must be in the carbon credits market scope. It's the reason and with the purpose of determining its carbon storage capacity potential, the Universidad Continental with the National Service of Protected Natural Areas by the Government (SERNANP)'s support have developed between 2011 and 2012 the important research project "Carbon storing in predominant flora species in the Chinchaycocha lake" so in the future achieve a proper assessment of this wetland nowadays when responsible conservation is the key for adaptation and climate change mitigation.The "Apuntes de Ciencia & Sociedad" scientific journal in this number expresses special interest in making available to the scientific and academic community the results of that research project as a demonstration of our commitment to science and life.
In this dissertation, we are mainly interested in the interactions between poverty and one of its greatest dimensions1, namely health. More specifically, we will focus on their inequalities: does poverty inequality have more effect on poverty than health level? Does health inequality matter to poverty? Poverty and health are two related concepts that both express human deprivation. Health is said to be one of the most important dimensions of poverty and vice-versa. That is, poverty implies poor health because of a low investment in health, a bad environment and sanitation and other living conditions due to poverty, a poor nutrition (thus a greater risk of illness), a limited access to, and use of, health care, a lower health education and investment in health, etc2. Conversely, poor health leads inevitably to poverty due to high opportunity costs occasioned by ill-health such as unemployment or limited employability (thus a loss of income and revenues), a lower productivity (due to loss of strength, skills and ability), a loss of motivation and energy (which lengthen the duration of job search), high health care expenditures (or catastrophic expenditures), etc3. But what are the degree of correlation and the direction of the causality between these two phenomena? Which causes which? This is a classic problem of simultaneity that has become a great challenge for economists. Worst, each of these phenomena (health and poverty) has many dimensions4. How to reconcile two multidimensional and simultaneous events? 1 Aside the income-related material deprivation. 2 Tenants of the ?Absolute Income? hypothesis for instance show that absolute income level of individual has positive impact on their health status (Preston, 1975; Deaton, 2003). Conversely, lack of income (and the poverty state it implies) leads unambiguously to poor health. For other authors, it is not the absolute level per se, but the relative level (i.e. comparably to others in the society) that impacts most health outcomes. This is the ?Relative Income? hypothesis (see van Doorslaer and Wagstaff, 2000, for a summary). 3 See Sen (1999) and more recently Marmot (2001) for more information. 4 Poverty could be seen as monetary poverty, human poverty, social poverty, etc. Identically, one talks of mental health, physical health, ?positive? and ?negative? health, etc. So a one-on-one causality could not possibly exits between the two, or will be hard to establish. We?ve chosen the first way of causality: that is, poverty (and inequality) causes poor health. As justification, we consider a life-cycle theory approach (Becker, 1962). An individual is born with a given stock of health. This stock is supposed to be adequate enough. During his life, this stock is submitted to depreciation due to health shocks and aging (Becker?s theory, 1962). We could think that the poorer you are, the more difficult is your capacity to invest in your health5. Empirically, many surveys (too numerous to be enumerated here) show that poor people6 do have worse health status (that is, high mortality and morbidity rates, poor access to health services, etc.). It has been established that poor children are less healthy worldwide, independently of the region or country considered. It is generally agreed that the best way to improve the health of the poor is through pro-poor growth policies and redistribution. Empirically, one of the major achievements of these last two decades in developing countries is the improvement in health status of populations (notably the drop in mortality rates and higher life expectations) following periods of (sustained) economic growth. However, is this relation always true? In some countries as we will see later in this thesis, while observing an improvement in the population?s welfare, the converse is observed in its health status, or vice versa. If health and poverty are so closely related, they should theoretically move in the same direction. But the fact that in some countries we observe opposite trends suggests that some dimensions of health and poverty are not or may not be indeed so closely related, as postulated, and that they may depend of other factors. 1. The Purpose of the Study. 5 Another justification is that many authors have studied the problem the other way. Schultz and Tansel (1992, 1997) for instance showed that ill-health causes a loss of revenues in rural Cote d?Ivoire. Audibert, Mathonnat et al. (2003) also showed that malaria caused a loss of earnings of rural cotton producers in Cote d?Ivoire. 6 Usually defined from some income or expenditure-related metric or some assets-based metric. The ultimate goal of our dissertation in its essence is to measure inequality in health7 in developing countries using mainly Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS, henceforth)8. It deals with interactions between poverty and one of its greatest dimensions, putting aside the income-related material deprivation, namely health. It therefore measures inequality in health status and access to health and discusses which policies should be implemented to correct these inequalities. That is, it aims to see how much rich people are better off and benefit from health interventions, as compared to the poor, and how to reduce such an inequality. The present dissertation contains four papers that are related to these questions. Our main hypothesis (that will be tested) is that poverty impacts health through inequality effects9. Graphically, we can lay these simple relationships as: The dashed line in the figure above suggests that income inequality could impact health directly. But we consider that this direct effect is rather small or negligible, as compared to the indirect effect through inequality in health. Therefore, inequality in health is central to our discussion. To measure inequalities in health, we face three challenges: 7 And corollary health sanitation (access to safe water, toilet and electricity). Though electricity is more a measure of economic development that health measure per se, we add it here as a control for sanitation and nutrition: for example women could read more carefully the drugs? notices, or warm more quickly foods; more generally, electricity often improves the mental and material wellbeing of households. It also conditions health facility?s performance. 8 And potentially other surveys. In this case, we mention explicitly the survey(s). 9 The other important factor that could impact health is the performance of the health system. This is discussed in the Chapter 3. Health Assets Inequality Health Inequality Poverty (Assets Index) - measuring welfare (income metric) and subsequently inequality in welfare, - measuring health, - and measuring inequality in health. The measurements can be conducted using two approaches (Sahn, 2003): - Directly by ranking the households or individuals vis-à-vis their performance in the health indicator; we thus have a direct measure of inequality in health. This is suitable when the health indicator is continuous (such as weight, height or body mass index). According to Prof. David E. Sahn, that approach ?which has been referred to as the univariate approach to measuring pure health inequality, involves making comparisons of cardinal or scalar indicators of health inequality and distributions of health, regardless of whether health is correlated with welfare measured along other dimensions?. - Indirectly by finding a scaling measure such as consumption or income or another indicator (assets index for instance)10 that would help ranking the households or individuals (from the poorest to the richest), and see what are their performance in the health variable of interest. We are therefore measuring an indirect health inequality. The indirect method is mostly suitable when the health indicator is dichotomous (for example whether the individual has got diarrhoea last 2 weeks, or ?have the child been vaccinated?, or ?place of delivery?) or is a rate (such as child mortality). Again, quoting Prof. Sahn, ?making comparisons of health across populations with different social and economic characteristics is often referred to in the literature as following the so-called `gradient? or `socioeconomic? approach to health inequality. Much of the motivation for this work on the gradient approach to health inequality arises out of fundamental concerns over social and economic justice. The roots of the gradient will often arise from various types of discrimination, prejudice, and other legal, social, and economic norms that may contribute to stratification and fragmentation, and subsequently inequality in access to material resources and various correlated welfare outcomes?. While the first method would appear quickly limited for dummy or limited categorical health variables because of the small variability in the population, the second approach could also be 10 Or more generally any other socioeconomic gradient such as education, gender or location. impossible when no information is available to scale the units of observation in terms of welfare. We?ll be mostly focusing on the second approach, as did many health economists, and also due to the nature of the DHS datasets in hand and the indicators that we are investigating. 2. Strategy, Methods and Structure. Measuring wealth-related inequality in health implies in the first stage defining and characterizing the poor. Who are indeed the poor? Traditionally, monetary measures (income or consumption) have been used to distinguish households or people into ?rich? and ?poor? classes. Indeed, it is agreed that the ?incomemetric? approach is one of the best ways to measure welfare11. However, it sometimes, if not often, happens that we lack this essential information in household survey datasets. Especially in our case, the DHS datasets do not have income nor consumption information. Then, how to characterize the poor in this situation? For a long time, economists have eluded the question. But soon, it became evident that an alternative measure is needed to strengthen the ?poverty debate?. In the first part of our dissertation, we start by providing a theoretical framework to find a proxy for wellbeing, in the case where consumption or income-related data are missing, namely by discussing the use of assets as such a proxy. The first part of this thesis is relatively long, as compared to the second. However, this is justified, due to its purpose. The goal of the first part of the dissertation is to participate to the research agenda on poverty. It attempts to measure it in a ?non traditional?12 way. 11 There is a consensus in the economic literature that income is more suitable to measure wealth or welfare in developed countries while consumption is more adequate for developing ones due to various reasons such as irregularity of incomes for informal sector, seasonality, prices, recall periods, trustworthy, etc. (see Deaton 1998 for detail). 12 i.e. a non monetary way. The main rationale for this first part therefore is thus to find a new, non monetary measure to characterize in best, life conditions, welfare and then the poor. This measure is referred to as the ?assets index?. Indeed, as the majority of developing countries are engaged more and more in fighting poverty, inequality and deprivation, more and more information on the state of poverty13 is needed. If in almost all these countries, many household surveys have been implemented to collect information on socioeconomic indicators, the major indicator that is needed to analyze poverty (namely income or consumption data) is unfortunately not often collected due to various reasons (time, cost, periodicity, etc.). Even, if they were collected, the quality of the data is often poor. Therefore, economists tend to rely more on other indicators to compensate for the absence of monetary measures. One of the indicators often used are the assets owned by households. The question arose then how to use these assets to characterize the poor in this context? How to weight each of them? In a first attempt, many economists built a simple linear index by assigning arbitrary weights to the assets14. In a seminal paper, Filmer and Pritchett (2001) propose to construct the so-called ?assets index? which could be used as a proxy for consumption or income. It is commonly agreed that their methodology follows a ?scientific? approach, thus is more credible. In their case, they use a Principal Component Analysis (PCA, henceforth) to build their assets index. Since, many other economists have followed in their footsteps which we label in our dissertation, the ?material? poverty approach (as opposed to the monetary one) since it is based on materials (goods and assets) owned by the households or individuals. Because of the importance of the subject (poverty) and because the method is pretty new and original, this first part of our thesis is as said quite long as compared to the second one and has two papers which focus mainly on poverty and inequality issues and their connections with economic growth. In this part, we start by presenting a methodology of measuring non monetary (material) poverty, when a consumption or income data is not available. We show how one can obtain robust results using assets or wealth variables. Once the method is clearly 13 And more generally welfare. 14 For example a television is given a weight of 100, a radio 50, and so on. But this is clearly not a `scientific? way to proceed, as there is no rational ground in giving such weights. tested and validated, it is then confronted to real data. We show that the index shares basically the same properties with monetary metrics and roughly scales households in the same way as does the consumption or income variables. We discuss the advantages and also the limitations of using the assets index. The important thing to bear in mind is that, once it is obtained, it could be used to rank the observational units by wealth or welfare level. - The first chapter defines in a first section poverty and how it is usually measured (by the income metric approach). We discuss the limitations of the use of income/expenditure and what could be alternative measures. We then propose in section 2 the assets metric as a proxy for poverty measurement and test the material poverty approach on international datasets collected by the DHS program. We explore the material poverty and inequality nexus in the world and how Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)15 compares with other regions. We show, using that index and DHS data, that poverty, at least from an assets point of view, was also decreasing in SSA as well as in other regions of the world. This result contrasts with other findings such as Ravallion and Chen (2001) or Sala-i-Martin (2002) that show that, while other regions of the world are experiencing a decline in their (monetary) poverty rates, SSA is lagging behind, with rates starting to rise over the last decade. Therefore, two different measures of welfare could yield opposite results and messages in terms of policies to implement to combat poverty. Moreover, the method we use not only allows observing changes over time for each country, but also provides a natural ranking among countries (from the poorest to the richest). In this chapter, aside the measure of welfare and poverty, we also discuss in a final section the impact of demographic transition on economic growth and therefore on poverty. Indeed, demographic transition is a new phenomenon that is occurring in developing countries, especially African ones. Its negligence could lead to underestimating poverty measures (both material and monetary) by underestimating real economic growth rates. We show that changes in the composition and the size of households put an extra-pressure on the development process. While traditional authors have not considered the impact of these 15 SSA countries are Benin, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Chad, Comoros, Republic of Congo, Côte d?Ivoire, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Kenya, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The ?rest of the world? is represented by Armenia, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Moldova, Morocco, Nepal, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Turkey, Uzbekistan, Vietnam and Yemen. changes, we show that taking this into account implies higher economic growth rates than those actually observed or forecasted. - Once the assets index approach is established and tested on international data, the question arose how it performs as compared to the monetary metric. Indeed, if monetary measures remain the reference, then our assets index should share some common properties with them. The second chapter assesses the trends in material poverty in Ghana from the assets perspective using the Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaires Surveys (CWIQ). It then compared these trends with the monetary poverty over roughly the same period. We show that the assets index could be used and yields the same consistent results as using other welfare variable (such as income, consumption or expenditure). Therefore, using two consecutive CWIQ surveys, we find that material poverty in Ghana has decreased roughly by the same magnitude as monetary one, as found in other studies by other authors such as Coulombe and McKay (2007) using Ghanaian GLSS16 consumption data. Thus, this chapter could thus be viewed as providing the proof that the material and the monetary approaches could be equivalent. The second part of our dissertation seeks how to define and measure health and inequality in health. While the definition of health is not obvious, we propose to measure it with child mortality rates. Our main rationale in doing so is that low child mortality generates, ceteris paribus, higher life expectancy17, thus is an adequate measure of a population?s health. This may not be true in areas devastated by wars, famines, and HIV and other pandemics where child mortality could be high (in this case, the best measure should be life expectancy by age groups). Also, the reader should bear in mind that in fact, child mortality could be itself is a good indicator for measuring the (success of the) economic development level of a society as a whole (Sen, 1995), mainly because in developing countries, child mortality is highly correlated to factors linked to the level of development such as access to safe water, sanitation, vaccination coverage, access to health care, etc. - In the third chapter, we focus on measuring overall population?s health. For this, we estimate child mortality in SSA and compare it to the rest of the world. We explore the 16 Ghana Living Standard Surveys. 17 By construction, life expectancy at birth is highly correlated and sensitive to child mortality (it is based on child mortality rates for various cohorts). Lower child mortality rates lead to higher life expectancy and vice versa. determinants of child mortality using mainly a Weibull model and DHS data with socioeconomic variables18 as one of our major covariates. The use of the assets index information is to see how these quintiles behave in a multivariate regression framework of child mortality (i.e. how they affect child mortality). We find, among others, that mother?s education and access to health care and sanitation are one of the strongest predictors for child survival. Controlling for education and other factors, family?s wealth and the area of residency do not really matter for child survival in SSA, contrasting with results found elsewhere. - The fourth and last chapter answers the ultimate goal of this dissertation, that is, the scope of health inequalities in the developing world, particularly in SSA. It uses the factor analysis (FA) method of Chapter 1 to rank household according to their economic gradient status19 and then studies inequalities in various health indicators in relation with these groups. The intention is to analyze inequality rates between rich and poor for various health variables. In this chapter, we concentrate solely on inequality issues in health and health-related infrastructures and services. Mainly, we analyze inequality in access to sanitation infrastructures (water and electricity20) and various health status and access to health indicators (such as child death, child anthropometry, medically assisted delivery and vaccination coverage) using a Gini and Marginal Gini Income Elasticity approach (GIE and MGIE, henceforth) on one hand, and the Concentration Index (CI) approach on the other. Results show that, while almost all countries have made great efforts in improving coverage in, and access to, these indicators, almost all the gains have been captured by the better-offs of the society, especially in SSA. We extend the analysis to compare GIE estimates to those of CI and find consistent results yielding quite similar messages. 18 Quintiles groups derived from an assets index. 19 By grouping usually households in 5 quintiles from poorer to richer ones. 20 On the rationale of using electricity, see footnote 7 above. 3. Results and Policy Implications. As said above, the major goal in conducting this thesis research is to analyze inequality in health status, health care and health-related services using DHS data. To reach our objective, we follow two intermediate steps: - For assets poverty, results show that assets poverty and inequality are decreasing in every region of the world, including Sub-Saharan Africa. This tends to support our hypothesis that, contrary to common beliefs, African households use assets and building ownerships as saving tools and buffer to economic shocks. The first paper also shows however that the demographic transition actually occurring in developing countries could impede on economic growth and trigger a bullet on policies aiming at combating poverty. - Our third paper shows that child mortality is decreasing in all parts the world. However, the 1990s and early 2000s have been a lost decade for the African continent where many countries have witnessed an increase in rates that is mostly attributable among other factors to the economic and financial turmoils of the 1990s and early 2000s and the HIV epidemic. Our hypothesis is that these phenomena have destabilized the organization of the health care system, cut its funding and hampered its performance. High levels of health inequality can also be part of the puzzle. Coming back to the particular case of HIV/AIDS, the reader should observe that it affects more and more the less poor so that it can also lead to a decline in assets inequality (richer people are dying) along with an increase in child mortality and thus explain in great part our paradox. This setback (the rise in mortality over recent periods despite poverty reduction) will make impossible for these countries to reach the millennium development goals, at least for child mortality. The conclusion to this is that African population?s health has been stagnant over the period 1990-2005. Regression analysis reveals no strong correlation between our measure of welfare (assets index) and child mortality. More important are mothers? education and access to health care and sanitation services. - Finally, our inequality estimates show that they are quite high for all indicators considered. For ill-health indicators (child malnutrition and death), rates are excessively concentrated in poor and rural groups. Concerning access to health care services, rich and urban groups tend to be more favoured than poor and urban ones. But the high level of inequality tends to be reducing at the margin over time, as the poor have increasing access. Finally for access to sanitation services, results show that while the majority of countries have made substantial efforts to increase coverage on the first two periods, the rich and urban classes have benefited more and inequality (which is at high levels) tends to rise at the margin over time, especially for the poor. More preoccupying is the fact that rates are falling between 1995-2000 and 2000-2005, probably because of the privatization of these services and the new costs they impose on households. Overall, inequality in all variables considered is more pronounced in SSA than the rest of the world (expect for death and malnutrition). The sub-continent is still disadvantaged in terms of access to services or ill-health. Where to go from here? In the African sub-continent, we have the following picture: a decreasing (material) poverty and inequality but coupled with a stagnant child mortality situation, a stagnant or increasing malnutrition. This is mostly due to high levels of, and an increasing inequality at the margin in access to sanitation and electricity services coupled with a decreasing access to these services. Thus, despite the fact that we observe a decreasing inequality at the margin in access to health care (even though the average level of inequality is still high) the missing link in health-related services coupled with an overall high inequality in these two types of services hugely impact child health and survival. Therefore, as access to health care services and health-related sanitation services is essential to child survival, our findings call for vigorous policies to promote access of the poor groups and rural areas to these services. African Governments should continue to favour access of the poor to health care and reverse the inequality trends in access to water, sanitation and electricity. This is vital for the health of the population and for the development of Africa. Funding can come from various sources: the Government Budget, International Assistance but also from households themselves (since the first part of our thesis has demonstrated that they are getting richer (and various surveys show that they are willing to pay for quality health care), an adequate fees policy could benefit to the health care system). Measures should be put in place to strengthen the performance of the health system and to mitigate the negative effects of macroeconomic imbalances, economic crises and HIV/AIDS. Only on these conditions the Sub-Continent could hope to eradicate poverty and promote health for all. 4. Contribution of this Thesis. This thesis seeks to analyze empirically the inequality in health and access to health in SSA and how this region compared to the rest of the world. To do so, it develops a new method to characterize poor households and to analyze assets-based poverty, when the monetary measure is unavailable. Such a method is indeed necessary as almost all developing countries have collected many surveys that lack the consumption or income information. Once a poverty measure and a correct measure of health have been found, and their core determinants clearly established, we then proceed to the health inequality analysis, along with its determinants, using two methodologies: the traditional CI and the more recent GIE approaches. These approaches have been the mostly used to explore the inequality in health and access to health these last years. Though already studied in the literature, and sometimes applied on DHS or some groups of DHS datasets, our dissertation differs in its purpose and scope and its large scale. No paper to our knowledge used the totally to-date freely available DHS datasets to study poverty and inequality topics and provide basic statistics. Our main contribution is to shed a new light on the welfare-inequality-health nexus in Africa, how it evolves over time and how it compares to other regions around the world, using all available information. It also put numbers on various important socioeconomic indicators such as poverty, inequality, child health and mortality, access to health-related infrastructures, etc., for developing countries, especially African ones. As we sometimes lack these important information, this thesis proves finally to be a very useful exercise. ; Cette thèse part d'un postulat simple : « l'amélioration du niveau de vie s'accompagne de l'amélioration de l'état de santé générale d'une population » et teste sa validité dans le contexte de l'Afrique au Sud du Sahara (ASS). Si cette hypothèse se vérifie en général dans le contexte de l'ASS en ce qui concerne le niveau (plus le pays est riche, plus sa population est en bonne santé), il l'est moins en ce qui concerne les dynamiques, du moins à court et moyen terme. Notamment, les pays qui connaissent une amélioration tendancielle de bien-être matériel ne connaissent pas forcément une amélioration de la santé de leurs populations. Ceci constitue un paradoxe qui viendrait invalider notre postulat. En écartant tout effet de retard ou de rattrapage qui pourrait l'expliquer car nous travaillons sur une période de 15 ans réparties en 3 sous-périodes (1990-1995, 1995-2000 et 2000-2005), nous expliquons ce paradoxe, toutes choses égales par ailleurs, par deux canaux principaux qui peuvent interagir : - la performance du système de santé et - l'inégalité en santé. Si le premier est plus évident mais aussi plus difficile à prouver empiriquement du fait du manque de données sur des séries longues, ou du fait que ces données sont trop agrégées et éparses, le second canal est testable avec des bases de données adéquates qui, elles, sont disponibles au niveau microéconomique (ménages). Les bases de données que nous avons privilégiées sont les Enquêtes Démographiques et de Santé (EDS) du fait de leur comparabilité dans l'espace et le temps (mêmes noms de variables standardisées, même méthodologie d'enquête, mêmes modules, etc.). Ces atouts sont d'autant plus importants que les comparaisons de pauvreté et de bien-être basées sur les enquêtes de revenus ou de consommation butent sur de sérieux problèmes à savoir la comparabilité de ces enquêtes (méthodologies différentes, périodes de rappel différents, prix souvent non collectés de la même manière, etc.). Pour montrer ces effets de l'inégalité de santé sur les niveaux et les tendances de la santé des populations et la pauvreté et le bien-être, nous avons axé notre recherche autour de 3 axes principaux : 1- Comment mesurer le niveau de richesse et donc le bien-être des ménages en l'absence d'information sur la consommation et le revenu ? Les chapitres 1 et 2 de notre thèse se penchent sur cette question. Nous avons privilégié, à l'instar de plus en plus d'économistes, l'utilisation des biens des ménages et les méthodes de l'analyse factorielle et d'analyse en composantes principales pour construire un indice de richesse. Cet indice de richesse est pris comme un substitut du revenu ou de la consommation et sert donc de proxy pour la mesure du bien-être. Bien qu'il comporte quelques lacunes (notamment le fait qu'il ne concerne que les biens matériels et durables du ménage alors que la consommation ou le revenu sont des concepts plus globaux de bien-être, il ne prend pas en compte les préférences des ménages, il ne comporte aucune notion de valeur car le prix n'est pas pris en compte, de telle façon qu'une petite télévision en noir blanc vieille de vingt ans est mise au même niveau qu'un grand écran plasma flambant neuf, etc.), il n'en demeure pas moins que d'un côté, avec les EDS, il n'y a pas moyen de faire autrement en l'état actuel des choses, mais aussi et surtout parce que ces données permettent d'éviter les problèmes évoqués plus haut, notamment celui de la comparabilité des données pour faire de la comparaison spatiale et inter-temporelle des données en matière de pauvreté. Dans le premier chapitre, en nous basant sur cet indice et une ligne de pauvreté définie a priori à 60% pour la première observation dans notre échantillon (Benin, 1996), et en utilisant les données EDS et une analyse en composantes principales (ACP), nous avons pu mesurer la tendance de la pauvreté dite « matérielle » (en opposition à la pauvreté monétaire, basée sur la métrique monétaire). Cette méthode qui est privilégiée par des auteurs comme Sahn et Stifel est d'autant plus intéressante qu'elle donne non seulement les tendances de la pauvreté dans chaque pays, mais elle permet aussi une classification naturelle de ces pays par ordre de grandeur de pauvreté. Cependant, dans la mesure où les biens des ménages et la dépenses de consommation sont disponibles, l'analyste devrait estimer les deux types de pauvreté (matérielle via l'indice de richesse et monétaire via le revenu ou la consommation) car les études montrent souvent que les biens matériels et la consommation ou le revenu ne sont pas très bien corrélés, et donc le choix de l'indicateur de bien-être est crucial en termes de politiques économique et de santé. En effet, si l'indicateur sous-estime le vrai niveau de pauvreté ou d'inégalité (ou les surestime), les dépenses publiques qui en résultent peuvent être plus ou moins surévaluées, de même que les réponses apportées se révéler inadéquates. Donc dans la mesure du possible, il conviendrait de se pencher sur la question du choix de l'indicateur. Les résultats de notre méthodologie montrent que l'ASS reste la région la plus pauvre du monde en termes de possession d'actifs. La région orientale de l'ASS est la plus pauvre au monde (75%) suivie de l'Asie du Sud (64%), le Sud de l'ASS (61%), l'Afrique Centrale (57%), l'Afrique de l'Ouest (55%), l'Asie de l'Ouest (40%), l'Asie du Sud-Est (19%), l'Amérique Latine (18%), les Caraïbes (17%), l'Afrique du Nord (6%), l'Asie Centrale (2%) et l'Europe de l'Est (1%). Notre analyse nous montre que la pauvreté baisse dans l'ensemble des pays Africains au Sud du Sahara (sauf la Zambie), à l'instar des autres pays du monde dans l'échantillon. En effet, en considérant les trends, nous voyons que la moyenne de l'ASS passe de 63% de pauvreté matérielle entre 1990-1995 à 62% en 1995-2000 et 58% entre 2000 et 2005. La baisse est modeste et lente mais non négligeable et surtout, elle est en accélération sur les 2 dernières périodes. Mais elle demeure toutefois beaucoup plus marquée dans le reste du monde. Concomitamment à la baisse de la pauvreté, nous observons aussi une baisse de l'inégalité. Nous terminons ce chapitre par une réflexion sur l'effet de la transition démographique sur la croissance économique et la pauvreté en ASS et dans les autres pays en développement. En effet, la chute de la fertilité et de la mortalité couplées à un exode rural font que le nombre de famille se démultiplie du fait de la transition vers des tailles plus réduites. Ceci impose plus de contraintes (et donc peut avoir un impact négatif) sur la croissance économique et risque de sous-estimer le niveau réel de pauvreté. Il convient, une fois que la pauvreté matérielle et ses tendances ont été bien calculées avec les biens durables (et la transition économique prise si possible en compte), de tester la validité de cette méthode en la confrontant avec les résultats issus de l'analyse monétaire de la pauvreté. Les EDS ne comportant pas données d'information sur la consommation, nous nous sommes tournés vers une autre source de données. Dans le chapitre 2, nous avons testé la robustesse de notre méthode dans le cas particulier du Ghana, en utilisant les enquêtes du Questionnaire Unifié sur les Indicateurs de Base de Bienêtre (QUIBB), et en confrontant les résultats issus de la méthode ACP avec ceux issus de la méthode traditionnelle monétaire et trouvons grosso modo les mêmes résultats (10% de baisse avec la méthode monétaire traditionnelle et 7% avec notre méthode sur la période 1997- 2003). Ceci valide donc le fait que la méthode que nous proposons (à savoir, mesurer le bienêtre et la pauvreté par les biens durables des ménages) est tout aussi valide que la méthode plus traditionnelle utilisant des métriques monétaires. Une analyse fine dans le cas du Ghana montre que la baisse de la pauvreté est due à une croissance économique particulièrement pro-pauvre mais aussi à des dynamiques intra et intersectorielles (réallocation des gens des secteurs moins productifs vers ceux plus productifs) et aussi une forte migration des campagnes vers les villes. Nos simulations montrent que les migrants ruraux ont aussi bénéficié de cette croissance dans les villes où ils trouvent plus d'opportunités. 2- Une fois établie que la pauvreté est en recul en ASS, nous avons voulu mesurer la tendance de la santé de sa population (approximée par les taux de mortalité infantile et infanto-juvénile). Nous discutons dans le chapitre 3 de trois méthodes pour estimer et comparer les taux de mortalité des enfants : - la méthode des cohortes fictives (sur laquelle l'équipe de l'EDS se base pour estimer les taux « officiels » de mortalité), - la méthode non paramétrique (Kaplan et Meier) que privilégient un certain nombre d'économistes et - la méthode paramétrique (Weibull) de plus en plus utilisée pour sa souplesse et sa robustesse. Les deux premières méthodes ont tendance à sous-estimer le vrai niveau de mortalité et de ce fait nous avons privilégié le Weibull. De plus, avec cette dernière, nous pouvons évaluer l'effet de chaque variable spécifique (comme l'éducation ou l'accès à l'eau) sur le niveau de mortalité. Une étude des déterminants de cette mortalité montre qu'outre l'effet attendu de l'éducation des mères, l'accès aux infrastructures de santé (soins médicaux et surtout prénataux durant et lors de l'accouchement) et sanitaires (accès aux toilettes et dans une moindre mesure à l'eau potable) en sont les principaux facteurs. L'effet de richesse joue peu en ASS (mais pas dans le reste du monde), une fois que nous contrôlons pour le lieu de résidence (urbain) et le niveau d'éducation. Ce résultat nous surprend quelque peu, même s'il a été trouvé dans d'autres études. Ensuite, nous avons calculé la mortalité prédite des enfants. De toutes les régions du monde, l'ASS a le niveau de mortalité le plus élevé (par exemple en moyenne 107 décès pour la mortalité infantile contre 51 pour le reste du monde, soit plus du double). Ce résultat était toutefois attendu. Par contre nous avons été quelque peu surpris en ce qui concerne les tendances. Le constat est que sur les 15 ans, la mortalité des enfants a très peu ou pas du tout baissé dans le sous-continent africain (et est même en augmentation dans certains pays, alors qu'ils enregistrent une baisse de la pauvreté matérielle sur la même période). En moyenne, considérant les enfants de moins d'un an, les taux sont passés de 95%o à 89.5%o pour remonter à 91.5%o pour les 3 périodes 1990-1195, 1995-2000 et 2000-2005. Ainsi sur 15 ans, la mortalité infantile n'a baissé que de 3 points et demie en moyenne et surtout, elle remonte sur la période 1995-2005. Un examen des taux de malnutrition des enfants confirme ces tendances. On pourrait dire que ces résultats sont plutôt encourageants et normaux si on fait une analyse d'ensemble du sous-continent. En effet pour l'ensemble de l'ASS, cette légère baisse semble en conformité avec la baisse de 5 points des taux de pauvreté matérielle (63% en 1990-1995 à 58% en 2000-2005). Mais l'ordre de grandeur est faible en termes de magnitude, et surtout si compare au reste du monde où on observe une baisse de la mortalité beaucoup plus conséquente. Mais c'est l'arbre qui cache la forêt. Une analyse plus fine par pays montre en effet une situation plus contrastée. Notre postulat de départ nous dit que sur une période suffisamment longue, une amélioration de bien-être s'accompagne d'une amélioration de la santé. Or on constate que certains pays qui connaissent une baisse de la pauvreté matérielle connaissent également une recrudescence de la mortalité des enfants. Pour une même année, ce résultat peut être normal, traduisant un simple décalage pour que l'amélioration de bien-être se traduise par un meilleur état de santé de la population. Mais à moyen terme (période de 5 ans), nous observons la même absence d'effet. Nous sommes donc face à un paradoxe qu'il nous faut comprendre et tenter d'expliquer. Une des pistes pour comprendre ces résultats est d'analyser la performance des systèmes de santé en Afrique. Les facteurs qui expliquent notamment cette performance sont : des facteurs « classiques » comme la performance économique des périodes passées, les montants et l'allocation des dépenses de santé, l'organisation des systèmes de santé, la baisse de la fourniture de services de soins de santé (vaccination, assistance à la naissance, soins prénataux, soins curatifs, .), la malnutrition, le SIDA, les guerres, la fuite des cerveaux notamment du personnel médical, etc., à côté de facteurs plus « subtils » ou ténus car moins saisissables comme les crises financières des années 1990s qui ont plombé certaines des économies de la sous-région, la qualité des soins, la corruption et les dessous-de-table, l'instabilité de la croissance économique (même si elle est positive), etc. La seconde voie que nous examinons pour expliquer le manque de résultat en santé dans certains pays concerne l'inégalité en santé et ceci fait l'objet de notre dernier chapitre. 3- Expliquer l'absence de lien entre santé et pauvreté dans certains pays de l'ASS : l'effet de l'inégalité en santé. Dans le chapitre 4, nous émettons l'hypothèse que le fort niveau d'inégalité dans l'accès aux services de santé et d'assainissement couplé à la faible performance du système de santé (avec en toile de fond l'impact du Sida) peuvent servir à expliquer en partie notre paradoxe. Nous considérons deux types de services : - soins de santé (vaccination, assistance médicale à la naissance et traitement médical de la diarrhée) et - hygiène et assainissement (accès à l'eau potable et à l'électricité, accès aux toilettes propres). Le choix de ces services est motivé par le fait que le modèle Weibull dans le chapitre 3 nous montre que toutes choses égales par ailleurs, ils sont cruciaux pour la survie des enfants, en particulier en Afrique. Les niveaux d'accès montrent une baisse tendancielle des taux pour les services de santé (surtout pour la vaccination) et une légère augmentation de l'accès à l'électricité et dans une moindre mesure à l'eau potable. L'accès aux toilettes propres demeure un luxe réservé à une petite fraction de la population. Pour les calculs d'inégalité, nous considérons deux indicateurs: - l'indice de concentration (pour mesurer le niveau moyen d'inégalité) - et l'élasticité-revenu du Gini (inégalité « à la marge » quand le revenu d'un individu ou d'un groupe augmente d'un point de pourcentage). Globalement, les pays d'ASS ont un niveau d'inégalité beaucoup plus élevé comme on s'y attendait par rapport au reste du monde. Pour les tendances, nous remarquons que l'inégalité marginale s'accroît pour les services d'assainissement (eau, toilette et électricité), mais qu'elle diminue pour les soins de santé. En ce qui concerne l'inégalité moyenne, elle indique une disproportion dans l'accès des classes riches par rapport à celles pauvres. Même si les groupes pauvres « rattrapent » ceux riches dans la provision de certains services, cela se fait de façon trop lente. De fait, le haut niveau d'inégalité couplé à une recrudescence de cette inégalité à la marge pour certains services tendent à annihiler les effets positifs de la croissance économique et de la réduction de la pauvreté et maintiendraient la mortalité, la malnutrition et la morbidité des enfants en Afrique à des niveaux relativement élevés et plus particulièrement concentrées dans les groupes les plus pauvres. Tout ceci appelle à des politiques économiques, sociales et sanitaires pour renverser fortement les tendances de la mortalité des enfants. En particulier, nos résultats suggèrent qu'il faudrait que les pays Africains puissent entre autres : - accroître les services de soins de santé, notamment les soins préventifs comme les services essentiels à la santé de l'enfant dès sa naissance (vaccination, services prénataux et assistance à la naissance), les soins curatifs et les campagnes de sensibilisation. - renverser la tendance baissière dans la provision des services sanitaires (eau, électricité, environnement et assainissement, prise en charge des déchets, etc.). - améliorer la nutrition et l'environnement immédiat de ces enfants et les comportements des ménages (espacement des naissances, éducation des mères en matière de santé, etc.). - plus généralement comme le montrent d'autres études, il faudrait aussi améliorer la performance globale de leur système de santé en empêchant la fuite des cerveaux, en allouant un budget suffisant à la santé, en organisant mieux les différents organes, de même que les ciblages des politiques de santé, en empêchant la corruption, en améliorant la qualité (accueil, propreté des centres de soins, etc.), en équipant les centres en médicaments, vaccins, moyens de transport et de communication, etc. Intégrer si possible les systèmes plus traditionnels de soins (comme les matrones et les guérisseurs) et le secteur privé, de même qu'une meilleure organisation du système pharmaceutique. Ces politiques constituent un tout et doivent être mise en oeuvre rapidement, ou renforcées le cas échéant. A cette seule condition les pays Africains pourraient espérer rattraper leur retard dans les Objectifs du Millénaire.
Problem setting. One of the most important tasks of modern science of public management and administration is the further improvement of management technologies, management decisions in banking in particular and the increase of their efficiency and effectiveness. Accordingly, the scientific interest is not only in the study and the analysis of banking legislation of certain countries, but in the adaptation of national legislation to the directives of the European Union. The urgency of improving the mechanism of state regulation of the market for the provision of services for the collection of funds and transportation of currency valuables in the banking system of Ukraine is undeniable, the implementation of which should include the mandatory establishment of real requirements and measures of responsibility of managers of both individual financial institutions and regulatory bodies. Recent research and publications analysis. The organization of central banks of the world, their legal status, main functions, comparative aspects, regulatory activities in the field of the organization of cash circulation and cash collection were studied in the works of L. Voronova, D. Hetmantsev, V. Krotyuk, S. Yehorychev, M. Starynsky, P. Melnyk, S. Laptev, I. Zaverukha. Legal problems of legalization of firearms circulation in Ukraine were studied by А.Kolosok, P. Mitrukhov, P. Fries, S. Shumilenko and others. The works of V.Baranyak, V. Меzhyvy, М. Pinchuk, T. Pryhodko, V.Rybachuk, В.Tychyi, etc. are devoted to the study of legal problems of illegal handling of weapons. However, these works do not reflect the peculiarities of the use of firearms in subdivisions of collection of funds. Native and foreign scholars generally have not paid due attention to the study and the analysis of the existing model of cash circulation in Ukraine, its advantages, risks and disadvantages as well as the effective functioning of the market of collection of funds and transportation of currency valuables in the banking system of Ukraine. Highlighting previously unsettled parts of the general problem. The purpose of this article is to analyze the innovative foreign experience of state regulation of the market of collection of funds and transportation of currency valuables in the banking system of Ukraine (hereinafter – collection of funds) and to justify the need for its implementation in Ukraine. Another important problem in collection activities is the lack of legislative regulation of firearms trafficking as there is no law on weapons in Ukraine, there are only regulations of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Ukraine, which greatly complicates its regulation by the state according to P. Fries. Paper main body. The market of collection of funds and transportation of currency valuables (hereinafter – the market of collection) is one of the most closed segments of the banking system of any country as a whole. The most popular way to pay for services and goods during the last few years, according to annual surveys conducted by the Swiss central bank, is cash. The important factor is that even with the spread of the COVID-19 coronavirus pandemic, the demand for cash and cash flow has increased significantly. The National Bank of Ukraine carries out regulatory activities in accordance with the requirements of the Law of Ukraine "On Principles of State Regulatory Policy in the Field of Economic Activity". Collection of funds has never been a particularly profitable activity, for the subdivisions of collection of any country along with the staff and transportation costs, that is why to ensure the proper security of cash transportation is a very costly item of the estimate. In this regard, there is an urgent need for the adoption of the Law of Ukraine "On collection of funds and transportation of currency valuables" and "On firearms", which would define the basic foundations, principles, forms of activities in the field of collection services, rights, duties and responsibilities of all participants in the collection market, in order to increase their reliability, safety and efficiency. In the countries of the European Union (EU), services for the collection and transportation of currency valuables are provided by public and private enterprises. In many EU countries there is no legal definition of the concept 'collection'. In most cases, collection falls under the general legislation on the basics of security, except for Austria and Germany, which regulate such activities through professional organizations, insurance and collective agreements. Today, five foreign global CIT companies account for almost 60% of the global CIT market for cash collection and cash handling services. They are: –Brinks (USA) – 23%; –G4S (England) – 15%; –Loomis (Sweden) – 12%; –Prosegur (Spain) – 7%; –Garda (Canada) – 4%; –GSLS – 0.01%; –Other regional independent companies – 39%. In six EU countries (Denmark, Ireland, Greece, Sweden, Great Britain and the Netherlands) the presence of firearms during collection of funds is prohibited. In Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg and Spain, the presence of a weapon in the performance of professional collection duties is mandatory. Safe collection of funds largely depends on the fast, without delays, safe travel by road. Ukraine needs to reform its transport system to gain access to the European Union's rail, road, river and air transport markets and to financial resources for building safe infrastructure of high quality. Conclusions of the research and prospects for further studies. Unfortunately, there are no well-known world CIT collection companies in the Ukrainian market of collection services and therefore Ukrainian banks and legal entities have to deal with local CIT companies, the authorized capital of which in some cases may be significantly less than the amount of the collected cash. In accordance with the mentioned above, for the effective functioning of the Ukrainian market of collection of funds and a balanced regulatory policy of the state, we suggest making appropriate changes and additions to the Laws of Ukraine on "Banks and Banking", "National Bank of Ukraine". To initiate the development and adoption of the Laws of Ukraine "On Collection and Transportation of Currency Valuables" and "On Firearms" which will ensure equal competitive conditions in the collection market for all its participants, reliable labor protection, social guarantees and rights of employees of collection divisions. ; Розглянуто основні аспекти здійснення операцій з інкасації коштів та перевезення валютних цінностей в Україні та закордоном, а також проведено їх порівняльний аналіз. Виокремлено проблеми, які заважають інкасаційним компаніям ефективно працювати у сфері надання послуг із інкасації коштів та перевезень валютних цінностей. Обґрунтовано необхідність удосконалення механізмів державного регулювання ринку з надання послуг із інкасації коштів та перевезень валютних цінностей в Україні, зокрема з урахуванням інноваційного закордонного досвіду.
Ash is a combustion residue from power plants which mainly consist of inorganic components as silicon, aluminum, and calcium. However, especially fly ashes are often enriched with hazardous trace elements as heavy metals and chlorides. These substances restrict the reuse and utilization of ashes which is an issue in view of circular economy. With different treatment methods, these harmful elements may be removed, or their leachability may be reduced. However, the treatment methods seem mainly to be economic unfeasible due to the low prices of bulk ash products. Sometimes, especially with fly ash from waste incineration, the treatment is essential even before the landfilling. The aim of this thesis was to investigate ash utilization possibilities, the regulation which limits the reuse of ash, and treatment methods for different ash types. This part of the research was mainly carried out as a literature survey of the scientific articles, technical reports, statistics and regulation. The major end-uses of ash were in concrete or cement industry, road or earth construction, as fertilizer, or direct disposal including the landfill construction and the filling of old mines. In this thesis, the European Union standard of fly ash for concrete, the Finnish regulation for the ash fertilizers, and the Finnish regulation for wastes in the road or earth construction use were under consideration as a limiting regulation. In case of landfilling, the council decision of the European Union establishing criteria and procedures for the acceptance of waste at landfills was considered. The major ash treatment technologies were divided into four classes in this research: carbonation and self-hardening, mechanical treatment, thermal treatment as well as chemical, electrochemical, and biological treatment. The variety of commercialization and techno-economic feasibility of the technologies were high. However, for the further investigation were selected acid leaching, carbonation, a commercial FLUWA process, and water washing. Cementation was considered as a dominant business as usual post-treatment method for waste incineration ashes. For the selected treatment processes, the mass and energy flows were determined with the help of technical reports. With these flows, the techno-economic analysis of the processes was executed. According to the calculations, the highest costs in the processes were input chemicals or water and effluent treatment due to the nature of the selected processes. Thus, the price of chemicals influences considerably the profitability of these processes. Within the non-process expenses, the waste tax for the landfilled ash was a significant part of the total cost. Due to this, it would be profitable to utilize as much ash as possible instead of landfilling. From the selected processes, carbonation and in some cases washing seemed to be economically feasible. Furthermore, the accelerated carbonation process could be attractive to study more due to its capability to work as a carbon capture technology. After the process and feasibility calculations, the techno-economic analysis tool for ash utilization and treatment was implemented in Microsoft Excel. The tool provides information for the user about the utilization and treatment possibilities of ashes from different fuels. It also calculates the economic feasibility of the investment compared to the business as usual situation. With this information, the user may consider the feasibility of the ash treatment methods. At the end of this thesis, the scenario and sensitivity analysis for the calculations were performed. ; Tuhka on palamisjäännös, jota syntyy voimalaitoksilla. Se koostuu pääosin epäorgaanisista komponenteista kuten piistä, alumiinista ja kalsiumista. Kuitenkin erityisesti lentotuhkiin rikastuu usein myös haitallisia aineita kuten raskasmetalleja ja klorideja. Nämä aineet rajoittavat tuhkan uusiokäyttöä sekä hyödyntämistä, mikä on ongelmallista kiertotalouden näkökulmasta. Näitä haitallisia aineita voidaan kuitenkin poistaa erilaisilla käsittelymenetelmillä, tai niiden liukoisuutta voidaan pienentää. Usein tällaiset käsittelymenetelmät ovat kuitenkin taloudellisesti kannattamattomia tuhkatuotteiden alhaisen hinnan vuoksi. Joskus, erityisesti jätteenpolton lentotuhkien tapauksessa, käsittely on kuitenkin välttämätön jopa ennen kaatopaikkausta. Tämän diplomityön tarkoituksena oli tutkia tuhkan hyödyntämismahdollisuuksia, tuhkan uudelleenkäyttöä rajoittavaa lainsäädäntöä sekä käsittelymenetelmiä erilaisille tuhkatyypeille. Näiden tutkiminen toteutettiin kirjallisuuskatsauksena hyödyntäen tieteellisiä artikkeleita, teknisiä raportteja, tilastoja sekä säädöksiä. Pääasialliset tuhkan loppukäytöt ovat betoni- ja sementtiteollisuudessa, maa- ja tierakentamisessa, lannoitteena sekä suorassa hävittämisessä, sisältäen kaatopaikkarakentamisen tai vanhojen kaivosten täyttämisen. Tässä työssä käyttöä rajoittavina säännöksinä tarkasteltiin Euroopan Unionin standardia betonissa käytettävälle lentotuhkalle, Suomen lannoitelainsäädäntöä tuhkan osalta sekä suomalaista asetusta jätteiden hyödyntämisestä maanrakentamisessa. Kaatopaikkaamisen tapauksessa tarkasteltiin Euroopan unionin neuvoston laatimia kriteerejä jätteen hyväksymisestä kaatopaikoille. Samat kriteerit pätevät myös Suomessa. Tärkeimmät tuhkan käsittelyvaihtoehdot jaettiin neljään luokkaan tässä tutkimuksessa: karbonointiin ja itsekovetukseen, mekaanisen käsittelyyn, termiseen käsittelyyn sekä kemialliseen, elektrokemialliseen ja biologiseen käsittelyyn. Näiden teknologioiden kaupallisuusasteessa sekä teknoekonomisessa toteutettavuudessa oli suurta vaihtelua. Happoliuotus, karbonointi, kaupallinen FLUWA-prosessi ja vesipesu valittiin lähempään tarkasteluun. Sementointi valittiin mukaan vertailuksi jätteenpolton tuhkien vallitsevana jälkikäsittelymenetelmänä. Tämän jälkeen valituille käsittelyprosesseille määriteltiin massa- ja energiataseet teknisiä raportteja apuna käyttäen. Näiden taseiden avulla voitiin suorittaa teknoekonominen analyysi. Analyysistä huomattiin, että suurimmat yksittäiset kustannukset valituissa prosesseissa niiden luonteen vuoksi olivatkin prosessiin syötettävät kemikaalit sekä veden tai jäteveden käsittely. Näin ollen kemikaalien hinta vaikuttaa voimakkaasti prosessien kannattavuuteen. Prosessikustannusten ulkopuolella jätevero kaatopaikattavalle tuhkalle oli merkittävä kuluerä. Tarkastelluista prosesseista karbonointi ja joissain tapauksissa tuhkan pesu olivat taloudellisesti kannattavia. Lisäksi kiihdytetty karbonointiprosessi voisi olla kiinnostava lisätutkimuksen kohde, sillä sitä voidaan käyttää myös hiilidioksidin talteenottomenetelmänä. Laskennan pohjalta luotiin tuhkan hyötykäytön ja käsittelyn teknoekonominen analyysityökalu Microsoft Exceliin. Työkalu tarjoaa käyttäjälle tietoa eri polttoaineiden tuhkien hyötykäyttö- ja käsittelymahdollisuuksista. Se laskee myös investoinnin taloudellisen kannattavuuden ja vertaa sitä tilanteeseen, jossa investointia ei tehdä. Näillä tiedoilla työkalun käyttäjä voi harkita tuhkankäsittelymenetelmän toteuttamiskelpoisuutta. Lopuksi laskennalle tehtiin vielä skenaario- ja herkkyystarkastelu.
The article focuse is on the landscape understanding from the perspective of semiotics and critical social theory in Anglo-American cultural geography and the method of landscape visual/textual analysis. The history of approaches to landscape understanding and research in Anglo-American cultural geography from the beginning of the XX century to this day is analyzed, as well as the consideration of the landscape in the European Landscape Convention. It was found that the use of the concept of landscape in human geography primarily implies the emphasis on the visual aspect of the built environment. It was found that from the perspective of semiotics, landscapes, in addition to the material (physical) dimension, carry a semantic load, convey meaning, are a system of signs and can be read as text. The axioms for reading the landscape of American geographers P. Lewis and D. Mitchell, and ideas of structuralist semiotics are presented. These theoretical and methodological approaches are applied to study the architectural styles of administrative, residential and commercial buildings, monuments and advertisement in public space, place names and other ways of symbolic marking of space as well as landscapes representation in the media (movies, news, advertisements, paintings, literature). The article also examines the understanding of the landscape from the perspective of critical social theory, according to which they are involved in the construction, maintenance, legitimization and resіstence of social structures (systems of relations), such as national, political, economic, class or gender. The approaches to landscape research discussed in the article are central to the analysis of visual changes of built environment in urban and rural settings, including the process of "decommunization" in Ukraine, landscape involvement in capitalist relations and consumption practices, it commodification and commercialization. It was found that landscapes visual/textual analysis also allows to reveal the values and identities of people expressed in the architectural styles of single-family houses. The application of the considered approaches is important for the improvement of urban planning and architectural regulations in order to create a socially just environment, taking into account the historical, social and cultural context, and the needs of different residents. ; В статье рассмотрено понимание ландшафта с позиции семиотики и критической социальной теории в в англо-американской культурной географии и метод визуального / текстуального анализа ландшафта. Проанализирована история изменения подходов к пониманию и исследования ландшафтов в англо-американской культурной географии с начала ХХ в. до наших дней, а также понимание ландшафта в Европейской ландшафтной конвенции. Выявлено, что употребление понятия ландшафт в общественной географии прежде всего подразумевает подчеркивание визуального аспекта окружения человека. Было установлено, что с позиции семиотики ландшафты, кроме материального (физического) измерения, несут смысловую нагрузку, передают значение, являются системой знаков и могут читаться как текст. Представлены аксиомы чтения ландшафта американских географов П. Льюиса и Д. Митчелла и положения структуралистской семиотики. Данные теоретико-методологические подходы применяются для исследования архитектурных стилей административных, жилых усадебных и коммерческих зданий, памятников и рекламы в общественном пространстве, топонимов и других способов символического маркировки пространства, а также изображения ландшафтов в медиа (фильмах, новостях, рекламах, картинах, литературе). В статье также рассмотрено понимание ландшафта с позиции критической социальной теории, согласно которой они участвуют в конструировании, поддержке, легитимизации и противостоянии социальных структур (систем отношений), например национальных, политических, экономических, классовых или гендерных. Рассмотренные в статье подходы исследования ландшафта являются центральными для анализа визуальных изменений среды обитания людей в городской и сельской местности, в частности процесса «декоммунизации» в Украине, привлечения ландшафта в капиталистические отношения и практики потребления, его комодификации и коммерциализации. Было выяснено, что визуальный/текстуальный анализ ландшафтов также позволяет выявить ценности и идентичности людей, выраженные в архитектурных стилях новых усадебных домов. Применение рассмотренных подходов является важным для совершенствования городского планирования и архитектурных регулировок с целью создания социально справедливой среды с учетом исторического, социального и культурного контекста, и потребностей разных жителей. ; У статті розглянуто розуміння ландшафту з позиції семіотики та критичної соціальної теорії у англо-американській культурній географії та метод візуального/текстуального аналізу ландшафту. Проаналізовано історію зміни підходів до розуміння і дослідження ландшафтів в англо-американській культурній географії з початку ХХ ст. до наших днів, а також розуміння ландшафту у Європейській ландшафтній конвенції. Виявлено, що вживання поняття ландшафт у суспільній географії перш за все має на увазі підкреслення візуального аспекту оточення людини. Було встановлено, що з позиції семіотики ландшафти, крім матеріального (фізичного) виміру, несуть смислове навантаження, передають значення, є системою знаків і можуть читатися як текст. Представлено аксіоми читання ландшафту американських географів П. Льюїса і Д. Мітчела та положення структуралістської семіотики. Дані теоретико-метологічні підходи застосовуються для дослідження архітектурних стилів адміністративних, житлових садибних та комерційних будинків, пам'ятників та реклами у громадському просторі, топонімів та інших способів символічного маркування простору, а також зображення ландшафтів у медіа (фільмах, новинах, рекламах, картинах, літературі). У статті також розглянуто розуміння ландшафту з позиції критичної соціальної теорії, згідно якої вони беруть участь у конструюванні, підтримці, легітимізації та протистоянні соціальних структур (систем відносин), наприклад національних, політичних, економічних, класових чи гендерних. Розглянуті у статті підходи дослідження ландшафту є центральними для аналізу візуальних змін середовища життя людей у міській та сільській місцевості, зокрема процесу «декомунізації» в Україні, залучення ландшафту у капіталістичні відносини та практики споживання, у їх комодифікацію та комерціалізацію. Було з'ясовано, що візуальний/текстуальний аналіз ландшафтів також дає змогу виявити цінності та ідентичності людей, виражені у архітектурних стилях нових садибних будинків. Застосування розглянутих підходів є важливим для вдосконалення містопланувальних та архітектурних регулювань з метою створення соціально справедливого середовища з враховуванням історичного, соціального та культурного контексту та потреб різних жителів.
It is established that today many problems arise in the activities of the pre-trial investigation bodies, their legal status, probity and other important issues specified in the legislation are not always clearly and consistently. It is noted that there are various problems with the implementation of investigators of his powers, there are complications with the understanding of his independence. It was argued that it is important to identify and analyze the problems that arise in the work of the pre-trial investigation bodies, the problems of implementing the legal status of the investigator, including by comparative analysis of the regulation of these issues in the 1960 Criminal Procedure Code of Ukraine and the Criminal Procedure Code of Ukraine, 2012 , as well as expressing their own position on the reform of these bodies. It has been established that the comparative analysis of the current criminal procedural legislation with the 1960 law also suggests the procedural functions that can act as a certain link between the tasks and the legal status of the participant in the process, since they determine the procedural status of the investigator, his rights and duties , which are specified in separate criminal procedural institutes and procedural norms. It is noted that the knowledge of the system of procedural functions of the investigator as the main directions of his activity allows the most fully to determine the role of the investigator in the execution of the criminal proceedings, to correctly understand and apply each legal institution and each legal regulation regulating its activities. As future state representatives, investigators have legally established procedural powers that are both for them and for rights (as they allow for procedural actions and procedural decisions), and duties (due to the inappropriate or untimely use of their rights may be an offense if there is no evidence of a crime). It has been argued that within the criminal process there were significant procedural transformations related to the change of the law, some of which were rather substantial, but not always consistent and such that increased the efficiency of the functioning of state authorities aimed at bringing individuals to legal liability. ; установлено, что на сегодняшний день в деятельности органов досудебного следствия возникает значительное количество проблем. Их правовой статус, подследственность и другие немаловажные вопросы не всегда регламентированы законодательством чётко и последовательно. Обращено внимание на то, что часто возникают проблемы при реализации следователем своих полномочий, возникают сложности с пониманием и толкованием его самостоятельности. Аргументировано, что вожным является выявление и анализ проблем, которые возникают в деятельности органов досудебного расследования, проблем реализации правового статуса следователя, в том числе и путём проведения сравнительного анализа регламентации данных вопросов в Уголовно-процессуальном кодексе 1960 года и Уголовном процессуальном кодексе 2012 года, а так же высказывание собственной позиции относительно реформирования указанных органов. Установлено, что сравнительный анализ действующего уголовного процессуального законодательства с законодательством 1960 года позволяет поднимать вопрос относительно наличия процессуальных функций, которые могут выступать как определённое связывающее звено между задачами и правовым статусом участника процесса, ведь они определяют процессуальный статус следователя, его права и обязанности, которые конкретизируются в отдельных уголовных процессуальных институтах и уголовных процессуальных нормах. Обращено внимание на то, что познание системы уголовных процессуальных функций следователя как основных направлений его деятельности позволяет наиболее полно определить роль следователя в исполнении задач уголовного производства, правильно понимать и применять каждый правовой институт и каждую правовую норму, которые регламентируют его деятельность. Будучи представителями государства, следователи имеют чётко регламентированные полномочия, которые одновременно являются для них и правами (поскольку позволяют осуществлять процессуальные действия и принимать процессуальные решения) и обязанностями (в связи с тем, что ненадлежащее или несвоевременное исполнение своих прав может привести к должностным правонарушениям, если не имеет признаков преступления). Аргументировано, что в пределах уголовного процесса имели место существенные процессуальные трансформации, связанные с изменением законодательства, некоторые из них будучи существенными, не всегда являлись последовательными и такими, которые повышали эффективность функционирования органов государственной власти, направленную на привлечение лиц у юридической ответственности. ; встановлено, що на сьогоднішній день у діяльності органів досудового слідства виникає чимало проблем, їх правовий статус, підслідність та інші важливі питання визначені у законодавстві не завжди чітко й послідовно. Звернуто увагу, що виникають різні проблеми з реалізацією слідчим його повноважень, виникають ускладнення з розумінням його самостійності. Аргументовано, що важливим є виявлення та аналіз проблем, що виникають у роботі органів досудового розслідування, проблем реалізації правового статусу слідчого, у тому числі й шляхом проведення порівняльного аналізу регламентації цих питань у Кримінально-процесуальному кодексі України 1960 року та Кримінальному процесуальному кодексі України 2012 року, а також висловлення власної позиції щодо реформування названих органів. Встановлено, що порівняльний аналіз чинного кримінального процесуального законодавства із законодавством 1960 року дозволяє також говорити про процесуальні функції, які можуть виступати як певна зв'язувальна ланка між задачами та правовим становищем учасника процесу, адже вони визначають процесуальне становище слідчого, його права та обов'язки, які конкретизуються в окремих кримінальних процесуальних інститутах і процесуальних нормах. Звернуто увагу, що пізнання системи процесуальних функцій слідчого як основних напрямів його діяльності дозволяє найбільш повно визначити роль слідчого у виконанні задач кримінального провадження, правильно зрозуміти та застосовувати кожний правовий інститут та кожну правову норму, що регламентує його діяльність. Будучі представниками держави, слідчі мають чітко закріплені у законі процесуальні повноваження, які одночасно є для них і правами (оскільки дозволяють здійснювати процесуальні дії та приймати процесуальні рішення), і обов'язками (у зв'язку із тим, що неналежне або несвоєчасне використання свої прав може бути посадовим порушенням, якщо не містить ознак злочину). Аргументовано, що у межах кримінального процесу мали місце суттєві процесуальні трансформації, пов'язані зі зміною законодавства, деякі з яких були доволі суттєвими, але не завжди послідовними та такими, що підвищували ефективність функціонування органів державної влади, спрямовану на притягнення осіб до юридичної відповідальності.
This thesis is a contribution to the study of the Dorian comedy of the 5th century BC. J. - C. through the analysis of the texts of its major representative, Epicharme of Syracuse. The authentic fragments that can be attributed to a specific drama are examined and each text is followed by a detailed commentary on its linguistic, dramaturgical and content features. The aim of the research was to know how Epicharme was part of the Sicilian cultural panorama where he lived, to study his use of linguistic variation and to search for the specificities of his dramas.To answer these questions, it was necessary to adopt an interdisciplinary approach because it is not possible to tackle all these themes in the only Greek literature of the fifth century. An essential contribution to this work comes from studies of the history of the Greek language and dialectology, which made it possible to define the linguistic peculiarities of the Dorian dialect of Syracuse and to highlight any differences present in the actor's texts. In the commentary, in fact, the confrontation is present between the linguistic form adopted by Epicharme and the corresponding form in the Ionian-Attic dialect. Equally important is the contribution of sociolinguistics, a theory that gives importance to the influence exerted on the language by those who speak it. The study of Epicharme's texts examines, at the same time, whether there are linguistic elements making it possible to characterize a character according to his social status, his origin and his sexual gender. The results obtained from the linguistic and textual study are considerable. Epicharme portrays mythological, historical and everyday situations, mixing parody and travesty. Especially two characters, Heracles and Ulysses, often appear in the dramas of Epicharme, where they become the protagonists of a number of events. Moreover, the quantity and length of lists and catalogs in Epicharme's fragments is also important because they serve comic purposes. It is likely that, at least in some dramas, a comic choir was planned, although it is difficult to determine how many people composed it and what its function was. From the linguistic point of view, the comedian's texts are composed in Syracuse's Dorian dialect, although some specific expressions of other dialects sometimes appear. In addition, the fragments sometimes seem to testify to a synchronic variation in action in the spoken language. In conclusion, the comic production of Epicharme shows a notable regional character, which follows that it is his choice to write in Dorian dialect as many references to traditional products and local stories. However, the language and arguments of the poet are largely influenced by the cultural and political environment of Sicily in the fifth century BC. and show the relations between the comedian of Syracuse and the contemporary authors, the most important of which is Aeschylus. ; Ce travail de thèse est une contribution à l'étude de la comédie dorienne du Vème siècle av. J.-C. à travers l'analyse des textes de son représentant majeur, Epicharme de Syracuse. Les fragments authentiques qu'on peut attribuer à un drame spécifique sont examinés et chaque texte est suivi d'un commentaire détaillé de ses particularités linguistiques, dramaturgiques et de contenu. Le but de la recherche a été savoir comme Epicharme s'inscrivait dans le panorama culturel sicilien où il vécut, d'étudier son utilisation de la variation linguistique et de rechercher les spécificités de ses drames.Pour répondre à ces questions, il a fallu adopter une approche interdisciplinaire car il n'est pas possible d'aborder l'ensemble de ces thématiques dans la seule littérature grecque du Vème siècle. Une contribution essentielle à ce travail vient des études d'histoire de la langue grecque et de la dialectologie, qui ont permis de définir les particularités linguistiques du dialecte dorien de Syracuse et de souligner d'éventuelles différences présentes dans les textes du comédien. Dans le commentaire, en effet, la confrontation est continue entre la forme linguistique adoptée par Epicharme et la forme correspondante en dialecte ionien-attique. S'avère également importante la contribution de la sociolinguistique, une théorie qui donne son importance à l'influence exercée sur la langue par ceux qui la parlent. L'étude des textes d'Epicharme examine, en même temps, s'il existe des éléments linguistiques permettant de caractériser un personnage selon son statut social, sa provenance et son genre sexuel. Les résultats obtenus de l'étude linguistique et textuelle sont considérables.Epicharme met en scène des sujets mythologiques, historiques et des situations de la vie quotidienne, en mélangeant de la parodie et du travestissement. Surtout deux personnages, Héraclès et Ulysse, apparaissent souvent dans les drames d'Epicharme, où ils deviennent les protagonistes d'un certain nombre d'événements. Par ailleurs, la quantité et la longueur des listes et des catalogues dans les fragments d'Epicharme est également importante car ils répondent à des objectifs comiques. Il est probable, en outre que, au moins dans certains drames, un choeur comique était prévu, même s'il est difficile de déterminer combien de personnes le composaient et quelle était sa fonction. Du point de vue linguistique, les textes du comédien sont composés en dialecte dorien de Syracuse, bien que certaines expressions spécifiques d'autres dialectes apparaissent quelquefois. En outre, les fragments semblent parfois témoigner d'une variation synchronique en acte dans la langue parlée. En conclusion, la production comique d'Epicharme montre un notable caractère régional, qui découle que ce soit de son choix d'écrire en dialecte dorien comme des nombreuses références aux produits traditionnels et aux histoires locales. Toutefois, la langue et les arguments du poète sont largement influencés par l'environnement culturel et politique de la Sicile du V siècle av.-J.Ch. et montrent les relations entre le comédien de Syracuse et les auteurs contemporains, dont le plus important est Eschyle.
The primary objective of the reproductive health services system and its individual institutions are, namely: to implement the strategy of women management starting from their fetal life to the old age and ensure quality of life in adolescence, reproductive and postmenopausal periods. Maternal and child death rates are above respectives rates in European countries, and utilization rate of modern contraceptive methods in Ukraine remains low. This can be explained by both, poor awareness of women and insufficient training of medical personnel. In this context, the top priority still is awareness-raising and further implementation of the strategy on reliable contraception means and methods along with effective preconception care as a potent component of family planning.Taking into account modern global trends, the principal goal of Family Planning Service in Ukraine is to improve women's quality of life and time of active ageing, which achievement can be facilitated by the implementation of 3 priority tasks:• continued realization of the strategy on reliable contraception use and implementation of effective preconception care to abortions prevention and maternal and newborns mortality rates reduction;• reduction cardiovascular and oncological diseases incidence rate in women through development and implementation of respective screening programs, informational and preventive measures;• implementation of best international practices with respect to Family Planning Service efficacy, review and update of family planning clinical protocol with further implementation of such practices at the national and regional levels.Considering this, the Resolution of Advisory Board outlines the main tasks for the implementation of modern international experience and its further implementation at the national level, and amendments to clinical protocol of primary, secondary (specialized) and tertiary (highly specialized) medical care (approved by the order of MOH of Ukraine No. 59 dated January 21, 2014) "Family Planning". The main additions and comments touched upon the issues of micronutrient status and reproductive health of women, contraceptive methods for women in perimenopause, counseling and selection of contraceptive methods for HIV-positive women. Particular attention was paid to counseling and selection of contraceptive methods for women military personnel. ; Основной целью системы и отдельных учреждений репродуктивного здоровья является внедрение стратегии ведения женщины от ее внутриутробного развития до старости и обеспечение качества жизни в пубертатном, репродуктивном и постменопаузальном периодах. Уровень материнской и младенческой смертности в Украине превышает соответствующие показатели в странах Европы, а использование современных методов контрацепции остается низким. Это можно объяснить как недостаточной осведомленностью женщин, так и недостаточной подготовкой медицинского персонала. С учетом этого актуальной задачей остается проведение информационно-просветительской деятельности и дальнейшая реализация стратегии по использованию надежных средств и методов контрацепции, а также внедрение эффективной прегравидарной подготовки как действенного элемента планирования семьи.Учитывая современные мировые тенденции, ключевой целью службы планирования семьи в Украине является улучшение качества жизни и продление активного долголетия женщины, достижению чего будет способствовать реализация трех приоритетных задач:• дальнейшая реализация стратегии по использованию надежной контрацепции и внедрение эффективной прегравидарной подготовки с целью профилактики абортов, снижения материнской и младенческой смертности;• снижение уровня заболеваемости женщин сердечно-сосудистыми и онкологическими заболеваниями путем разработки и внедрения соответствующих скрининговых программ и информационно-профилактических мероприятий;• имплементация современного международного опыта относительно эффективности службы планирования семьи, пересмотр клинического протокола по вопросам планирования семьи и его дальнейшее внедрение на национальном и региональном уровнях.С учетом этого в Резолюции экспертного совета указаны основные задачи по имплементации современного международного опыта и его дальнейшего внедрения на национальном уровне, а также предложены изменения и дополнения к Клиническому протоколу первичной, вторичной (специализированной), третичной (высокоспециализированной) медицинской помощи «Планирование семьи», утвержденному приказом Минздрава Украины №59 от 21 января 2014 года. Основные дополнения и замечания коснулись вопросов микронутриентного статуса и репродуктивного здоровья женщины, методов контрацепции для женщин в перименопаузе, консультирования и подбора методов контрацепции для ВИЧ-положительных женщин. Особое внимание уделено консультированию и подбору методов контрацепции для женщин-военнослужащих. ; Основною метою системи та окремих закладів охорони репродуктивного здоров'я є впровадження стратегії ведення жінки від її внутрішньоутробного розвитку до старості та забезпечення якості життя в пубертатному, репродуктивному і постменопаузальному періодах. Рівень материнської та малюкової смертності в Україні перевищує відповідні показники в країнах Європи, а використання сучасних методів контрацепції залишається низьким. Це можна пояснити як недостатньою обізнаністю жінок, так і недостатньою підготовкою медичного персоналу. З огляду на це актуальним завданням залишається проведення інформаційно-просвітницької діяльності та подальша реалізація стратегії з використання надійних засобів і методів контрацепції, а також впровадження ефективної передгравідарної підготовки як дієвого елементу планування сім'ї.З урахуванням сучасних світових тенденцій ключовою метою служби планування сім'ї в Україні є покращення якості життя та продовження активного довголіття жінки, досягненню чого сприятиме реалізація трьох пріоритетних завдань:• подальша реалізація стратегії з використання надійної контрацепції та впровадження ефективної передгравідарної підготовки з метою профілактики абортів, зниженняматеринської та малюкової смертності;• зниження рівня захворюваності жінок на серцево-судинні та онкологічні захворювання шляхом розробки та впровадження відповідних скринінгових програм таінформаційно-профілактичних заходів;• імплементація сучасного міжнародного досвіду щодо ефективності служби планування сім'ї, перегляд клінічного протоколу з питань планування сім'ї та його подальше впровадження на національному та регіональному рівнях.З урахуванням цього в Резолюції експертної ради зазначені основні завдання щодо імплементації сучасного міжнародного досвіду та його подальшого впровадження на національному рівні, а також запропоновано зміни та доповнення до Клінічного протоколу первинної, вторинної (спеціалізованої), третинної (високоспеціалізованої) медичної допомоги «Планування сім'ї», затвердженого наказом МОЗ України № 59 від 21 січня 2014 року. Основні доповнення і зауваження торкнулися питань мікронутрієнтного статусу і репродуктивного здоров'я жінки, методів контрацепції для жінок в перименопаузі, консультування та підбору методів контрацепції для ВІЛ-позитивних жінок. Окрема увага приділена консультуванню та підбору методів контрацепції для жінок-військовослужбовців.
This thesis has three objectives: first, to examine the law relating to loss allocation resulting from fraud with consumer payment instruments and determine whether this allocation is efficient; second, to determine whether any right to stop or reverse payment associated with the payment instrument is efficient; and third, to suggest changes and reforms to achieve efficiency in these two areas. The basic test to determine efficiency of allocation of fraud loss to be used in the thesis involves looking at the following questions: which party in the transaction or system can, because of size, wealth, insurance, or the ability to pass on costs, best bear the risk of non–payment? Which party can most easily avoid the loss? And which rule is the least costly rule to enforce? In regard to electric funds transfer it was found that the test in the current Electronic Funds Transfer Code (EFT Code), although purporting to be worked out on efficiency principles is, in fact, unduly complicated and the thesis recommends the adoption of simple failure to report loss theft or fraud by the consumer as a test for allocation of fraud loss. Signature credit cards are currently not covered by the EFT Code and fraud loss allocation is determined by contract law but, nevertheless, a similar test is advocated in regard to them too. In regard to cheques it was found the forgery rule as regards the drawer's signature and the ancillary Ligget rule are basically efficient but the rule regarding indorser's signature is inefficient - making cheques not transferable would help eliminate this inefficiency. As to fraudulent alterations, it was advocated that paying banks should bear total loss for fraudulent and material alterations with a right, of course, against the person who has made the alteration. In regard to financial institution cheques, the thesis recommends that the definition of a financial institution cheque (which covers bank cheques) should be extended to cover cheques drawn by one financial institution on another one. It recommends that where consideration has been provided at any stage for a bank cheque then it should be able to be enforced. It was also advocated that the gist of the Australian Paper Clearing System assurances needs to be enshrined in legislation (an example of the sort of legislative change that would hopefully ensure certainty of payment has also been suggested). To ameliorate the position from an efficiency perspective, the following is also advocated: a duty of care in regard to the safekeeping of bank cheques should be introduced; responsibility for alterations should also be placed on the issuing banks as a spur to devise alteration proof bank cheques; and when consumers buy bank cheques they should be asked for what purpose it is being purchased and this should be written by the banks on the front of the bank cheque. Whether a uniform rule for fraud loss allocation across different payment systems is a possibility is also explored. It was found that a uniform rule for fraud loss allocation would seem to be more efficient than making efficiency ameliorations to existing fraud allocation tests in the various payment systems. Allied with the problem of fraud loss allocation is the issue of whether consumers should have a right of stopping or reversing payment if consumers perceive they are the potential victims of fraud or sharp dealing. Again the thesis examined whether this is efficient. In regard to cheques it was found that the right to stop payment is efficient but that such a right could be ameliorated by allowing the drawer a right to set up any dispute against the vendor in the same action where the vendor/payee brings an action on the stopped cheque. Moreover, the right to stop cheques should be explicitly extended to stolen cheques. In addition banks should have to reaccredit the account in accordance with the stop payment order and banks should have the burden of proving that no loss stemmed from their error. On the other hand, in regard to financial institution cheques (including bank cheques) if they are to be effective cash substitutes, efficiency demands that purchasers not be allowed to use their disputes with the vendor, even if they may seem to involve fraud, to stop the banks paying out on the bank cheques, unless there is a court order. As to signature credit cards it is advocated the gist of American law on chargebacks absent any territorial restrictions should be put into Australian federal legislation. Allegations of contractual non compliance should require the buyer to send the goods back to the seller or, at least be able to show a bona fide attempt to do so, as a precondition to the exercise of chargeback rights and as part of a requirement that the buyer should make an attempt to first settle the matter with the seller. Proposed federal legislation covering chargebacks should also extend to other forms of electronic payment like BPAY as well as PIN credit cards. Chargeback rights should also apply where debit systems mimic cash but with a $150 threshold before they apply and subject to the goods being returned to the seller. Finally, the thesis explores whether a uniform right to stop payment would be more efficient than the inconsistency and inefficiency of current Australian stop payment rules and concludes that such right should be along the lines of the never enacted American Uniform New Payments Code since is clear, concise and efficient compared with other attempts to formulate uniform rules.'
El deterioro del patrimonio edificado de propiedad privada es un problema que afecta a diversas ciudades del México, y que se encuentra presente aún en los centros históricos considerados Patrimonio Mundial por la UNESCO, situación consignada en los Informes Periódicos 2004 de las Ciudades Mexicanas Patrimonio Mundial ante el Comité del Patrimonio Mundial. Por lo anterior, la presente investigación se propuso abordar el proceso de conservación del patrimonio edificado de propiedad privada en el centro histórico de la ciudad de Morelia en el lapso que va desde su inclusión en la lista del Patrimonio Mundial en 1991, hasta el año 2007. El proceso de conservación del patrimonio edificado de propiedad privada se inscribe en la dicotomía de público y lo privado, al incluir bienes inmersos en el mercado inmobiliario que a la vez son considerados un bien público. Esas características, aunadas a su importancia como elementos de identidad y cohesión social, así como generadores de beneficios económicos, han justificado la intervención del Estado para su protección y aprovechamiento. Si bien la conservación del patrimonio edificado de propiedad pública es producto de la intervención gubernamental directa en su adquisición, mantenimiento y gestión, en el caso del patrimonio edificado de propiedad privada, la intervención pública solamente genera un proceso de conservación de los inmuebles si propicia su vigencia física, funcional y económica. En este sentido, el ámbito de lo público solamente incide en el ámbito privado si se traduce en valores económicos y funcionales que satisfagan tanto las expectativas comunitarias como de los propietarios. En los últimos años las acciones y estrategias implementadas para la conservación del patrimonio edificado en México, se han integrado en un cuerpo de instrumentos que se inscriben en el ámbito de las políticas públicas, las cuales se han convertido en el principal medio de actuación del ámbito público en el patrimonio edificado de propiedad privada. En el desarrollo de la investigación se observó que durante el período de estudio, las políticas públicas fueron el principal factor que ha condicionado la conservación del patrimonio edificado de propiedad privada en el centro histórico de Morelia. La aplicación de esas políticas, si bien favoreció la atracción de turistas e inversiones en esa actividad, tuvo efectos diferenciados tanto en el espacio del centro histórico como en el patrimonio edificado de propiedad privada, lo cual implica riesgos en el proceso de su conservación, proceso que se pretende identificar, valorar e interpretar en el presente documento. La limitación de estudios acerca patrimonio edificado de propiedad privada, así como la naturaleza y efectos de las políticas públicas implementadas para su protección en México, son una vacío que el presente trabajo pretende ayudar a subsanar, contribuyendo así con el conocimiento de los problemas urbanos vinculados a la conservación del patrimonio edificado y de los centros históricos del país. ; The deterioration of privately owned property considered part of the built heritage environment is a problem that affects various Mexican cities, even those historic centers that are considered World Heritage by UNESCO. This situation was officially recognized in the periodic informational bulletins of Mexican World Heritage cities before the World Heritage Committee in 2004. Due to these circumstances, this research examines the preservation process of privately owned property considered part of the built heritage in the historic center of Morelia, from its inclusion in the World Heritage list in 1991 until 2007. The preservation process of built heritage, particularly privately owned property, is inscribed in the dichotomy of the public and the private, as these buildings, which are part of the general real estate market, are also considered public goods. These characteristics, augmented by the importance of these buildings as contributors of identity and social cohesion, have justified state intervention for their protection and continued use. Although the preservation of the built, public heritage is the product of direct governmental intervention in the form of acquisition, maintenance, and management of these buildings, in the case of privately owned built heritage, public intervention only turns to preservation of these buildings if it propitiates their physical, functional, and economic validity. In this sense, the public sphere only intervenes in the private sphere if this translates into economic value and functionality that will satisfy community as well as owners expectations. In the last few years, the actions and strategies implemented for the preservation of built heritage in Mexico have been integrated into a body of instruments in public policies, which have become the principal means of the public intervening in privately owned heritage property. This research observes that public policies are the primary factors that determine the preservation of privately owned built heritage property in Morelia's historic center during the studied period. The application of these policies, although it heavily favored the attraction of tourists and investments in this activity, has had differentiated effects on the space of the historic center as well as on the privately owned heritage property, which imply risks in the process of their preservation. This document aims to identify, evaluate, and interpret this preservation process. This research seeks to contribute to filling a gap, focusing on privately owned heritage property as well as the nature and effects of public policies implemented for its protection in Mexico, thus contributing to knowledge of urban problems related to heritage preservation in the country's historic centers and filling a scholarship gap.
Стаття присвячена дослідженню впливу творчості М. В. Гоголя на літературу слов'янських народів — чеського, польського, словацького, болгарського, словенського. Показано, що твори письменника сприяли росту ідейно-естетичного рівня слов'янських літератур, стали основою для створення нового літературного жанру — соціального роману. Творчість Гоголя стала для тогочасних письменників джерелом інтересу, натхнення і новим поглядом на зображення навколишньої дійсності. Доведено, що завдяки зображенню нових героїв з народу — з їхніми радощами і стражданнями, з простою, "неправильною" мовою — Гоголь розставив акценти та визначив проблематику всієї наступної російської літератури, літератури слов'янських народів. Наукова новизна статті полягає в тому, що вперше синтезовано вплив унікального таланту Гоголя на слов'янські літератури та показано, що Україна, її культура стали постійною літературною темою слов'янських літератур ХІХ століття. ; Gogol's genius is known all over the world. Mykola Gogol created another world with his incomparable imagination, with his language he made a revolution in literature, with his Ukrainian manner he surprised and put bright accents on the images. V. G. Belinsky called him a kind of school in literature, which opened a new path for young and experienced writers. The theme of the infl uence of the writer's artistic heritage on the Russian and world literature and culture is inexhaustible and relevant at all times. The objective of this article is to understand the impact of M. Gogol's works for the literature of Slavic peoples – Czech, Polish, Slovak, Bulgarian, Slovenian. In the 1830s–1840s, Gogol's works were an impetus for creative pursuits and actions not only for the Russian writers, composers, artists, theater personalities, but also for literary and cultural personalities of the Slavic world. Gogol taught foreign writers to openly and boldly look at the surrounding reality, not trying to embellish it. He was also not indifferent to the natural beauty of Ukraine, describing life, rural landscapes, ceremonies, holidays, clothes of boys and girls, juicy and fair language with great affection. Gogol was interesting and popular in the Slavic environment. He was a contemporary of the national revival of many Slavic peoples who adopted best foreign experience. In the world literature, the Czechs gave a positive assessment of Gogol before others. The fi rst work in the Czech translation was the novella "Taras Bulba". I. S. Hynek reworked the novella into a drama that was fi rst put on the Czech stage in 1865. In the second half of the 19th century, almost all of Gogol's works were translated into Czech and widely known. Gogol's prose was widespread and excited curiosity in Czechia; it was actively translated and studied in schools by the children of immigrants. The researchers K. Mochulsky and D. Chyzhevsky noted the baroque "ambiguity" and grotesqueness of the writer's works, his unsurpassed humor. The comedies "Marriage" and "The Government Inspector" paraded at all emigrant theaters. In Poland, Gogol's works became known in the mid- 1830s. The writers J. Kraszewski, J. Korzeniowski, A. Marcinkowski, H. Sienkiewicz wrote their works under the infl uence of Gogol, trying to portray the heroes and reveal their characters in his style. Gogol's novella "Taras Bulba" was translated into Polish by Petro Glowatsky and published in Lviv in 1850, after which the Polish novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz used Gogol's characteristic description of Ukrainian steppes in the creation of the novel "With Fire and Sword" (1882). In the 1920s–1930s, Gogol's works in Poland began to be widely published in translations by J. Tuwim and staged in theaters. Gogol's works in Slovakia gained popularity in the late 1860s. Gogol's romantic works became of interest for the Slovak writers due to the folklore motifs and historical themes. The borrowing of motifs, situations, composition, and portrayal of the characters of Gogol's novella "Taras Bulba" is noticeable in the historical novella "The Holy Spirit" by Ján Kalinčiak. The development of Slovak prose was modeled on Gogol, writers began to borrow plots for their works from Gogol, trying to understand the nature of human. The use of folklore, subtle humor, descriptions of customs, traditions, the ability to reveal comic aspects of life, principles of character creation – all of this impressed Slovak writers and was actively refl ected in their works. These trends can be seen in M. Kukučín, A. Domanytsky, J. Kalinčiak, J. Jesenský, J. Tajovský and others. The productions of Gogol's works are very successful on the professional and amateur stages of Slovakia. Bulgarian writers admired Gogol. Following his works was for them a kind of literary school. The poet P. Slaveykov became a follower of Gogol the classic and defended the principles of realism. He also imitated sentimental and romantic heroes, combining different trends. The novella "Taras Bulba", translated by N. Bonchev, became for the Bulgarians a symbol of the struggle for liberation from the fi ve-hundred-year Turkish expansion. Deep interest in the works by Gogol is noticeable in Slovenia. Between 1880 and 1890, the number of publications about him and translations of his works in various journals exceeded all expectations and numbered more than 250. Gogol's heroes gained archetypal, symbolic meaning and turned into immaterial images of world literature. Gogol's works attracted the attention of literary personalities from different countries with skill and a true portrayal of reality. It was considered an ornament and promoted the ideological and aesthetic level of Slavic literatures. The writer was able to organize all Slavic literatures, determined their direction and objective, and laid the groundwork for the creation of a new literary genre – the social novel. According to I. Panaev, Gogol appeared in the literary arena at a time when the need for a "new word" and the participation of literature in social life was already ripe in society, as heroes with "rhetorical phrases" were already boring. Gogol portrayed new heroes from the common people with their pleasures and affl ictions, in plain, "wrong" language, highlighting key points and identifying the issues of all subsequent Russian and Slavic literature. He joined the creation of a new novel school based on a true portrayal of the surrounding reality. Gogol's powerful word echoes in the culture of many peoples in the present-day world.
