Doktrinde anlaşmazlık ve uyuşmazlık terimlerini genellikle birbirinin yerine kullanılmasına rağmen, bu iki terim arasında önemli bir farklılık bulunmaktadır. Anlaşmazlık, birbirine zıt veya düşmanca bir durum ya da bir mücadele veya kavga olarak tanımlanır. Bir uyuşmazlık, dava konusu olabilen meseleler şeklinde ortaya çıkan bir anlaşmazlık çeşidi olarak görülebilir. Uyuşmazlık, müzakere, arabuluculuk veya üçüncü kişinin hüküm vermesi yoluyla çözülebilecek meseleler üzerinde anlaşmazlığa düşülmesini gerektirir. Uyuşmazlık karşı tarafa açıklanan, kişiler arası bir anlaşmazlıktır. Bir anlaşmazlık, birbirine uyumayan bir durumun anlaşılması veya çatışan bir talepte bulunulması şeklinde bir kişiye beyan edilmedikçe uyuşmazlığa dönüşmeyebilir. Alternatif uyuşmazlık çözümü (ADR), mahkemeler tarafından uygulanan şeklî mücadeleci usûllerden, şeklî olmayan usûllere doğru bir yönelişi temsil eder. ADR, dünya çapındaki adalete ulaşma hareketinin çatısı altında görülebilir. ADR nin doğuşu Birleşik Devletler de 1970 e kadar uzanır. Federal bölge mahkemelerinde uygulanan ilk arabuluculuk ve tahkim programı 1970 tarihlidir. Buna ek olarak ADR de diğer bir gelişme 1988?de Birleşik Devletler Kongresinin on adet bölge mahkemesinde zorunlu tahkim programı kurması ve diğer on adet bölge mahkemesini gönüllü tahkim programı oluşturması için yetkilendirmesiyle görülmüştür. ADR nin hızlı gelişimine katkıda bulunan büyük bir etken, 1976 da Amerika Barolar Birliğince düzenlenen Adalet Yönetimindeki Kamusal Tatminsizliklerin Nedenleri Hakkında Ulusal Konferans olmuştur. Bu konferansta, uyuşmazlık çözümündeki alternatif usûllerin, özellikle arabuluculuk ve tahkimin, tıkanmış halde bulunan mah-kemeleri rahatlatacağı, uyuşmazlıkların çözüm süresini kısaltacağı ve giderlerini asgariye indireceği sonucuna varılmıştır. Arabuluculuk hizmeti sunan mahalli adalet merkezlerinin ve çok seçenekli mahkeme teşkilatı programlarının kurulması teşvik edilmiştir. Çok seçenekli mahkeme teşkilatı terimi (ya da çok seçenekli ADR), bir dizi seçimlik uyuşmazlık çözüm usûlü sunan mahkemeleri ifade eder. Bu programlar, ihtilaflı tarafları, onlar için en uygun olan uyuşmazlık çözüm yöntemine yönlendirirler. Bunlar: Kolaylaştırma, arabuluculuk veya tahkimdir. Bazı çok seçenekli mahkeme teşkilatı prog-ramları belli türdeki bütün davaları belirli bir ADR programına havale et-mekteyken, diğer bazı programlar davacılara seçimlik bir liste sunmaktadırlar. ADR, uyuşmazlık çözümü için mahkemeler vasıtasıyla yürütülen davalarda alternatif olarak işleyen, genellikle tarafsız bir üçüncü kişinin aracılığı ve yardımını içeren bir dizi usûller olarak tanımlanır. Doktrine göre ADR usûlleri aşağıdaki yararları içerebilir: 1. Mahkemelerin iş yükünü ve giderlerini azaltmak, 2. tarafların yargılama için harcadıkları giderleri ve zamanı azaltmak, 3. topluluklara veya tarafların ailelerine zarar veren uyuşmazlıkların hızlı bir şekilde çözümünü sağlamak, 4. bireylerin adalet sisteminden daha iyi bir şekilde tatmin olmasını sağlamak, 5. tarafların ihtiyaçlarına uygun olan çözümleri teşvik etmek, 6. tarafların uyuşmazlık çözüm usûllerine gönüllü olarak uymalarını sağlamak, 7. komşuluk ve topluluk değerlerini ve toplulukların ilişkilerini onarmak, 8. ihtilaflı taraflarca ulaşılabilecek usûller oluşturmak, 9. halka, uyuşmazlıkların çözümünde ihlâl ya da dava yolu yerine daha etkili olan usûlleri denemelerini öğretmek, ADR tarafların bir araya getirilmesinde pek çok farklı yöntem gerektirir; bununla birlikte temel ADR usûlleri arabuluculuk ve müzakeredir. Arabuluculuk ve uzlaştırma terimleri eş anlamlı olarak kullanılırlar. Arabuluculuk (veya uzlaştırma), tarafların bir anlaşmayı müzakere etmeleri için onlara yardım eden tarafsız bir üçüncü kişice gerçekleştirilen bağlayıcı olmayan bir müdahaledir. Üç tür arabuluculuk vardır. Bunlar geleneksel arabuluculuk, yargısal arabuluculuk ve modern arabuluculuktur. Arabulucunun yapısı ve işlevi, arabuluculuk usûlünü diğer uyuşmazlık çözüm usûllerinden ayırmaktadır. Arabulucu bir kolaylaştırıcıdır. Arabulucu, ihtilaflı konular üzerindeki kendi kararını taraflara dikte etmemelidir. Arabulucululuk esnek yapısıyla şekillenerek farklı bir usûl haline bürünür. Arabulucunun yaklaşımı doğrudan veya dolaylı ya da bunların arasında bir usûlde kendini gösterebilir. Arabuluculukta bir ya da birden fazla oturum olabilir. Arabuluculuyla caucuses adında ayrı toplantılar yapılabilir. Arabuluculuk oturumları gizlidir ve tarafların iletişimine yadım etmek amacıyla gerçekleştirilir. Arabuluculuk geliştikçe, kolaylaştırma ve değerlendirme arabuluculuğu gibi farklı arabuluculuk türleri ortaya çıkmaktadır. Mahkeme veya arabulucu tarafından hangi arabuluculuk modelinin izlendiğine bakılmaksızın, arabuluculuk usûllerinin çoğu aşağıdaki aşamaları izler: Arabuluculuk öncesi aşama, arabuluculuk aşaması ve arabuluculuk sonrası aşama. Türk hukuk sisteminde Avukatlık Kanunu, Ceza Muhakemesi Kanunu, İş Kanunu, Tüketicinin Korunması Hakkında Kanun ve Vergi Usûl Kanunu gibi kanunlarda ADR ile doğrudan ilgili düzenlemeler bulunmaktadır. Türk hukukunda, ADR ye ilişkin iki temel düzenleme mevcuttur. ADR yi destekleyen ilk yasal düzenleme Avukatlık Kanunundadır. Avukatlık Kanunu nun 35/A maddesine göre, müvekkilin talep etmesi halinde bir avukat, dava veya duruşma başlamadan önce ihtilaflı tarafları uzlaştırabilir. Kanun, tarafların uzlaştırma süreci sonunda bir anlaşmaya varmaları halinde, taraflar ve avukatların uyuşmazlığı çözen bir yazılı anlaşma yapmalarını hükme bağlamıştır. Uzlaşma tutanağı olarak adlandırılan bu anlaşma avukatlar ve müvekkillerince imzalanır. Uzlaşma tutanağı diğer mahkeme hü-kümleri gibi icra edilebilir. İkinci düzenleme, 1 Nisan 2005 te yürürlüğe giren yeni Ceza Muhake-mesi Kanunu ve Ceza Kanununda bulunmaktadır. Ceza Muhakemesi Kanununun 253. maddesi ve Ceza Kanununun 73. maddesi, savcının veya hâkimin kararına bağlı olarak, bir ceza davasında mağdur-fail uzlaştırmasına ilişkin hükümler içermektedir. Sadece takibi şikâyete bağlı suçlar uzlaştırmaya uygundur. Kanımca, ADR Türk yargı sisteminde medenî hukuk, ticaret hukuku ve ceza hukuku uyuşmazlıklarının çözümünde temel bir işleve sahip olacaktır; zira, yargılama üzerinde çalışan veya dava yolunda büyük güçlüklerle karşılan avukatlar, ADR nin, hukuk davalarının tamamına teşmil edilmesini be-lemektedirler. Hukuk Muhakemeleri Kanunu hâlen, ADR nin kullanılması için gereken yetkiyi vermemektedir. Ancak, ADR yollarının hukuk davalarının tamamında kullanılması için, Hukuk Muhakemeleri Kanunda geniş bir yetki verilmesi gereklidir. Yakın bir gelecekte, özel hukukun bütün alanlarında ADR nin daha önemli ve merkezî bir rol oynayacağı açıktır. There is an essential distinction between conflicts and disputes, though the literature often uses the two terms interchangeably. Conflict is defined as a stole of opposition or hostilities a fight or struggle. A dispute may be viewed as a class or kind of conflict which manifests itself in distinct, justiciable issues. It involves disagreement over issues capable of resolution by negotiation, mediation or third party adjudication. A dispute is an interpersonal conflict that is communicated or manifested. A conflict may not become a dispute if it is not communicated to someone in the form of a perceived incompatibility or a contested claim. Alternative dispute resolution (ADR) represents a movement, away from formal adversarial proceedings on the part of the courts, toward informal processes. ADR can be seen as lying within the framework of the world-wide access-to-justice movement. The beginning of ADR is usually traced to the 1970s in the United States. In the federal district courts, the first mediation and arbitration programs date from the 1970s. Additional expansion of ADR occurred in 1988 when the United States congress authorized ten district courts to implement mandatory arbitration programs and an additional ten to establish voluntary arbitration programs. A major impetus for ADR s rapid growth was a 1976 American Bar Association sponsored National Conference on the Causes of Popular Dissatisfaction with the Administration of Justice. The Conference concluded that alternative forms of dispute resolution, in particular mediation and arbitration, would ease congested courts, reduce settlement time, and minimize costs. The development of neighborhood justice centers (which practice mediation) and multi-door courthouse programs were encouraged. The terms of multi-door courthouse or multi-option ADR describe courts that offer an array of dispute resolution options. These programs direct disputants to the most appropriate dispute-resolving mechanism: facilitation, mediation or arbitration. Some multi-door courthouses refer all cases of certain types to particular ADR programs, while others offer litigants a menu of options. ADR is defined as a range of procedures that serve as alternatives to litigation through the courts for the resolution of disputes, generally involving the intercession and assistance of a neutral and impartial third party. Accordingly in literature the benefits provided by ADR processes may include: 1. lower court caseloads and expenses, 2. reduce the parties? expenses and time, 3. provide speedy settlement of those disputes that were disruptive of the community or the lives of the parties? families, 4. improve public satisfaction with the justice system, 5. encourage resolutions that were suited to the parties? needs, 6. increase voluntary compliance with resolutions, 7. restore the influence of neighborhood and community values and the cohesiveness of communities, 8. provide accessible forums to people with disputes, and 9. teach the public to try more effective processes than violence or litigant for settling disputes. ADR involves many different techniques of bringing parties together, however the main ADR processes are negotiation and mediation. The terms mediation and conciliation are used synonymously. Mediation (or conciliation) is the non-binding intervention by a neutral third party who helps the disputants negotiate an agreement. These are traditional mediation, judicial mediation and modern mediation. The nature and role of the mediator is what distinguishes the process of mediation from other dispute resolution processes. The mediator is a facilitator. The mediator should not impose his or her own judgment of the issues upon that of the parties. Mediation is characterized by its flexibility, taking shape in a variety of models. Mediator approach may manifest in either directive or non directive fashion, or somewhere in between. There may be only one session or several. There may or may not be separate meetings, called caucuses, with the mediator. Mediation sessions are confidential and structured to help parties communicate. As mediations develops, distinct mediation strategies such as facilitative and evaluate are emerging. Regardless of which mediation model a court or mediator follows, most mediations progress through the following stages: Pre-mediation phase, the mediation proper and post-mediation phase. There are direct interested provisions about ADR in the Turkish law system such as Code of Lawyer, Code of Criminal Procedure, Code of Labor, Code of Consumer Protection, and Code of Tax Procedure. There are two main provisions on ADR in the Turkish Law. The first statutory provision that supports ADR is in the Code of Lawyer. According to the article 35/A of the Code of Lawyer if the client claims for conciliation, an attorney may invite the opposite sides to conciliation when the case or the trial is not commenced. If the parties reach an agreement at the end of the conciliation, the statue provides that the parties and the attorneys will execute a written agreement disposing of the dispute. The agreement called conciliation minute? signed by clients and their attorneys. Conciliation minute is enforceable in the same manner as any other final judgment. The second provision is in the new Code of Criminal Procedure and in the Penal Code which came into force on June 1, 2005. Article 253 of the Code of Criminal Procedure and article 73 of the Penal Code, contain provisions about victim-offender mediation in a criminal case, depend on a decision by the prosecution or the judge. Only offenses which can be prosecuted by the public prosecutor only upon complaint of the injured party are suitable for mediation. In my view, ADR will be recognized in Turkish judicial system as having a fundamental role to play in the resolution of civil, commercial and criminal disputes. Because lawyers who work on trials or those who encounter enormous difficulties in litigation expect the ADR to be extended to all civil cases. Nowadays, the Code of Civil Procedure does not provide necessary authority to use ADR. However, a broad authority for using ADR process in all civil actions must be given in the Code of Civil Procedure. It is clear that in all fields of civil dispute resolution ADR will play a central and rather important role in the near future.
Evapotranspiration ET is a dominant Earth System process that couples the water and energy cycles at the earth surface. The pressure of global environmental changes foster the broad scientific aim to understand impacts of climate and land-use on evapotranspiration under transient conditions. In this work, the spatial scale of river catchments is addressed through data analysis of hydrological and meteorological archives with ET classically derived through water balance closure. Through a synthesis of various catchments with different climatic forcings and hydrological conditions, the core objectives of this thesis are: - Did environmental changes in the past, such as climatic- or land-use and land cover (LULC) changes, result in detectable non-stationary changes in the hydro-climate time series? - How can the impacts of climatic- from LULC changes on the hydroclimatology of catchments be separated? - What are the factors that control the sensitivity of ET and streamflow to external changes? These research questions are addressed for the climatic scales of long-term annual averages and seasonal conditions which characterise the hydroclimatology of river catchments. Illustrated by a rich hydro-climatic archive condensed for 27 small to medium sized river catchments in Saxony, a method is proposed to analyse the seasonal features of river flow allowing to detect shifting seasons in snow affected river basins in the last 90 years. Observations of snow depth at these same times lead to the conclusion, that changes in the annual cycle of air temperature have a large influence on the timing of the freeze-thaw in late winter and early spring. This causes large changes in storage of water in the snow pack, which leads to profound changes of the river regime, particularly affecting the river flow in the following months. A model-based data analysis, based on the fundamental principles of water and energy conservation for long-term average conditions, is proposed for the prediction of ET and streamflow, as well as the separation of climate related impacts from impacts resulting from changes in basin conditions. The framework was tested on a large data set of river catchments in the continental US and is shown to be consistent with other methods proposed in the literature. The observed past changes highlight that (i) changes in climate, such as precipitation or evaporative demand, result in changes of the partitioning within the water and energy balance, (ii) the aridity of the climate and to a lesser degree basin conditions determine the sensitivity to external changes, (iii) these controlling factors influence the direction of LULC change impacts, which in some cases can be larger than climate impacts. This work provides evidence, that changes in climatic and land cover conditions can lead to transient hydrological behaviours and make stationary assumptions invalid. Hence, past changes present the opportunity for model testing and thereby deriving fundamental laws and concepts at the scale of interest, which are not affected by changes in the boundary conditions.:Kurzfassung Abstract List of Manuscripts Symbols and abbreviations List of Symbols List of abbreviations 1 Introduction 1.1 Motivation and relevance 1.1.1 Scientific importance of evapotranspiration 1.1.2 Pressure of human driven changes 1.1.3 Practical importance of evapotranspiration 1.2 Scope 1.2.1 Focus on the catchment scale 1.2.2 Changes in the hydroclimatology of river catchments 1.2.3 Hydro-climate data analysis 1.3 Objectives and research questions 1.3.1 Shifting seasons in hydrology 1.3.2 Long-term annual average changes of evapotranspiration and streamflow 1.3.3 Methodological requirements 1.4 Structure of the thesis 2 Long term variability of the annual hydrological regime 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Motivation 2.1.2 Seasonal changes in hydrologic records 2.1.3 Regional climate in Saxony 2.1.4 Objective and structure 2.2 Methods 2.2.1 Annual periodic signal extraction 2.2.2 The runoff ratio and its annual phase 2.2.3 Descriptive circular statistics 2.2.4 Detection of nonstationarities, trends and change points 2.3 Data 2.4.1 Estimation and variability of the timing of the runoff ratio 2.4.2 Temporal variability of the timing 2.4.3 Does temperature explain trends in seasonality of runoff ratio? 2.4.4 Trend analysis in snow dominated basins 2.4.5 Uncertainty and significance of the results 2.5 Conclusions 2.A Preparation of basin input data 2.A.1 Precipitation 2.A.2 Temperature and snow depth data 3 Evaluation of water-energy balance frameworks 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Theory 3.2.1 Coupled water and energy balance 3.2.2 The ecohydrologic framework for change attribution 3.2.3 Applying the climate change hypothesis to predict changes in basin evapo transpiration and streamflow 3.2.4 Derivation of climatic sensitivity using the CCUW hypothesis 3.2.5 The Budyko hypothesis and derived sensitivities 3.3 Sensitivity analysis 3.3.1 Mapping of the Budyko functions into UW space 3.3.2 Mapping CCUW into Budyko space 3.3.3 Climatic sensitivity of basin evapotranspiration and streamflow 3.3.4 Climate-vegetation feedback effects 3.4 Application: three case studies 3.4.1 Mississippi River Basin (MRB) 3.4.2 Headwaters of the Yellow River Basin (HYRB) 3.4.3 Murray-Darling River Basin (MDB) 3.5 Conclusions 3.5.1 Potentials and limitations 3.5.2 Insights on the catchment parameter 3.5.3 Validation 3.5.4 Perspectives 3.A Derivation of the climate change direction 4 Climate sensitivity of streamflow over the continental United States 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Motivation 4.1.2 Hydro-climate of the continental US 4.1.3 Aims and research questions 4.2 Methods 4.2.1 Ecohydrological concept to separate impacts of climate and basin changes 4.2.2 Streamflow change prediction based on a coupled water-energy balance framework 4.2.3 Streamflow change prediction based on the Budyko hypothesis 4.2.4 Statistical classification of potential climate and basin change impacts 4.3 Data 4.4 Results and discussion 4.4.1 Hydro-climate conditions in the US 4.4.2 Climate sensitivity of streamflow 4.4.3 Assessment of observed and predicted changes in streamflow 4.4.4 Uncertainty discussion 4.5 Conclusions 4.A Mathematical derivations for the Mezentsev function 5 Summary and conclusions 5.1 Shifting seasons in hydrology 5.1.1 Major findings 5.1.2 Socio-economic and political relevance 5.1.3 Limitations and possible directions for further research 5.2 Long-term annual changes in ET and streamflow 5.2.1 Major findings 5.2.2 Socio-economic and political relevance 5.2.3 Limitations and further research 5.3 General conclusions and outlook 5.3.1 Regional and temporal limits and validity 5.3.2 Hydrological records carry signals of climate and land use change 5.3.3 Statistical significance of past changes 5.3.4 Improvements in assessing ET 5.3.5 Remote sensing 5.3.6 Learning from the past to predict the future? Bibliography Danksagung Erklärung ; Die Verdunstung ist ein maßgeblicher Prozess innerhalb des Klimasystems der Erde, welche den Wasserkreislauf mit dem Energiehaushalt der Erde verbindet. Eine zentrale wissenschaftliche Herausforderung ist, zu verstehen, wie die regionale Wasserverfügbarkeit durch Änderungen des Klimas oder der physiographischen Eigenschaften der Landoberfläche beeinflusst wird. Mittels einer integrierten Datenanalyse von vorhandenen langjährigen Archiven hydroklimatischer Zeitreihen werden die folgenden wissenschaftlichen Fragestellungen dieser Dissertation diskutiert: - Haben beobachtete Änderungen der Landoberfläche und des Klimas zu nachweisbaren, instationären hydroklimatischen Änderungen geführt? - Lassen sich die hydroklimatischen Auswirkungen von Klimaänderungen und Änderungen der Landoberfläche voneinander unterscheiden? - Welche Faktoren beeinflussen die Sensitivität von Abfluss und Verdunstung auf Veränderungen der klimatischen und physiographischen Randbedingungen? Hierbei fokussiert sich die Arbeit auf Änderungen im langjährige Mittel und im Jahresgang von hydroklimatischen Variablen auf der räumlichen Skala von Flusseinzugsgebieten. Zur Untersuchung des hydrologischen Regimes wurde ein harmonischer Filter angewandt, der es erlaubt, die Eintrittszeit des Jahresgangs (Phase) zu quantifizieren. Diese klimatologische Kenngröße wurde für eine Vielzahl von Einzugsgebieten in Sachsen untersucht, wobei sich vor allem für die Gebiete in den Kammlagen des Erzgebirges signifikante Veränderungen ergaben. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die signifikante Phasenverschiebung der Temperatur seit Ende der 1980er Jahre zu einer verfrühten Schneeschmelze und dadurch zu einem Rückgang des Abflusses bis in die Sommermonate hinein geführt hat. Desweiteren wurde eine modellbasierte Datenanalyse entwickelt, welche auf Massen- und Energieerhalt von Einzugsgebieten im langjährigen Mittel beruht. Das entwickelte Konzept erlaubt es, Auswirkungen von Klimaänderungen von anderen Effekten, welche z.B. durch Landnutzungsänderungen bedingt sind, abzugrenzen und zu quantifizieren. Die Ergebnisse einer Sensitivitätsanalyse dieses Konzeptes sowie die Anwendung auf einen umfangreichen hydroklimatischen Datensatz der USA zeigen: (i) Veränderungen im Wasser- oder Energiedargebot beeinflussen auch die Aufteilung der Wasser- und Energieflüsse. (ii) Die Aridität des Klimas und nachgeordnet die physiographischen Faktoren bestimmen die Sensitivität von Verdunstung und Abfluss. (iii) Beide Faktoren beeinflussen die Stärke und Richtung der Auswirkungen von physiographischen Änderungen. (iv) Anthropogene Veränderungen der Landoberfläche führten zum Teil zu stärkeren Auswirkungen als klimatisch bedingte Änderungen. Zusammenfassend zeigt sich, dass Änderungen von Landnutzung und Klima zu Verschiebungen im Wasserhaushalt führen können und damit auch die Annahme von Stationarität verletzen. Hydroklimatische Veränderungen bieten aber auch eine Gelegenheit zum Testen von Theorien und Modellen, um somit die grundlegenden Zusammenhänge zu erkennen, welche nicht durch Änderungen der Randbedingungen hinfällig werden.:Kurzfassung Abstract List of Manuscripts Symbols and abbreviations List of Symbols List of abbreviations 1 Introduction 1.1 Motivation and relevance 1.1.1 Scientific importance of evapotranspiration 1.1.2 Pressure of human driven changes 1.1.3 Practical importance of evapotranspiration 1.2 Scope 1.2.1 Focus on the catchment scale 1.2.2 Changes in the hydroclimatology of river catchments 1.2.3 Hydro-climate data analysis 1.3 Objectives and research questions 1.3.1 Shifting seasons in hydrology 1.3.2 Long-term annual average changes of evapotranspiration and streamflow 1.3.3 Methodological requirements 1.4 Structure of the thesis 2 Long term variability of the annual hydrological regime 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Motivation 2.1.2 Seasonal changes in hydrologic records 2.1.3 Regional climate in Saxony 2.1.4 Objective and structure 2.2 Methods 2.2.1 Annual periodic signal extraction 2.2.2 The runoff ratio and its annual phase 2.2.3 Descriptive circular statistics 2.2.4 Detection of nonstationarities, trends and change points 2.3 Data 2.4.1 Estimation and variability of the timing of the runoff ratio 2.4.2 Temporal variability of the timing 2.4.3 Does temperature explain trends in seasonality of runoff ratio? 2.4.4 Trend analysis in snow dominated basins 2.4.5 Uncertainty and significance of the results 2.5 Conclusions 2.A Preparation of basin input data 2.A.1 Precipitation 2.A.2 Temperature and snow depth data 3 Evaluation of water-energy balance frameworks 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Theory 3.2.1 Coupled water and energy balance 3.2.2 The ecohydrologic framework for change attribution 3.2.3 Applying the climate change hypothesis to predict changes in basin evapo transpiration and streamflow 3.2.4 Derivation of climatic sensitivity using the CCUW hypothesis 3.2.5 The Budyko hypothesis and derived sensitivities 3.3 Sensitivity analysis 3.3.1 Mapping of the Budyko functions into UW space 3.3.2 Mapping CCUW into Budyko space 3.3.3 Climatic sensitivity of basin evapotranspiration and streamflow 3.3.4 Climate-vegetation feedback effects 3.4 Application: three case studies 3.4.1 Mississippi River Basin (MRB) 3.4.2 Headwaters of the Yellow River Basin (HYRB) 3.4.3 Murray-Darling River Basin (MDB) 3.5 Conclusions 3.5.1 Potentials and limitations 3.5.2 Insights on the catchment parameter 3.5.3 Validation 3.5.4 Perspectives 3.A Derivation of the climate change direction 4 Climate sensitivity of streamflow over the continental United States 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Motivation 4.1.2 Hydro-climate of the continental US 4.1.3 Aims and research questions 4.2 Methods 4.2.1 Ecohydrological concept to separate impacts of climate and basin changes 4.2.2 Streamflow change prediction based on a coupled water-energy balance framework 4.2.3 Streamflow change prediction based on the Budyko hypothesis 4.2.4 Statistical classification of potential climate and basin change impacts 4.3 Data 4.4 Results and discussion 4.4.1 Hydro-climate conditions in the US 4.4.2 Climate sensitivity of streamflow 4.4.3 Assessment of observed and predicted changes in streamflow 4.4.4 Uncertainty discussion 4.5 Conclusions 4.A Mathematical derivations for the Mezentsev function 5 Summary and conclusions 5.1 Shifting seasons in hydrology 5.1.1 Major findings 5.1.2 Socio-economic and political relevance 5.1.3 Limitations and possible directions for further research 5.2 Long-term annual changes in ET and streamflow 5.2.1 Major findings 5.2.2 Socio-economic and political relevance 5.2.3 Limitations and further research 5.3 General conclusions and outlook 5.3.1 Regional and temporal limits and validity 5.3.2 Hydrological records carry signals of climate and land use change 5.3.3 Statistical significance of past changes 5.3.4 Improvements in assessing ET 5.3.5 Remote sensing 5.3.6 Learning from the past to predict the future? Bibliography Danksagung Erklärung
Inhaltsangabe:Einleitung: Piraten: Legenden vergangener Zeiten - jedoch auch heute noch ein aktuelles Thema. Piraterie ist seit jeher verflochten mit der Handels-, Kriegs-, Sozial- und Rechtsgeschichte und sie erlebt im Zeitalter der Globalisierung von Handel, Finanzen und Informationen völlig neue Formen und Dimensionen. Es geht den Piraten zwar bei heutigen Überfällen nicht um Schatztruhen und Rumvorräte des Käpt´n, sondern es handelt sich um eine Verbrecherbande, die weltweit jährlich ca. 16 Milliarden Dollar umsetzt. Die Brutalitätund der Einfallsreichtum der Seeräuber haben nicht nachgelassen. Regierungen sind darin verstrickt, die politische Landschaft ganzer Regionen ist in Gefahr. Der Reeder-Verband warnt: 'Die Piraten gefährden Schifffahrt und Seewege, weil sie Schiffe, auch vollgeladene Tanker, ohne Mannschaft und Führung lassen und damit die Gefahr erhöhen, dass Schiffe zusammenstoßen oder auf Grund laufen'. Aufgrund dieser brisanten und hochaktuellen Thematik, ist diese Diplomarbeit dieser speziellen Gefahr der Seeschifffahrt gewidmet. Problemstellung und Aufbau dieser Diplomarbeit: Ziel dieser Diplomarbeit ist es, die Seepiraterie in der heutigen Zeit, in der nahezu der gesamte internationale Warenhandel über Seetransporte betrieben wird, genauer zu untersuchen. Dazu gehört das regionale Vorkommen von Piraten und damit verbunden die Bekämpfung vor Ort durch die örtlichen Behörden.Wie sollten staatliche Behörden, Schifffahrtsgesellschaften und Versicherungen mit dem zunehmenden Problem der Piraterie umgehen und welche Möglichkeiten bieten sich sowohl auf gesetzlicher Grundlage als auch mit Hilfe von technischen Neuerungen bzw. Risikomanagement gegen Piraterie wirksam zu wehren? Des Weiteren soll im Rahmen dieser Arbeit untersucht werden, inwieweit Schäden durch Piraterie im Rahmen einer Transportversicherung gedeckt werden können und wie Versicherer derzeit mit diesem Thema umgehen. Das in der momentanen Zeit sehr brisante Thema der 'Produktpiraterie' wird nicht Bestandteil dieser Diplomarbeit sein, da diese Diplomarbeit sich ausschließlich auf die Transportversicherung und damit verbunden die Seepiraterie bezieht. Nachdem vorab der Begriff der Piraterie definiert wird, erfolgt ein kurzer historischer Überblick der nahtlos in die Untersuchung der heutigen 'Piraterievorkommen' übergeht. Gestützt werden diese Untersuchungen durch Veröffentlichungen diverser Institutionen. In diesem Zusammenhang geht diese Diplomarbeit auch auf gesetzliche Grundlagen ein. Hauptthema dieser Arbeit wird die Untersuchung des Zusammenhangs Piraterie und Transportversicherungen sowie Piraterie und Risikomanagement bilden. Was wird unter 'Piraterie' verstanden? Immer wieder ist in Tageszeitungen über gewalttätige, blutige und brutale Überfälle von Piraten auf Containerschiffe Frachter und Luxusyachten zu lesen. Sogar vor Kreuzfahrtschiffen machen sie nicht halt.Das International Maritime Bureau (IMB) in London veröffentlicht halbjährlich die neuesten Statistiken und wöchentlich die letzten Fälle von Piraterie. In Lexika finden sich unterschiedliche Definitionen über Piraterie. Zum einen wird Piraterie definiert als 'das gewaltsame Vorgehen, um sich eines fremden Schiffes in räuberischer Absicht zu bemächtigen'. Zum anderen wird sie erklärt als völkerrechtswidrigen Angriff auf ein Seeschiff zur Erbeutung der Ladung oder Gefangennahme der Passagiere ohne Ermächtigung eines Staates. Obwohl die Luftpiraterie durch die Medien als spektakulärer dargestellt wird und diese Art von Überfällen eher bekannt ist, als die 'einfache' Piraterie zur See, soll sich diese Diplomarbeit ausschließlich auf die See- Piraterie beschränken. Definitionender Pirateriedurch verschiedene Organisationen Artikel 101 der 'United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea (UNCLOS)' (Seerechtsübereinkommen siehe Kapitel 5.1 ) definiert die Piraterie als: 'Piracy consists of any of the following acts: (a) any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed for private ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a private aircraft, and directed: (i) on the high seas, against another ship or aircraft, or against persons or property on board such ship or aircraft; (ii) against a ship, aircraft, persons or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any State; (b) any act of voluntary participation in the operation of a ship or of an aircraft with knowledge of facts making it a pirate ship or aircraft; (c) any act inciting or of intentionally facilitating an act described in sub-paragraph (a) or (b)'. Demnach ist Piraterie jeder illegale 'Akt der Gewalt, der Freiheitsberaubung oder Verwüstung, der aus eigennützigen Motiven von der Besatzung oder den Passagieren eines zivilen Schiffes auf hoher See verübt wird'. Aus dieser Definition ergeben sich zwei Schwierigkeiten. Zum einen muss der Angriff zum Zweck privater Bereicherung erfolgt sein. Es wird also von 'zivilen' Seeräubern ausgegangen, zu erwähnen ist jedoch, dass es auch bewiesene Übergriffe der staatlichen Küstenwache gibt. Aus der Definition folgt streng genommen, dass Übergriffe auf Schiffe mit staatlicher Beteiligung insbesondere in territorialen Hoheitsgewässern keine Piraterie darstellen, sondern unter die Zuständigkeit eines jeden Staates fallen. Das zweite Problem betrifft den Ort des Angriffs. Die Konvention bezieht sich ausschließlich auf Angriffe auf hoher See, also in Gebieten, die keiner staatlichen Jurisdiktion unterstehen. Damit werden aber alle Überfälle, die im Hafen oder in Küstennähe verübt werden, nicht erfasst. 1994 verabschiedete die UNO eine neue 'Convention on the Law of Sea'. Diese definiert Piraterie wiederum als 'any illegal acts of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed by individuals (borne aboard a pirate vessel) for private ends against a private ship or aircraft (the victim vessel)'.Wenn kein Piratenschiff beteiligt ist, bezeichnet die UNO die Besetzung eines Schiffes als 'Hijacking' . Erneut werden nur Überfälle aus privater Gewinnsucht betrachtet. Jedoch ist die Definition bezüglich des 'Tatorts' freier geworden, die Grundvoraussetzung 'auf Hoher See' ist weggefallen. Das International Maritime Board (IMB) definiert Piraterie als 'die Tat des Aufbringens eines Schiffes mit dem Ziel, Diebstahl oder ein anderes Verbrechen zu begehen und zur Durchführung Gewalt anzuwenden'. Mit Absicht wurde bei dieser Definition kein angreifendes Schiff erwähnt, da wie bereits erwähnt viele der heute stattfindenden Übergriffe vom Festland ausgehen, wenn das betreffende Schiff im Hafen vor Anker liegt. Die International Maritime Organization (IMO) definiert einen bewaffneten Raubüberfall auf Schiffe im 'Code of Practice for the Investigation of the Crimes of Piracy and Armed Robbery Against Ships (MSC/Circ.984) (article 2.2)' wie folgt: 'Armed robbery against ships means any unlawful act of violence or detention or any act of depredation, or threat thereof, other than an act of 'piracy', directed against a ship or against persons or property on board such ship, within a State´s jurisdiction over such offences. ' Die oben angeführten Definitionen wurden von weltweit operierenden Organisationen aufgestellt. Nun ist es jedoch üblich, internationales Recht in nationales zu übernehmen und eventuell einzuschränken oder abzuwandeln. Beispielsweise haben Britische Handelsgerichte zwar, die illegale Gewaltanwendung gegen Schiffe für private Rechung als wesentliches Merkmal der Piraterie anerkannt, jedoch ist die völkerrechtliche Voraussetzung der Begehung außerhalb eines staatlichen Hoheitsgebietes für das Handelsrecht verneint worden. Abgrenzung zu Terror: Aufgrund der zunehmenden Brutalität der Piraten und der Gefahr, dass diese Schiffe mit Waffen an Bord entführen, erscheint es mir wichtig, die Piraterie vom Begriff des Terrors abzugrenzen. Laut einem GDV-Rundschreiben vom 18.12.2001 (Nr.2806/2001) sind Terrorakte 'jegliche Handlungen von Personen oder Personengruppen zur Erreichung politischer, religiöser, ethnischer, ideologischer oder ähnlicher Ziele, die geeignet sind, Angst und Schrecken in der Bevölkerung oder in Teilen der Bevölkerung zu verbreiten und dadurch auf eine Regierung oder staatliche Einrichtungen Einfluss zu nehmen'. Terrorismus ist für die zivile Schifffahrt ein noch nicht genau abschätzbares Problem. Daher gibt es hierzu weder einschlägige Rechtsprechungen im Seehandelsrecht noch eine internationale Konvention mit einer Definition. Es kann allenfalls auf ein englisches Gesetz zur Rückversicherung von Terrorschäden aus 1993 zurückgegriffen werden. Dieses definiert Terror als 'Acts of persons action on behalf of, or in connection with, any organisation which carries out activities directed towards the overthrowing or influencing, by force or violence, of Her Majesty´s Governmernt in the United Kingdomor any other government de jure or de facto'. Der Unterschied zwischen den Begriffen der Piraterie und des Terrors liegt in dem Zweck der Handlungen. Piraten kapern ein Schiff für private Zwecke, um ihren 'Lebensunterhalt' zu bestreiten. Terroristen entführen dagegen ein Schiff, um mit ihm politische Zwecke zu verfolgen. Beiden gemeinsam ist allerdings die hohe Gewaltbereitschaft. Folglich ist es denkbar, dass aus einem Piraten unter Einfluss von bestimmten Kräften ein Terrorist wird. Abgrenzung zu den Begriffen Diebstahl und Raub: Diebstahl ist eines der wichtigsten Vermögensdelikte und 'nach § 242 StGB jede Handlung, durch die jemand eine fremde bewegliche Sache einem anderen in der Absicht wegnimmt, sie sich rechtswidrig anzueignen'. 'Raub ist 'der durch Gewalt gegen eine Person oder mittels Drohungen mit gegenwärtiger Gefahr für Leib oder Leben begangene Diebstahl'. Das Strafmaß regelt sich im § 249 Strafgesetzbuch. Beim Vergleichen dieser Definitionen mit der der Piraterie, kann festgestellt werden, dass beide Elemente im Begriff der Piraterie vorkommen. Ein Pirat wendet in den meisten Fällen Gewalt an (Raub) und begeht in der Regel einen Diebstahl. Piraterie ist somit ein Spezialfall des Raubes oder Diebstahls, der immer im Zusammenhang mit einem Schiff gesehen werden muss.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: 1.Einleitung6 1.1Vorwort6 1.2Problemstellung und Aufbau dieser Diplomarbeit7 1.3Was wird unter 'Piraterie' verstanden?7 1.4Abgrenzung zu Terror10 1.5Abgrenzung zu den Begriffen Diebstahl und Raub11 2.Piraterie in der historischen Entwicklung11 2.1Piraterie in der Antike11 2.2Piraterie im Mittelalter12 2.3Piraterie in der Neuzeit13 2.4Piraterie heute13 2.4.1Gründe für die Piraterie heute14 3.Die Verbreitung der Piraterie in Zahlen16 3.1Entwicklung der Piraterie im Zeitablauf16 3.2Regionale Brennzonen18 3.3Am meisten betroffene Schiffstypen 21 3.4Zunehmende Brutalität der Piraten23 4.Organisationen und Vereinigungen24 4.1Wer ist die 'IUMI'?25 4.1.1Zweck und Ziele25 4.1.2Die Arbeit der IUMI25 4.2International Chamber of Commerce (ICC)26 4.3Das International Maritime Board (IMB) und Piraterie-Zentrum26 4.4Commercial Crime Bureau (CCB)28 4.5Die IMO (International Maritime Organisation)29 5.Internationale Vereinbarungen30 5.1Seerechtsübereinkommen der Vereinten Nationen (in Auszügen -siehe Anhang)31 5.1.1das Seerechtsübereinkommen im Kampf gegen Piraterie31 5.1.2Piraterie auf Hoher See33 5.2International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS)34 5.2.1Befugnisse des Kapitäns35 5.2.2Alarmsystem zur Gefahrenabwehr auf dem Schiff35 5.2.3Alternative Maßnahmen36 5.3International Management Code for The Safe Operation and for Pollution Prevention (ISM-Code)36 5.3.1'Document of Compliance' (DOC)37 5.3.2'Safety Management Certificate' (SMC)37 5.3.3Der ISM-Beauftragte37 5.4International Ship and Port Facility Security - Code (ISPS-Code )38 5.4.1Entstehung38 5.4.2Anwendung38 5.4.3Aufbau und Inhalt39 5.4.4Company Security and Ship Security Officer40 5.4.5Schritte zur Erlangung des ISPS-Codes41 6.Die Rolle der Küsten- und Flaggen-Staaten im Kampf gegen Piraterie41 6.1Umsetzung von Internationalen Abkommen42 6.2Strafrechtliche Verfolgung von Piraten44 6.3Ausflaggung46 6.4Allgemeine Kritik der IMO49 7.Versicherungsschutz für Piraterie49 7.1Versicherungsschutz für Piraterie in der Warenversicherung51 7.1.1Piraterie in deutschen Waren-Versicherungsbedingungen51 7.1.1.1Modell der 'vollenDeckung'51 7.1.1.2Modell der 'eingeschränkten Deckung'52 7.1.1.3Vertragliche Obliegenheiten und Piraterie52 7.1.2Verträge nach englischem Recht53 7.1.2.1Marine cargo clauses (A)54 7.1.2.2Marine cargo clauses (B) und (C)54 7.2Verträge in der Kaskoversicherung55 7.2.1Seekasko55 7.2.1.1Verträge nach deutschen Versicherungsbedingungen55 7.2.1.1.1Sonderfall des Abandon im Zusammenhang mit Piraterie57 7.2.1.1.2Obliegenheitsverletzungen58 7.2.2Wassersportbootkasko59 7.3Allgemeine Underwritingmaßnahmen62 7.4Versicherungsschutz für Piraterie durch PI Clubs63 8.Havarie Grosse65 8.1Allgemeines zur Havarie Grosse65 8.2HGB65 8.2.1Piraterie in der Havarie Grosse nach HGB66 8.3York Antwerp Rules (YAR)66 8.3.1Piraterie in der Havarie Grosse nach YAR66 9.Versicherungsbetrug68 9.1automatisierte Betrugserkennung durch ISP69 9.2Versicherungsbetrug durch Piraterie69 10.Ausgewählte Schadenfälle71 10.1Louise72 10.2Sea Johanna72 10.3Alondra Rainbow72 11.Regress des Versicherers73 11.1Haftung der Staaten73 11.2Haftung der Reederei und des Kapitäns nach HGB und BGB74 11.2.1Bewusstes Einfahren in das Gebiet76 11.2.2Insider unter der Besatzung76 11.3Haftung des Verfrachters77 11.4Haftung der Täter78 12.Risikoanalyse und Festsetzung von Gegenmaßnahmen79 12.1Grundlagen79 12.1.1Definition der Sicherheit79 12.1.2Definition des Risikos79 12.1.3Risikoakzeptanz80 12.2Risikoanalyse80 13.Risikomanagement an Bord81 13.1Yachten83 13.1.1Risikomanagement vor einem Überfall83 13.1.2Risikomanagement während und nach einem Überfall84 13.2Frachtschiffe85 13.2.1Maßnahmen vor einem Überfall85 13.2.2Maßnahmen während und nach einem Überfall90 13.2.3Risikominimierung im Hafen93 13.3Risikominimierung durch Versender94 14.Fazit95 Abkürzungsverzeichnis96 Anhänge99 Literaturverzeichnis119Textprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 13, Risikomanagement an Bord: Wie bereits angesprochen, unterscheiden sich sowohl die Art der Überfälle als auch die regionalen Brennpunkte für die unterschiedlichen Schiffstypen. Zur Vereinfachung und besseren Übersichtlichkeit soll im Folgenden nur zwischen privat und gewerblich genutzten Schiffen unterschieden werden. Wobei eine gewerblich vermietete Yacht auch als privat genutzt zu verstehen ist. Neben speziellen Verhaltensregeln für einzelne Schiffstypen oder Fahrtgebiete gibt es auch allgemein gültige Maßnahmen, die jeder Kapitän veranlassen sollte: -bei Piratengefahr auf See: Gefährliches Seegebiet möglichst bei Tage befahren, An gefährlichen Küsten reichlich Abstand halten, Über Radar bzw. Ausguck die Umgebung des Schiffes beobachten (insbesondere zwischen ein und sechs Uhr morgens, wenn die meisten Überfälle verübt werden), Überwachung durch Wärmesensoren, Bewegungsmelder oder Videokameras, Besatzung über das Verhalten im Notfall unterrichten, Möglichkeiten des Enterns erschweren: Klüsenspülung laufen lassen, Deckwaschschläuche klar halten, Schiff nachts abdunkeln bis auf Positionslaternen, Außentüren verschließen und Schutzraum mit Funkgerät ausrüsten, Meldung an nächste Küstenwache vorbereiten, - bei Annäherung von Piraten: Generalalarm, Kursänderung, um Angreifer in Luv zu bringen, Sofortige Meldung an nächste Küstenwache, Feuerlöschschläuche einsetzen, Volle Decksbeleuchtung einschalten, Aufbau der internen Kommunikation (Ausgeben der UKW- Sprechgeräte), - bei Enterung durch Piraten: Schutzräume aufsuchen und hermetisch abdichten wegen Gefahr der Geiselnahme, Bei Konfrontation keine Gegenwehr leisten, Wenn navigatorisch erforderlich, Maschine stoppen, Verhandeln, um Zeit zu gewinnen, -nach einem Überfall: Versorgen der verletzten Personen, Verhindern der Flucht von gefangen genommenen Piraten, Warnung von Schiffen, die sich in der Nähe befinden und eventuell ebenfalls überfallen werden könnten, Beweis- und Spurensicherung für Untersuchungen durch Personal der nächsten Küstenwache, Unterstützung der eintreffenden Küstenwache durch Beschreibung der Piraten, des angreifenden Schiffes und der Fluchtrichtung, Vor dem Befahren eines gefährlichen Gebietes sollten diese Maßnahmen in Anwesenheit aller Besatzungsmitglieder wiederholt werden. Hierzu sollte ein Protokoll mit Datum und stichwortartiger Zusammenfassung der übermittelten Informationen angefertigt und von den Beteiligten unterschrieben werden. Die nun folgende Unterteilung ist nicht als absolut anzusehen. Die ein oder andere Maßnahme lässt sich mit Sicherheit in abgewandelter Form auch bei dem jeweils anderen Schiffstyp anwenden. 13.1, Yachten: 13.1.1, Risikomanagement vor einem Überfall: Echtes Risikomanagement fängt schon vor Eintritt einer Gefahr an. Das Bewusstsein dafür besteht schon seit jeher. So hat bereits 1895 der Weltumsegler Joshua Slocum in seinem Buch 'Sailing Alone Around the World' berichtet, wie er sich vor den Indianern Feuerlands mithilfe von an Deck ausgelegten Reißnägeln schützte. Da sich die Gefahrensituation in den Fahrgebieten erfahrungsgemäß sehr schnell ändert, wird im Allgemeinen empfohlen, sich kurz vor Beginn einer Reise und auch während deren Verlaufs bei Konsulaten, Auswärtigem Amt, Reiseorganisationen, Cruising Clubs und besonders wichtig über Funk bei anderen Seglern oder Amateurfunknetzen nach der jeweiligen Situation vor Ort zu erkundigen. Diese Präventivmassnahme ermöglicht es dem Freizeitskipper, besonders 'piratenverseuchte' Gebiete zu umfahren. Eine weitere Maßnahme wäre z.B. das Fahren in Konvois durch besonders gefährliche Gebiete, um sich so gegebenenfalls gegenseitig beschützen zu können und Piraten abzuschrecken. 13.1.2, Risikomanagement während und nach einem Überfall: Aufgrund der Größe der Schiffe und damit verbunden der kleinen Besatzung stehen die Chancen für eine erfolgreiche Abwehr von Piraten verhältnismäßig schlecht. Fachgremien, Segelzeitschriften und erfahrene Freizeitkapitäne streiten sich über das Für und Wider von Waffen an Bord von Yachten. Zum einen ist es extrem wichtig, mit einer Waffe umgehen zu können. Zum anderen muss das Gewehr oder der Revolver bei Überfällen auch schnell greifbar sein. Dies könnte schwierig sein, wenn die Waffe zum Beispiel beim Einklarieren vom Zoll im Schrank versiegelt worden ist. Das nächste Problem ergibt sich dann, wenn der Zoll bei der Rückkehr in den Klarierungshafen den Siegelbruch bemerkt. Nicht klarierte Waffen können zu Gefängnisstrafen oder zur Beschlagnahme des Schiffes führen. Die Erfahrung hat gezeigt, dass einige Überfälle durch das bloße Zeigen der Waffen verhindert werden konnten, andere jedoch für den Schiffsbesitzer tödlich endeten. Es ist festzustellen, dass ein '…leicht erhöhter Prozentsatz der Waffenträger…' '…mit den Waffen bzw. durch den Einsatz von Warnschüssen einen Überfall verhindern…' konnte '…ein fast gleich hoher Prozentsatz von Überfällen auf bewaffnete Boote kam so plötzlich, dass die Crew nicht an die Verstecke ihrer Waffen herankam, keine Zeit zur Gegenwehr hatte.'. Eine Alternative zum Waffenbesitz wurde erstmals im Juni 2000 von der IMO der Öffentlichkeit vorgestellt. Es handelt sich um eine spezielle, dreieinhalb Kilogramm schwere, Weste. Sie ist im Prinzip eine kugelsichere Schwimmweste mit einem integrierten Messer. 13.2, Frachtschiffe: In den 80iger Jahren stieg die Anzahl der Übergriffe überproportional an und viele Reedereien verstärkten Ihre Sicherheitsmaßnahmen. Jedoch waren sowohl Schiffseigner als auch die Behörden der Staaten, in deren Gewässern sich die Angriffe ereigneten der Ansicht, dass die Kosten für den Schutz vor Piraten die Kosten, die durch deren Übergriffe entstanden, nicht übersteigen sollten; und so wurde der Bekämpfung der Piraterie wenig Bedeutung beigemessen. Heute hat sich das Problembewusstsein gewandelt. So gibt es weltweite Anstrengungen der Piraterie her zu werden. Aufgrund der Größe der Schiffe und der Besatzung sowie der vergleichsweise höheren Werte der Schiffe und der transportierten Waren gibt es in der Literatur bedeutend mehr Empfehlungen zum Schutz von Frachtschiffen vor Seeräubern. Wie bereits erwähnt, kann mit Sicherheit jedoch auch die eine oder andere Maßnahmen auf kleinere 'Privatboote' übertragen werden. Die gesetzlichen Grundlagen für die nun folgenden Maßnahmen befinden sich wie erwähnt im ISM-Code ('innere Sicherheit') und ISPS-Code ('äußere Sicherheit'). 13.2.1, Maßnahmen vor einem Überfall: In der Literatur wird vorgeschlagen, besonders gefährliche Gebiete nicht zu befahren, sondern eine weniger gefährliche Route zu wählen. Dies erscheint mir jedoch nicht immer praktikabel, da es z.B. zur Malaccastrasse keine Alternative gibt. Des Öfteren sehen es Piraten auf den Schiffessafe ab, in dem sich mitunter beträchtliche Summen von Bargeld befinden. Daher wird von der IMO empfohlen, soweit wie möglich auf Bargeld an Bord zu verzichten. Die IMO hofft dadurch, die Anzahl der Überfälle auf Schiffe, mit dem alleinigen Ziel, das Geld aus dem Safe zu erbeuten, abzusenken.
On Tuesday night, speaking to an audience of Army cadets at West Point Academy in a much anticipated response to his general's request for additional troops, President Obama announced a new strategy for the war in Afghanistan. It was a somber speech, delivered with his usual trademark of logic, rhetorical skill and assertiveness, but also with a certain emotion. At crucial moments in it, Obama looked straight into the camera, making direct eye-contact with the individual spectator, summoning his support in an effort he seems to be taking up somewhat reluctantly. He outlined a new strategy for the eight-year old war that will include immediate deployment of 30,000 new US troops to protect civilians, clear and defeat the insurgents and train Afghan forces in order to be able to begin the draw down in eighteen months. This new surge will be supplemented by additional NATO troops and Afghan national forces to meet the original 40,000 troops demanded by General McCrystal. After three months of deliberation, the President has decided to heed the advice of his generals and his Defense Secretary, and proceed with a military escalation of the conflict. In so doing, he rejected the logic of Vice President Biden who rhetorically asked earlier this year why the US spent 30 times as much in Afghanistan as it did in Pakistan, when it was well-known that Al Qaeda or what is left of it, is in the tribal regions of Pakistan. Lately he had argued against more troops (because the central government was an unreliable, weak and corrupt partner) and in favor of shifting the mission to killing or capturing main insurgency leaders, establishing more ties with local tribal leaders and giving more support to Pakistan. On Wednesday morning, however, Biden appeared in the morning news shows to defend the President's decision unequivocally.The next morning, in hearings before the Senate's Armed Forces Committee, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton fleshed out the main objectives of the surge more fully: training Afghan forces, eliminating safe havens, stabilizing a region fundamental to American national security. She also emphasized the importance of the parallel "civilian surge" which the President had also mentioned in passing and whose job will be to develop the agricultural base away from opium and to further strengthen institutions at every level of Afghan society, so as "not to leave chaos behind" when troops are drawn down and responsibility is transferred to the Afghan government. Finally, she stressed the need to develop long-term relations with both Afghanistan and Pakistan. Indeed, Obama's three-pronged strategy includes not only military and civilian components for counter insurgence and institution-building, but also a strategic partnership with Pakistan, whose government can help contain the Taliban, destroy Al Qaeda and prevent it from gaining access to nuclear material. Unfortunately, during his speech the President did not spend much time explaining the importance of that relationship. Another important omission was the inclusion of other regional actors in the process of conflict resolution. But the truth is Obama was performing an extremely difficult balancing act, trying to simultaneously gain the support of disparate groups at home and abroad for a last-ditch effort to win an eight year old war in a context of war fatigue, massive debt and a weak economy. That also explains why in his speech he denied any intentions of nation-building (public opinion in the US is strongly against it mainly because of the cost and the long-term commitment it implies) and instead focused on transferring responsibility to the Afghans themselves for their own defense.In articulating both an escalation and an exit strategy at the same time, the President opened himself to criticism from both the Right and the Left. While the Right was very supportive of the surge itself, it was quite critical of his timeline for withdrawal, which they say, will only embolden insurgents to wait the troops out. The Left of his party, led by Moveon.org, responded negatively to the increase of troops, which they regard as "deepening (US) involvement in a quagmire." Meanwhile, and in spite of much commentary to the contrary, the White House insists that the President made this decision because he feels it is the right one, and that electoral considerations played no role in the process (although the withdrawal in the summer of 2011 conveniently coincides with the beginning of his presidential campaign for re-election!) Instead, pundits favorable to the President were quick to point out that a time frame was absolutely needed to provide a sense of urgency to the Afghan government itself so that it will clean up its act and take advantage of this "new window of opportunity" as Secretary Clinton put it. However, it is obvious to the same pundits that the pace and time of withdrawal will most likely be dictated by the conditions on the ground in the summer of 2011 and not by the pre-established timetable. Whether it is for political or strategic reasons, the fact is, the President has made speed, (that is, a quick deployment of new forces followed by quick withdrawal), the central tenet of his new strategy, and while providing for a civilian surge, he has underplayed the nation-building aspects of the mission for the obvious reason: that they undermine the credibility of a speedy exit strategy.Whether or not this strategy works, his decision on Afghanistan has gained Obama some time free from the crushing criticism of the opposition whom he has silenced for the moment; he has pleased Independents (66% of whom trusted the generals over Obama in planning the war strategy; 48% were in favor of more troops, as opposed to only 30% of Democrats); and he can now turn to the two other major challenges facing his administration: public discontent with the economic situation and the battle for health care reform. The latter won a major victory two weeks ago when the Senate voted to bring the bill to the floor for discussion. Still, between the Thanksgiving break last week and the end- of -the -year holidays it is very unlikely this discussion will bear fruit within this calendar year, as was the President's goal. And the more the bill gets delayed the more the public option gets diluted to the point that it will all but disappear from a final version. Since April the President's plan has lost Independent support steadily (only 25% of Independents opposed it in April, now 50% are against it, while among Democrats it has wide support, with only 22% opposing the public option).On the economic front, five times more Independents than Democrats hold Obama responsible for what has gone wrong. They blame him for salvaging the banks but not their jobs. In light of this, Obama has summoned a job creation "summit" to be held later this week in the White House. While most see it as a public relations tactic, with unemployment having surpassed 10%the public is demanding action, and job recovery is key to getting the Independent vote back. With his approval rate hovering at 50%, the President is in dire need of striking some points and delivering some victories before the end of the year. Amid a rising wave of populism that is both anti-Wall Street and anti-government, he needs to show that he can make government work. After a seamless campaign and after months of relying on his own personal charisma and his gifted oratory to coax and persuade the public, the magic seems to be wearing off: he now needs to find other ways to reach the voters. Of course, performance will be the safest one: Independent voters want competence and results: they want him to show them that he can govern. This has proven elusive for many reasons beyond his control, but lately some mistakes were made that could have been prevented. This is a young White House and in spite of their mastery of the new technologies to connect with young voters and their ability to establish their own narrative about the President, in the last few weeks Obama and his close advisers seem to have lost some of their attention to details insofar as his public image is concerned, for example the importance of certain visual and other non-verbal signals. The trip to Asia provides myriad examples of this: the "unforced error" of bowing too deep to the Emperor of Japan, which was ridiculed by the media on all sides of the political spectrum; his tense press conference in China during which both he and Hu Jintao stiffly read prepared statements, after which neither took questions; the town-hall style meeting with students in Shanghai, in which he said "the Internet should be free and all should have access to it" but which was only shown by local TV and in a very slow live feed on the internet, and later all references to it were deleted from all websites. Even a picture of Obama alone by the Great Wall of China was interpreted as a bad visual that suggested isolation, and while this may be an over-interpretation, there is a reason why commentators made that association. Obama is having a very hard time keeping his coalition of independents, moderates and liberals together. The unraveling of his coalition is constraining every policy choice he makes, as he has to measure at every step not only the costs of each decision but also the opposition he is likely to face from within his own party. He thus feels limited in his choices and picks a middle of the road solution that does not fully satisfy his purposes and makes him a target from the two extremes of the political spectrum. In many cases, as in the Afghan war,there are no good choices but this is hard to confess to a public to whom he promised change and that is expecting him to deliver.With his new Afghan decision President Obama may have swayed many hawkish independents to his side but the question is for how long. Soon Obama may find that while nation-building abroad may be difficult, nation-building at home is a task he cannot postpone any longer. Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science and Geography Director, ODU Model United Nations Program Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia
El Salvador, has been one of the last countries in the Americas to report COVID-19 cases. Since January 2020, the Government implemented a diversity of preventive measures, even before the reporting of the first cases. One of the foremost measures taken was the home quarantine for people with or without COVID-19 related symptoms. To avoid contagion, measures were taken to forbid the entrance of tourist to the country coming from China and other countries such as Italy, South Korea, Spain, Germany and Iran. Measures were intensified as the COVID-19 cases worldwide and particularly in Latin America were increasing. Testing to detect the COVID-19 was implemented in February 2020. On march 13th 2020, the Government issued a home quarantine at national level for 30 days. During that time, all kind of work, academic or tourism related activities were suspended, with the exception of those activities related to provide supplies for the pandemic. Crowds of people all over the territory were prohibited and the public and private health system external consultations were suspended giving priority to the sanitary emergency. On March 14th, the commercial flights were prohibited, and on March 17th all international borders and non-official points of entries were closed. Lately, and with the increment of positive cases in the central American region, a nationwide state of emergency was pronounced. On March 18th the first COVID-19 positive case was identified in the country, a Salvadorean national coming from abroad. The first quarantine lost effect as of April 11th, being prorogated for four days to give time to the National Legislative Assembly to discuss a new quarantine. A second 15 days quarantine was approved, which was prorogued for another 15 days on April 30th. As of June 16th, the population was allowed to circulate and do some activities with some restrictions and the recommendation to implement biosecurity measures such as the personal distancing, use of masks and hand sanitizers. Measures were applied in commercial establishments, offices, public transportation and public areas, to reduce the infection risk for the population. The public and private industries and academic sectors adopted the strategy of home working for most of their employees. Notwithstanding, every day activities were gradually reestablishing and, for the end of the year 2020, all activities were almost completely regained, except the academic activities of the public and private education sector, which continued in a virtual mode. According to government data, once the house quarantine was over, the contagion increased. During the first week of August, the first epidemiological curve presented a maximum of 449 cases. Lately, a rapid reduction of positive cases started, presenting a very different performance from what was expected. On the second week of September, a new increment was observed, reaching 330 daily cases. All countries around the world presented under reporting of cases and deaths due to the magnitude of the pandemic emergency. Some countries have taken steps to undertake seroprevalence studies to develop an approximation to the real number of deaths by COVID-19. In El Salvador, the official reporting of COVID-19 suspicious deaths has been made based on data from those who died having being tested and confirmed by RT-PRC tests. The epidemiological surveillance of new COVID-19 cases, has been strengthened through the installation of mobile booths for sampling. This can present an impact on cases, given that asymptomatic cases can be easily detected, providing the opportunity to take epidemiological measures when necessary. Nevertheless, distribution and use of tests should be made taking into consideration the epidemiological aspects, priorities, and the identification of suspected cases, populations at risk, age groups and so forth. The impact of the pandemic has bared a toll upon the health system, the economy and the social ways of the population. General consultations were temporarily suspended as well as those related to specialties, being evident in the reporting system, where consultations, controls and new case reports have diminished. The population will be affected if they are not attended in their health needs by an adequate medical consultation or control, and can adopt a self-medication behavior developing other types of illness or worst, the resurgence of contagious diseases which were already controlled under a strict surveillance in pre pandemic time. Despite all preventive measures implemented to reduce the risks of transmission, it is difficult to determine if they have had a positive impact in the pandemic control, due to a diversity of factors such as the pandemic occurrence and intensity, availability of laboratory tests, the characteristics of the country and of the Salvadorean population, which can be different from other countries. Notwithstanding, it is important to continue developing research that can lead to the prevention of the illness. In the following years, no doubt, the social and economic impact will be perceived by the population in general, and particularly by those in conditions of vulnerability; therefore, early mitigation measures are in order to deter the negative sequels of the pandemic. Finally, it is important to highlight the fact that the results concerning the pandemic care in the country should be presented to the attention of different scientific media given that this is the way to scientifically and epidemiologically report it, to contribute to the decision making for a better understanding and a better approach to the pandemic in El Salvador and other countries. Therefore, the country's scientific community must take this opportunity to make the best with the scientific information and platforms for the publication of their research, data and epidemiological analysis. ; Sr. Editor, El Salvador ha sido de los últimos países de América en reportar casos de COVID-19. Desde inicio de enero 2020, el gobierno implementó diversas medidas de prevención antes de confirmarse los primeros casos en el país. Una de las principales medidas tomadas fue la cuarentena domiciliar para personas con o sin síntomas relacionados al COVID-19, procedentes de países que ya reportaban los primeros casos. Con el fin de evitar el contagio, se prohibió el ingreso de turistas procedentes de China y de otros países como Italia, Corea del Sur, España, Alemania e Irán. A medida que los casos de COVID-19 aumentaban en el mundo, y sobre todo en Latinoamérica, las medidas de prevención se intensificaron. Fue así que se iniciaron las pruebas para la detección del COVID-19 en febrero de 2020. El gobierno decretó cuarentena domiciliar a nivel nacional durante 30 días a partir del 13 de marzo de 2020. Durante ese tiempo, se suspendieron todas las actividades laborales, académicas y de turismo, a excepción de las instituciones e industrias indispensables para atender la pandemia. Las aglomeraciones de personas fueron prohibidas en todo el territorio nacional. Se suspendió la consulta externa en todo el sistema de salud público y privado, priorizando la atención de la emergencia sanitaria. El 14 de marzo se prohibió el ingreso de vuelos comerciales al país y el 17 de marzo se cerraron las fronteras terrestres y el control de puntos de ingreso no oficiales. Posterior a estas medidas, y con el incremento de casos en países de la región centroamericana, el 26 de marzo se decretó estado de emergencia a nivel nacional. El 18 de marzo se identificó el primer caso positivo de COVID-19 en el país, un salvadoreño procedente del extranjero. A partir del 11 de abril quedó sin efecto la primera cuarentena, dando paso a una prórroga por 4 días, mientras la asamblea legislativa discutía la aprobación de una nueva cuarentena. De esta forma se aprobó una segunda cuarentena por 15 días, que fue prorrogada por 15 días más el 30 de abril. Al finalizar la prórroga de la segunda cuarentena, entró en vigencia una tercera cuarentena que duró 30 días más. A partir del 16 de junio, la población comenzó a circular con ciertas restricciones y con la recomendación de implementar medidas de bioseguridad como el distanciamiento físico, uso de mascarillas y desinfectantes de mano. En los establecimientos comerciales, empresas, transporte público y espacios públicos se tomaron medidas para disminuir el riesgo de contagio. Una estrategia utilizada por el sector laboral y académico, también fue el trabajo desde casa. Sin embargo, las actividades cotidianas de la población fueron restableciéndose, paulatinamente, y, al final del año 2020, se recobraron casi por completo en todo el país a excepción de las actividades académicas del sistema público y privado que continuaron las actividades de forma virtual. Después de finalizada la cuarentena domiciliar, el número de contagios aumentó, de acuerdo a datos del gobierno salvadoreño. En la primera curva epidemiológica se registró un máximo de 449 casos en la primera semana de agosto. Posteriormente comenzó una disminución rápida del número de casos, teniendo un comportamiento diferente a lo esperado según la tendencia reflejada. La segunda semana de septiembre registró un aumento gradual de casos, alcanzado un diario máximo de 330 casos. El subregistro de casos y de muertes se ha observado en muchos países, debido a la situación de emergencia y la magnitud de la pandemia. Esto ha llevado que algunos países realicen estudios de seroprevalencia para tener una aproximación de la cantidad real de personas infectadas y número real aproximado de personas fallecidas por COVID-19. En el caso de El Salvador el registro de muertes por sospecha de COVID-19 es reportado de manera oficial partiendo de aquellos casos fallecidos con prueba confirmada RT-PCR. La vigilancia epidemiológica de los casos nuevos de COVID-19 fue fortalecida a través de la implementación de cabinas móviles para la toma de muestra. Esto puede influir en el reporte de casos, debido a que tienen la capacidad de detectar casos asintomáticos lo que ofrece la oportunidad de implementar medidas epidemiológicas donde sea necesario. Sin embargo, la distribución y uso de las pruebas debe realizarse de forma priorizada, tomando en cuenta aspectos epidemiológicos, como identificación de sospechosos, poblaciones en riesgo, grupos etarios, entre otros. La pandemia ha tenido un impacto negativo en el sistema sanitario, económico y social. Debido a esta emergencia, las consultas generales y especializadas se suspendieron temporalmente. Esto es evidente en los reportes del sistema público, en el que se observa una disminución de consultas, controles y reporte de casos nuevos de enfermedades de interés epidemiológico para el país. Como consecuencia, puede verse afectada la salud de la población, que, al no recibir una atención médica especializada, pueden optar por la automedicación y esto desencadenar otra serie de problemas de salud o incluso el resurgimiento de enfermedades contagiosas que en tiempos prepandemia se mantenían controladas bajo una estricta vigilancia epidemiológica. A pesar de todas las acciones preventivas realizadas para disminuir el riesgo de transmisión, es difícil establecer si estas tuvieron un impacto positivo en el control de la pandemia, debido a diversos factores como la intensidad y comportamiento de la pandemia, disponibilidad de pruebas de laboratorio, características propias del país y la sociedad salvadoreña, que pueden ser diferentes a otras partes del mundo. Sin embargo, es necesario seguir desarrollando acciones e investigaciones que contribuyan con la prevención de la enfermedad. Sin duda, el impacto económico y social serán percibidos por la población en general, especialmente las poblaciones en condiciones de vulnerabilidad en los próximos años. Es importante tomar medidas tempranas para mitigar los efectos negativos secundarios de la pandemia. Finalmente, es importante que los resultados provenientes de la atención de la pandemia en el país, se den a conocer en los diferentes medios científicos ya que esta es la mejor forma de registrar los sucesos científicamente y epidemiológicamente para contribuir a la toma de decisiones para un mejor abordaje de la pandemia en El Salvador y en otros países del mundo. Por lo tanto, es importante que la comunidad científica del país aproveche las diversas plataformas y fuentes de información científicas para la publicación de resultados de sus investigaciones y análisis epidemiológicos.
In Ukraine, more than 4.5 million people sustain injuries of varying severity annually, and damage to extremities constitutes 60–65 % in the structure of traumatism. Patients with traumatic limb injuries require effective anesthesia / analgesia at an early stage. An urgent anesthesia should provide a sufficient relaxation of the extremity, adequate operative and postoperative pain management and should be safe for patients of different age groups. Peripheral regional anesthesia meets the requirements indicated, but there are a number of outstanding issues: difficulties in identifying plexuses and nerves, high rate of complications. Neither a larger injection volume of local anesthetic nor plexuses and nerves identification using a neurostimulator solves the problem completely. At the same time, ultrasound-guided nerve block does not have the weaknesses mentioned and its use is increasingly covered in literature.The purpose of this work is to analyze the effectiveness and safety of the ultrasound-guided nerve block of the extremities in urgent traumatology.Material and methods. Cases of isolated mechanical traumatic injuries of the limbs in patients who were at the clinical base of the Department of Disaster Medicine, Military Medicine, Anesthesiology and Intensive Care of Zaporizhzhia State Medical University from 2016 to 2018 were analyzed. The average age of the trauma patients was 62.5 (47.0; 82.5) years with a body weight of 78.7 (64.3; 94.6) kg. All the patients underwent ultrasound-guided nerve block using an ultrasound device Logiq E with a standard 12 MHz linear array transducer or the "classical" method (anatomical landmark and paraesthesia technique of plexus location). Anesthesia was performed with 0.5 % bupivacaine at a dose of 1–2 mg/kg. Analgesia was performed with a solution of propofol at 1.5–2.0 mg/kg /h with the addition of ketamine at 1–2 mg/kg/h in case of need. The level of analgesia was evaluated on the Ramsay sedation scale. The study analyzed the duration of plexus and nerves location, block onset time, the duration of motor and sensory block; hemodynamics monitoring with the help of UM-300 monitor at the study stages; complications were recorded. Statistical analysis of the data included descriptive statistics methods. When the values did not follow a normal distribution, these data were expressed as a median (lower quartile; higher quartile). Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare variables; the categorical data were analyzed by Chi-square test with Yates correction and Fischer's exact test. In all statistical calculations, P < 0.05 was the level of significance. Data processing was performed using Statistica 10.0 software.Results. The ultrasound-guided method of plexus and nerves location was faster than the "classical" method by paresthesia (3.8 (2.8; 4.3) min and 7.2 (4.2; 9.4) min, respectively; P = 0.001). But the method of plexus and nerves location did not influence the block onset time and the motor and sensory block duration. However, the level of analgesia in patients with ultrasound-guided nerve block (according to the Ramsay sedation scale) at the III and IV study stages was lower than in those with the "classical" method by paresthesia (3.2 (2.4; 3.7 ) and 5.4 (3.8; 5.7) points, respectively; P = 0.027), indicating a greater efficiency of ultrasound-guided plexus and nerve sensory block. The absence of statistically significant changes in hemodynamic parameters at the study stages indicated an effective intraoperative analgesia in patients with ultrasound-guided nerve block which was complicated in 6 cases (6.0 %). But the "classical" method of plexus and nerve block by paresthesia was complicated in 16 cases (32.0 %). Therefore, the ultrasound-guided method of plexus and nerve block was safer.Thus, it can be concluded that ultrasound-guided location of plexuses and nerves was faster than paresthesia method (3.8 (2.8; 4.3) min and 7.2 (4.2; 9.4) min, respectively; P = 0.001) in urgent traumatology. The sensory block in patients according to the analgesia level on the Ramsay sedation scale at the III and IV study stages was lower as compared to the "classical" method by paresthesia (3.2 (2.4; 3.7) and 5,4 (3.8; 5,7) points, respectively, indicating a more effective ultrasound-guided block of plexuses and nerves. Ultrasound-guided block was effective for intraoperative analgesia based on hemodynamic parameters in urgent traumatology. The method of ultrasound-guided block of plexuses and nerves was safer (6.0 % of complications versus 32.0 % when using the "classical" method by paresthesia). ; В Украине ежегодно более 4,5 млн людей получают травмы различной тяжести, в структуре травматизма 60–65 % приходится на повреждения конечностей. Пострадавшие с травмами конечностей нуждаются в эффективной анестезии/аналгезии уже на раннем этапе. Неотложная анестезия должна обеспечить достаточную релаксацию конечности, адекватное операционное и послеоперационное обезболивание, должна быть безопасной для пациентов всех возрастов. Периферическая регионарная анестезия отвечает этим требованиям, но есть ряд нерешенных вопросов: тяжесть идентификации сплетений и нервов, высокая частота осложнений. Эту проблему полностью не решает введение большего объема местного анестетика или идентификация сплетений и нервных стволов с помощью нейростимулятора. УЗ-ассистированные блокады сплетений и нервов лишены указанных недостатков, а их применение все чаще освещается в современной научной периодике.Цель работы – провести анализ эффективности и безопасности УЗ-ассистированной блокады сплетений и нервов в неотложной травматологии.Материал и методы. Проведен анализ случаев изолированной механической травмы конечностей пациентов, которые находились на лечении на клинической базе кафедры медицины катастроф, военной медицины, анестезиологии и интенсивной терапии Запорожского государственного медицинского университета в 2016–2018 гг. Средний возраст пострадавших – 62,5 (47; 82,5) года, масса тела – 78,7 (64,3; 94,6) кг. Для идентификации сплетений и нервов использован УЗ-аппарат Logiq E со стандартным линейным 12 МГц датчиком или «классический» метод (по анатомическим ориентирам до появления парестезии при поиске сплетения). Анестезия проведена 0,5 % раствором бупивакаина в дозе 1–2 мг/кг. При необходимости проводили аналгоседацию раствором пропофола в дозе 1,5–2,0 мг/кг/час с добавлением раствора кетамина в дозе 1–2 мг/кг/час. Уровень аналгоседации оценивали по шкале Ramsay. В ходе исследования оценивали продолжительность поиска сплетения и нервов, время развития блокады, продолжительность моторного и сенсорного блока, проводили мониторинг показателей гемодинамики с помощью монитора UM-300 на этапах исследования, фиксировали осложнения. Статистический анализ данных предусматривал методы описательной статистики. Величины, имевшие распределение, отличное от нормального, представлены в виде медианы (нижний и верхний квартиль). Анализ количественных величин проведен с помощью U-критерия Манна–Уитни, качественные бинарные признаки сравнивали с использованием критерия χ2, точного теста Фишера. Во всех процедурах статистического анализа критический уровень значимости р равен 0,05. Обработка данных проведена с использованием Statistica 10.0.Результаты. Поиск сплетения и нервов УЗ-ассистированным методом проведен быстрее «классического» метода по парестезии (3,8 (2,8; 4,3) мин и 7,2 (4,2; 9,4) мин соответственно; р = 0,001). Но метод идентификации сплетения и нервов не влиял на время развития блокады и продолжительность моторного и сенсорного блока. При УЗ-ассистированной блокаде сплетений и нервов уровень аналгоседации больных (по шкале Ramsay) на III и IV этапах исследования был ниже, чем при использовании «классического» метода по парестезии (3,2 (2,4; 3, 7) и 5,4 (3,8; 5,7) балла соответственно; р = 0,027). Это свидетельствует, что сенсорный блок при проведении УЗ-ассистированной блокады сплетений и нервов более эффективен. Отсутствие статистически достоверных изменений показателей гемодинамики на этапах исследования свидетельствует об эффективной интраоперационной аналгезии у больных во время проведения УЗ-ассистированной блокады. УЗ-ассистированные блокады сплетений и нервов сопровождались осложнениями в 6 (6,0 %) случаях. Во время блокады сплетений и нервов «классическим» методом по парестезии осложнения зафиксированы в 16 (32,0%) случаях. Таким образом, метод УЗ-ассистированной блокады сплетений и нервов более безопасен.Выводы. УЗ-ассистированная идентификация сплетений и нервов быстрее, чем идентификация по парестезии (3,8 (2,8; 4,3) мин и 7,2 (4,2; 9,4) мин соответственно; р = 0,001) в неотложной травматологии. Сенсорный блок, по уровню аналгоседации пациентов по шкале Ramsay, лучше во время проведения УЗ-ассистированной блокады сплетений и нервов. Интраоперационная аналгезия по уровню показателей гемодинамики эффективна при проведении УЗ-ассистированной блокады в неотложной травматологии. Метод УЗ-ассистированной блокады сплетений и нервов более безопасный (6,0 % осложнений против 32,0 % при использовании «классического» метода по парестезии). ; Ефективність і безпека застосування периферичної реґіонарної анестезії в невідкладній травматологіїО. А. Льовкін*А,В,D, В. І. ПерцовE,F, К. І. Лур'єC,EЗапорізький державний медичний університет, Україна В Україні щорічно понад 4,5 млн людей отримують травми різної тяжкості, у структурі травматизму 60–65 % припадає на пошкодження кінцівок. Постраждалі з травмами кінцівок потребують ефективної анестезії/аналгезії вже на ранньому етапі. Невідкладна анестезія повинна забезпечити достатню релаксацію кінцівки, адекватне операційне та післяопераційне знеболення, має бути безпечною для пацієнтів різного віку. Периферична реґіонарна анестезія відповідає цим вимогам, але є низка невирішених питань: складність ідентифікації сплетень і нервів, висока частота ускладнень. Цю проблему повністю не вирішує введення більшого об'єму місцевого анестетика чи ідентифікація сплетень і нервових стовбурів за допомогою нейростимулятора. УЗ-асистовані блокади сплетень і нервів позбавлені цих недоліків, а їхнє застосування все частіше висвітлюється в сучасній науковій періодиці.Мета роботи – здійснити аналіз ефективності та безпеки УЗ-асистованої блокади сплетень і нервових стовбурів кінцівок у невідкладній травматології.Матеріали та методи. Виконали аналіз випадків ізольованої механічної травми кінцівок пацієнтів, які перебували на лікуванні на клінічній базі кафедри медицини катастроф, військової медицини, анестезіології та інтенсивної терапії Запорізького державного медичного університету у 2016–2018 рр. Середній вік постраждалих становив 62,5 (47,0; 82,5) року, маса тіла – 78,7 (64,3; 94,6) кг. Для ідентифікації сплетень і нервів використовували УЗ-апарат Logiq E зі стандартним лінійним 12 МГц датчиком або «класичний» метод (за анатомічними орієнтирами до появи парестезії при пошуку сплетення). Анестезію виконували 0,5 % розчином бупівакаїну в дозі 1–2 мг/кг. За потреби здійснювали аналгоседацію розчином пропофолу в дозі 1,5–2,0 мг/кг/годину з додаванням розчину кетаміну в дозі 1–2 мг/кг/годину. Рівень аналгоседації оцінювали за шкалою Ramsay. Під час дослідження оцінювали тривалість пошуку сплетення та нервів, час розвитку блокади, тривалість моторного й сенсорного блоку, здійснювали моніторинг показників гемодинаміки за допомогою монітора UM-300 на етапах дослідження, а також фіксували ускладнення. Статистичний аналіз даних передбачав методи описової статистики. Величини, що мали розподіл, відмінний від нормального, наведені як медіана (нижній і верхній квартилі). Аналіз кількісних величин виконали за допомогою U-критерію Манна–Уітні, якісні бінарні ознаки порівнювали, використовуючи критерій χ2 з поправкою Йєйтса, точний тест Фішера. В усіх процедурах критичний рівень значущості р дорівнював 0,05. Опрацювання даних здійснили, використовуючи Statistica 10.0.Результати. Пошук сплетення та нервів УЗ-асистованим методом виконали швидше, ніж «класичним» методом за парестезією (3,8 (2,8; 4,3) хв і 7,2 (4,2; 9,4) хв відповідно; р = 0,001). Проте метод ідентифікації сплетення та нервів не впливав на час розвитку блокади та тривалість моторного та сенсорного блоку. Під час УЗ-асистованої блокади сплетень і нервів рівень аналгоседації хворих (за шкалою Ramsay) на III та IV етапах дослідження був нижчий, ніж при використанні «класичного» методу за парестезією (3,2 (2,4; 3,7) і 5,4 (3,8; 5,7) бала відповідно; р = 0,027). Це свідчить, що сенсорний блок під час УЗ-асистованої блокади сплетень і нервів ефективніший. Відсутність статистично вірогідних змін показників гемодинаміки на етапах дослідження свідчить про ефективну інтраопераційну аналгезію у хворих під час УЗ-асистованої блокади. УЗ-асистовані блокади сплетень і нервів супроводжувалися ускладненнями у 6 (6,0 %) випадках. Під час блокади сплетень і нервів «класичним» методом за парестезією ускладнення зафіксовані в 16 (32,0 %) випадках. Отже, метод УЗ-асистованої блокади сплетень і нервів безпечніший.Висновки. Пошук сплетень і нервів УЗ-асистованим методом є швидшим, ніж «класичним» методом за парестезією (3,8 (2,8; 4,3) хв і 7,2 (4,2; 9,4) хв відповідно; р = 0,001) у невідкладній травматології. Рівень аналгоседації пацієнтів (за шкалою Ramsay) на III та IV етапах дослідження під час УЗ-асистованої блокади нижчий, ніж «класичним» методом за парестезією (3,2 (2,4; 3,7) та 5,4 (3,8; 5,7) бала відповідно; р = 0,027), що свідчить про ефективніший сенсорний блок. Інтраопераційна аналгезія за рівнем показників гемодинаміки ефективна під час УЗ-асистованої блокади в невідкладній травматології. Метод УЗ-асистованої блокади сплетень і нервів безпечніший, ніж «класичний» метод за парестезією та супроводжується 6,0 % ускладнень проти 32,0 %.УЗ-асистована блокада; периферична реґіонарна анестезія; перша медична допомога
In Ukraine, more than 4.5 million people sustain injuries of varying severity annually, and damage to extremities constitutes 60–65 % in the structure of traumatism. Patients with traumatic limb injuries require effective anesthesia / analgesia at an early stage. An urgent anesthesia should provide a sufficient relaxation of the extremity, adequate operative and postoperative pain management and should be safe for patients of different age groups. Peripheral regional anesthesia meets the requirements indicated, but there are a number of outstanding issues: difficulties in identifying plexuses and nerves, high rate of complications. Neither a larger injection volume of local anesthetic nor plexuses and nerves identification using a neurostimulator solves the problem completely. At the same time, ultrasound-guided nerve block does not have the weaknesses mentioned and its use is increasingly covered in literature.The purpose of this work is to analyze the effectiveness and safety of the ultrasound-guided nerve block of the extremities in urgent traumatology.Material and methods. Cases of isolated mechanical traumatic injuries of the limbs in patients who were at the clinical base of the Department of Disaster Medicine, Military Medicine, Anesthesiology and Intensive Care of Zaporizhzhia State Medical University from 2016 to 2018 were analyzed. The average age of the trauma patients was 62.5 (47.0; 82.5) years with a body weight of 78.7 (64.3; 94.6) kg. All the patients underwent ultrasound-guided nerve block using an ultrasound device Logiq E with a standard 12 MHz linear array transducer or the "classical" method (anatomical landmark and paraesthesia technique of plexus location). Anesthesia was performed with 0.5 % bupivacaine at a dose of 1–2 mg/kg. Analgesia was performed with a solution of propofol at 1.5–2.0 mg/kg /h with the addition of ketamine at 1–2 mg/kg/h in case of need. The level of analgesia was evaluated on the Ramsay sedation scale. The study analyzed the duration of plexus and nerves location, block onset time, the duration of motor and sensory block; hemodynamics monitoring with the help of UM-300 monitor at the study stages; complications were recorded. Statistical analysis of the data included descriptive statistics methods. When the values did not follow a normal distribution, these data were expressed as a median (lower quartile; higher quartile). Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare variables; the categorical data were analyzed by Chi-square test with Yates correction and Fischer's exact test. In all statistical calculations, P < 0.05 was the level of significance. Data processing was performed using Statistica 10.0 software.Results. The ultrasound-guided method of plexus and nerves location was faster than the "classical" method by paresthesia (3.8 (2.8; 4.3) min and 7.2 (4.2; 9.4) min, respectively; P = 0.001). But the method of plexus and nerves location did not influence the block onset time and the motor and sensory block duration. However, the level of analgesia in patients with ultrasound-guided nerve block (according to the Ramsay sedation scale) at the III and IV study stages was lower than in those with the "classical" method by paresthesia (3.2 (2.4; 3.7 ) and 5.4 (3.8; 5.7) points, respectively; P = 0.027), indicating a greater efficiency of ultrasound-guided plexus and nerve sensory block. The absence of statistically significant changes in hemodynamic parameters at the study stages indicated an effective intraoperative analgesia in patients with ultrasound-guided nerve block which was complicated in 6 cases (6.0 %). But the "classical" method of plexus and nerve block by paresthesia was complicated in 16 cases (32.0 %). Therefore, the ultrasound-guided method of plexus and nerve block was safer.Thus, it can be concluded that ultrasound-guided location of plexuses and nerves was faster than paresthesia method (3.8 (2.8; 4.3) min and 7.2 (4.2; 9.4) min, respectively; P = 0.001) in urgent traumatology. The sensory block in patients according to the analgesia level on the Ramsay sedation scale at the III and IV study stages was lower as compared to the "classical" method by paresthesia (3.2 (2.4; 3.7) and 5,4 (3.8; 5,7) points, respectively, indicating a more effective ultrasound-guided block of plexuses and nerves. Ultrasound-guided block was effective for intraoperative analgesia based on hemodynamic parameters in urgent traumatology. The method of ultrasound-guided block of plexuses and nerves was safer (6.0 % of complications versus 32.0 % when using the "classical" method by paresthesia). ; В Украине ежегодно более 4,5 млн людей получают травмы различной тяжести, в структуре травматизма 60–65 % приходится на повреждения конечностей. Пострадавшие с травмами конечностей нуждаются в эффективной анестезии/аналгезии уже на раннем этапе. Неотложная анестезия должна обеспечить достаточную релаксацию конечности, адекватное операционное и послеоперационное обезболивание, должна быть безопасной для пациентов всех возрастов. Периферическая регионарная анестезия отвечает этим требованиям, но есть ряд нерешенных вопросов: тяжесть идентификации сплетений и нервов, высокая частота осложнений. Эту проблему полностью не решает введение большего объема местного анестетика или идентификация сплетений и нервных стволов с помощью нейростимулятора. УЗ-ассистированные блокады сплетений и нервов лишены указанных недостатков, а их применение все чаще освещается в современной научной периодике.Цель работы – провести анализ эффективности и безопасности УЗ-ассистированной блокады сплетений и нервов в неотложной травматологии.Материал и методы. Проведен анализ случаев изолированной механической травмы конечностей пациентов, которые находились на лечении на клинической базе кафедры медицины катастроф, военной медицины, анестезиологии и интенсивной терапии Запорожского государственного медицинского университета в 2016–2018 гг. Средний возраст пострадавших – 62,5 (47; 82,5) года, масса тела – 78,7 (64,3; 94,6) кг. Для идентификации сплетений и нервов использован УЗ-аппарат Logiq E со стандартным линейным 12 МГц датчиком или «классический» метод (по анатомическим ориентирам до появления парестезии при поиске сплетения). Анестезия проведена 0,5 % раствором бупивакаина в дозе 1–2 мг/кг. При необходимости проводили аналгоседацию раствором пропофола в дозе 1,5–2,0 мг/кг/час с добавлением раствора кетамина в дозе 1–2 мг/кг/час. Уровень аналгоседации оценивали по шкале Ramsay. В ходе исследования оценивали продолжительность поиска сплетения и нервов, время развития блокады, продолжительность моторного и сенсорного блока, проводили мониторинг показателей гемодинамики с помощью монитора UM-300 на этапах исследования, фиксировали осложнения. Статистический анализ данных предусматривал методы описательной статистики. Величины, имевшие распределение, отличное от нормального, представлены в виде медианы (нижний и верхний квартиль). Анализ количественных величин проведен с помощью U-критерия Манна–Уитни, качественные бинарные признаки сравнивали с использованием критерия χ2, точного теста Фишера. Во всех процедурах статистического анализа критический уровень значимости р равен 0,05. Обработка данных проведена с использованием Statistica 10.0.Результаты. Поиск сплетения и нервов УЗ-ассистированным методом проведен быстрее «классического» метода по парестезии (3,8 (2,8; 4,3) мин и 7,2 (4,2; 9,4) мин соответственно; р = 0,001). Но метод идентификации сплетения и нервов не влиял на время развития блокады и продолжительность моторного и сенсорного блока. При УЗ-ассистированной блокаде сплетений и нервов уровень аналгоседации больных (по шкале Ramsay) на III и IV этапах исследования был ниже, чем при использовании «классического» метода по парестезии (3,2 (2,4; 3, 7) и 5,4 (3,8; 5,7) балла соответственно; р = 0,027). Это свидетельствует, что сенсорный блок при проведении УЗ-ассистированной блокады сплетений и нервов более эффективен. Отсутствие статистически достоверных изменений показателей гемодинамики на этапах исследования свидетельствует об эффективной интраоперационной аналгезии у больных во время проведения УЗ-ассистированной блокады. УЗ-ассистированные блокады сплетений и нервов сопровождались осложнениями в 6 (6,0 %) случаях. Во время блокады сплетений и нервов «классическим» методом по парестезии осложнения зафиксированы в 16 (32,0%) случаях. Таким образом, метод УЗ-ассистированной блокады сплетений и нервов более безопасен.Выводы. УЗ-ассистированная идентификация сплетений и нервов быстрее, чем идентификация по парестезии (3,8 (2,8; 4,3) мин и 7,2 (4,2; 9,4) мин соответственно; р = 0,001) в неотложной травматологии. Сенсорный блок, по уровню аналгоседации пациентов по шкале Ramsay, лучше во время проведения УЗ-ассистированной блокады сплетений и нервов. Интраоперационная аналгезия по уровню показателей гемодинамики эффективна при проведении УЗ-ассистированной блокады в неотложной травматологии. Метод УЗ-ассистированной блокады сплетений и нервов более безопасный (6,0 % осложнений против 32,0 % при использовании «классического» метода по парестезии). ; Ефективність і безпека застосування периферичної реґіонарної анестезії в невідкладній травматологіїО. А. Льовкін*А,В,D, В. І. ПерцовE,F, К. І. Лур'єC,EЗапорізький державний медичний університет, Україна В Україні щорічно понад 4,5 млн людей отримують травми різної тяжкості, у структурі травматизму 60–65 % припадає на пошкодження кінцівок. Постраждалі з травмами кінцівок потребують ефективної анестезії/аналгезії вже на ранньому етапі. Невідкладна анестезія повинна забезпечити достатню релаксацію кінцівки, адекватне операційне та післяопераційне знеболення, має бути безпечною для пацієнтів різного віку. Периферична реґіонарна анестезія відповідає цим вимогам, але є низка невирішених питань: складність ідентифікації сплетень і нервів, висока частота ускладнень. Цю проблему повністю не вирішує введення більшого об'єму місцевого анестетика чи ідентифікація сплетень і нервових стовбурів за допомогою нейростимулятора. УЗ-асистовані блокади сплетень і нервів позбавлені цих недоліків, а їхнє застосування все частіше висвітлюється в сучасній науковій періодиці.Мета роботи – здійснити аналіз ефективності та безпеки УЗ-асистованої блокади сплетень і нервових стовбурів кінцівок у невідкладній травматології.Матеріали та методи. Виконали аналіз випадків ізольованої механічної травми кінцівок пацієнтів, які перебували на лікуванні на клінічній базі кафедри медицини катастроф, військової медицини, анестезіології та інтенсивної терапії Запорізького державного медичного університету у 2016–2018 рр. Середній вік постраждалих становив 62,5 (47,0; 82,5) року, маса тіла – 78,7 (64,3; 94,6) кг. Для ідентифікації сплетень і нервів використовували УЗ-апарат Logiq E зі стандартним лінійним 12 МГц датчиком або «класичний» метод (за анатомічними орієнтирами до появи парестезії при пошуку сплетення). Анестезію виконували 0,5 % розчином бупівакаїну в дозі 1–2 мг/кг. За потреби здійснювали аналгоседацію розчином пропофолу в дозі 1,5–2,0 мг/кг/годину з додаванням розчину кетаміну в дозі 1–2 мг/кг/годину. Рівень аналгоседації оцінювали за шкалою Ramsay. Під час дослідження оцінювали тривалість пошуку сплетення та нервів, час розвитку блокади, тривалість моторного й сенсорного блоку, здійснювали моніторинг показників гемодинаміки за допомогою монітора UM-300 на етапах дослідження, а також фіксували ускладнення. Статистичний аналіз даних передбачав методи описової статистики. Величини, що мали розподіл, відмінний від нормального, наведені як медіана (нижній і верхній квартилі). Аналіз кількісних величин виконали за допомогою U-критерію Манна–Уітні, якісні бінарні ознаки порівнювали, використовуючи критерій χ2 з поправкою Йєйтса, точний тест Фішера. В усіх процедурах критичний рівень значущості р дорівнював 0,05. Опрацювання даних здійснили, використовуючи Statistica 10.0.Результати. Пошук сплетення та нервів УЗ-асистованим методом виконали швидше, ніж «класичним» методом за парестезією (3,8 (2,8; 4,3) хв і 7,2 (4,2; 9,4) хв відповідно; р = 0,001). Проте метод ідентифікації сплетення та нервів не впливав на час розвитку блокади та тривалість моторного та сенсорного блоку. Під час УЗ-асистованої блокади сплетень і нервів рівень аналгоседації хворих (за шкалою Ramsay) на III та IV етапах дослідження був нижчий, ніж при використанні «класичного» методу за парестезією (3,2 (2,4; 3,7) і 5,4 (3,8; 5,7) бала відповідно; р = 0,027). Це свідчить, що сенсорний блок під час УЗ-асистованої блокади сплетень і нервів ефективніший. Відсутність статистично вірогідних змін показників гемодинаміки на етапах дослідження свідчить про ефективну інтраопераційну аналгезію у хворих під час УЗ-асистованої блокади. УЗ-асистовані блокади сплетень і нервів супроводжувалися ускладненнями у 6 (6,0 %) випадках. Під час блокади сплетень і нервів «класичним» методом за парестезією ускладнення зафіксовані в 16 (32,0 %) випадках. Отже, метод УЗ-асистованої блокади сплетень і нервів безпечніший.Висновки. Пошук сплетень і нервів УЗ-асистованим методом є швидшим, ніж «класичним» методом за парестезією (3,8 (2,8; 4,3) хв і 7,2 (4,2; 9,4) хв відповідно; р = 0,001) у невідкладній травматології. Рівень аналгоседації пацієнтів (за шкалою Ramsay) на III та IV етапах дослідження під час УЗ-асистованої блокади нижчий, ніж «класичним» методом за парестезією (3,2 (2,4; 3,7) та 5,4 (3,8; 5,7) бала відповідно; р = 0,027), що свідчить про ефективніший сенсорний блок. Інтраопераційна аналгезія за рівнем показників гемодинаміки ефективна під час УЗ-асистованої блокади в невідкладній травматології. Метод УЗ-асистованої блокади сплетень і нервів безпечніший, ніж «класичний» метод за парестезією та супроводжується 6,0 % ускладнень проти 32,0 %.УЗ-асистована блокада; периферична реґіонарна анестезія; перша медична допомога
Facing demographic and environmental challenges, the Smart City model increasingly becomes the chosen strategy to guide future urban developments. Initially essentially technocratic, this new urban "ideal" very soon raised social acceptability issues vis-à-vis the top-down imposition of standardized solutions. Often overlooked in favour of technological optimization, citizens are actually the key for the Smart City model's success or failure, because they have the power to accept or reject the solutions deployed on their territory. Noting the importance of citizen participation for the making of the Smart City and the recurring limits of participatory approaches developed since the 1970s, the thesis aims to equip urban professionals (engineers, architects, urban planners), decision makers and citizens with new theoretical, methodological and decision-support frameworks in order to include end-users within the design process of our future urban environments. In practice, the thesis is structured in three main phases. A first diagnosis phase focuses on citizens' perceptions of the Smart City and on their willingness to participate to its design process. A second multiple-case study phase seeks to better understand which forms of participation are implemented in various Smart Cities, recognized for their citizen-driven dynamic. The third experiment phase consists in concretely implementing a participatory methodology in Wallonia, on the basis of the previously collected data and best practices. In a cross-cutting way, we also studied three participatory approaches, which are often observed in the Smart era: the e-participation platform (online), the co-design workshop (face-to-face) and the participatory budget (mixed). The thesis contributes to the state of knowledge and to the study of participatory approaches for the making of the Smart City in several regards. First, this work provides an essential clarification between three participatory modes that coexist and intertwine: co-decision, co-design and data co-production processes. Beyond those three dimensions, which reflect the purpose of participatory processes, the thesis also affirms the intrinsic value of citizen participation in terms of solutions' ownership, cohesion among citizens and acquisition of new skills. The thesis then develops the roles of the professional designers and the non-designer participants throughout the participatory processes, highlighting the emergence of new intermediate positions ("professionals of participation" and "citizen ambassadors"). The citizens' responsibility is nuanced by the criticism of a utopian "super citizen", supposedly at the same time engaged, creative and connected. Moreover, this work relativizes the participatory imperative and identifies an upstream-downstream switchover of the citizen participation at the Smart era. The thesis eventually seeks to question Arnstein's participatory ladder (1969) and proposes an adaptation of Fung's democratic cube (2006) in the form of a multidimensional radar chart, which is better adapted to the participatory context and the complexity of the Smart City, and supports researchers, designers, city officials and citizens in the implementation of participatory approaches at the Smart era. ; Face aux enjeux démographiques et environnementaux, la Smart City s'impose peu à peu comme l'une des nouvelles stratégies de développement urbain. A l'origine essentiellement technocratique, ce nouvel « idéal » urbain a très vite soulevé des problèmes d'acceptabilité sociale vis-à-vis de l'imposition Top-down de solutions standardisées. Souvent négligés au profit d'une optimisation technologique, les citoyens sont pourtant la clef du succès ou de l'échec du modèle Smart City, car ils ont le pouvoir d'accepter ou de rejeter les solutions déployées sur leur territoire. Constatant l'importance de la participation citoyenne pour la fabrique de la Smart City et les limites récurrentes des approches participatives développées depuis les années 1970, la thèse vise à équiper les professionnels de l'urbain (ingénieurs, architectes, urbanistes), les décideurs et les citoyens avec de nouveaux cadres théoriques, méthodologiques et d'aide à la décision afin d'inclure les usagers finaux au sein du processus décisionnel de conception de nos futurs environnements urbains. En pratique, la thèse s'organise en trois grandes phases. Une première phase de diagnostic s'intéresse à la perception des citoyens vis-à-vis de la Smart City et à leur volonté de prendre part à son processus de conception. Une deuxième phase d'étude de cas multiples vise à mieux comprendre quelles formes de participation sont mises en place dans des Smart Cities reconnues pour leurs dynamiques citoyennes. La troisième phase d'expérience consiste en la mise en place concrète d'une méthodologie participative en Wallonie, sur base des données et bonnes pratiques collectées auparavant. De manière plus transversale, nous avons étudié trois modalités participatives fréquemment observées à l'ère Smart : la plateforme de participation (en ligne), l'atelier de co-conception (en face à face) et le budget participatif (mixte). La thèse contribue à l'état des connaissances et à l'étude des approches participatives pour la fabrique de la Smart City à plusieurs égards. Tout d'abord, ce travail opère une clarification essentielle entre trois modes de participation qui coexistent et s'entrelacent : les processus de codécision, de co-conception de projets et de coproduction de données. Au-delà de ces trois dimensions qui reflètent la finalité des processus participatifs, la thèse affirme également la valeur intrinsèque de la participation citoyenne en termes d'appropriation des solutions, de cohésion entre les citoyens et d'acquisition de nouvelles compétences. La thèse développe ensuite les rôles des concepteurs professionnels et des participants non-concepteurs dans les processus participatifs, mettant en évidence l'émergence de nouveaux statuts intermédiaires (« professionnels de la participation » et « citoyens ambassadeurs »). La responsabilisation des citoyens est nuancée par la critique d'un « Super Citoyen » utopique, à la fois engagé, créatif et connecté. En outre, ce travail relativise l'impératif participatif et identifie un basculement amont-aval de la participation citoyenne à l'ère Smart. La thèse s'attache enfin à remettre en question l'échelle de la participation d'Arnstein (1969) et propose une adaptation du cube démocratique de Fung (2006) sous forme d'un « radar » multidimensionnel mieux adapté au contexte participatif et à la complexité de la Smart City, et à même d'accompagner les chercheurs, concepteurs, décideurs et citoyens dans la mise en œuvre d'une démarche participative à l'ère Smart.
Background: Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the world's leading infectious killers. Every year, an estimated 10 million people fall ill with the disease, of whom 2.9 million people are never diagnosed and treated. Thirty low- and middle-income countries account for almost 90% of the global TB burden. The World Health Organization's (WHO) End TB Strategy highlights active case-finding (ACF) as one approach to finding people with TB who are currently being missed by health services. ACF has been shown to find more people with TB at an earlier stage of the disease compared to passive case-finding. Passive case-finding is the standard approach to TB screening, relying on people seeking care when they have TB symptoms. Given the relatively limited evidence on both the epidemiological impact of ACF and optimal implementation strategies, questions remain about what influences ACF policy development and implementation and how these processes can be improved. This thesis aims to contribute to the knowledge base on ACF policy development and implementation in high TB burden countries. Objectives: To review antecedents, components and influencing factors for ACF policy development and implementation based on the literature. To explore how international experts and National TB Programme (NTP) managers from high TB burden countries perceive ACF policy development and implementation, and to identify facilitators, barriers and "how-to" strategies for ACF implementation in Nepal and Vietnam, which serve as example countries. Methods: A scoping review of the literature (n=73) was performed, and a frequency and thematic analysis applied. Qualitative semi-structured interviews were conducted with 39 experts from a variety of institutions worldwide. The experts' perceptions were analysed using framework analysis. A mixed methods survey with NTP managers (n=23) was implemented, yielding both quantitative and qualitative data. The data were analysed in parallel and merged in the interpretation of the findings. The survey results were further complemented by a narrative review of national TB strategic plans (n=22). Qualitative semi-structured interviews were conducted with 17 key-informants in Nepal and 39 key-informants in Vietnam. Participants comprised implementers of ACF and people with TB identified through ACF. Thematic analysis was applied, using an implementation science framework. Results: The results presented in this thesis provide insights into experiences with ACF, from global policies to local implementation. Study I: The evidence base for ACF has been growing, especially since 2010. Although much is known about factors influencing ACF implementation (e.g., resources), evidence on what influences ACF policy development (e.g., politics) remains scarce. Articles described the WHO's recent emphasis on ACF as a crucial antecedent of the increasing interest in ACF, especially in high TB burden countries. Study II: Experts had a wide range of views on ACF, from ACF being a "waste basket" for resources to it being "common sense" and something that should be done. They described the influence of and "power plays" between donors, governments and non-governmental organisations on ACF policy development and highlighted the need for different types of evidence to inform ACF policy development and implementation. Experts also stressed the importance of existing systems, processes and experience in influencing ACF implementation, e.g., ACF could build on experience from other screening programmes. Study III: Perceived benefits of ACF were linked to its objective of finding people with TB early, while ACF was also perceived as a "doubleedged sword" that could cause harm, if inappropriately designed and implemented. Study IV: NTP managers unanimously agreed on the need for ACF scale-up in high TB burden countries. This was also reflected in the national TB strategic plans, even though not all documents included explicit aims and targets related to ACF. At the same time, 90% of the NTP managers also described a lack of financial and human resources for ACF. Strategies to increase resources included generating local evidence for advocacy. Managers in districts or regions were the only ones among a list of stakeholders that NTP managers considered crucial for both ACF policy development and implementation. Studies V and VI: In Nepal and Vietnam, the main themes revolved around how people (the implementers and people with TB) could "make or break" TB screening, but also how projects could provide a context that is conducive to ACF implementation (e.g., through human resources, equipment and training). Many similar facilitators and barriers for ACF implementation were identified in Nepal and Vietnam, such as the implementers' dedication, motivation, skills and network. Barriers and facilitators at the societal and organisational levels were more context specific. For instance, in Nepal, poverty and community support were mentioned as critical. In Vietnam, participants elaborated on the importance of commitment and support from various stakeholders for ACF implementation. In both countries, the implementers requested increased incentives and training. Conclusions: Based on these results, evidence remains limited with regards to factors influencing ACF policy development. Experts have opposing views on ACF policy development and implementation, while NTP managers unanimously agree on the need for ACF scale-up, which is also reflected in the national TB strategic plans. Yet, 90% of the NTP managers state that human and financial resources are currently insufficient, and funds for ACF might have to be sought from alternative domestic and external sources. Benefits and harms of ACF must be considered throughout the screening and diagnostic pathway to avoid possible negative effects for people screened, as well as communities and health systems. Furthermore, the use of different types of evidence and the engagement of stakeholders (e.g., managers in districts and regions) are necessary to mitigate "power plays" that might otherwise mislead ACF policy development and implementation. Most facilitators, barriers and "how-to" strategies for ACF implementation identified in Nepal and Vietnam are similar across contexts, but there are also nuances, e.g., based on the predominant social determinants of TB. ACF projects can provide a context that is conducive to ACF implementation, but implementation success still depends on individuals. Ultimately, if done well, ACF can be an important, complementary tool to contribute towards ending TB, while more resources and evidence are needed to improve ACF policy development and implementation.
Αυτή η διπλωματική εργασία ερευνά την σημασία των soft skills – των επικοινωνιακών και διαπροσωπικών δεξιοτήτων – στο εργασιακό περιβάλλον της ναυτιλίας, το οποίο σε καμία περίπτωση δεν περιορίζεται στα γραφεία των διαχειριστριών εταιρειών αλλά κυρίως επεκτείνεται και περιλαμβάνει το πλοίο και τους ανθρώπους του. Με τα soft skills να αποτελούν το μείζον θέμα και πεδίο ερευνητικής ενασχόλησης της εργασίας, αναγνωρίζεται ότι μια εκτενής συζήτηση γύρω από τον ανθρώπινο παράγοντα (human factor/element) πρέπει να προηγηθεί της αναφοράς στα soft skills. Έτσι, προκειμένου να θεμελιωθεί η εργασία και να οριστεί η σημαντικότητα των soft skills στο χώρο της ναυτιλίας προηγείται η αναγνώριση της κεφαλαιώδους σημασίας του ανθρώπου – των ναυτικών και του προσωπικού στη ξηρά – για την ασφαλή περάτωση των λειτουργικών δραστηριοτήτων τόσο εν πλω όσο και στη ξηρά. Με την έννοια ασφάλεια υιοθετείται η αγγλική ερμηνεία του όρου η οποία είναι διττή περιλαμβάνοντας τόσο στοιχεία του safety όσο και του quality. Ομολογουμένως όμως η εργασία αυτή κυρίως επικεντρώνεται στην αλληλεπίδραση των soft skills και της κουλτούρας ασφάλειας (safety culture) των ναυτιλιακών εταιρειών. Μνεία ωστόσο γίνεται και στο καθεστώς ασφάλειας ως security. Οροθετείται αρχικά η συζήτηση για τα soft skills γύρω από τους τέσσερις πυλώνες της ναυτιλιακής νομοθεσίας, ήτοι τις συμβάσεις SOLAS, MARPOL, STCW και MLC. Αναζητείται που και πως γίνεται αναφορά σε πρακτικές όπου εντοπίζεται η ανάγκη ανθρώπινης αλληλεπίδρασης, εφαρμογής διαπροσωπικών δεξιοτήτων και απαιτείται η ανάπτυξη δομών εκπαίδευσης των ανθρώπων σε θέματα που ξεπερνούν την αυστηρή τεχνοκρατική κατάρτιση και άπτονται των ανθρώπινων σχέσεων και διαπροσωπικών αλληλεπιδράσεων. Με βάση τα παραπάνω, η εργασία αναζητά τη σημασία και την εφαρμογή των soft skills στο πρόγραμμα Tanker Management Self-Assessment (TMSA) του OCIMF, αναγνωρίζοντας τα βήματα που έχει πραγματοποιήσει ο οργανισμός στην εισαγωγή των soft skills στο καθημερινό λεξιλόγιο της ναυτιλίας και στις δομές ασφαλούς διαχείρισης. Σε συνέχεια των παραπάνω γίνεται προσπάθεια ύστερα να αναζητηθεί η σημαντικότητα των soft skills σε άλλες βιομηχανίες με αναφορές σε πρακτικές άλλων κλάδων και ανάλυση του βαθμού υιοθέτησης και διασποράς των soft skills στην λειτουργία τους. Τέλος, έχοντας αναφέρει τα παραπάνω, αναφέρονται τα soft skills που βρίσκουν άμεση εφαρμογή στο χώρο της ναυτιλίας και επιχειρείται να προταθεί μια μεθοδολογία για την εισαγωγή πρακτικών που βασίζονται σε αυτά στις δομές διαχείρισης και στα πρωτόκολλα ασφαλούς διαχείρισης των διαχειριστριών ναυτιλιακών εταιριών. Τα soft skills – οι δεξιότητες των ανθρώπων που επιτρέπουν την επιτυχή αλληλεπίδραση με τον κοινωνικό τους ιστό και τη μετάδοση μηνυμάτων, εντολών και συναισθημάτων – έχουν εισχωρήσει στο σύγχρονο λεξιλόγιο του εργασιακού περιβάλλοντος. Οι απολήξεις τους ξεφεύγουν από τον εργασιακό χώρο με τη συζήτηση για τη σημασία των soft skills και την εκπαίδευση πάνω σε αυτά να βρίσκει γόνιμο έδαφος σε διαφορετικές εκφάνσεις της ζωής μας όπου η αλληλεπίδραση μας με άλλα άτομα είναι αναγκαία. ; This thesis is a study of the importance of soft skills in terms of promoting a safer and more efficient work environment regarding shipping operations, both onboard and onshore. This paper investigates the importance of the human element in shipping and reviews the penetration of behavioural management practices – pertaining to the adoption of soft skill-oriented processes – in the safety and quality management systems of ship management companies and suggests paths toward regulatory compliance and best practices for the future. In the first chapter of the dissertation, the regulatory framework within which shipmanagement companies are required to operate is presented. In identifying the pieces of legislation that underpin modern ship management, light is cast upon key international conventions including, inter alia, the four pillars of ship management, i.e., SOLAS, MARPOL, STCW and MLC. Furthermore, mention is made to those regulatory bodies directly involved in tanker ship management. The above will serve in introducing TMSA into the thesis. Having considered the regulatory scheme, the second chapter gives a definition of what soft skills entail. The analysis aims at establishing how to successfully manage interpersonal relationships and getting one's message across. Therefore, it is argued that on-the-job interplay in a modern workplace environment is the driving factor behind business outcomes. In that regard, it is also argued that a workforce instilled with solid knowledge of soft skills leads to tangible results that are echoed in an organisation's productivity, revenues, and overall profitability. Building upon the state of practice concerning the adaptation of soft skills in other industries, soft skills in shipping operations are them examined, namely the nature of soft skills required for onboard and onshore operations. Tying with the aforementioned regulatory framework they way soft skills manifest in legislation relevant to shipping operations is also discussed.The third chapter of the dissertation introduces and discusses the OCIMF's paper on the Behavioural Competency Assessment and Verification for Vessel Operators. It discusses the necessary actions that a tanker ship management company should undertake to achieve compliance with TMSA 3 standards and adopt industry's best practices, again with the vantage point being the adoption and implementation of soft skill-related practices as manifested in a company's safety and quality management system, including the ISM Code. The fourth chapter is heavily influenced by OCIMF's report and relies heavily on the work material and issues discussed in the previous chapters. Here, focus lies on explaining the possible ways that a shipmanagement company can build a behavioural competency framework in the context of its safety and quality protocols. This TMSA 3- and soft skills-centred dissertation's goal is to disambiguate the meaning of soft skills and enquire into their importance in the context of a ship management company's operations. Having addressed both questions, this work suggests ways and methods that a shipmanagement company may embrace to exceed the TMSA 3 soft skills mandates, transcend minimum level of compliance and incorporate soft skill-related practices to its processes. Finally, this assignment is performed in accordance with the instructions received, and care and attention have been directed toward the proper citation of the referenced sources.
There are probably few elements that are disciplinary as transversal and that are related to so many aspects of life - natural and social - as water. This circumstance has meant that the study of this element has been approached from various disciplinary fields and that there is an increasingly wide range of approaches around water, prioritizing various aspects in its research. It is precisely this theoretical diversity that is intended to be highlighted in this document. Being broadly reductionist, in general terms, it could be said that while the dominant approaches tend to have rather scientistic approaches and tend to approach water from also dominant perspectives of the economy, development, cooperation or conflict, other approaches — more critical— they tend to problematize the set of social relations, power relations, equality and inequality around water, and even the way in which societies understand and relate to it. From this perspective, the objective of this document is to initiate this special publication on the study of water by outlining a state of the art, in which renowned scholars present the main aspects of their approaches and approaches to water, as well as the general lines of the current and future debates in this field of research. For its development, the Coordination of this issue of the magazine International Relations —formed by Eduardo Tamayo Belda, Aída Cecilia Acosta and Ana Isabel Carrasco Vintimilla— has asked the interviewed authors some questions from these debates, collecting the different approaches and proposals of analyzes that these researchers have returned in their respective interviews. The compilation and translation of these responses for publication in the issue have been in the care of Ana Isabel Carrasco Vintimilla. In what follows, researchers Mark Zeitoun, Naho Mirumachi, Jamie Linton and Aziza Akhmouch respond to the approaches proposed for discussion by the coordinators of the dossier; You can see their resumes and main lines of research at the end of this document. Thus, Mark Zeitoun's responses refer especially to the field of water conflicts and power relations around water; the researcher Naho Mirumachi - which deepens from her joint work with Zeitoun - includes more specific aspects of cooperation, governance and hydro hegemony. Jamie Linton, for her part, addresses the questions maintaining the critical perspective of the previous authors, although focusing with special attention on the analysis of discourse and the study of social and political relations around water. Finally, Aziza Akhmouch presents the main approaches and aspects prioritized by some international organizations, such as the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). However, it should be noted to the reader that these responses, in any case, general statements that propose a broad debate scenario — but not exhaustive — of the study of water and the aspects that are discussed and investigated around this element. ; Probablemente existan pocos elementos que disciplinariamente sean tan transversales y que se relacionen con tantos aspectos de la vida —natural y social— como el agua. Esta circunstancia ha supuesto que el estudio de este elemento haya sido abordado desde diversos campos disciplinarios y que exista una gama de aproximaciones cada vez más amplia en torno al agua, priorizándose diversos aspectos en su investigación. Es precisamente esa diversidad teórica la que se pretende resaltar en este documento. Siendo ampliamente reduccionista, en términos generales se podría decir que mientras las aproximaciones dominantes suelen tener enfoques más bien cientificistas y tienden a acercarse al agua desde perspectivas también dominantes de la economía, el desarrollo, la cooperación o el conflicto, otros enfoques —más críticos— tienden a problematizar el conjunto de relaciones sociales, relaciones de poder, igualdad y desigualdad en torno al agua, e incluso la forma en que las sociedades entienden y se relacionan con ella. Desde esta perspectiva, el objetivo de este documento es iniciar esta publicación especial sobre el estudio del agua esbozando un estado de la cuestión, en el que reconocidos académicos presentan los principales aspectos de sus enfoques y aproximaciones al agua, así como las líneas generales de los debates actuales y futuros de este campo de investigación. Para su desarrollo, la Coordinación de este número de la revista Relaciones Internacionales —formada por Eduardo Tamayo Belda, Aída Cecilia Acosta y Ana Isabel Carrasco Vintimilla— ha planteado a los autores y autoras entrevistados algunas cuestiones de esos debates, recogiendo los diferentes enfoques y propuestas de análisis que estos investigadores han devuelto en sus respectivas entrevistas. La compilación y la traducción de estas respuestas para su publicación en el número ha estado al cuidado de Ana Isabel Carrasco Vintimilla. En lo que sigue, los investigadores Mark Zeitoun, Naho Mirumachi, Jamie Linton y Aziza Akhmouch dan respuesta a los planteamientos propuestos para el debate por los coordinadores del dossier; se pueden ver sus currículums y principales líneas de investigación al final de este documento. Así, las respuestas de Mark Zeitoun se refieren especialmente al campo los conflictos hídricos y de las relaciones de poder en torno al agua; la investigadora Naho Mirumachi —que profundiza desde su trabajo conjunto con Zeitoun— incluye aspectos más específicos de la cooperación, la gobernanza y la hidrohegemonía. Jamie Linton, por su parte, aborda las preguntas manteniendo la perspectiva crítica de los autores anteriores, aunque centrándose con especial atención en el análisis del discurso y en el estudio de las relaciones sociales y políticas en torno al agua. Finalmente, Aziza Akhmouch presenta los principales enfoques y aspectos que priorizan algunos organismos internacionales como, en su caso, la Organización para la Cooperación y Desarrollo Económicos (OCDE). No obstante, es preciso hacer notar al lector que estas respuestas, en todo caso, planteamientos generales que proponen un escenario de debate amplio —mas no exhaustivo— del estudio del agua y de los aspectos que se discuten e investigan en torno a este elemento.
RESUMEN: Objetivo: caracterizar los procesos de formulación nacional del Plan Decenal de Salud Pública [PDSP] como eje articulador de la Política Nacional de Salud de Colombia, durante el período 2012 a 2013; y de su implementación actual (hasta 2018) en el departamento de Casanare. Metodología: estudio de caso basado en la revisión narrativa de fuentes secundarias, y en el testimonio de agentes involucrados tanto en la formulación del PDSP al nivel nacional como en su implementación en el Departamento de Casanare. El departamento de Casanare se consideró una subcategoría ilustrativa de regiones en condiciones de vulnerabilidad social y administrativa. La información sobre aspectos coyunturales y estructurales de ambos casos se obtuvo mediante la revisión narrativa de documentos, encuestas con escala tipo Likert y entrevistas semiestructuradas a una muestra de involucrados. Se examinaron cuatro dimensiones dirigidas a caracterizar ambos casos: involucrados, contexto, aspectos formales y de proceso. Resultados: en 1993 Colombia reformó su Política Pública de Salud [PPS] adoptando un modelo de cuasi mercado que, casi desde su origen, fue objeto de múltiples críticas por parte de diferentes organismos y agentes sociales quienes destacaban fallas profundas de tipo estructural. En este contexto polarizado, que se agudizó a fines de 2008, se formuló el PDSP como una de las estrategias reactivas del gobierno y del Congreso para hacer frente a la crisis de sostenibilidad del modelo, sin afectar su estructura básica. En la misma coyuntura confluyeron directrices internacionales que instaban a los Estados a formular PPS capaces de impactar los Determinantes Sociales de la Salud [DSS] y a recuperar el papel de la salud pública en la toma de decisiones adoptando el modelo de Atención Primaria de Salud [APS]. El estudio logró identificar características del proceso adelantado en Colombia que podrían constituir lecciones aprendidas; entre ellas, el diseño de reformas con fines conservadores, el conflicto de intereses en la toma de decisiones, la influencia de políticas internacionales en las dinámicas locales, y las dificultades de aplicar las directrices desconociendo los contextos. La formulación e implementación del PDSP se apoyó en un proceso de participación social relativamente amplio y centrado en las formas, que integró un conjunto heterogéneo de intereses, conceptos y criterios sin modificar sustancialmente las condiciones de cuasi mercado que estructuran la PPS. Adicionalmente, en una región del país expuesta a condiciones de vulnerabilidad, la implementación del PDSP enfrenta serias restricciones por la escasez de recursos, la debilidad técnica y la dificultad de llegar a consensos. Conclusión: de acuerdo con las fuentes consultadas, el PDSP de Colombia se configuró, en un contexto social polarizado, como el eje articulador de un conjunto de políticas que pretenden amortiguar las fallas del modelo de aseguramiento sin modificar su estructura. Dicho Plan no cuenta con un sistema de evaluación permanente, se enfrenta a condiciones de implementación limitadas por los contextos locales, y el tiempo transcurrido es corto para establecer sus resultados. La formulación del Plan no modifica la estructura del modelo vigente y a la fecha no parece apuntar a sus fallas. ; ABSTRACT: This research aimed to characterize the formulation process of the Decennial Public Health Plan [DPHP] as an articulating axis of the National Healht Policy of Colombia, during the period 2012 to 2013 and its incurrent implementation in the department of Casanare. A case study was conducted based on the testimony of involved agents in the formulation of the DPHP at the national level and its implementation in the Department of Casanare. The information on conjunctural and structural aspects of both cases was obtained through the narrative review of documents, surveys with Likert scale and semi-structured interviews to a sample of involved. Four dimensions aimed at characterizing both cases were examined: involved, context, formal and process aspects. The department of Casanare was considered an illustrative case of regions in conditions of social and administrative vulnerability. In 1993 Colombia reformed its Public Health Policy [PPS] by adopting a quasi-market model that, almost from its origin, was subject to multiple criticisms by different agencies and social agents who highlighted deep structural failures. In this polarized context, exacerbated at the end of 2008, the DPHP was formulated as reactive strategies of the government and Congress to face the sustainability crisis of the model, without affecting its basic structure. At the same juncture came international guidelines that urged the States to formulate PPS capable of impacting the Social Determinants of Health [DSS] and to recover the role of public health in decision-making by adopting the Primary Care Model [APS]. This study identified characteristics of the health political process carried out in Colombia that could constitute lessons learned; among them, the design of reforms for conservative purposes, the conflict of interests in decision-making, the influence of international policies on local dynamics, and the difficulties of applying the guidelines if ignoring the contexts. The formulation and implementation of the PDSP was based on a process of relatively broad social participation focused on forms, which integrated a heterogeneous set of interests, concepts and criteria without substantially modifying the quasi-market conditions that structure the PPS. Additionally, in a region of the country exposed to conditions of vulnerability, the implementation of the PDSP faces serious restrictions due to the scarcity of resources, the technical weakness of those involved and the difficulty of reaching consensus. According to the sources consulted, the PDSP of Colombia was shaped, in a polarized social context, as the articulating axis of a set of reformist policies that aim to cushion the failures of the insurance model without modifying its structure. This plan does not have a permanent evaluation system; its implementation faces conditions limited by local contexts; and the time elapsed is short to establish its results. The formulation of the Plan does not modify the structure of the current model, and to date it does not seem to point to its faults.
Introduction. Sociological studies of the social portrait of students are an urgent problem of science, which has recently acquired special significance in Russian conditions. This is due to those circumstances, which, on the one hand, follow from the special characteristics of students as a specific social group, for which the problems of successful socialization are especially relevant, and on the other, they are dictated by the significant dependence of students on those factors that are formed in the political, economic and the legal space of different regions. In conditions of social transformations and turbulence, almost always young students find themselves in a more difficult situation than older generations. In particular, a number of problems arise on the basis of the divergences and nuances of the social perception of reality, which are formed among students who, to varying degrees, are adapted to the local conditions of the university.Methodology and sources. The theoretical foundation of the study is the concept of youth as a cultural group, the methodology of sociological research of risk and social uncertainty, the works of foreign and national researchers of student youth, which reflect various aspects of students' social life, in particular, the results of a study of the effects of social factors in the information space, new phenomena of youth subcultures, etc., which involve the development of new strategies for a sociological study of the social portrait of young students.Results and discussion. Particular problems of students' socialization arise in those regions of the country where new legal and political realities are forming. Compared with other social groups, in such social spaces, it is more difficult for young people to integrate and join in a new reality, because the usual mechanisms of socialization, formed earlier, are not actual now, and how to achieve full potential in the new social space is not yet clear to everyone. In particular, such contradictions are clearly visible in the Crimean realities, in the university community of Sevastopol. The purpose of the sociological research conducted by the Centre for Sociological Research of Sevastopol State University was to study the characteristics of the social portrait of student youth in Sevastopol, including those representing various groups of students according the period of their residence on the peninsula. For this purpose, two groups of young people were distinguished in the analysis, differing by the period of their residence in Sevastopol: an "indigenous" one – those who live in Sevastopol from birth or moved here at an early age, and a "new" one – those who moved to Sevastopol after 2014. The results of the study made it possible to determine the strategic life goals of university students, which can be described as ambitious: starting a business, acquiring a car and housing, providing material wealth, pursuing career success and self-realization.Conclusion. Most of the "indigenous" youth and "new" residents of the southern capital of Russia have shown their attitude to Sevastopol as a city that they want to develop together. This fact was assessed as a phenomenon of social gratitude: the young generation, who found in Sevastopol the opportunity to live peacefully and fulfill itself, binds itself to the city, but wants to make it better. The study also confirms the relevance of highlighting among students social and demographic groups that differ in the perception of social reality, due to the time spent in this social environment. In particular, this is noted in a higher degree of readiness of "old-timers" for practical participation in changes in social reality – participation in public life, volunteering, etc. ; Введение. Социологические исследования социального портрета студенчества – актуальная проблема науки, приобретающая в последнее время особое значение для российских условий. Обусловлено это теми обстоятельствами, которые, с одной стороны, вытекают из особых характеристик студенчества как специфической социальной группы, для которой особенно актуальны проблемы успешной социализации, а с другой, продиктованы существенной зависимостью студенческой молодежи от факторов, которые формируются в политическом, экономическом и правовом пространстве различных регионов. В условиях социальных трансформаций и турбулентности практически всегда студенческая молодежь оказывается в более сложной ситуации, чем старшие поколения. В частности, целый ряд проблем возникает вследствие расхождений и нюансов социального восприятия действительности, которые складываются у студентов, в различной степени адаптированных к местным условиям нахождения вуза.Методология и источники. Теоретический фундамент исследования составляют концепция молодежи как культурной группы, методология социологического исследования риска и социальной неопределенности, работы зарубежных и отечественных исследователей студенческой молодежи, в которых отражены различные аспекты социальной жизни студентов, в частности, итоги изучения влияния социальных факторов информационного пространства, новых феноменов молодежных субкультур и пр., что предполагает разработку новых стратегий социологического исследования социального портрета студенческой молодежи.Результаты и обсуждение. Особые проблемы социализации студентов возникают в тех регионах страны, где складываются новые правовые и политические реалии. В сравнении с другими социальными группами в таких социальных пространствах молодым людям сложнее интегрироваться, включиться в новую действительность, так как привычные механизмы социализации, сформированные ранее, уже не работают, а как реализовать себя в новом социальном пространстве, не всем еще понятно. В частности, такие противоречия отчетливо видны в крымских реалиях, в университетской среде г. Севастополя. Цель социологического исследования, проведенного Центром социологических исследований СевГУ, состояла в изучении характеристик социального портрета студенческой молодежи Севастополя, в том числе по времени пребывания на полуострове различных групп студенчества. Для этого в рамках анализа выделены две группы молодежи, отличающиеся по периоду проживания в Севастополе: «коренная» – те, кто живет в Севастополе с рождения или переехал сюда в раннем возрасте, и «новая» – те, кто переехал в Севастополь после 2014 г. Результаты исследования позволили определить стратегические жизненные цели студенческой молодежи вуза, которые можно охарактеризовать как амбициозные: открытие собственного дела, приобретение автомобиля и жилья, обеспечение материального достатка, достижение карьерных успехов и самореализации.Заключение. Большинство «коренной» молодежи и «новые» жители южной столицы России продемонстрировали отношение к Севастополю как к городу, который хочется вместе развивать. Данный факт был оценен как феномен социальной благодарности: молодое поколение, нашедшее в Севастополе возможность мирно жить и самореализовываться, связывает себя с городом, желая сделать его лучше. Проведенное исследование также подтверждает актуальность выделения среди студентов социально-демографических групп, отличающихся особенностями восприятия социальной реальности, обусловленными временем пребывания в данной социальной среде. В частности, это отмечается в более высокой степени готовности «старожилов» к практическому участию в изменениях социальной действительности – участию в общественной жизни, волонтерстве и пр.
The project, Bite size maths: Building mathematics low socioeconomic student capability in regional/remote Australia, establishes the foundations for a change in the way that online education is offered to low socioeconomic students in regional/remote Australia. The Bite size maths project is a $140,000 project funded in 2016 through the Department of Education and Training (DET) as part of the Higher Education Participation and Partnerships Programme (HEPPP) 2015 National Priorities Pool. The Bite size maths project has delivered an innovative set of interactive modules (as an online learning system) that can be used singly or linked together in a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC—http://www.bitesizemaths.net). The 20 interactive modules developed within the project provide a foundation for improvements in mathematics education across the higher education sector as well as throughout the school system in regional/remote Australia. The use of self-paced learning in the form of guided instruction and opportunities for practice have the potential to profoundly impact on the learning experiences of undergraduate students who have little or no experience in mathematics. Mathematics forms the core of multiple course structures at universities, and previous research emphasises the importance of engaging undergraduate students in building a strong mathematics foundation. This is particularly the case in regional/remote Australia where universities, like those in the Regional Universities Network (RUN), focus particularly on professional careers, such as education and health care, that require mathematical competencies. Contemporary students need to be both proficient in and comfortable with mathematics, so as to bridge the gap between curriculum and understanding the mathematics that is required in such careers. The Bite size maths project showed, for the first time, that a MOOC can be designed on the basis of studies of human cognitive architecture, in this case the principles and effects of cognitive load theory. Development and trials of five modules demonstrated that the combination of worked examples and practice questions (the worked example effect in cognitive load theory) makes a significant difference to test results of students who have little experience in mathematics. After the initial trials, a MOOC (comprised of 20 interactive modules) was built incorporating a number of improvements and innovations. These included other cognitive load effects, as well as point-of-contact feedback. This is the first time that point-of-contact feedback developed at SCU has been used as part of a MOOC. This feedback serves to let students know about their learning approaches, provides guidance on appropriate learning styles, and allows feedback from the students on how well the MOOC facilitated their learning. The end result is a set of integrated resources that can be embedded in undergraduate mathematics units as interactive modules or as a MOOC. The interactive modules in the MOOC offer course-based resources that are designed to allow students to tackle 'bite-size chunks' of the coursework mathematics in which they must develop expertise. The MOOC offers a self-paced introduction to key features of undergraduate mathematics, and is adaptive in that it also offers continual graded assessment and point-of-contact feedback. The content of the modules is based on the literature, as well as on a dedicat students. Many of these students have had less experience in mathematics than their urban counterparts. Furthermore, there is a broad range of mathematical capabilities within this group. As one of the 21 projects funded under the HEPPP 2015 National Priorities Pool, Bite size maths addresses the HEPPP Priority Funding Area, "More effective programme implementation". The Bite size maths project facilitates more equitable and effective program delivery via a mathematics intervention resource that caters for the wide range of student abilities and economic circumstances evident in the education sector in regional/remote areas. In so doing, the Bite size maths project targets low socioeconomic students who are at particular disadvantage, and provides modules that build student expertise and confidence. Commonwealth and State governments, via the National STEM School Education Strategy (Education Council, 2015) have mandated increased emphasis on science and mathematics in pre-service teaching and increased rigour of pre-service courses. This project will assist not only education students, but also those in other courses that require mathematics skills. It provides higher education teachers, senior managers and policy advisors with a tested approach to support significant long-term improvements in the quality of mathematics learning in universities. Importantly, the Bite size maths project offers: • A new vision of the way that mathematics can be learned in online settings and how this can be integrated in the preparation of graduates with mathematics capabilities suited to their professions, and • A mechanism for university teachers to grow the mathematics capability of their students. Successful take-up of the interactive modules or the MOOC requires: • Leadership, clarity of purpose and influence whereby the Bite size maths partners champion the mathematics MOOC at regional and national levels • Strong collaborative relationships between RUN partners to be nurtured and strengthened • Planning for 2017 trials and subsequent roll-out of the interactive modules or the MOOC • Communication about the resource to mathematics students at risk of failure, university mathematics teachers, staff in other disciplines, senior management teams at tertiary institutions, educational policy makers and other senior government strategists • Review of institutional protocols around enrolment, pre-requisites, course accreditation and assessment in order to successfully embed the interactive modules and the MOOC • Resourcing for trials, development and embedding of the interactive modules in mathematics units • Mentoring mechanisms such as workshops for university educators and a website for feedback/support, and • Promotion of the modules and the MOOC by the Department of Education and Training as a means of improving the mathematical capabilities of low socioeconomic or otherwise disadvantaged students at regional/rural universities. This report presents the four main components of the project: • Reviewing undergraduate mathematics in regional/rural Australia (identification of at- risk students, overview of intervention processes and identification of major issues) • Developing and trialling of five online learning system modules • Developing 20 interactive modules that comprise the MOOC, using feedback from the trial • Reporting on the potential of the MOOC as a resource for use in the university sector.
