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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mattur microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 448 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 76 per cent is covered by soils and 24 per cent by habitation and water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 14 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area of about 6 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 70 per cent area has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 43 per cent has soils that are slightly eroded (e1) and 33 per cent moderately eroded (e2) lands.  An area of about 6 per cent are moderately alkaline (pH pH 7.8-8.4), 43 per cent are strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) and 28 per cent are very strongly alkaline (pH >9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils is 0.75%) in entire area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in entire area of about 76 per cent in the microwatershed.  About 54 per cent of the soils are medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 22 per cent soils are high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (0.6 ppm) in about 4 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 1 (<1) 287 (64) Sapota - 34 (8) Maize - 289 (65) Pomegranate - 153 (34) Bajra 1 (<1) 335 (75) Musambi - 153 (34) Groundnut - 43 (10) Lime - 153 (34) Sunflower - 148 (33) Amla 1 (<1) 337 (75) Red gram - 130 (29) Cashew - 6 (1) Bengalgram - 330 (74) Jackfruit - 6 (1) Cotton - 288 (65) Jamun - 107 (24) Chilli 1 (<1) 35 (8) Custard apple 1 (<1) 337 (75) Tomato 1 (<1) 63 (14) Tamarind - 101 (23) Brinjal 1 (<1) 290 (65) Mulberry - 128 (29) Onion - 38 (9) Marigold - 289 (65) Bhendi - 291 (65) Chrysanthemum - 289 (65) Drumstick - 150 (34) Jasmine - 141 (32) Mango - 101 (23) Crossandra - 54 (12) Guava - 6 (1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 106 (52.74%) men and 95 (47.26%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.50, marginal farmers' was 4.83, small farmers' was 5, semi medium farmers' was 6.38 and medium farmers' was 6.  The data indicated that, 17 (8.46%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 106 (52.74%) were in 16-35 years of age, 58 (28.86%) were in 36-60 years of age and 20 (9.95%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Mattur had 33.33 per cent illiterates, 0.50 per cent functional literate, 18.41 per cent of them had primary school education, 4.98 per cent of them had middle school education, 26.37 per cent of them had high school education, 10.95 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.50 per cent had diploma, 1.49 per cent had ITI and 2.49 per cent of them had degree.  The results indicate that, 70.27 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 29.73 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 48.26 per cent of the household members, 30.85 per cent were agricultural labourers, 3.48 per cent were in private service, 12.44 per cent were student, 3.98 per cent were housewives and 0.50 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 2.70 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 70.27 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 8.11 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house and 18.92 per cent of the households possess semi pucca house.  The results show that 75.68 per cent of the households possess TV, 27.03 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 8.11 per cent of them possess bicycle, 37.84 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.70 per cent of them possess tempo and landline phone and 94.59 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,928, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,260, bicycle was Rs. 1,200, motor cycle was Rs. 31,071, tempo was 500,000, landline was 2,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,347.  About 24.32 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 21.62 per cent of them possess plough, 2.70 per cent of them possess tractor, 8.11 per cent of them possess sprayer, 48.65 per cent of them possess weeder, 2.70 per cent of them possess harvester and 5.41 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,777, plough was Rs. 1,780, tractor was Rs. 500,000, sprayer was Rs. 4,500, weeder was Rs. 52, harvester was Rs. 5,000 and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 825. 2  The results indicate that, 32.43 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 27.03 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.70 per cent of them possess crossbred cow, 8.11 per cent possess buffalo and 2.70 per cent of them possess poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.33, average own labour (women) available was 1.94, average hired labour (men) available was 6.22 and average hired labour (women) available was 5.14.  The results indicate that 81.08 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 18.92 per cent opined that hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Mattur micro-watershed possess 11.53 ha (27.70%) of dry land, 28.76 ha (69.09%) of irrigated land and 1.34 ha (3.21%) of permanent fallow. Marginal farmers possess 5.36 ha (75.67%) of dry land, 0.87 ha (12.34%) of irrigated land and 0.85 ha (11.99%) of permanent fallow. Small farmers possess 5.67 ha (100%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 6.17 ha (30.49%) of dry land, 13.59 ha (67.11%) of irrigated land and 0.49 ha (2.40%) of permanent fallow. Medium farmers possess 8.64 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 428,133.33, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 401,761.64 and the average value of permanent fallow land was Rs. 254,484.85. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 585,343.40 for dry land, Rs. 800,462.98 for irrigated land and Rs. 352,857.16 for permanent fallow land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 652,785.71 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 291,540.98 for dry land, Rs. 357,587.13 for irrigated land and Rs. 82,333.33 for permanent fallow land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 266,213.68 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 22 functioning and 5 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 59.46 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 67.39 meters.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.34 ha, 5.26 ha, 14.03 ha and 8.94 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (21.26 ha), Bengalgram (4.64 ha), onion (3.3 ha), bajra (3.17 ha), cotton (2.43 ha), groundnut (1.62 ha), sorghum (2.02 ha), cowpea (1.28 ha), sugarcane (1.21 ha) and wheat (0.81 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Mattur micro-watershed was found to be 81.42 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 31242.91. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 76824.86. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 45581.96. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.46. 3  The total cost of cultivation for sugarcane was Rs. 19242.89. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 44460. The net income from sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 25217.11. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.31.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 29582.79. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 59280. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 29697.21. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.  The total cost of cultivation for Bengal grma was Rs. 35740.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 39942.37. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 4202.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.12.  The total cost of cultivation for cowpea was Rs. 19033.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 22233.19. The net income from cowpea cultivation was Rs. 3200.05. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.17.  The total cost of cultivation for onion was Rs. 50248.49. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 145418.29. The net income from onion cultivation was Rs. 95169.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.89.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 19973.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 44460. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 24486.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.23.  The total cost of cultivation for wheat was Rs. 36026.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 17043. The net income from wheat cultivation was Rs. - 18983.18. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.47.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 53039.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45570.78. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. - 7468.43. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.86.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 35308.21. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 69557.94. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 34249.74. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.97.  The results indicate that, 35.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 40.54 per cent opined that green fodder was adequate. Also, 16.22 per cent opined that dry fodder was inadequate and 5.41 per cent opined that green fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 20,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 109,025, for small farmers it was Rs. 101,642.86, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 92,746.15 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 203,333.33.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 17,392.16. For landless households it was Rs. 6,750, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 18,611.95, for small farmers it was Rs. 23,642.86, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 7,064.10 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 49,777.78. 4  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 155 coconut trees in their field and 11 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 1 cashew tree, 2 teak trees, 60 neem trees, 1 pongamia trees and 9 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 98.39 per cent, Bengalgram was sold to the extent of 86.15 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 83.57 per cent, onion was sold to the extent of 78.34 per cent, sorghum was sold to the extent of 52.38 per cent. Cotton, cowpea, groundnut, sugarcane and wheat were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 32.43 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders, 56.76 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants, 27.03 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market and 2.70 per cent of them sold their produce through contract marketing arrangement.  The results indicated that, 8.11 per cent of the households carried head load, 40.54 per cent of them used cart and 70.27 per cent of them used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 29.73 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 29.73 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 81.08 per cent of the households used firewood and 18.92 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 56.76 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 43.24 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 27.03 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.30 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.70 per cent of the sampled households did not possess any PDS card.  The results indicated that, 54.05 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 94.59 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 67.57 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 27.03 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 37.84, fruits were adequate for 8.11 per cent, milk was adequate for 62.16 per cent, eggs were adequate for 59.46 per cent and meat were adequate for 54.05 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were in adequate for 2.70 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 29.73 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 40.54 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 54.05 per cent, fruits were inadequate 5 for 56.76 per cent, milk was inadequate for 21.62 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 5.41 per cent and meat was inadequate for 8.11 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 29.73 per cent of the households, vegetables were market surplus for 5.41 per cent of the households, fruits were market surplus for 2.70 per cent of the households and eggs were market surplus for 5.41 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 72.50 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (75%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (57.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (45%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (30%), high rate of interest on credit and lack of marketing facilities in the area (20%), low price for the agricultural commodities (22.5%), inadequate extension services (10%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (25%), less rainfall (60%) and Source of Agri-technology information (37.5%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mellikeri-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 425 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 100 per cent is covered by soils and 150 cm) soils.  An area of about 12 per cent has sandy soils, 46 per cent has loamy soils and 42 per cent has clayey soils at the surface.  About 41 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (0.75%) in 2 per cent area of the soils.  Available phosphorus is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in 99 per cent and high (>57 kg/ha) in 337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 29 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in about 2 per cent area.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 65 (15) 139 (33) Sapota 65 (15) 207 (49) Maize 65 (15) 139 (33) Pomegranate 65 (15) 207 (49) Bajra 78 (18) 223 (52) Musambi 65 (15) 207 (49) Groundnut 12 (3) 399 (94) Lime 65 (15) 207 (49) Sunflower 65 (15) 111 (26) Amla 103 (24) 309 (73) Red gram 65 (15) 111 (26) Cashew 44 (10) 143 (34) Bengalgram - 204 (48) Jackfruit 65 (15) 207 (49) Cotton 47 (11) 158 (37) Jamun 47 (11) 152 (36) Chilli 65 (15) 139 (33) Custard apple 103 (24) 309 (73) Tomato 65 (15) 139 (33) Tamarind 47 (11) 78 (18) Brinjal 44 (10) 272 (64) Mulberry 103 (24) 281 (66) Onion 44 (10) 272 (64) Marigold 65 (15) 139 (33) Bhendi 44 (10) 272 (64) Chrysanthemum 65 (15) 139 (33) Drumstick 91 (21) 197 (46) Jasmine 65 (15) 139 (33) Mango 47 (11) 55 (13) Crossandra 65 (15) 139 (33) Guava 18 (4) 254 (71)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 4 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining productivity and ecological balance in the microwatershed.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 96 (2.75%) men and 86 (47.25%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 5.25, small farmers' was 5.8, semi medium farmers' was 5 and medium farmers' was 4.5.  The data indicated that, 38 (20.88%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 72 (39.56%) were in 16-35 years of age, 53(29.12%) were in 36-60 years of age and 19 (10.44%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Mellikeri-2 had 30.22 per cent illiterates, 26.92 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.04 per cent of them had middle school education, 19.23 per cent of them had high school education, 7.14 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.55 per cent of them did ITI and 4.95 per cent of them had degree level education.  The results indicate that, 74.29 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 25.71 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 51.10 per cent of the household members, 21.43 per cent were agricultural labourers, 23.63 per cent were students and 1.65 per cent were housewives.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 57.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 8.57 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 91.43 per cent of the households possess TV, 57.14 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 7.14 per cent of them possess bicycle, 37.14 per cent of them possess motor cycle and 97.14 per cent of them possess mobile phone.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,937, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,875, bicycle was 10,500, motor cycle was Rs. 41,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,050.  About 31.43 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 45.71 per cent of them possess plough and sprayer, 2.86 per cent of them possess irrigation pump and power tiller and 5.71 per cent of them possess tractor.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,000, plough was Rs. 2,906, irrigation pump was Rs. 5,000, power tiller was Rs. 25,000, tractor was Rs. 500,000, sprayer was Rs. 4,312, and weeder was Rs. 91.  The results indicate that, 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 11.43 per cent of the households possess local cow and crossbreed cow, 8.57 per cent possess buffalo and 5.71 per cent of them possess sheep and goat. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.70, average own labour (women) available was 1.27, average hired labour (men) available was 10.82 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.91.  The results indicate that 85.71 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 11.43 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Mellikeri-2 micro-watershed possess 28.06 ha (61.81 %) of dry land and 17.34 ha (38.19 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.56 ha (89.33%) of dry land and 0.90 ha (10.67%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 8.59 ha (86.58%) of dry land and 1.33 ha (13.42%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 11.91 ha (56.12%) of dry land and 9.32 (43.88%) for irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 5.79 ha (100%) irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 459,518.32 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 547,735.76. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 635,029.46 for dry land and Rs. 1,550,672.63 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 488,648.14 for dry land and Rs. 975,987.85 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 327,207.88 for dry land and Rs. 536,490 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 310,909.09 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 13 functioning and 6 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 37.14 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 37.14 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.9 ha, 1.33 ha, 9.30 ha and 5.79 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown banana (1.01 ha), chilly (1.21 ha), groundnut (2.02 ha), maize (26.04 ha), onion (0.46 ha), paddy (1.28 ha), bajra (3.45 ha), red gram (2.09 ha) and sugar cane (3.80 ha). Marginal farmers had grown maize, onion, bajra, red gram and sugarcane. Small farmers had groundnut, maize and sugarcane. Semi medium farmers had grown banana, chilly, maize, paddy, bajra, red gram and sugarcane. Medium farmers had grown chilly and maize.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Mellikeri-2 micro-watershed was found to be 74.84 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Banana was Rs. 117418.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 652080. The net 3 income from Banana cultivation was Rs. 534661.35. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:5.55.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Chilly was Rs. 56447.30. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800.00. The net income from Chilly cultivation was Rs. 42352.70. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.75.  The total cost of cultivation for Groundnut was Rs. 50662.48. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 80522. The net income from Groundnut cultivation was Rs. 29859.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.59.  The total cost of cultivation for Maize was Rs. 31581.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45219.56. The net income from Maize cultivation was Rs. 13637.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.43.  The total cost of cultivation for Onion was Rs. 55469.44. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 91805.31. The net income from Onion cultivation was Rs. 36335.87. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.66.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 89717.17. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 59750.47. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. - 29966.70. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.67.  The total cost of cultivation for Bajra was Rs. 25921.12. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 38959.21. The net income from Bajra cultivation was Rs. 13038.08. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.5.  The total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 33598.13. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49485.17. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 15887.04. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.47.  The total cost of cultivation for Sugarcane was Rs. 63150.14. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 765490.94. The net income from Sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 702340.80. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:12.12.  The results indicate that, 37.14 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder, 45.71 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and 11.43 per cent of the households opined dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 11,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 62,926.67, for small farmers it was Rs. 96,875, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 215,893.64 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 210,500.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 14,692.53. For landless households it was Rs. 2,750, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 6,687.50, for small farmers it was Rs. 17,265.63, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 12,396.69 and for medium farmers it was Rs 77,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 6 mango and coconut trees in their field. 4  The results indicate that, households have planted 58 neem, 4 tamarind and 5 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3,285.71 for land development and Rs. 3,285.71 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 28.57 per cent for land development and for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, bajra, banana, chilly, groundnut, maize, onion, paddy, red gram and sugarcane was sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 34.29 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agents/traders, 57.14 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 22.86 per cent of them sold their produce to regulated market.  The results indicated that, 108.57 per cent of the households used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 28.57 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 31.43 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.86per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 40 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 60 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 51.43 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 5.71 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL, 88.57 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.86 per cent of the households did not possess any PDS card.  The results indicated that, 34.29 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 51.43 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 37.14 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 48.57 per cent, fruits were adequate for 5.71 per cent, milk were adequate for 82.86 per cent, egg were adequate for 57.14 per cent and meat were adequate for 48.57 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses and oil seeds were inadequate for 45.71 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 40 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 34.29 per cent, milk were inadequate for 14.29 per cent, egg were inadequate for 8.57 per cent and meat were inadequate for 5.71 per cent of the households. 5  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 17.14 per cent, vegetables were market surplus for 11.43 per cent and meat were market surplus for 18.60 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil, inadequacy of irrigation water and Source of Agri-technology information was the constraint experienced by 31.43 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (68.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (65.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (37.14%), high rate of interest on credit (57.14%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (42.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities, inadequate extension services and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (2.86%) and less rainfall (60%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Nagarabundi-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 405 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 397 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 150 cm), 9 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100) whereas 33 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50 -75 cm) and 11 per cent soils are shallow (25 -50 cm) in the microwatershed.  About 14 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 17 percent soils are loamy and 67 per cent soils clayey at the surface.  Entire cultivated area in the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 7 percent soils are medium (51-100), 34 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) and 13 per cent area is very low (0.75%) and 32 percent is medium (0.50- 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 7 percent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus and about 92 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 76 percent is medium (145-337kg/ha) and 22 percent is high (>337kg/ha) in available potassium.  An area of about 40 percent is medium (10-20ppm) and 59 percent area is low (4.5ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 24(6) 277(69) Guava - 33(8) Maize 24(6) 277(69) Sapota - 33(8) Bajra 24(6) 276(69) Pomegranate - 140(35) Groundnut - 86(21) Musambi - 140(35) Sunflower - 140(35) Lime - 140(35) Redgram - 168(42) Amla 24(6) 141(35) Bengal gram - 135(34) Cashew - - Cotton - 211(52) Jackfruit - 33(8) Chilli 24(6) 239(59) Jamun - - Tomato 24(6) 132(33) Custard apple - 273(68) Brinjal 24(6) 132(33) Tamarind - - Onion 24(6) 132(33) Mulberry - 33(8) Bhendi 24(6) 239(59) Marigold 24(6) 239(59) Drumstick - 33(8) Chrysanthemum 24(6) 239(59) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 97 (65.1%) men and 52 (34.9%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of was marginal farmers' was 4.75, small farmers' was 4.6 semi medium farmers were 5.4 and medium farmers was 4.25.  The data indicated that, 22 (14.77%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 57 (38.26%) were in 16-25 years of age and 36-60 years of age and 13 (8.72%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Nagarbundi-2 had 64.43 per cent illiterates, 8.0 per cent of them had primary school, 4.7 per cent of them had middle school, 10.07 per cent of them had high school, 7.38 per cent of them had PUC and 0.67 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 80.54 per cent of the household members, 0.67 per cent was agricultural labourers, 1.34 per cent were private service, 12.75 per cent were student and 4.7 per cent were in children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 25.81 per cent of the households possess thatched, 64.52 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 9.68 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 90.32 per cent of the households possess TV, 80.65 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 48.39 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.45 per cent of the household's posses auto and 96.77 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 5,464, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,853, motor cycle was Rs. 46,333, auto was Rs. 200,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,452.  About 22.58 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, 51.61 per cent each of the households possess Plough, 3.23 per cent each of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill, power tiller, tractor and harvester, 16.13 per cent of the households possess sprayer and sprinkler and thresher, 77.42 per cent each of the households possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 15,542, plough was Rs. 3,562, seed/ fertilizer drill was Rs. 1,500, power tiller was Rs. 35,000, tractor was Rs. 400,000, sprayer was Rs. 4,600, sprinkler was Rs. 4,800, weeder 2 was Rs. 161, harvester was Rs. 5,000 and the average value of thresher was Rs. 160.  The results indicate that, 32.26 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 9.68 per cent of the households possess local cow and buffalo and 3.23 per cent of the households possess goat.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.50, average own labour (women) available was 1.25, average hired labour (men) available and average hired labour (women) available was 7.71.  The results indicate that, 96.77 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Nagarbundi-2 micro-watershed possess 39.67 ha (78.46 %) of dry land and 10.89 ha (21.54 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.37 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 13.26 ha (83.55%) of dry land and 2.61 ha (16.45%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 10.93 ha (74.75%) of dry land and 3.69 ha (25.25%) of irrigated land. medium farmers possess 10.12 ha (68.78%) of dry land and 4.59 ha (31.22%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 252,971.54 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 541,344.73. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 633,333.33 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 316,570.03 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 880,775.19 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average value of dry land was Rs. 182,962.96 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 541,666.67. In case of medium famers, the average value of dry land was Rs. 43,472; the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 348,193.84.  The results indicate that, there were 8 functioning and 7 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 29.03 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 21.34 meters.  The results indicate that, small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 3.72 ha, 3.64 ha and 2.83 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (15.99%), green gram and maize (2.02 ha), groundnut (12.21 ha), paddy (2.43 ha), jowar (4.45 ha) and red gram (7.59 ha). Marginal farmers have grown cotton and red gram. Small farmers have grown cotton, groundnut, paddy and red gram. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton, green gram, groundnut and red gram. Medium farmers have grown groundnut, cotton and jowar. 3  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Nagarbundi-2 micro-watershed was found to be 98.13 per cent.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have bank account and 51.61 per cent of savings.  The results indicate that, 83.87 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 66.67 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank and grameena bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 63,333.33.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 80 per cent of the households partially paid their loan and 20 per cent of the households do not repay their loan from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, 60 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 40 per cent opined that loan amount borrowed easy accessibility of credit.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 39478.66. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 65486.01. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 26007.35. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.66.  The total cost of cultivation for jowar was Rs. 5320.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 26271.82. The net income from jowar cultivation was Rs. 20951.54. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:4.94.  The total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 26818.54. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37363.41. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 10544.87. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.39.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 20462.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 29640. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 9177.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 45533.80. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67251.09. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 21717.29. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.48.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 38850.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47671. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 8820.82. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.23.  The results indicate that, 45.16 per cent of the households opined that dry and green fodder was adequate and 38.71 per cent of the households opined that green foddrer was adequate. 4  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 59,750 for marginal farmers, for small farmers it was Rs. 111,500, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 122,714.29 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 145,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 9,258.50. For marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,640.63, for small farmers it was Rs. 8,202.02, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 7,959.18 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 25,937.50.  The results indicate that, households have planted 12 mango trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 9 teak, 52 neem, 7 acacia and 1 banyan trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7,919.35 for land development and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,709.68 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that Own funds was the source of additional investment for 87.57 per cent for land development, 15.63 per cent for improved crop production and 3.13 per cent for improved livestock management. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 9.38 per cent for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 96.3 per cent, green gram was sold to the extent of 85.0 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 86.3 per cent, jowar was sold to the extent of 90.91 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 83.33 per cent and red gram was sold to the extent of 82.88 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 93.55 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 12.90 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 3.23 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used fire wood and 22.58 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 74.19 per cent of the households and 22.58 per cent of the households used bore well in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 67.74 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards. 5  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were adequate for 96.77 per cent of the households, oilseed were adequate for 6.45 per cent, vegetables and egg were adequate for 41.94 per cent, fruits were adequate for 9.68 per cent, milk were adequate for 70.97 per cent and meat were adequate for 29.03 per cent.  The results indicated that, oilseed were inadequate for 90.32 per cent of the households, vegetables were inadequate for 58.06 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 87.1 per cent, milk were inadequate for 25.81 per cent, egg were inadequate for 48.39 per cent and meat were inadequate for 64.52 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil, wild animal menace on farm field, high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals in the area, high rate of interest on credit and low price for the agricultural commodities was the constraint experienced by 100 per cent of the households, frequent incidence of pest and diseases and inadequate extension service (90.32%), Inadequacy of irrigation water (96.77%), lack of marketing facilities in the area and lack of transport for safe transport of the agril produce to the market (93.55%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir RF3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 531 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 255 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 275 ha by rock outcrops. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 6 soil phases (management units) and 3 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 255 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 46 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm) and 3 per cent soils are moderately deep (200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 14 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of 43 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands, 5 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) lands in the microwatershed.  An area of about 5 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 43 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon content and medium (0.5-0.75%) in 19 per cent area of the microwatershed.  About 3 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha), 24 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content of the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is medium (10-20 ppm) in 4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 195(37) Guava - 14(3) Maize 14(3) 181(34) Sapota - 14(3) Bajra 14(3) 181(34) Pomegranate - 195(37) Groundnut 14(3) - Musambi - 195(37) Sunflower - 195(37) Lime - 195(37) Redgram - 195(37) Amla 14(3) - Bengal gram - 181(34) Cashew - 14(3) Cotton - 181(34) Jackfruit - 14(3) Chilli 14(3) 181(34) Jamun - - Tomato 14(3) - Custard apple 14(3) 181(34) Brinjal 14(3) - Tamarind - - Onion 14(3) - Mulberry - 14(3) Bhendi 14(3) 181(34) Marigold 14(3) 181(34) Drumstick 14(3) - Chrysanthemum 14(3) 181(34) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 115 (58.67 %) men and 81 (41.33%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.7, marginal farmers' was 5.0, small farmers' was 5.6, semi medium farmers' was 6.4, and medium farmers' was 5.7.  The data indicated that, 42 (21.43 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 72 (36.73 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 64 (32.65 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 18 (9.18 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Yadgir Rf-3 had 62.24 per cent illiterates, 22.96 per cent of them had primary school education, 3.57 per cent of them had middle school education, 1.53 per cent of them had high school education, 2.55 per cent of them had PUC education, 3.57 per cent of them had degree education and 3.57 per cent of the population had Others.  The results indicate that, 88.89 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, and 11.11 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 17.86 per cent of the household members, 58.16 per cent were agricultural laborers, 20.41 per cent were students, 0.51 per cent was housewives and 3.06 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 2.78 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 75 per cent of the households possess katch house and 19.44 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 83.33 per cent of the households possess TV, 5.56 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 47.22 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 5.56 per cent of the households possess bicycle and 97.22 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.6350, mixer grinder was Rs.1200, motor cycle was Rs.46176, Bicycle was Rs.40000 and mobile phone was Rs.2166.  About 44.44 per cent of the households possess plough, 36.11 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill, 36.11per cent of them possess sprayer and 16.67 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of plough was Rs.3531, the average value of seed/fertilizer drill was Rs.2623, the average value of sprayer was Rs.2500 and the average value of weeder was Rs.19.  The results indicate that, 38.89 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 19.44 per cent of the households possess local cow and 2.78 per cent of the households possess sheep. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.94, average own labour (women) available was 1.39, average hired labour (men) available was 8.36 and average hired labour (women) available was 10.67.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Yadgir Rf-3 micro-watershed possess 16.66 ha (45.59%) of dry land and 19.88 ha (54.41%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 5.34 ha (92.63%) of dry land and 0.42 ha (7.37 %) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 8.37 ha (70.26 %) of dry land and 3.54 ha (29.74 %) of irrigation land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.95 ha (26.66 %) of dry land and 8.13 ha (73.34%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.79 ha (100 %) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 384,062.20 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 367,005.91. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 674,147.09 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 1,411,428.64 of irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 286,792.46 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 508,114.30 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 135,342.46 for dry land and the average land value was Rs 430,527.89 of irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 179,636.36 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 14 functioning and 13 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 38.89 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 28.70 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi-medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.43 ha, 3.54 ha, 8.13 ha and 7.69 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (18.57 ha), green gram (1.65 ha), jowar (0.81 ha), paddy (2.02 ha) and groundnut (9.59 ha). Marginal farmers have grown redgram, greengram, groundnut and cotton. Small farmers have grown redgram, groundnut and cotton. Semi medium farmers have grown redgram, groundnut and cotton. Medium farmers have grown redgram, jowar and paddy.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Yadgir Rf-3 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 80.56 per cent of the households have bank account.  The results indicate that, 58.33 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 37423.22. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 75126.48. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 37703.26, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.01. 3  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 33992.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 65379.75. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 31387.37. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.92.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 23180.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63380.26. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 40199.48. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.73.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 20333.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 76570.00. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 56236.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.77.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 35091.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 48782.50. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 13691.12. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.39.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 51252.31. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 115153.83. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 63901.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.25  The results indicate that, 13.89 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 22.22 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 112,500.00 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 113,580, for small farmers it was Rs. 164,350, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 237,171.43, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 229,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 13,599.52. For landless households it was Rs. 8,388.89, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 9,543.56, for small farmers it was Rs. 7,815.68, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 20,665.31 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 40,333.33.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 1 jack fruit and 2 mango trees in their fields.  The results indicate that, households have planted 1 tamarind and 49 neem trees in their fields.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 611 for land development.  The results indicated that Government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 2.78 per cent for land development, Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 2.78 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, green gram was sold to the extent of 73.7 per cent; paddy was sold to the extent of 50 per cent, red gram to the extent of 81.3 per cent, jowar to 4 the extent of 33.3 per cent, groundnut to the extent of 77.3 per cent and cotton to the extent of 100 per cent  The results indicated that, about 86.11 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market.  The results indicated that, 80.56 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce and 5.56 per cent have used flight as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 19.44 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 80.56 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.22 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.78 per cent of them used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 19.44 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 77.78 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL.  The results indicated that, 36.11 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100.0 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 86.11 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 41.67 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 33.33 per cent, fruits were adequate for 33.33 per cent, milk was adequate for 33.33 per cent, eggs were adequate for 36.11 per cent and meat was inadequate for 2.78 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 13.89 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 58.33 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 63.89 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 55.56 per cent, and eggs were inadequate for 61.11 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 83.33 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (66.67%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (50.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (19.44%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (19.44%), low price for the agricultural commodities (16.67%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (11.11%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (27.78%) and inadequate extension services (38.89%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hire Bagnalu-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 485 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 82 per cent is covered by soil, 13 per cent by rockout crops, 150cm) soils.  About 66 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 17 per cent has clayey (sandy clay) soils at the surface.  About 23 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 3 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 80 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 11 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 72 per cent is moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 8 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0 to 6.5), 19 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5 to 7.3), 22 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) and 34 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are 0.75 %) in entire area of the microwatershed.  Available phosphorus is low (57 kg/ha) 49 per cent area of the soils.  Available potassium is low (20 ppm) in 8 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 51 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 50 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 31 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 16(3) 204(42) Sapota 16(3) 104(21) Maize 16(3) 204(42) Pomegranate 16 (3) 139(29) Bajra 16(3) 308(64) Guava - 120(25) Redgram 16(3) 35(7) Jackfruit 16(3) 104(21) Bengal gram 35(7) 148(3) Jamun 16 (3) 139(29) Groundnut - 328(68) Musambi 16(3) 139(29) Sunflower 16 (3) 35(7) Lime 16(3) 139(29) Cotton 16(3) 204(42) Cashew - 154(32) Chilli 16(3) 169(35) Custard apple 16(3) 382 (79) Tomato 16 (3) 169(35) Amla 16(3) 382(79) Brinjal - 188(39) Tamarind 16(3) 58 (12) Onion - 187(39) Marigold 16(3) 204(42) Bhendi - 187(39) Chrysanthemum 16(3) 204(42) Drumstick 16 (3) 74(15) Jasmine 16 (3) 169(35) Mulberry 16(3) 212(44) Crossandra 16 (3) 169(35) Mango 16(3) - - - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 111 (61.67%) men and 69 (38.33%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.16, marginal farmers' was 5.33, small farmers' was 5, semi medium farmers' was 5.3 and medium farmers' was 5.  The data indicated that, 39 (21.67%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (41.11%) were in 16-35 years of age, 58 (32.22%) were in 36-60 years of age and 9 (5%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Hire Bagnalu-3 had 32.22 per cent illiterates, 41.11 per cent of them had primary school education, 7.22 per cent of them had middle school education, 4.44 per cent of them had high school education, 7.78 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.56 per cent did diploma, 2.22 per cent of them did ITI and 1.67 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 86.11 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 8.33 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 2.78 per cent were general labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 17.78 per cent of the household members, 55.56 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.56 per cent were general labour, 1.67 per cent were in private service, 21.67 per cent were students, 0.56 per cent were housewives and 2.22 per cent were children.  The results show that 99.44 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions; only 1 per son participated in NGO.  The results indicate that 8.33 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 69.44 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 22.22 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 58.33 per cent of the households possess TV, 27.78 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 5.56 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 38.89 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 66.67 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 4,761, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,760, bicycle was Rs. 3,000, motor cycle was Rs. 44,285 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,115.  About 19.44 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 27.78 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.56 per cent possessed irrigation pump, 2.78 per cent of the households possess power tiller, 11.11 per cent possess tractor, 16.67 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.78 per cent of them possess thresher and 41.67 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 15,714, the average value of plough was Rs. 1,166, the average value of irrigation pump was Rs.1,300, 2 power tiller was Rs.1,50,000, tractor was Rs.575,000, thresher was Rs.300, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 5,600 and the average value of weeder was Rs.29.  The results indicate that, 36.11 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 41.67 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.78 per cent were crossbred cow and 2.78 per cent were buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.89, average own labour (women) available was 1.43, average hired labour (men) available was 13.29 and average hired labour (women) available was 13.31.  The results indicate that, 97.22 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Hire Bagnalu-3 micro-watershed possess 16.64 ha (33.11%) of dry land and 33.61 ha (66.89%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 3.17 ha (88.69%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (11.31%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 7.69 ha (89.03%) of dry land and 0.95 ha (10.97%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 5.78 ha (33.21%) of dry land and 11.61 ha (66.79%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 20.64 (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 294,405.25 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 303,395.95. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 630,102.03 for dry land and was Rs. 1,235,000 for irrigated. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 260,000 for dry land and was Rs. 633,333.36 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 155,781.35 for dry land and Rs. 395,888.50 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 217,941.18 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 20 functioning bore wells and 21 nonfunctioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 55.56 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 32.17 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 0.81 ha, 11.98 and 16.23 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (29.41 ha), bajra (6.6 ha), paddy (6.32 ha), sugarcane (3.24 ha), groundnut (1.62 ha) and pearlmillet (1.21 ha). Marginal and small farmers have grown maize and bajra. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, bajra, paddy, sugarcane and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown maize, bajra, paddy, sugarcane and pearlmillet.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Hire Bagnalu-3 micro-watershed was found to be 70.93 per cent. In case of marginal farmers it was 100 per cent, 3 small farmers it was 84 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 70.70 and medium farmers it was 63.80 per cent.  The results indicate that, 83.33 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 83.33 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sugarcane was Rs. 55529.11. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 133380. The net income from Sugarcane cultivation was Rs. 77850.89. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.4.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 28961.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36880.47. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 7918.59. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.27.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 96761.57. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31769.74. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. - 64991.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.33.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 36805.48. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54441.97. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 17636.49. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.48.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 37934.72. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 61132.50. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 23197.78. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.61.  The results indicate that, 16.67 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 25 per cent opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 38,333.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 32,333.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 47,666.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 97,150 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 103,987.50.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 3,447.45. For landless households it was Rs. 1,250, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,033.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 2,138.89, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 4,070 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 4,859.38.  The results indicate that, households have planted 139 coconut trees and 8 mango trees in the field. Also, they have planted 100 coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 53 neem trees, 212 teak trees, 1 tamarind tree and 1 acacia trees in their field.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 5347.22 and for improved crop production Rs. 727.78. 4  The results indicate that, government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 2.78 per cent for land development and for 2.78 per cent for improved crop production. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 22.22 per cent for land development and for another 11.11 per cent for improved crop production. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 25 per cent for land development and for 5.56 per cent for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 80 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 25 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 95.02 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 96.67 per cent and sugarcane was sold to the extent of 69.09 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 25 per cent of the famers have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 75 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce to regulated market and 2.78 per cent of the farmers have sold through contract marketing arrangement.  The results indicated that, 11.11 per cent of the households have used cart, 88.89 per cent used tractor and 2.78 per cent used truck as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 22.22 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 77.78 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households used firewood as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, bore well was the major source of drinking water for 52.78 per cent of the households and piped supply was the source of drinking water for 47.22 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 66.67 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.22 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 77.78 per cent, oilseed were adequate for 30.56 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 36.11 per cent, fruits were adequate for 44.44 per cent, milk was adequate for 19.44 per cent and eggs were adequate for 33.33 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 25 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 63.89 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 58.33 5 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 44.44 per cent, milk were inadequate for 38.89 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 58.33 and meat was inadequate for 2.78 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 80.56 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (75%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (33.33%), inadequacy of irrigation water (16.67%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (11.11%), high rate of interest on credit (8.33%), low price for the agricultural commodities (22.22%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (13.89%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (25%), source of agri-technology information (13.89%) and inadequate extension services (11.11%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yargol-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 459 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 357 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 28 ha by rock outcrops and 73 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 357 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 2 per cent area is very shallow (150 cm).  About 30 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 48 per cent clay soils at the surface.  Maximum of 76 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 25 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 22 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 10 per cent area is very low (0.75%) in organic carbon content.  Entire cultivated soils in the microwatershed is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 12 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 66 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in an area of 52 per cent.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 37 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 115 (25) 100 (22) Guava - 115 (25) Maize 115 (25) 100 (22) Sapota - 115 (25) Bajra 115 (25) 100 (22) Pomegranate - 190 (41) Groundnut - 115 (25) Musambi - 190 (41) Sunflower - 190 (41) Lime - 190 (41) Redgram - 215(47) Amla 115 (25) - Bengal gram - 75(16) Cashew - - Cotton - 190 (41) Jackfruit - 115 (25) Chilli 115 (25) 75 (16) Jamun - - Tomato 115 (25) - Custard apple - 190 (41) Brinjal 115 (25) - Tamarind - - Onion 115 (25) - Mulberry - 115 (25) Bhendi 115 (25) 75 (16) Marigold 115 (25) 75(16) Drumstick - 115 (25) Chrysanthemum 115 (25) 75(16) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 98 (50.26%) men and 97 (49.74%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.3, marginal farmers' was 5.5, small farmers' was 6 and semi medium farmers' was 7.  The data indicated that, 42 (21.54%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 92 (47.18%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (26.15%) were in 36-60 years of age and 10 (5.13%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Yargol-1 had 68.21 per cent illiterates, 18.46 per cent of them had primary school, 5.13 per cent of them had middle school, 25 per cent of them had high school education, 38 per cent of them had PUC, and 0.51 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 5.88 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers and 2.94 per cent of the household's heads were General Labour and trade and business.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 16.41 per cent of the household members, 53.33 per cent were agricultural laborers, 0.51 per cent were in household industry and trade and business, 25 per cent were in private services and housewives, 22.56 per cent were housewives and 2.56 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 8.82 per cent of the households possess thatched and 91.18 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The results show that 50 per cent of the households possess TV, 11.76 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 5.88 per cent of the households possess bicycle and motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Auto and 79.41 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 4,294, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,000, bicycle was Rs. 1,000, motor cycle was Rs. 52,500, auto was Rs. 45,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,023.  About 11.76 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, 32.35 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.94 per cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill and tractor, 32.35 per cent of the households possess sprayer, 8.82 per cent of the households possess sprinkler and 79.41 per cent of the households possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 20,000, plough was Rs. 1,642, seed/ fertilizer drill was Rs. 3,500, tractor was Rs. 300,000, 2 sprayer was Rs. 2,309, Sprinkler was Rs. 5,000 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 93.  The results indicate that, 35.29 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 14.71 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.94 per cent of the households possess buffalo and sheep and 20.59 per cent of the households possess Buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.19, average own labour (women) available was 1.16, average hired labour (men) available was 5.68 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.42.  The results indicate that, 91.18 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Yargol-1 micro-watershed possess 26.3 ha (72.51%) of dry land and 9.87 ha (27.49%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 6.26 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 19.77 ha (92.26%) of dry land and 1.66 ha (7.74%). Semi medium farmers possess 8.21 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 314,894.28 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 364,725.19. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 510,924.37 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 252,814.74 for dry and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 602,4394. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 316,666.67 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 8 de-functioning and functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 23.53 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 19.45 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and semi-medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.75 ha, 3.1 ha and 4.71 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (20.18 ha), groundnut (7.28 ha), green gram (3.86 ha), cotton (2.97 ha) and sorghum (1.62 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, groundnut and green gram. Small farmers have grown red gram, groundnut, green gram, cotton and sorghum. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram, groundnut and green gram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Yargol-1 micro-watershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, 79.41 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 79.41 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources. 3  The results indicate that, 3.70 per cent of the households have borrowed from cooperative bank and 14.81 per cent of the households have borrowed from grameena bank.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 6,111.11. The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 30295.29. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 67240.87. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 36945.58. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.22.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 49564.37. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 106096.98. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 56532.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.14.  The total cost of cultivation for Red gram was Rs. 31555.90. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 463539. The net income from Red gram cultivation was Rs. 14797.19. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.47.  The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 174736. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 20995. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 3521.94. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.2.  The total cost of cultivation for Green gram was Rs. 28554.72. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 47104.31. The net income from Green gram cultivation was Rs. 18549.59. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.65.  The results indicate that, 26.47 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 14.71 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 33,333.33 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 248,875, for small farmers it was Rs. 232,433.33, and semi medium farmers it was Rs. 437,664.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 20,461.99. For landless households it was Rs. 2,777.78, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 33,833.33, for small farmers it was Rs. 18,044.95 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 27,540.  The results indicate that, households have planted 3 cocnut, 48 custard apple and 2 mango trees in their field. 4  The results indicate that, households have planted 5 teak, 47 neem, 16 tamarind and 1 pongamia and banyan trees in their field and also 2 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 33,823.53 for land development; households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 8,823.53 for irrigation facility and households have an average investment capacity of Rs.588.24 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 23.53 per cent for land development and 8.82 per cent for irrigation facility. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 2.94 per cent for land development and improved crop production.  The results indicated that, cotton, sorghum and green gram was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 96.11 per cent and red gram was sold to the extent of 90.33 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 23.53 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 55.88 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 79.41 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 79.41 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 79.41 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 79.41 per cent of the households used firewood and 20.59 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 67.65 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and bore well was the source of drinking water for 32.35 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 65.71 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 97.6 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals and pulses were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, oilseed and meat were adequate for 23.53 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 2.94 per cent, fruits were adequate for 20.59 per cent, milk and egg were adequate for 14.71 per cent and meat were adequate for 54.29 per cent. 5  The results indicated that, oilseeds and milk were inadequate for 76.47 per cent of the households, vegetables were inadequate for 94.12 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 79.41 per cent, egg were inadequate for 82.35 per cent and meat were inadequate for 73.53 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the was the constraint experienced by 82.35 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (76.47%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (55.88%), Inadequacy of irrigation water (32.35%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals (26.47%), high rate of interest on credit (17.65%), low price for the agricultural commodities and lack of marketing facilities in the area (5.88%), inadequate extension service (14.71%), Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (8.82%), less rainfall (41.18%) and Source of Agritechnology information(26.47%) ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tavaregere-2 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 788 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 95 per cent is covered by soil, four per cent by rock out crops and less than one per cent by water bodies, settlements and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 44 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 9 per cent is sandy (loamy sand), 79 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 7 per cent has clayey (sandy clay and clay) soils at the surface.  About 73 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 10 per cent has nearly level (0-1%) and 85 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 32 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 64 per cent is moderately eroded (e2).  An area of about 6 per cent is moderately acid (pH 5.5 to 6.0), 24 per cent is slightly acid (pH6.0-6.5), 41 per cent has neutral soils, 12 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8), 8 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4), 4 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 0.75%) in 57 kg/ha) in 81 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is low (337 kg/ha) in 2 per cent area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 1 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 76 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 41 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 168(21) 198 (28) Pomegranate 86(11) 279(35) Maize 168 (21) 198 (25) Guava 86(11) 279(35) Bajra 229(29) 200(25) Jackfruit 86(11) 279(35) Redgram 86(11) 216 (27) Jamun - 245(31) Bengal gram 14(2) 352(45) Musambi 86(11) 279(35) Groundnut 147(18) 378 (61) Lime 86(11) 279(35) Sunflower 86 (11) 216 (27) Cashew 154(20) 223(28) Cotton - 365(46) Custard apple 215(27) 536(68) Chilli 154(20) 184(23) Amla 215(27) 536 (68) Tomato 168(21) 170(22) Tamarind - 121(15) Drumstick 86(11) 475(60) Marigold 154(20) 212(27) Mulberry 86(11) 602(46) Chrysanthemum 154(20) 212 (27) Mango - 121(15) Jasmine 154(20) 212(27) Sapota 86(11) 279(35) Crossandra 154(20) 184(23)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 104 (54.45%) men and 87 (45.55%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.8, small farmers' was 5.4, semi medium farmers' was 7 and medium farmers' was 5.5.  The data indicated that, 40 (20.94%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 75 (39.27%) were in 16-35 years of age, 55 (28.80%) were in 36-60 years of age and 21 (10.99%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Tavaregere-2 had 29.32 per cent illiterates, 0.52 per cent functional literate and ITI, 45.55 per cent of them had primary school education, 13.61 per cent of them had high school education, 5.76 per cent of them had PUC education and 2.62 per cent had degree education.  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 17.14 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 15.18 per cent of the household members, 55.50 per cent were agricultural labourers, 2.09 per cent were in private service, 24.08 per cent were in students, 2.62 per cent were housewives and 0.52 per cent were in children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 45.71 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 37.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 20 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 94.29 per cent of the households possess TV, 91.43 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder player, 31.43 per cent of them possess bicycle, 45.71 per cent o f the households possess motor cycle and 88.57 per cent of them possess mobile phones. The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 4,636, mixer grinder was Rs. 1,707, bicycle was 1,000, motor cycle was Rs. 33,187 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,500.  About 22.86 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 31.43 per cent of them possess plough, 45.71 per cent of them possess sprayer, 100 per cent of them possess weeder and 2.86 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17,625, plough was Rs. 1,730, sprayer was Rs. 2,876, weeder was Rs.57, and the average value of chaff cutter was Rs. 3,000.  The results indicate that, 25.71 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 28.57 per cent of the households possess local cow, 11.43 per cent possess buffalo and 5.71 per cent possess sheep. 2  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.10, average own labour (women) available was 1.9, average hired labour (men) available was 6.52 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.74.  The results indicate that, 88.57 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Tavaregere-2 micro-watershed possess 31.31 ha (64.21%) of dry land, 32.47 ha (32.47%) of irrigated land and 1.62 ha (3.32%) of permanent fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 4.4 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 13.94 ha (85.74%) of dry land and 2.32 ha (14.26%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 7.28 ha (53.96%) of dry land and 6.22 ha (46.04%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 5.69 ha (38.94%) of dry land, 7.30 ha (49.97%) of irrigated land and 1.62 ha (11.09%) of permanent fallow land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 217,086.72, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 366,206.54 and the average value of permanent fallow land was Rs. 216,125. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 454,044.11 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 222,328.69 for dry land and Rs. 603,490.39 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 150,944.44 for dry land and Rs. 353,776.04 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 105,480.43 for dry land, Rs. 301,386.57 for irrigated land and Rs. 216,125for permanent fallow land.  The results indicate that, there were 10 de-functioning and functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there were 1 de-functioning and functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, 28.57 per cent of the bore well and 2.86 per cent of the open well was the irrigation source in the micro water shed.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 18.90 meters and 0.17 meters  The results indicate that small, semi medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 2.32 ha and 7.29 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown maize (19.95 ha), bajra (12.34 ha), groundnut (7.91 ha), mango (5.56 ha), Bengal garm (0.91 ha), cotton and paddy (0.81 ha) and sunflower (0.49 ha). Marginal farmers have grown maize, bajra, groundnut and bengal gram. Small farmers have grown maize, bajra, groundnut, mango, cotton and sunflower. Semi medium farmers have grown maize, bajra, groundnut and mango. Medium farmers have grown maize, bajra, groundnut, mango and paddy. 3  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Tavaregere-2 micro-watershed was found to be 73.01 per cent.  The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of the households have bank account and savings.  The results indicate that, 94.29 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 22307.91. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 19018.26. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. -3289.65. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.85.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 58641.04. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 63763.38. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 5122.34. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.09.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 29687.65. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 27748.28. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. - 1939.38. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.93.  The total cost of cultivation for mango was Rs. 59922.80. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 459720.57. The net income from mango cultivation was Rs. 399797.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:7.67.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 74765.28. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 58045. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. - 16720.28. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.78.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 46034.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 49400.00. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. 3365.61. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.07.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 40006.43. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 98800.00. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 58793.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.47.  The total cost of cultivation for Bengal gram was Rs. 52520.75. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 76067.26. The net income from Bengal gram cultivation was Rs. 23546.51. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.45.  The results indicate that, 42.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was inadequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 81,300 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 63,200, for small farmers it was Rs. 84,792.31, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 156,942.86 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 137,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 6,359.30. For landless households it was Rs. 8,800, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 4,777.78, for 4 small farmers it was Rs. 3,840.24, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 8,355.10 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 10,375.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 86 trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 9 teak, 18 neem and 2 tamarind trees in their field.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,829.33 for land development, Rs. 3,531.95 for irrigation facility, Rs. 2,285.86 for improved crop production and Rs.600.09 for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 77.14 per cent for land development, 42.86 per cent for irrigation facility and improved crop production and 11.43 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra was sold to the extent of 55.25 per cent, Bengal gram was sold to the extent of 68.75 per cent, cotton and mango was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, ground nut was sold to the extent of 93.06 per cent, maize was sold to the extent of 97.24 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 60 per cent and sunflower was sold to the extent of 87.50 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 105.71 per cent of the farmers sold their produce through regulated market.  The results indicated that, 5.71 per cent of the households used cart and 102.86 per cent of them used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 82.86 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households used firewood and 5.71 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 8.57 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 91.43 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 51.43 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.14 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card and 2.86 per cent of the households not possessed PDS card.  The results indicated that, 41.67 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 97.14 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 14.29 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 5 57.14 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 34.29 per cent, fruits were adequate for 42.86 per cent, milk were adequate for 28.57 per cent and meat was adequate for 34.29 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 27.78 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 85.71per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 20 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 62.86 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 28.57 per cent, milk was inadequate for 40 per cent and egg were inadequate for 57.14 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 82.86 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (31.43%),frequent incidence of pest and diseases (37.14%), inadequacy of irrigation water (28.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (40%), high rate of interest on credit (5.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (17.4%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (20%), inadequate extension services (34.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (22.86%), less rainfall (31.43%) and source of Agritechnology information (2.86%) . ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Bamasettihalli-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 573 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 527 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 5 ha by railway, 9 ha by rock outcrops and 31 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 13 per cent of area is shallow (25-50 cm), 7 per cent of area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 11 per cent of area is moderately deep (75-100 cm), 35 per cent of area is deep (100 - 150 cm) and 26 per cent of area is very deep (>150 cm).  About 36 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 56 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 88 per cent of area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 8 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m), 10 per cent of area is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 13 per cent of area is very low (0.75%), 34 per cent area is medium (0.5-0.75%) and 57 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) and 337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 56 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in an area of 36 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 224 (39) 227 (39) Guava - 66 (11) Maize 66 (11) 385 (67) Sapota - 66 (11) Bajra 66 (11) 385 (67) Pomegranate - 226 (39) Groundnut - 104 (18) Musambi 158 (28) 68 (12) Sunflower 158 (28) 68 (12) Lime 158 (28) 68 (12) Redgram - 413(72) Amla 66 (11) 196 (34) Bengal gram 158 (28) 2 (<1) Cashew - 10 (2) Cotton 158 (28) 68 (12) Jackfruit - 66 (11) Chilli 66 (11) 198 (34) Jamun - 158 (28) Tomato 66 (11) 38 (7) Custard apple 168 (29) 96 (17) Brinjal 66 (11) 38 (7) Tamarind - 158 (28) Onion 66 (11) 38 (7) Mulberry - 66 (11) Bhendi 66 (11) 198 (34) Marigold 66 (11) 198 (34) Drumstick - 224 (39) Chrysanthemum 66 (11) 198 (34) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data on households sampled for socio economic survey indicated that 34 farmers were sampled in Bamashettihalli-1 micro-watershed among them 5 (14.71 %) were landless, 13 (38.24 %) were marginal farmers, 11 (32.35 %) were small farmers, 4 (11.76 %) were semi medium farmers and 1 (2.94 %) were medium farmers.  The data indicated that there were 98 (57.99 %) men and 71 (42.01 %) women among the sampled households. The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.6, marginal farmers' was 4.76, small farmers' was 5.45, semi medium farmers' was 4.75 and medium farmers' was 5.  The data indicated that, 32 (18.93 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 81 (47.93 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 40 (23.67 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 16 (9.47 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Bamashettihalli-1 had 49.11 per cent illiterates, 13.61 per cent of them had Primary School, 5.92 per cent of them had Middle School, 16.57 per cent of them had High School, 1.78 per cent of them had PUC education and ITI and 7.10 per cent of them had Degree education.  The results indicate that, 47.06 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 44.12 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourers and 8.82 per cent of the household heads were housewives.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 33.73 per cent of the household members, 27.22 per cent were agricultural labourers, 0.59 per cent were in Government Service, 1.78 per cent were private service, 20.12 per cent were students, 13.61 per cent were housewives and 2.96 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 79.41 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 20.59 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 97.06 per cent of the households possess TV, 41.18 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 29.41 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.94 per cent of the households possess Computer/Laptop and 97.06 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 9,090, mixer/grinder was Rs.2000, Computer/Laptop was Rs. 35,000, motor cycle was Rs. 124,300 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,058.  About 14.71 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 14.71 per cent of them possess plough, 2.94 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill and Power Tiller, 32.35 per cent of them possess Weeder and 20.59 per cent of them possess Harvester. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 17,285, plough was Rs. 1,500, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 18,000, Power Tiller was Rs. 20,000, Harvester was Rs. 333 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 73.  The results indicate that, 29.41 per cent each of the households possess bullocks and local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.62, average own labour (women) available was 1.52, average hired labour (men) available was 7.72 and average hired labour (women) available was 6.28.  The results indicate that, 82.35 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Bamashettihalli-1 micro-watershed possess 36.34 ha (93.35 %) of dry land and 2.59 ha (6.65 %) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 9.48 ha (100 %) of dry land. Small farmers possess 12.73 ha (90.64 %) of dry land and 1.32 ha (9.36 %) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 7.86 ha (86.04 %) of dry land and 1.27 ha (13.96 %) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.27 ha (100 %) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 478,596.89 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 849,062.49. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 801,537.15 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 486,776.86 for dry land and Rs. 912,000 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 343,408.86 for dry land and Rs. 784,126.96 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 143,419.35 for dry land.  The results indicate that, there were 3 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 8.82 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 9.41 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small farmers and semi medium had an irrigated area of 1.32 ha, 1.28 ha and 1.28 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (16.34 ha), Cotton (10.61 ha), Sorghum (9.12 ha) and green gram (1.21 ha). Marginal farmers have grown red gram, paddy and green gram. Small farmers have grown red gram, groundnut and paddy. Semi medium farmers have grown red gram and groundnut.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Bamashettihalli-1 microwatershed was found to be 95.61 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 34950.32. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 79460.19. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 44509.87. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 2.27. 3  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 43382.74. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 41578.33. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. -1804.40. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 0.96.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 27827.26. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 45945.91. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. 18118.65. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.65.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 40965.93. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62597.68. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 21631.74. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1: 1.53.  The results indicate that, 38.24 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 54,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 103,307.69, for small farmers it was Rs. 111,409.09, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 157,250 and medium farmers it was Rs. 115,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 14,331.63. For landless households it was Rs. 9,750, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 12,268.74, for small farmers it was Rs. 7,889.26, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 28,062.50 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 80,000.  The results indicate that, households have planted 12 Coconut trees in their field and also 9 Coconut trees in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 59 neem trees in their field and also 7 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 3,882.35 for land development, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1,352.94 for Improved crop production, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 117.65 for Improved livestock management, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 852.94 for Orchard development/ maintenance and households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 264.71 for Subsidiary enterprises.  The results indicated that Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 14.71 per cent each for land development, for 2.94 per cent each for improved crop production and orchard development or maintenance. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 23.53 per cent each for land development, 8.82 per cent for improved crop production, 2.94 per cent for improved livestock management and 5.88 per cent for orchard development or maintenance. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 8.82 per cent each for land 4 development, 2.94 per cent each for improved crop production and orchard development or maintenance.  The results indicated that, Cotton was sold to the extent of 97.5 per cent, Green gram was sold to the extent of 88.89 per cent, Red gram was sold to the extent of 77.59 per cent and Sorghum to the extent of 91.16 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 79.41 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 5.88 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 23.53 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 76.47 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the households used firewood and 2.94 per cent of them used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 100 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  The results indicated that, Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 58.82 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.06 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards and 2.94 per cent of the sampled households not possessed.  The results indicated that, 52.94 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals, milk, egg and meat were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 91.18 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.94 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 50 per cent and fruits were adequate for 14.71 per cent.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 8.82 per cent of the households, oilseeds were inadequate for 97.06 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 50 per cent and fruits were inadequate for 85.29 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil, Wild animal menace on farm field, high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals and high rate of interest on credit were the constraints experienced by 85.29 per cent of the households, Frequent incidence of pest and diseases and Inadequacy of irrigation water (82.35 %) and low price for the agricultural commodities (2.94 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Sudapur 1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 512 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 471 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 30 ha by rock outcrops and 11 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 15 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 29 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (150 cm).  About 9 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy, 24 per cent area loamy and 59 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 41 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 58 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 29 per cent area very low (0.75%) in 90 per cent area carbon.  49 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 27 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 15 per area is low (20 ppm) in 5 per cent.  About 75 per cent area is low (1.0 ppm).  Available iron is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  About 13 per cent area is deficient (0.6 ppm).  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 324(63) Guava - 47(9) Maize 13(2) 311(61) Sapota - 47(9) Bajra 47(9) 277(54) Pomegranate - 74(14) Groundnut 47(9) 176(34) Musambi - 74(14) Sunflower - 74(14) Lime - 74(14) Redgram - 74(14) Amla 47(9) 250(49) Bengal gram - 27(5) Cashew - 47(9) Cotton - 101(20) Jackfruit - 47(9) Chilli 13(2) 311(61) Jamun - - Tomato 13(2) 311(61) Custard apple 47(9) 277(54) Brinjal 13(2) 311(61) Tamarind - - Onion 13(2) 284(56) Mulberry - 47(9) Bhendi 13(2) 311(61) Marigold 13(2) 311(61) Drumstick - 47(9) Chrysanthemum 13(2) 311(61) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 98 (53.85%) men and 84 (46.15%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 3.4, marginal farmers' was 5, small farmers' was 6.71, semi medium farmers' was 6.71 and medium farmers' was 5.5.  The data indicated that, 28 (15.38%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 79 (43.41%) were in 16-35 years of age, 60 (32.97%) were in 36-60 years of age and 15 (8.24%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Sudapur-1 had 56.59 per cent illiterates, 14.84 per cent of them had primary school education, 7.69 per cent of them had middle school education, 8.24 per cent of them had high school education, 3.85 per cent of them had PUC education, 3.30 per cent of them had degree education and 1.65 per cent did masters.  The results indicate that, 90.91 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 15.15 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 3.03 per cent of them were housewives.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 60.99 per cent of the household members, 4.40 per cent were agricultural laborers, 2.75 per cent were general labourers, 0.55 per cent were in government service, 2.75 per cent were in private service, 21.43 per cent were students, 3.30 per cent were housewives and 3.85 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 6.06 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 72.73 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 21.21 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 60.61 per cent of the households possess TV, 3.03 per cent of the households possess DVD/VCD player, 3.03 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 6.06 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 33.33 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 6.06 per cent of them own car/four wheeler, 3.03 per cent had landline phone and computer/laptop and 93.94 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 7,200, DVD/VCD player was Rs. 3,000, mixer/grinder was Rs.2,500, refrigerator was Rs. 12,500, motor cycle was Rs. 33,181, car/four wheeler was Rs. 66,666, landline was Rs. 2,000, computer/laptop was Rs. 25,000 and mobile phone was Rs. 1,833.  About 21.21 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 27.27 per cent of the households possess plough, 15.15 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill, 6.06 per cent of them were in tractor, 60.61 per cent of them possess sprayer, 12.12 per 2 cent of them possess sprinkler, 3.03 per cent of them thresher and 57.58 per cent of them possess weeder.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 8,142, plough was Rs.2,000, seed/fertilizer drill was Rs. 2,800, tractor was Rs.600,000, the average value of sprayer was Rs. 3,535, sprinkler was Rs. 10,000, the average value of weeder was Rs.63 and thresher was Rs. 15,000.  The results indicate that, 30.30 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 24.24 per cent of the households possess local cow, 21.21 per cent of them possess buffalo, 3.03 per cent of them possess sheep and 18.18 per cent of them possess goat and poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.14, average own labour (women) available was 1.86, average hired labour (men) available was 8.89 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.61.  The results indicate that, 84.85 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Sudapur-1 micro-watershed possess 27.11 ha (75.62%) of dry land and 8.74 ha (24.38%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 6.61 ha (94.23%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (5.77%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 7.30 ha (81.85%) of dry land and 1.62 ha (18.15%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 8.61 ha (65.31%) of dry land and 4.75 ha (34.69%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 4.59 ha (68.17%) of dry land and 2.14 ha (31.84%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 527,336.52 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 732,190.83. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,118,604.66 for dry land and Rs. 1,976,000 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 424,445.68 for dry land and Rs. 802,750 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 359,990.60 for dry land and Rs. 765,044.25 for irrigated land. In case of medium farmers, the average land value was Rs. 527,336.52 for dry land and Rs. 373,534.97 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 7 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 21.21 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 11.87 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small and semi medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 1.21 ha and 4.57 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (1.21 ha), greengram (7.56 ha), groundut (1.21 ha), paddy (1.62 ha), redgram (21.77 ha) and sorghum (3.36 ha). Marginal farmers have grown redgram and greengram. Small farmers had grown cotton, greengram and redgram. Semi medium farmers had grown cotton, 3 greengram, groundnut, paddy, redgram and sorghum. Medium farmers had grown redgram and sorghum.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Sudapur-1 micro-watershed was found to be 68.82 per cent.  The results indicate that, 66.67 per cent of the households have bank account.  The results indicate that, 69.70 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for greengram was Rs. 29295.51. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 55618.78. The net income from Greengram cultivation was Rs. 26323.27, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.9.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 55852.80. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 96968.08. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 41115.28. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.74.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 36908.45. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 70395. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 33486.55. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.91.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 41889.19. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 108680. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 66790.81. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.59.  The total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 28899.40. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62070.22. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 33170.83. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.15.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 20454.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 34086. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 13631.32. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.67.  The results indicate that, 39.39 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 3.03 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 118,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 116,060.83, for small farmers it was Rs. 165,514.29, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 194,208.57 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 286,250.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 15,952.30. For landless households it was Rs. 9,920, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 8,336.17, for small farmers it was Rs. 14,204.08, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 21,605.44 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 63,062.50.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 1 coconut tree, 121 custard apple, 1 guava and 6 mango trees in the field. Also, 2 guava and 1 lemon tree in the backyard. 4  The results indicate that, households have planted 98 neem trees, 3 tamarind trees, 1 teak and 1 acacia tree in their field and 4 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 11,666.67 for land development, Rs. 27,272.73 for irrigation facility and Rs. 757.58 for improved crop production.  The results indicated that government subsidy was the source of additional investment for 3.03 per cent for land development and 3.03 per cent for irrigation facility. Loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 12.12 per cent for land development, for 18.18 per cent for irrigation facility and for 6.06 per cent for improved crop production. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 12.12 per cent for land development and 6.06 per cent for irrigation facility. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 3.03 per cent for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, greengram was sold to the extent of 92.67 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 93.33 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, redgram was sold to the extent of 84.69 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 100 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 69.70 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 84.85 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 81.82 per cent of the households used firewood and 18.18 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 100 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 60.61 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 78.79 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 100 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 21.21 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 87.88 per cent, milk was adequate for 96.97 per cent and eggs were adequate for 18.18 per cent. 5  The results indicated that, oilseeds were inadequate for 84.85 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 12.12 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 100 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 81.82 per cent and meat was inadequate for 100 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 90.91 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (87.88%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (84.85%), inadequacy of irrigation water (27.27%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (81.82%), high rate of interest on credit (78.79%), low price for the agricultural commodities (78.79%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (75.76%), inadequate extension services (9.09%), lack of transport for the safe transport of agricultural produce to the market (30.30%) and source of agri technology information (3.03%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Economía solidaria, un concepto para muchos desconocido, pues el término solidario pareciera ajeno dentro de un marco económico competitivo como se observa en la cúpula del capitalismo y de la misma globalización en sí, sin embargo, es importante rescatar su fundamento, pues en ella encontramos la capacidad de proveer de manera sostenible las bases para un desarrollo personal y social, en palabras de Gazaga, (2007), "El fundamento de la economía solidaria es la introducción de niveles crecientes de cooperación y solidaridad en las actividades, organizaciones e instituciones económicas, de manera de generar un conjunto de beneficios sociales y culturales que trasciendan la esfera del beneficio económico y favorezcan a la sociedad en su conjunto". Sin embargo, una alternativa para hallar formas de desarrollo económico dentro de una comunidad específica, obteniendo beneficios para la sociedad en general, es un sector que hoy por hoy se encuentra en crisis, así lo menciona un estudio realizado por el diario EL TIEMPO (1998), donde destaco diversas situaciones atribuibles a la crisis como: El recelo por las continuas intervenciones en el sector cooperativo y la racha de malas informaciones ha logrado contagiar el pánico no sólo a los ahorradores sino a otras entidades de sector financiero que no quieren dar créditos ni otorgar respaldo a las cooperativas. En segunda instancia las corporaciones financieras se niegan a respaldarlos con créditos, el sector público no quiere realizar inversiones en sus oficinas, las aseguradoras tienen recelo a respaldar su actividad y como si fuera poco los socios y ahorradores están retirando sus depósitos. Tal es el caso de Estraval y su colapso financiero, que evidencia no solo lo destacado por el estudio en mención, sino diversas dificultades que han generado una gran desconfianza por parte de los ahorradores al sector en sí; no obstante, es un medio que pese a sus dificultades cuenta con principios fundamentales para propinar por un mejor desarrollo económico dentro de nuestra sociedad, tan es así que una de las características más distinguidas de la Economía Solidaria la de demostrar con hechos que es posible y necesario incorporar la solidaridad como un elemento esencial a la hora de medir el comportamiento económico de una organización. Ahora bien, estas razones son algunas de las que se presentan en la Cooperativa Multiactiva de la Universidad Libre Librecoop Ltda., por lo cual se decidió realizar un trabajo de intervención centrado en la construcción de un plan de desarrollo que permita la mejora continua de la cooperativa y así mismo contribuya al mejoramiento permanente y la consolidación de unas estrategias que conlleven a la sostenibilidad económica y cumplimiento de la misión organizacional de esta. Con el fin de lograr cumplir los objetivos planteados en este trabajo de intervención se toma como punto de partida un estudio interno y externo que logre contribuir de forma eficaz a la solución de las problemáticas mencionadas anteriormente. Merino (2013), mencionaba que "El plan de desarrollo es una herramienta de gestión que promueve el desarrollo social en un determinado territorio. De esta manera, sienta las bases para atender las necesidades insatisfechas de la población y para mejorar la calidad de vida de todos los ciudadanos". Y a su vez Escobar (2005), dejaba en claro que "La intención principal del trabajo es demostrar las inquietudes que surgen por parte de los trabajadores asociados en las organizaciones de economía solidaria con la idea clave de una mayor productividad basado en la eficiencia y eficacia para un plan de ahorro" Así las cosas, frente a la problemática que posee Librecoop se desarrolló un proceso de evaluación donde se tuvo en cuenta, en principio la legislación y su evolución en la historia por medio de las reformas que surgieron a partir del modelo de economía, de ahí se encontraron ligerezas en cuanto a: la aplicación de las normas, la cantidad de asociados, los aportes de los mismos y finalmente la aplicabilidad de los principios y fines solidarios; estos últimos con mayor observancia pues la estructura principal de este tipo de sociedades debe tener como objetivo el buen desempeño de las actividades que se desarrollan dentro de ella, así lo mencionan los artículos 4 y 5 del Capítulo segundo de la Ley 454 de 1998. En consecuencia, con lo anterior, se ha determinado que el interés del presente proyecto de intervención se centra en puntualizar los siguientes asuntos a saber desde el entorno actual de la cooperativa: Primeramente, desplegar un proceso de capacitación a todos los asociados de la cooperativa, en el cual se enfatice la importancia de la economía solidaria en nuestra sociedad actual, esto con el fin de incentivar al individuo para la contribución del buen desarrollo de la calidad de vida de las personas que conforman o quieran hacerse parte de la cooperativa. En segundo lugar, se propone una actualización estatutaria de la entidad donde se pueda ampliar el ingreso de nuevos asociados dispuestos a crecer dentro de la misma y que deseen obtener todos los beneficios que la cooperativa tiene para sus asociados. En un último momento se plantea un mejoramiento en la oferta de créditos, servicios y los nuevos productos de la organización. Para lograr el cumplimiento de estos mismos se posee un conocimiento claro y un apoyo oportuno en el cual, por medio de nuevas y modernas capacitaciones de formación y acompañamiento se instruirá a los asociados en los procesos administrativos se busca que la Cooperativa conozca de la mejor manera y clara la importancia de la economía solidaria en nuestra sociedad y mejore la calidad de vida de sus integrantes realizando una gestión de proyección, actualización y organización de la misma. Los talleres que se realizan para cumplir los objetivos que se establecieron son las siguientes: Primero se realiza una mesa de trabajo de reconocimiento de la entidad, se plantean una serie de preguntas al representante legal, contador, revisor fiscal y secretaria, donde por medio de la información que se recopila se realiza un estudio para saber en qué estado esta Librecoop. Segundo se hace una reunión con la secretaria Alejandra Patiño donde se le pide ampliación de la información de la entidad y nos suministra documentación de Librecoop como: los estatutos, los estados financieros, cámara de comercio, Rut y requerimiento impuesto por la Súper Solidaria. Tercero se realizan unos estatutos para la cooperativa Multiactiva libre, actualizados y basados en la norma vigente. Cuarto y por último se desarrolla una cartilla con los parámetros de cambio de la entidad como lo son: cambio de estatutos, implementación de cronogramas de actividades y créditos. Con la aplicabilidad de estos últimos se logra presentar un factor de mejora, debido a que son de real importancia para el funcionamiento de las cooperativas, pues si bien a través del desarrollo de actividades fundamentadas en los principios y fines solidarios se demuestra el fortalecimiento económico que trae consigo el esfuerzo mutuo de las personas en donde cada uno de ellos se desempeña como líderes o gestores, partiendo de una idea de acción común con el fin de formar un espacio socio económico sostenible. ; Solidarity economy, a concept for many unknown, because the term solidarity seems alien within a competitive economic framework as seen in the dome of capitalism and globalization itself, however, it is important to rescue its foundation, because in it we find the ability to sustainably provide the basis for personal and social development, in the words of Gazaga, (2007), "The foundation of solidarity economy is the introduction of increasing levels of cooperation and solidarity in economic activities, organizations and institutions , in order to generate a set of social and cultural benefits that transcend the sphere of economic benefit and favor society as a whole ". However, an alternative to find forms of economic development within a specific community, obtaining benefits for society in general, is a sector that is currently in crisis, as mentioned in a study by the newspaper EL TIEMPO (1998). ), where I highlight various situations attributable to the crisis, such as: The mistrust of the continuous interventions in the cooperative sector and the run of bad information has managed to spread the panic not only to the savers but to other entities of the financial sector that do not want to give credits or grant support to the cooperatives. Secondly, the financial corporations refuse to back them with credits, the public sector does not want to make investments in their offices, the insurers are hesitant to support their activity and, as if that were not enough, the partners and savers are withdrawing their deposits. Such is the case of Estraval and its financial collapse, which evidences not only the highlighted by the study in mention, but diverse difficulties that have generated a great distrust on the part of the savers to the sector in himself; nevertheless, it is a medium that, despite its difficulties, has fundamental principles to guide for a better economic development within our society, so much so that one of the most distinguished characteristics of the Solidarity Economy is to demonstrate nuestra sociedad y mejore la calidad de vida de sus integrantes realizando una gestión de proyección, actualización y organización de la misma. Los talleres que se realizan para cumplir los objetivos que se establecieron son las siguientes: Primero se realiza una mesa de trabajo de reconocimiento de la entidad, se plantean una serie de preguntas al representante legal, contador, revisor fiscal y secretaria, donde por medio de la información que se recopila se realiza un estudio para saber en qué estado esta Librecoop. Segundo se hace una reunión con la secretaria Alejandra Patiño donde se le pide ampliación de la información de la entidad y nos suministra documentación de Librecoop como: los estatutos, los estados financieros, cámara de comercio, Rut y requerimiento impuesto por la Súper Solidaria. Tercero se realizan unos estatutos para la cooperativa Multiactiva libre, actualizados y basados en la norma vigente. Cuarto y por último se desarrolla una cartilla con los parámetros de cambio de la entidad como lo son: cambio de estatutos, implementación de cronogramas de actividades y créditos. Con la aplicabilidad de estos últimos se logra presentar un factor de mejora, debido a que son de real importancia para el funcionamiento de las cooperativas, pues si bien a través del desarrollo de actividades fundamentadas en los principios y fines solidarios se demuestra el fortalecimiento económico que trae consigo el esfuerzo mutuo de las personas en donde cada uno de ellos se desempeña como líderes o gestores, partiendo de una idea de acción común con el fin de formar un espacio socioeconómico sostenible. with facts that it is possible and It is necessary to incorporate solidarity as an essential element when measuring the economic behavior of an organization. However, these reasons are some of those presented in the Cooperativa Multiactiva of the Libre Librecoop Ltda. University, for which it was decided to carry out an intervention work focused on the construction of a development plan that allows the continuous improvement of the cooperative and likewise contribute to the permanent improvement and consolidation of strategies that lead to economic sustainability and compliance with the organizational mission of this. In order to achieve the objectives set out in this intervention work, an internal and external study that contributes effectively to the solution of the aforementioned problems is taken as the starting point. Merino (2013), mentioned that "The development plan is a management tool that promotes social development in a given territory. In this way, it lays the foundations to address the unmet needs of the population and to improve the quality of life of all citizens. " And in turn Escobar (2005), made it clear that "The main intention of the work is to demonstrate the concerns that arise from part of the workers associated in solidarity economy organizations with the key idea of higher productivity based on efficiency and effectiveness for a savings plan" Thus, in the face of the problems that Librecoop has, an evaluation process was developed which took into account, in principle, the legislation and its evolution in history through the reforms that emerged from the economic model, hence the they found lightness in terms of: the application of the rules, the number of associates, the contributions of the same and finally the applicability of the principles and solidarity goals; the latter with greater observance because the main structure of this type of company should have as its objective the good performance of the activities that take place within it, as mentioned in articles 4 and 5 of Chapter Two of Law 454 of 1998. Consequently, with the above, it has been determined that the interest of the present intervention project focuses on specifying the following issues to know from the current environment of the cooperative: Firstly, to develop a training process for all members of the cooperative, which emphasizes the importance of solidarity economy in our current society, this in order to encourage the individual to contribute to the good development of the quality of life of the people that make up or want to become part of the cooperative. Secondly, a statutory update of the entity is proposed, where it is possible to expand the income of new members willing to grow within it and who wish to obtain all the benefits that the cooperative has for its associates At a last moment, there is an improvement in the offer of credits, services and new products of the organization. To achieve compliance with these, there is a clear knowledge and timely support in which, through new and modern training and accompaniment training, the associates will be instructed in the administrative processes, so that the Cooperative knows the best way and clear the importance of solidarity economy in our society and improve the quality of life of its members by managing projection, updating and organization of it. The workshops that are carried out to fulfill the objectives that were established are the following: First, a recognition desk of the entity is made, a series of questions are posed to the legal representative, accountant, fiscal auditor and secretary, where through the information that is collected a study is made to know in which state is Librecoop . Descriptores / Palabras Claves • Economía solidaria • Cooperativas • Intervención acción participativa • Estatutos • Plan de desarrollo • Sector solidario Conclusiones Se realizó un estudio interno y externo donde se llegaron a las siguientes conclusiones: 1. Se sugiere estudiar y evaluar los estatutos suministrados por el grupo de monitores solidarios para su verificación y posterior aplicación a la entidad encaminados en relación a su objeto social. 2. Se requiere de una amplia capacitación al personal activo, pues el desconocimiento del debido manejo de este tipo de entidades por parte de los empleados, no ha permitido un efectivo cumplimiento en el marco normativo que los rige y a su vez a obstruido el crecimiento financiero de la entidad. 3. Convocar a una asamblea extraordinarias a todos los asociados para hacerlos participes tanto de las dificultades como de las necesidades de la entidad, y así hallar un consenso más efectivo en los cambios que la Cooperativa requiere. 4. Hacer entrega tanto a los empleados como a los asociados de la entidad de un plan de desarrollo del manejo de las sociedades solidarias, así como suministrar las estrategias para su respectivo desarrollo. Second a meeting is made with the secretary Alejandra Patiño where she is asked to expand the information of the entity and provides us with Librecoop documentation such as: the statutes, the financial statements, the Chamber of Commerce, Rut and the requirement imposed by the Super Solidarity.Third, bylaws are made for the free Multiactiva cooperative, updated and based on the current norm. Fourth and finally a booklet is developed with the parameters of change of the entity as they are: change of statutes, implementation of schedules of activities and credits With the applicability of the latter, it is possible to present a factor of improvement, because they are of real importance for the operation of the cooperatives, because although through the development of activities based on the principles and aims of solidarity, the economic strengthening is demonstrated. It brings with it the mutual effort of the people where each of them works as leaders or managers, based on an idea of common action in order to form a sustainable socio-economic space. ; 1. Descripción de la organización. -- 2. Cuadro de caracterización.-- 3. Resumen.-- 4. Justificación.-- 5. Objetivos.-- 6. Objetivo.-- 7. General.-- 8. Objetivos específicos.-- 9. Marco teórico.-- 10. Metodología.-- 11. Proceso de intervención y desarrollo del proyecto.-- 12. Indicadores, análisis y resultados del proyecto.-- 13. Impacto de la organización.-- 14. Plan de acción.-- 15. Cronograma.-- 16. Conclusiones.-- 17. Recomendaciones.-- 18. Referencias.

nvironmental risk posed by emissions of chemicals contained in products is an important issue that has been, so far, investigated to a relatively limited extent. In response, the research program ChEmiTecs was set up specifically to improve the understanding of mechanisms, magnitude of emissions on the national Swedish scale, as well as perception about, and management strategies of emissions of additives and other organic substances from articles to the environment. Additives are, as the name indicates, added to a material. This is done with a purpose to improve the properties of the product in its intended use. The societal benefit of, e.g., flame retardants is immense as they contribute to reduce the risk of fire. In order to maintain the purpose of the additive, it should stay in the product. The fact that additives are nevertheless released to some extent is therefore rather an unwanted consequence. In order to understand the mechanisms and magnitude of the emissions, different methods were combined: A product – material – substance inventory was developed of the flows and stocks of the relevant articles and their material constituents with their content of relevant substances, typically organic functional additives. The inventory was based on national trade statistics and well-informed estimates of life length, areas of the articles, and additive content as inventory elements. The research showed that it is possible to use national trade statistics as a starting point to estimate societal stocks of additives, and a total amount of 3×106 tonnes of organic chemical additives was estimated to be stored in plastic materials in articles within the Swedish technosphere. Product categories of particular interest are plastic products such as pipes and hoses, films and boards, and the plastic components of other products such as insulated wires and cables, furniture (sofas), and passenger cars including tires. Chemicals stored in large amounts are typically plasticizers (including the groups phthalates and adipates), organic pigments and flame retardants (for example brominated or phosphorous-based flame retardants). Computational models were applied for calculating product-group and nation-wide emissions based on the inventory. A simple model selected from literature was used to provide a rough estimate with the widest possible coverage for National scale emissions with manageable data need. An advanced computational model was also developed in the program. This model was calibrated by controlled emission chamber experiments for a small sample of test cases, and was then applied to a limited number of detailed product inventories. Results of these data-intensive calculations in the advanced model were also validated against measured concentrations in the environment. The results were then compared with results of the rough model, to get an idea of the accuracy of the national estimate. The ChEmiTecs assessments indicate national molecular emissions to air of plastics additives from the societal stock of material and products NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 8 during their service life to be in the order of 500 tonnes per year. As an approach to getting an idea of the severity of these emissions, a comparison was made with intentionally released biocides. As chemical substances may have very different properties in terms of potential harm to the environment, a direct comparison in terms of mass flow is not very meaningful. Instead, substance emissions were recalculated to ecotoxicity scores with a model developed in the life cycle assessment science domain. The scores obtained indicate lower overall ecotoxicity potential of emissions of additives on the national Swedish scale compared to biocides. The results need to be taken with great precaution as there were significant data gaps. Emissions from waste and waste management were also not included in this calculation. The mechanisms determining the emissions are complex. But at least the results from the research confirm some basic circumstances: - Products with a large surface area (e.g. upholstered furniture, pipes and hoses, polymer films, etc.) were identified to favour emissions. Given a certain combination of material and additive, the emissions will be roughly proportional to the area of the object. - Smaller molecules are more likely to be emitted than big ones. "Small" and "Big" may refer to the molecular weight, but also to the shape of the molecule, so that stretched out molecules with long branches are getting more entangled in the matrix material than compact molecules with short branches, and therefore tend to emit more slowly. - Higher temperature will typically result in higher emissions, which was exemplified with releases of Tri-phenyl-phosphate (TPP) from flat computer screens. - The specific affinity of the additive to the matrix material is important, but it is a complex issue, as it depends on properties for both the additive and the matrix. - An additive's tendency to transfer to the surrounding medium is typically expressed as a partitioning coefficient. For semi-volatile and low volatility chemicals, to which groups additives often belong, the release rate is more determined by the molecule's tendency to transfer from the surface to the surrounding medium than the migration rate within the matrix. To summarize, it appears evident that the combined properties of the material and the molecule as well as the surrounding conditions are crucial for the emissions. Emissions from articles cannot fully explain the environmental occurrence of the substances in a certain location or Nation, thus other sources such as direct industrial releases and/or atmospheric long-range transport may be equally or more important. However, in the indoor environment, consumer products including building materials are more or less the sole sources of many organic chemicals, and may thus have a significant contribution to overall human exposure. Chemicals of particular interest are plasticizers and flame retardants, e.g. phthalates and organophosphates. Common for NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 9 these substances are that many of the products they occur in are used in the indoor environment (plastic flooring, furniture). Accounting for article lifetime and typical release rates as calculated in ChEmiTecs and supported by other work in literature indicates very clearly that more than 90 % and in most cases more than 99 % of the added chemical additives remain in the products at the end-of-life, which means that the major share of the originally added substance of the substances will enter the waste and recycling streams. This is important to consider as they may be eliminated if the products are incinerated, or re-circulated into new materials and products if the material is recycled. According to the surveys conducted within the program with consumers and producers during the year 2012, emissions from articles are not generally perceived to be of major concern from a health or environmental perspective. Producers were of the opinion that they have the necessary tools to perform risk assessments, and they are reasonably content with the current legislation. Consumers were mostly concerned with potential risks for workers and to the local environment near production plants. Studies carried out within ChEmiTecs also showed that the Swedish environmental goals are in general terms not important drivers towards voluntary agreements to change chemical contents in consumer articles. Here, stricter requirements are therefore needed to promote change. The following recommendations were formulated on the basis of the outcome of the research: • The accessible information about content of additives and other chemicals in articles is quite limited. Supply chains consist of several steps, and companies selling articles on the market are often not aware of the additives content of their products. Article 33 in REACH is in theory a mechanism requiring such companies to know their articles' content. Ideally, this additive content information should be combined with the collection of statistical information on trade. A requirement from authorities and a registry of additive content in articles, analogous to the "Product registry" for chemicals and blends operated by the Chemicals Agency, could potentially be a suitable mechanism to push for such information. This is essentially a pre-requisite for reliable estimates of stocks of chemicals from products in the future. • Within its Environmental monitoring activities, Swedish EPA carries out regular screenings campaigns of chemicals in the environment. Screening activities of chemical content in products would be a good complement, which would contribute to knowledge on additives and other chemicals content in articles. Similarly, we emphasize the need for new requirements on emission testing of a wider range of chemicals. Providing sufficient data availability, the NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 10 ChEmiTecs emission model could be an important tool to assist in such assessments. • It should be evaluated whether product specific rules could be suitable as a complement to REACH for consumer articles where hazardous chemicals are present and the use is widespread, such as textiles and building products. • Producers should strive to minimize the content of chemicals with hazardous properties in general and in particular in products made of porous materials and/or of large surface areas aimed for use in the indoor environment. • Emissions from multilayer products and via migration and abrasion need to be further investigated. More recent research indicates that direct migration to dust can contribute significantly to the levels found in the indoor environment. • Since the major share of the chemical additives are estimated to remain in articles at the end of their life there is a need for alertness among waste managers and recycling industry to handle this. Information about the content of goods that reach the waste stream could contribute to this. ; n Varor (Organic Chemicals Emitted from Technosphere Articles - ChEmiTecs) var ett forskningsprogram som löpte under åren 2007-2013 och som finansierades av Naturvårdsverket. Målet med programmet var att öka förståelsen av mekanismer, omfattningen och konsekvenserna av utsläpp av organiska ämnen från varor. I samarbete med myndigheter, tillverkare och nedströmsanvändare identifierades tekniska och sociala aspekter som bidrar till problemet med utsläpp från varor, i syfte att skapa en gemensam förståelse för problemet och dess sammanhang. En urvalsstrategi togs fram i syfte att identifiera problematiska ämnen, varor och användningsmönster. Därefter kvantifierades utsläpp av ett litet urval av ämnen från varor och uppskattades med hjälp av modellbaserad extrapolering för ett stort antal andra ämnen. Betydelsen av dessa utsläpp bedömdes bland annat i förhållande till andra utsläppskällor. Forskningen visade att det är möjligt att använda den nationella handelsstatistiken som en utgångspunkt för att bedöma mängden av kemiska ämnen som är upplagrade i samhället, och totalt uppskattades den upplagrade mängden av organiska kemiska additiv i plastmaterial i varor i den svenska teknosfären till 3×106 ton. Produktkategorier av särskilt intresse är rör och slangar, plastprodukter såsom plastfilm och skivor, isolerade ledningar och kablar, möbler (soffor) samt personbilar inklusive däck. Kemikaliegrupper som är upplagrade i stora mängder är framför allt mjukgörare (inklusive grupper såsom ftalater och adipater), organiska pigment samt flamskyddsmedel (till exempel bromerade och fosforbaserade flamskyddsmedel). Emissioner av kemikalier från varor bedömdes genom att kombinera olika skattningsmetoder med beräkningsmetoder som kalibrerats med hjälp av kontrollerade experiment samt genom dubbelkontroll där spridningsmodeller anpassades med stöd i empiriska miljödata. De beräkningar som gjorts inom programmet tyder på att den enkla modell som tillämpades för att beräkna emissioner på nationell skala för ett brett antal produktgrupper överskattar utsläppen av plasttillsatser från produkter. Resultat från den mer avancerade beräkningsmodellen som utvecklades inom programmet tyder på att utsläppen från varor i medeltal motsvarar ca 0.2 promille av de additiver som finns upplagrat i varorna. För vissa produktgrupper kan dock utsläppen uppgå till några procent av den upplagrade mängden. Utifrån antagandet att 0.2 promille av de upplagrade kemikalierna emitteras från varor, uppskattades de årliga nationella utsläppen av plasttillsatser i den samlade materialstocken till i storleksordningen 500 ton. Uppskattningen 500 ton per år enligt ovan måste ses som en grov och relativt osäker skattning, eftersom mekanismerna för ämnens avgång från ett material är komplexa. Det är de kombinerade egenskaperna hos materialet, molekylen och omgivande miljön som är avgörande för utsläppen. Vissa samband kan lyftas fram: NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 12 - Produkter tillverkade med en stor ytarea (till exempel stoppade möbler, rör och slangar och bildäck) verkar ge upphov till höga utsläpp. - Små molekyler emitteras i större grad än stora molekyler. Här hänvisar små och stora molekyler både till molekylvikt men även till molekylstruktur, där avlånga förgrenade molekyler ofta hindras av materialet i matrisen och därmed tenderar att emitteras långsammare. - Temperatur är en viktig faktor som påverkar utsläppen. Högre temperatur kan leda till högre utsläpp, vilket inom programmet påvisats med försök på utsläpp av trifenylfosfat (TPP) från LCD-skärmar. - Additivets affinitet till materialmatrisen är en viktig men komplex faktor som påverkar utsläppen, då affiniteten påverkas av egenskaperna hos både additivet och materialet. - Additiver kategoriseras vanligen som semiflyktiga eller lågflyktiga ämnen. Avgången av dessa ämnen från ett matrismaterials yta verkar avgöras i många fall i högre utsträckning av ämnets benägenhet att gå över till omgivningsmiljön, t ex förångas från ytan, än av migrationshastigheten i matrismaterialet. Med produktens livslängd i beaktande uppskattades mer än 90 % och i de flesta fall mer än 99 % av de tillsatta kemiska additiven finnas kvar i produkterna i slutet av dess livslängd, vilket innebär att de flesta av additiven kommer in i avfalls- och återvinningsleden. Där kan de elimineras om produkterna förbränns, eller så kan additiven återcirkuleras in i nya material och produkter vid materialåtervinning. Forskningen inom programmet visar att utsläpp från produkter inte helt kan förklara förekomsten av ämnena i den yttre miljön. Således kan andra källor såsom industriella utsläpp och långväga transport via luft även vara viktiga. När det gäller inomhusmiljön är konsumentprodukter, inklusive byggmaterial mer eller mindre de enda källorna till förekomsten av många organiska ämnen (till exempel ftalater och organofosfater), vilket kan ha betydelse för människors exponering. Enligt de undersökningar som gjordes inom programmet under år 2012 med avseende på konsumenters och producenters inställning till emissioner från varor är slutsatsen att utsläpp från varor i allmänhet inte uppfattas som ett stort hälso- eller miljöproblem. Producenter var av den uppfattningen att de har de nödvändiga verktygen för att utföra riskbedömningar, och de är ganska nöjda med den nuvarande lagstiftningen, vilken också är den starkaste drivkraften i deras miljöarbete. Konsumenterna var av uppfattningen att riskerna är störst för arbetstagare och den lokala miljön i närheten av produktionsanläggningar. I allmänhet föredrar konsumenter märkning för att kommunicera produktinnehåll. I syfte att belysa problematiken vad gäller risker för miljön gjordes en jämförelse av möjlig giftpåverkan på vattenmiljö (potentiell ekotoxicitet) mellan plastadditiv och biocider med hjälp av en beräkningsmodell som traditionellt används inom livscykelanalysforskningen. Beräkningarna visar att den totala möjliga giftpåverkan av utsläppta NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 13 tillsatsämnen från plastprodukter i Sverige är lägre än den är från avsiktligt utsläppta biocider. Dock omfattar denna analys inte alla relevanta effektmått och det var heller inte möjligt att bedöma samtliga plastadditiv på grund av databrist. Utsläpp från avfallsledet finns heller inte med i denna beräkning. I allmänhet är kunskapsluckorna fortfarande stora när det gäller egenskaper och toxicitet av kemiska tillsatser i konsumentprodukter, vilket minskar möjligheten till en gedigen utvärdering och dimensionering av hälso- och miljöpåverkan av kemikalier i varor ur ett riskperspektiv. Studierna inom ChEmiTecs visade att de svenska miljömålen i sig inte utgör några viktiga drivkrafter för att träffa frivilliga överenskommelser med syfte att ändra kemikalieinnehåll i konsumentvaror. Studierna indikerade också att marknadstrycket för att få producenter att ändra innehåll är ganska svagt, även om arbete pågår inom vissa branscher. Drivkrafter i dessa fall är typiskt kommande lagstiftning eller förväntad kommande lagstiftning. Resultat framtagna inom ChEmiTecs-programmet visar även på ett behov av att stärka den produktspecifika lagstiftningen som ett komplement till REACH i syfte att minska riskerna med farliga ämnen för vissa produkter, exempelvis byggprodukter och textilier. Följande rekommendationer formulerades på grundval av resultatet av forskningen inom programmet: • Information om additivinnehåll i varor är fortsatt starkt begränsad. I många fall är nedströms varuproducenter också begränsat medvetna om förekomsten av additiver i materialen i sina produkter. Artikel 33 i REACH föreskriver att leverantörer ska kunna förmedla information om ämnen på kandidatlistan över föreskriven halt i sina produkter, vilket indirekt innebär ett krav på att veta det faktiska innehållet i varor. En mekanism för att åstadkomma bättre information om upplagring av additiver i varor i samhällets materialstock, och emissioner av dessa, vore att ha ett register över varors innehåll liknande Kemikalieinspektionens Produktregister för kemikalier och beredningar, kombinerat med dagens statistik över med Industrins varuproduktion och varuimport och –export. • Som komplement till dagens screeningprogram som mäter upp och övervakar halter av kemikalier i miljön, rekommenderar vi att det via lämpliga marknadskontrollmyndigheter och Naturvårdsverket satsat på ett "screeningprogram" för kemikalier i varor. En del av en sådan satsning kan också vara att implementera nya krav på utsläppstester, t ex med hjälp av emissionskammare, av ett bredare spektrum av ämnen. Sådana krav kan till exempel kopplas till ovan nämnda produktspecifika lagstiftning, för att driva utveckling mot lägre konsumentexponering från varor. • Lagstiftare bör utvärdera om produktspecifika regler skulle kunna vara ett lämpligt komplement till REACH för konsumentprodukter där farliga ämnen NATURVÅRDSVERKET RAPPORT 6802 Rapport 14 förekommer och användningen är utbredd, såsom t ex textilier och byggprodukter • Producenter bör sträva mot att minimera innehållet av ämnen med farliga egenskaper i produkter tillverkade av porösa material eller som har stora ytor, i synnerhet i sådana produkter som är avsedda för användning inomhus. • Utsläppen från flerskiktsprodukter och via direkt migration till damm samt via slitage behöver utredas ytterligare. Aktuell forskning visar att direkt migration från produkter till damm kan ge ett betydande bidrag till kemikalienivåerna som påvisas i inomhusmiljön. • Eftersom huvuddelen av tillsatta kemiska additiv bedöms finnas kvar i produkterna i slutet av deras livslängd behöver det finnas beredskap i avfalls- och återvinningsleden att hantera detta. Information om varornas innehåll som även når avfallsledet skulle kunna bidra till denna hantering.

At DiGRA 2013 (Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA), the Indie Game Studies panel and dedicated issue of the journal Loading…, curated by Prof Bart Simon, brought the emerging forms of independent game development to the attention of game scholars (Parker 2014). Five years later, the indie scene has become richer and varied, and has been adapting to mutating contexts of production and distribution. Festivals, incubators for start-ups and small companies, workshops and mentoring schemes, have been proliferating in the USA, Canada, Australia, Northern Europe, and the United Kingdom. Numerous independent companies have been founded in the geographical areas where the video game industry was already solid, and a significant presence is establishing in parts of the world that have been traditionally distant from the main hubs of video game development. While the differences (economic, managerial, ideological) with the mainstream productions have always been contested, the recent proliferation of independent companies has further confused the boundaries that appeared to separate the independent territories from the 'official' video game industry. In 2013 the trade association TIGA estimated that in the United Kingdom '83% of all studios that started up in 2011 and 2012 were independent (as opposed to publisher owned)' (TIGA 2013). It has been estimated that, in 2014, 95% of video game companies in the United Kingdom were micro or small businesses, according to NESTA (2014) and the British government (GOV.uk 2014). In Australia, independent companies now form the 'backbone' of game development (Apperley and Golding 2015, 61; Banks and Cunningham 2016). In 2013, a survey involving 2,500 North American game developers revealed that 53% of them identified as 'indie' (GDC 2013), and a subsequent survey by IGDA revealed that 48% of US game developers self-identified as independent (IGDA 2014). Independence is no longer a marginal or alternative mode of production, if it ever was, but the most common type of organization within the video game industry. It appears that almost every game developer is now partially or temporarily 'indie' within their career, and the trend is expected to grow, consistently with the recent developments of the cinema, music, and fashion industries (Hesmondhalgh 2013, McRobbie 2016). The workshop will explore the current state, meanings, and values associated with independence in video game culture, through a series of contributions and findings that analyse the domain from different perspectives, disciplines and geographical specificities. What is at stake, in 2018, when making claims of autonomy, self-management, and creative control? Are indie games helping improve the diversity deficit in game makers and audiences? Is there still room for independence, in a production context where short-term contracts, individualism, and financial risks are considered necessary to be involved in game development? The workshop picks up where the 2013 DiGRA panel left off, bringing together the most current research and theorizing on the topic of "indie game studies." Speakers, including some of from the original panel in Atlanta, will present and compare research in a series of short (approx. 15 minutes) presentations. The presentation will culminate in a discussion, to which participants will be invited to contribute, identifying patterns, controversies and gaps, with a view toward continuing towards further collaboration, research, publication and dissemination. Speakers' contributions: Indie Game Studies – 5 years later Paolo Ruffino (Lecturer in Media Studies, University of Lincoln, UK) Ruffino will introduce the workshop. Drawing on Felan Parker's proposal of 'indie game studies', the workshop gathers some of the international scholars who are currently doing research on independent game development (Parker 2014). This presentation looks at the various approaches to the study of independence. It also questions the reasons for doing research on this topic in this particular historical moment, while developers are starting to organise in local/global unions and networks of mutual assistance. It also draws on regionally specific studies regarding the meaning and values of independence, with a view on mapping the contemporary topics and questions of academic research in the field. Game Production Studies: Theory, Method and Practice Casey O'Donnell (Associate Professor in the Department of Media and Information at Michigan State University, USA) Dr. O'Donnell's addition to this workshop is rooted in a deep interest and care for game production studies, beginning with his early dissertation work with AAA game developers and subsequently working in a variety of fields doing research on game production in the educational, crowdsourcing and "indie" communities. O'Donnell's focus will be on the theories, methods and practices of performing indie game production studies. Game Production Studies explore the wide array of processes, practices, texts, technologies and aspects that take place in and surrounding the game production process. This process is often referred to generally as "game development," which while rooted in the practice of making games actually constitutes a wide variety of tasks, disciplinary perspectives, processes, people and institutions. Indiepocalypse Nadav Lipkin (Assistant Professor of Media, Communication and Technology at La Roche College, Pittsburgh, PA, USA) In his 2013 article for Loading…, Lipkin went about defining independent games. A fear at the heart of that discussion was that larger corporations would co-opt the indie movement by producing games that look indie without being independent from dominant production practices. Since then, subsequent research suggests a different concern is perhaps more worthy of examination. For this workshop, Lipkin will discuss the Indiepocalypse and focus on how the biggest threat to independents is not the mainstream but each other. Overproduction, a glamorization of insecure and unpaid labor, and mainstream distribution partners (especially Steam) who have contradictory financial interests need to be better understood. By examining these conditions, Lipkin intends to connect the games industry more closely to examinations of other creative industries plagued by similarly poor labor and economic conditions. Some notes on the indiefication of game development Olli Sotamaa (Postdoctoral Research Fellow at Game Lab, School of Information Sciences at University of Tampere, Finland) This presentation will draw on my study of the Finnish game development scene that has been going on for almost a decade now. While Finland arguably is a small node in the global circuits of game production, well known hit games like Rovio's Angry Birds and Supercell's Clash of Clans have attracted attention worldwide. Following Garda & Grabarczyk (2016), I consider it important to highlight how the notions of independent games are always connected to given time and place. Accordingly, I examine how independence and 'indie' get a particular meaning in a North-European game development scene defined by small domestic market and early focus on mobile games. Drawing from diverse examples ranging from Housemarque, an independent studio founded in 1995 and a nominee for the Best Indie Studio in Develop Awards 2018, to Arvi Teikari, the designer of IGF 2018 winner Baba is You, this presentation explores the different understandings of indie in an environment that has never hosted a strong AAA industry. As at least some of the game development practices look increasingly similar, it is clear that we need to take a closer look at the production networks (Tyni 2017) and cultural intermediaries (Parker, Whitson & Simon 2018) and explore how they differ between individual games and companies. The other side of the spectrum – how indies saved VR Paweł Grabarczyk (Post-Doc at ITU Copenhagen, Denmark) As has been pointed out (Juul 2015, Garda & Grabarczyk 2016) pixel art and low (or at least relatively humble) production values have become the de facto aesthetic standard for contemporary independent games. Indie games can typically be run on modest computers as they do not require expensive graphics cards or fast processors. The result of this common association is that independent games with relatively high production values are sometimes dubbed as "AAA indie" (Hellblade Senua's Sacrifice can be a good example of this). Contrary to this VR technologies are typically associated with expensive, high end machines because they require both: the purchase of a relatively powerful computer and the purchase of the headset itself. On the face of it, VR games and indie aesthetics could not be further apart. It is thus very surprising that this expensive technology attracted a substantial number of independent developers (for example, there are currently 1864 games tagged as "independent" "VR" games on the Steam platform). More importantly, many of the most successful VR games belong to the indie category (Job Simulator, SuperHot VR, Beat Saber). I believe that this phenomenon demands further study, because it escapes some of the existing classifications and conceptualizations of independent games market (the move from retro-aesthetics being the most obvious reason for this). I argue that there are three reasons why independent developers were attracted to VR platforms. The first reason is the move from pixel art to low poly art which has been visible in many recent games (and which made the transition from "flat" games to VR games possible). The second reason is the spirit of innovation which permeates both communities (indie developers and VR developers). The third, most intriguing factor is that VR games created an economic niche which resulted from the lack of so called "AAA" games being developed specifically for VR. Project:INDIE Dr Celia Pearce (Associate Professor of Game Design at Northeastern University, USA) Over the past decade, indie games have grown at such a rapid rate that by 2014 roughly half of game developers identified as indie. This explosion is the outcome of a bottom-up, complex, emergent process representing the convergence of a variety of visible and invisible factors, including: emerging technologies, new publication and funding models, game academia, festivals and exhibitions, accessible creation tools, peer-learning and creative communities (e.g. game jams, co-working spaces), as well changes in government and popular perception of games. Project:INDIE is an initiative and consortium formed to develop an overview of the indie ecosystem, mapping the complex interrelationships and influences between its constituent parts. We will do this by aggregating existing research on indie games, identifying gaps and setting research agendas, and conducting comparative analysis on datasets from key players to understand the synergies between various contributing factors to the growth and commercial success of indie and artgames. Independent game industry in Melbourne, Australia Dr Brendan Keogh (Digital Media Research Centre, Queensland University of Technology, Australia) Like other countries beyond North America and Japan, Australia has an emerging, grassroots videogame industry consisting primarily of small teams of independent studios creating original IP in precarious conditions. In Australia, this independent game industry has centred on Melbourne, Victoria, where state funding and the support of institutions such as the State Library of Victoria and the Australian Centre of the Moving Image have encouraged the growth of a robust and diverse ecology of videogame makers. Crucially, within this ecology are two interlocking but distinct independent scenes with different practices and approaches. This talk will present preliminary findings from interview research conducted with 40 videogame makers and cultural institutions in Melbourne to highlight the specific tensions, experiences, skills, and identities across these two Melbourne indie game scenes to draw attention to the need to account for a variety of scales of formal and informal creative labour practices within local videogame development fields. BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION Paweł Grabarczyk is a post-doc researcher at IT University of Copenhagen and adjunct professor at University of Lodz. His research focuses mostly on the boundaries between philosophy and game studies: specifically philosophy of language (ontology of games and conceptual analysis) and philosophy of mind (forms of representation in games and virtual reality). He is also interested in the study of modern and historical trends in games (indie games, shareware games) and demoscene. He is the president of Centre for Philosophical Research and an editor-in-chief of Replay: The Polish Journal of Game Studies. Brendan Keogh is an Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Research Fellow currently conducting research into Australian videogame makers and skills transfer. He is the author of A Play of Bodies: How We Perceive Videogames and Killing is Harmless: A Critical Reading of Spec Ops The Line. Nadav Lipkin is an Assistant Professor of Media, Communication and Technology at La Roche College in Pittsburgh. His dissertation, "Agents at work: Decision making capacity and creative labor in network society," explores agency for creative professionals through a cross-industry analysis and a case study of the independent game development community in New York City. His research focuses on independent media production both in and beyond the games industry. Currently, he is examining the responses of YouTube content producers to changes in the platform's content policies. Casey O'Donnell is an Associate Professor in the Department of Media and Information at Michigan State University. His research examines the creative collaborative work of videogame design and development. This research examines the cultural and collaborative dynamics that occur in both professional "AAA" organizations and formal and informal "independent" game development communities. His first book, "Developer's Dilemma" is published by MIT Press. Casey is an active game developer, releasing "Osy," in 2011, "Against the Gradient," in 2012, "GLITcH" in 2013 and "Kerem B'Yavneh," in 2016. His work has been funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the National Institute of Health (NIH). Celia Pearce is an award-winning game designer, researcher, writer and curator. She currently holds a position as Associate Professor of Game Design at Northeastern University. She is the author or co-author of numerous of books and papers, including Communities of Play (MIT Press), Ethnography and Virtual Worlds (Princeton) and IndieCade@10: A Decade of Innovation (CMU ETC Press-In Progress), which chronicles the history of IndieCade, the festival she co-founded. Her recent game credits include Fracture, co-designed for the Blinks Platform, and eBee, which won the 2016 award for Innovation in Tabletop Game Design at Boston Festival of Indie Games. Paolo Ruffino is Lecturer in Media Studies at University of Lincoln, UK, and artist with the collective IOCOSE. Ruffino is the author of Future Gaming: Creative Interventions in Video Game Culture (Goldsmiths and MIT Press), and editor and co-author of numerous publications on games cultures, gamification, and game art. He has been researching in the areas of digital culture, media and cultural studies, media art, and semiotics. Ruffino is President of DiGRA Italia and board member of British DiGRA. Olli Sotamaa is an Associate Professor of game cultures studies at the University of Tampere. His publications cover co-production, user-generated content, game industry analysis & game studies methods. Sotamaa is the co-director of University of Tampere Game Research Lab and a team leader at the Centre of Excellence in Game Culture Studies (2018-2025). His current research interests include game production studies, creative labour and game policy. BIBLIOGRAPHY Apperley, T. and Golding, D. (2015) "Australia" in In Video Games Around the World (M.J.P. Wolf, dir.), Cambridge (MA): The MIT Press, pp. 57–70. Arsenault, D., and Guay, L.-M. (2015). "Canada". In Video Games Around the World (M.J.P. Wolf, dir.), Cambridge (MA): The MIT Press, p. 105-118. Garda, M.B. & Grabarczyk, P. (2016). Is Every Indie Game Independent? Towards the Concept of Independent Game. Game Studies, vol. 16, Issue 1. GDC (2013) "GDC State of the Industry research exposes major trends ahead of March show". GDConf.com. February 28. Available at http://www.gdconf.com /news/gdc_state_of_the_industry_rese/ GOV.uk (2014). "Video games tax relief passes final hurdle". GOV.uk, 27th March. Available at https://www.gov.uk/government/news/video-games-tax-relief-passes-final-hurdle Gregg, M. (2011) Work's Intimacy. Cambridge, UK and Malden, MA: Polity Press Hesmondhalgh, David. 2013. The Cultural Industries. 3rd Edition. London: Sage. Kultima, A; Alha, K. & Nummenmaa, T. (2016). Building Finnish Game Jam Community through Positive Social Facilitation. Proceedings of the 20th International Academic Mindtrek Conference, pp. 433-440. New York: ACM. Juul, J. (2014). "High-tech Low-tech Authenticity: The Creation of Independent Style at the Independent Games Festival". In Proceedings of the 9th International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games. Fort Lauderdale. Lessard, J. (2012). "Glutomax: Québecois Proto-Indie Game Development". Loading. Vol. 7, no 11, December 31st. Available at http://journals.sfu.ca/loading/index.php/loading/article/view/127. Lipkin, N. (2012). "Examining Indie's Independence: The Meaning of "Indie" Games, the Politics of Production, and Mainstream Cooptation". Loading. Vol. 7, no 11, December 31st. Available at http://journals.sfu.ca/loading/index.php/loading/article/view/122. NESTA (2014) "A Map of the UK Games Industry", Nesta.org, 25th September. Available at https://www.nesta.org.uk/publications/map-uk-games-industry McRobbie, A. 2016. Be Creative: Making a Living in the New Culture Industries. Cambridge: Polity Press. Parker, F. (2014) "Indie Game Studies Year Eleven". In Proceedings of DiGRA 2013: DeFragging Game Studies, Vol. 7, August 2014. Available at http://www.digra.org/digital-library/publications/indie-game-studies-year-eleven/ Parker, F; Whitson, J.R. & Simon, B. (2018). Megabooth: The cultural intermediation of indie games. New Media & Society, 20(5), 1953-1972. Ruffino, P. (2012). "Narratives of Independent Production in Video Game Culture". Loading. Vol. 7, no 11, December 31st. Available at http://journals.sfu.ca/loading/index.php/loading/article/view/120. Swalwell, M., and Davidson, M. (2015). "Game History and the Case of 'Malzak': Theorizing the Manufacture of 'local Product'in 1980s New Zealand". Locating Emerging Media (Ben Aslinger et Germaine R. Halegoua, dirs.), London: Routledge. Swalwell, M. (2012). "The Early Micro User: Games writing, hardware hacking, and the will to mod". In Proceedings of DiGRA Nordic 2012 Conference: Local and Global—Games in Culture and Society , June, Tampere Swalwell, M. (2008). "1980s Home coding: The art of amateur programming". Aotearoa Digital Arts New Media Reader (Stella Brennan and Su Ballard, dirs.), p. 192-201. Tyni, H. (2017). Double Duty: Crowdfunding and the Evolving Game Production Network. Games and Culture, Online First. UKIE (2017) "The UK Video Games Sector: a Blueprint for Growth". The UK Interactive Entertainment Association. Available at http://ukie.org.uk/blueprint

The current pressure on water resources is such, that water scarcity is now an important issue in regions with abundant water resources like the Tropics. These regions are characterized by high precipitation rates almost all year long. This results in a relatively large availability of water resources. However, these water resources are not always equally distributed in time or space, which causes periods and puts areas under water stress in tropical regions. Added to this is the challenge related to the access to these water resources, resulting in a reduced availability in general terms. Costa Rica is a clear example of a country in the Tropical regions, where water scarcity is, actually, on the top of the water agenda. Costa Rica is in the torrid tropical region in Central America, yet it experiences periods of shortage in its available water resources at the end of the dry season. This affects all water sectors, specially agriculture and drinking water supply systems. This situation has been magnified by global change, with a greater demand of resources from population growth, impermeabilization of recharge areas due to urbanization, and reduction of resources due to climate change. To adapt to the situation, it is necessary to conduct an evaluation of suitable water management tools for the country's environmental conditions in a systematic way. This work focuses on one of these tools: managed aquifer recharge (MAR) MAR techniques are a promising approach to address the defined problems, by storing the excess of available water resources during the rainy season in suitable aquifer systems for later use during the dry season. MAR techniques present certain advantages compared to surface storage: less losses through evaporation, less demand of superficial area, among others. In order to determine if MAR techniques are suitable for Costa Rica and will help overcome the temporary water scarcity challenge, three main topics at different scale are investigated. First, at a country scale, the search of suitable areas for specific MAR techniques within the country is carried out based on physical criteria. Second, at a research scale, it is reduced to a basin level. For this case, the assessment of a MAR project based on the first stage of the Australian MAR guidelines is done. This consists of a checklist of five critical elements, which constitutes the base for the assessment of a MAR project. Third, the research is taken into a laboratory scale, where the research focuses on an injection well in an unconfined aquifer system. For the first topic, suitable areas for the implementation of MAR technique spreading methods are identified in Costa Rica by conducting a geographical information science-multi-criteria decision analysis (GIS-MCDA) approach. This is based on four criteria: hydrogeological geoaptitude, terrain slope, top soil texture, and drainage network density. By carrying out a GIS-MCDA, the country is classified into suitable and unsuitable. Based on this method, 61 % of the country is suitable for spreading methods. Among the higher ranked suitable areas are the ones located in the northern and northwest regions. The ranking of the country based on spreading methods by means of a GIS-MCDA method is a first course of action to determine where further research is needed. In the second research level, the feasibility of a MAR project was assessed in the Machuca River basin. This river basin was chosen because: the drinking water supply systems (WSS) do not meet the actual demand, there is government interest to research new water supply alternatives and there is enough basic information on this water basin. To evaluate the feasibility of a MAR project in the basin, the first stage of the feasibility assessment proposed by the Australian MAR guidelines was performed. This consists of a checklist of five critical elements: 1) sufficient demand, 2) adequate recharge source, 3) suitable aquifer, 4) space to treat and, 5) human capability. For an easier analysis of the whole river basin, it was divided into five locations based on the superficial aquifer water levels. It was concluded that a MAR project seems viable in this river basin in the Coyolar and Orotina locations. Regarding the MAR technique to be applied in the MAR project at the Machuca River basin, two considerations were taken: the previously determined suitability and the local conditions. First, the entire Machuca River is ranked as suitable for surface infiltration (MAR spreading method) based on the results from the country scale analysis. The Coyolar and Orotina locations are ranked as having a moderate suitability (between 0.4-0.6). Second, the best material aquifer for recharge in these two locations are the fractured lavas and alluvium located under clay layers. For these two reasons (moderate spreading methods suitability and local conditions), it was decided that direct injection MAR techniques (aquifer storage and recovery – ASR) will be more appropriate for these two locations. At the laboratory research scale, the effect of the well screen length on the injection rate for an unconfined aquifer was corroborated under controlled laboratory conditions. This is one of the first experiments on the topic to the best of the author's knowledge. One of the main findings of the laboratory research is the almost neglectful effect on the injection rate for screen lengths above 80 % of the saturated thickness in an unconfined aquifer. The effect on the screen length is notable in the injection rate for open screen length under 80 % of the total aquifer thickness (95 % of the maximum achievable injection rate) and it increases for open screen lengths under 40 % (90 % of the maximum achievable injection rate). Based on the experimental results, it is recommended to use a screen length of 40 % of the saturated aquifer thickness for ASR wells and of 80 % for injection wells. This assessment shows that MAR techniques are suitable for Costa Rica's environmental conditions. Further on, the assessment at the basin level shows MAR techniques as a promising solution to overcome water scarcity issues. The laboratory scale aquifer-well interactions show promising results regarding the effect of the screen well in the injection rate. Still, more research is needed in this field regarding other aquifer types. Based on all these findings, MAR techniques are an appropriate tool for the integrated water management in the tropical regions. ; Der gegenwärtige Druck auf die Wasserressourcen ist so groß, dass Wasserknappheit sogar in den Tropen zum Thema wird. Diese Regionen sind von hohen Niederschlagsraten geprägt, was zu einer relativ großen Verfügbarkeit von Wasserressourcen führt. Diese sind jedoch nicht immer zeitlich und räumlich gleich verteilt, was temporären und/oder regionalen Wasserstress verursacht. Darüber hinaus hängt die Herausforderung auch mit dem Zugang zu diesen Wasserressourcen zusammen, was zu einer allgemein reduzierten Verfügbarkeit führt. Costa Rica ist ein Beispiel für ein tropisches Land, in dem Wasserknappheit in den letzten Jahren zunehmend an Relevanz gewonnen hat. Costa Rica leidet gegen Ende der Trockenzeit fast jedes Jahr an einem temporären Wassermangel. Dies betrifft alle Wassersektoren, insbesondere die Landwirtschaft und die Trinkwasserversorgung. Diese Situation wird durch den globalen Wandel verstärkt, mit einer größeren Nachfrage nach Ressourcen aufgrund von Bevölkerungswachstum, der Verhinderung von Grundwasserneubildung durch Urbanisierung und Versiegelung und, nicht zuletzt, den Klimawandel. Um sich an diese Situation anzupassen, ist es notwendig, eine systematische Evaluierung geeigneter Wasserbewirtschaftungsinstrumente für die Umweltbedingungen des Landes durchzuführen. Die vorliegende Arbeit konzentriert sich auf eines dieser Werkzeuge: Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR). MAR-Techniken stellen einen vielversprechenden Ansatz dar, um die zuvor definierten Probleme anzugehen, indem die überschüssigen Wasserressourcen während der Regenzeit in geeigneten Grundwasserleitersystemen zur späteren Nutzung in der Trockenzeit gespeichert werden. MAR-Techniken bieten im Vergleich zur Oberflächenspeicherung gewisse Vorteile, unter anderem geringere Verdunstungsverluste und geringeren Raumbedarf. Um zu bestimmen, ob MAR-Techniken für Costa Rica geeignet sind und dabei helfen können, die zeitlichen Wasserknappheitsherausforderungen zu überwinden, wurden drei Hauptthemen in unterschiedlichen Skalen untersucht. Die Suche nach geeigneten Gebieten für spezifische MAR-Techniken im Land erfolgte zunächst auf der Grundlage von physikalischen Kriterien. Als Zweites wurde die Forschungsskala auf ein Beckenniveau reduziert. Für diesen Fall wurde die Bewertung eines MAR-Projekts auf der Grundlage der ersten Stufe der australischen MAR-Richtlinien durchgeführt. Diese basiert auf einer Checkliste mit fünf kritischen Elementen, welche die Grundlage für die Bewertung eines MAR-Projektes bilden. Zuletzt wurde die Untersuchung im Labormaßstab durchgeführt, wobei sich die Experimente auf Injektionsbohrlöcher in einem ungespannten Grundwasserleitersystem konzentrierten. Für das erste Thema wurden in Costa Rica geeignete Bereiche für die Implementierung von MAR-Technik-Verteilungsmethoden mithilfe eines GIS-basierten Multikriterien- Entscheidungsanalysen-Ansatzes (GIS-MCDA) identifiziert. Dieser basierte auf vier Kriterien: Hydrogeologie, Geländegefälle, oberste Bodentextur und Drainagenetzdichte. Durch die Realisierung eines GIS-MCDA wurde das Land in geeignete und ungeeignete Gebiete eingeteilt. Mit dieser Methode wurden 61 % des Landes als geeignet für die Beckeninfiltration befunden. Gut eingestufte Gebiete liegen hierbei größtenteils im Norden und im Nordwesten. Das Ranking-Verfahren des Landes mit Hilfe einer GIS-MCDA-Methode ist eine erste Vorgehensweise zur Bestimmung weiterer Forschungsgebiete. In der zweiten Forschungsstufe wurde die Machbarkeit eines MAR-Projekts im Machuca-Einzugsgebiet untersucht. Dieses Flussgebiet wurde aus folgenden Gründen gewählt: Die Trinkwasserversorgungsanlagen erfüllen die tatsächliche Nachfrage nicht, weshalb es auch im Interesse der Regierung liegt, nach Alternativen für die Wasserversorgung zu forschen. Darüber hinaus ist die Region geologisch gut erschlossen und die Informationsdichte ist ausreichend hoch. Um die Realisierbarkeit eines MAR-Projektes im Einzugsgebiet zu bewerten, wurde die erste Stufe der Machbarkeitsbewertung anhand der Checkliste an fünf kritischen Elementen durchgeführt: 1) ausreichende Nachfrage, 2) angemessene Wiederaufladungsquelle, 3) geeigneter Grundwasserleiter, 4) Raum für Maßnahmen und 5) Humanressourcen. Um die Analyse des gesamten Flusseinzugsgebietes zu vereinfachen, wurde es in fünf Bereiche eingeteilt, die auf den oberflächennahen Grundwasserständen basieren. Es wurde der Schluss gezogen, dass ein MAR-Projekt in diesem Flussgebiet an den Standorten Coyolar und Orotina nachhaltig erscheint. In Bezug auf die MAR-Technik, die in einem MAR-Projekt am Machuca-Flussbecken angewendet werden soll, wurden Überlegungen angestellt hinsichtlich der zuvor ermittelten Eignung und der örtlichen Gegebenheiten. Zunächst wurde der gesamte Machuca-Fluss aufgrund der Ergebnisse der Länderanalyse als geeignet für die Oberflächeninfiltration eingestuft. Die Coyolar- und Orotina-Standorte wurden mit einer moderaten Eignung eingestuft. Weiterhin wurde festgestellt, dass die für die Grundwasseranreicherung geeignetste Formation die Kies- und Bruchlavenlagen darstellen, die sich unter einer Tonschicht befinden. Aus diesen beiden Gründen (moderate Eignung für Beckeninfiltration, und lokale Hydrogeologie) wurde entschieden, dass MAR-Techniken mit direkter Injektion (Aquifer Storage and Recovery - ASR) für diese beiden Standorte geeigneter sind. In der kleinsten Untersuchungsskala wurde der Einfluss der Filterlänge auf die Injektionsrate für einen freien Grundwasserleiter unter kontrollierten Laborbedingungen bestätigt. Dies ist eines der ersten Experimente zu diesem Thema nach bestem Wissen des Autors. Eines der Hauptergebnisse der Laborforschung ist der fast vernachlässigbare Effekt auf die Injektionsrate bei Filterlängen von über 80 % der gesättigten Mächtigkeit in einem freien Grundwasserleiter. Die Wirkung auf die Filterlänge ist bei der Injektionsrate für offene Filterlängen unter 80 % der gesamten Grundwasserleiterhöhe (95 % der maximal erreichbaren Injektionsrate) und bei offenen Filterlängen unter 40 % (90 % der maximal erreichbaren Injektionsrate). Basierend auf den experimentellen Ergebnissen wird empfohlen, eine Filterlänge von 40 % der gesättigten Grundwasserleiterhöhe für ASR-Brunnen und 80 % für Injektionsbohrungen zu verwenden. Die vorliegende Bewertung zeigt, dass MAR-Techniken für die Umweltbedingungen in Costa Rica gut geeignet sind. Darüber hinaus demonstriert die Bewertung auf der Einzugsgebietsebene MAR als eine Lösung zur Überwindung von Wasserknappheitsproblemen. Die Grundwasserleiter-Brunnen-Interaktionen im Labormaßstab zeigen vielversprechende Ergebnisse hinsichtlich der Wirkung der Filterlänge auf die Injektionsrate. Dennoch ist auf diesem Gebiet mehr Forschung in Bezug auf andere Aquifertypen erforderlich. Basierend auf all diesen Erkenntnissen sind MAR-Techniken ein geeignetes Werkzeug für das integrierte Wassermanagement in der tropischen Umwelt. ; La presión actual sobre los recursos hídricos es tal, que la escasez de agua es ahora un problema importante en áreas con abundantes recursos hídricos como las regiones tropicales. Estas regiones se caracterizan por altas tasas de precipitación casi durante todo el año. Esto da como resultado una disponibilidad relativamente grande de recursos hídricos. Sin embargo, estos recursos hídricos no siempre se distribuyen equitativamente en el tiempo y el espacio, lo que causa períodos y pone áreas bajo estrés hídrico en las regiones tropicales. Además de esto, el desafío también está relacionado con el acceso a estos recursos hídricos, lo que crea una disponibilidad reducida en términos generales. Costa Rica es un claro ejemplo de un país en las regiones tropicales, donde la escasez de agua se encuentra en lo más alto de la agenda del agua. Costa Rica está situada en la región tropical tórrida de América Central, sin embargo, experimenta períodos de escasez en sus recursos hídricos disponibles al final de la estación seca. Esto afecta a todos los sectores de agua, especialmente a la agricultura y a los sistemas de suministro de agua potable. Esta situación ha sido magnificada por el cambio global, con una mayor demanda de recursos por el crecimiento de la población, la impermeabilización de las áreas de recarga por la urbanización y la reducción de recursos debido al cambio climático. Para adaptarse a esta situación, es necesario llevar a cabo una evaluación sistemática de las herramientas de gestión del agua adecuadas para las condiciones ambientales del país. Este trabajo se centra en una de estas herramientas: la gestión de la recarga acuíferos gestionados (MAR). Las técnicas de MAR son un enfoque prometedor para abordar los problemas previamente definidos, almacenando el exceso de recursos hídricos disponibles durante la estación lluviosa en sistemas acuíferos adecuados para su uso posterior en la estación seca. Las técnicas de MAR presentan ciertas ventajas en comparación con el almacenamiento en superficie: menos pérdidas por evaporación y menor demanda de área superficial, entre otras. Con el fin de determinar si las técnicas de MAR son adecuadas para Costa Rica y ayudarán a superar los desafíos temporales de escasez de agua, se investigaron tres temas principales a diferentes escalas. Primero, en una escala de país, la búsqueda de áreas adecuadas para técnicas específicas de MAR en el país se realizó con base en criterios físicos. En segundo lugar, la escala de investigación se reduce a un nivel de cuenca. Para este caso, se realizó la evaluación de un proyecto de MAR basado en la primera etapa de las directrices australianas de MAR. Esta consiste en una lista de verificación de cinco elementos críticos, que constituye la base para la evaluación de un proyecto MAR. En tercer lugar, la investigación se lleva a escala de laboratorio, donde la investigación se centra en los pozos de inyección en un sistema acuífero no confinado. Para el primer tema, las áreas adecuadas para la implementación de los métodos de infiltración de la MAR se identifican en Costa Rica mediante un enfoque de ciencia la información geográfica y análisis de decisión multicriterio (SIG-MCDA). Esto se basa en cuatro criterios: geoaptitud hidrogeológica, pendiente del terreno, textura del suelo superior y densidad de la red de drenaje. Al realizar un GIS-MCDA, el país se clasifica en áreas adecuadas e inadecuadas. Con base en este método, el 61 % del país se consideró adecuado para métodos de infiltración. Las áreas adecuadas mejor clasificadas se encuentran en las regiones del norte y noroeste del país. La clasificación del país según el potencial de los métodos de infiltración por medio de un método GIS-MCDA es un primer curso de acción para determinar otras áreas de investigación. En el segundo nivel de investigación, se evaluó la factibilidad de un proyecto MAR en la cuenca del río Machuca. Esta cuenca hidrográfica se eligió porque: los sistemas de suministro de agua potable no satisfacen la demanda real, existe un interés del gobierno en buscar nuevas alternativas de suministro de agua y hay suficiente información básica en esta cuenca hidrográfica. Para evaluar la factibilidad de un proyecto MAR en la cuenca, la primera etapa de la evaluación se realizó sobre la base de la lista de cinco elementos críticos: 1) demanda suficiente, 2) fuente de recarga adecuada, 3) acuífero adecuado, 4) espacio para tratar el agua y, 5) la capacidad humana. Para facilitar el análisis de toda la cuenca del río, se dividió en cinco localidades en función de los niveles de agua superficiales del acuífero. Se concluyó que un proyecto MAR parece viable en esta cuenca en las localidades Coyolar y Orotina. Con respecto a la técnica de MAR que se aplicará en un proyecto MAR en la cuenca del río Machuca, se tomaron dos consideraciones: la idoneidad previamente determinada y las condiciones locales. En primer lugar, todo el río Machuca se clasifica como adecuado para la infiltración superficial (método de infiltración MAR) en función de los resultados del análisis a escala de país. Las localidades Coyolar y Orotina se clasifican con una idoneidad moderada. En segundo lugar, el mejor material acuífero para la recarga en estos dos lugares son las fracturas lavas y aluviones ubicados bajo capas de arcilla. Se decidió que las técnicas de inyección directa MAR (almacenamiento y recuperación - ASR) serán más apropiadas para estas dos ubicaciones por estas dos razones (idoneidad de los métodos de propagación moderada y condiciones locales). En la escala de investigación más pequeña, el efecto de la longitud de la pantalla del pozo sobre la tasa de inyección para un acuífero no confinado se corroboró bajo condiciones de laboratorio controladas. Este es uno de los primeros experimentos sobre el tema según el mejor conocimiento del autor. Uno de los principales hallazgos de la investigación de laboratorio es el efecto casi nulo en la tasa de inyección para longitudes de pantalla superiores al 80 % del espesor saturado en un acuífero no confinado. El efecto en la longitud de la pantalla es apreciable en la velocidad de inyección para pantalla abierta inferior al 80 % del espesor total del acuífero (95 % de la máxima velocidad de inyección alcanzable) y aumenta para longitudes de pantalla abierta por debajo del 40 % (90 % de la máxima tasa de inyección alcanzable). En base a los resultados experimentales, se recomienda utilizar una longitud de malla del 40 % del espesor del acuífero saturado para los pozos ASR y del 80 % para los pozos de inyección. La presente evaluación muestra que las técnicas de MAR son adecuadas para las condiciones ambientales de Costa Rica. Más allá, la evaluación a nivel de cuenca muestra las técnicas de MAR como una solución para superar los problemas de escasez de agua. Las interacciones entre acuíferos y pozos a escala de laboratorio muestran resultados prometedores con respecto al efecto de la pantalla en la velocidad de inyección. Aun así, se necesita más investigación en este campo con respecto a otros tipos de acuíferos. Con base en todos estos hallazgos, las técnicas de MAR son una herramienta apropiada para la gestión integrada del agua en las regiones tropicales.

Extracto de tesis ; [ES] Este trabajo de investigación pretende analizar las representaciones que el cine español de fin de siglo construye sobre las feminidades y masculinidades. En los últimos veinticinco años del siglo XX, la sociedad española asiste tras cuatro décadas de feroz dictadura, a una de sus revoluciones más profundas, la radical transformación de la condición de las mujeres y en consecuencia la transformación de toda la sociedad. El cine no es ajeno a esta nueva realidad y desde puntos de vista diversos recoge estos cambios, que a su vez renuevan las tramas y los géneros cinematográficos. ¿Cómo interpreta el cine esta nueva realidad de las mujeres?, ¿qué transformaciones recoge y cuáles no?, ¿qué grado de protagonismo conceden las y los cineastas a los personajes femeninos?, ¿qué tipo de personajes femeninos son los que aparecen en las películas?, ¿cómo son los personajes masculinos?, ¿asume el cine los cambios y los conflictos que surgen en un nuevo escenarioéstos generan?, ¿cuál es la mirada hegemónica? Estas son algunas de las preguntas que esta Tesis se plantea. En la redacción de esta investigación convergen dos líneas metodológicas. Por un lado la hhistoria de las mujeres y la hhistoria de género que analiza e historia la realidad desde la categoría género, y por otro lado la historia cultural de las representaciones que disecciona cómo el cine construye las identidades. Partimos de la base de que esta construcción de modelos de feminidades y masculinidades influye en la creación de imaginarios de género desde los que se interpretan las realidades sociales, políticas y culturales. En su elaboración confluyen factores ideológicos, políticos, económicos, sociales y culturales. Por ello, en la primera parte, eminentemente teórica, se ofrece el marco histórico, teórico y metodológico necesario para analizar las relaciones entre Hhistoria y cine y de forma específica las implicaciones que tiene el uso del cine como fuente para la escritura de la hhistoria de género. Esa parte teórica e hhistórica la conforman dos capítulos. En el capítulo primero se analizan las relaciones entre cine e historia. Pocos científicos y científicas sociales pueden negar ya la relevancia y necesidad de considerar el cine como una fuente histórica de primera magnitud. El cine tiene potencialidades específicas para la ciencia histórica por su capacidad de captar el momento y por su capacidad de trasmitir, a partir de las reconstrucciones que de la realidad elaboran las y los cineastas, actitudes, pensamientos y formas de actuar. De lo general hemos ido a lo particular en un intento de establecer nuevos trazos historiográficos a partir del análisis de las relaciones existentes entre cine, hhistoria cultural, historia de las mujeres, e hhistoria de género. Se impone la necesidad de analizar cómo el lenguaje cinematográfico construye los discursos de género. A partir de la década de los 60, la teoría fílmica feminista anglosajona puso de manifiesto que el cine ha sido y es un poderoso instrumento de dominación de la identidad femenina. Para establecer un marco histórico de referencia, es necesario hacer un recorrido por las obras más relevantes de estas teóricas. El marco se completa con un análisis de las obras que en España se han ocupado del estudio de las relaciones entre cine y mujeres desde diferentes disciplinas del saber y desde diversos puntos de vista. A partir de este bagaje histórico se presenta una propuesta metodológica novedosa que combina conceptos, métodos y procesos de la narrativa cinematográfica con la teoría feminista y que será el marco teórico desde el que se analicen las películas seleccionadas para esta investigación. Cierra esta primera parte teórica, en el capítulo segundo, un estudio histórico referente a las cineastas españolas. Una investigación dedicada al análisis de las representaciones desde un punto de vista de género debe destacar la presencia de las cineastas cuya nómina, como se verá con detalle, ha sido y sigue siendo escasa. Debemos entender la presencia de éstas en una industria patriarcal desde sus cimientos y debemos valorar las consecuencias que tiene su trabajo en las representaciones de feminidades y masculinidades de una forma trasversal. En el capítulo tercero se hace un breve recorrido histórico por los cambios en la situación de las mujeres. El período objeto de estudio es amplio. También la mirada, ya que el objetivo principal de esta tesis es analizar las representaciones que diferentes cineastas realizan de la feminidad y la masculinidad para escribir una historia de las representaciones de género tomando el cine español como fuente. Este objetivo se establece para analizar la construcción que el cine español del período de la primera democracia realiza de las identidades de género. Los modelos y roles de género desde los que se crean los personajes de la ficción cinematográfica, reconstruyen una realidad fílmica sobre unos referentes reconocibles en la sociedad que reflejan las relaciones de poder entre los mismos e influyen a su vez en cómo se percibe e interpreta laesta realidad. Para la consecución de este objetivo principal se han planteado tres objetivos específicos. El primero de ellos es analizar las rupturas que se dan en las identidades femeninas y masculinas en el tránsito de transformación de un régimen político dictatorial a un régimen democrático. Analizadas estas rupturas es necesario ver que conflictos generan, si existen resistencias y rebeldías y si es así, cuáles son las nuevas formas de relación entre géneros. Para facilitar estas lecturas, en el capítulo tercero se realiza una breve introducción histórica referente a los cambios que afectan a la condición de las mujeres. El segundo objetivo es analizar estas rupturas conflictos y resistencias a partir de una metodología que combina la teoría feminista con la narrativa fílmica. Así, grado de protagonismo de personajes femeninos y masculinos en las tramas, modelos y estereotipos que estos personajes representan, usos de los espacios públicos y privados, representación de los cuerpos y las sexualidades, de las maternidades, del amor y la representación de la violencia de género son los aspectos principales que se van a estudiar. Este marco metodológico posibilita diseccionar las relaciones género desde diferentes dimensiones. El tercer objetivo específico es ver cómo se representan las rupturas, conflictos y resistencias desde el punto de vista de las directoras y los directores. Nos proponemos estudiarver si existe una forma de posición concreta ante la representación de la realidad de los directores y directoras, ante la representación de la realidad por pertenecer a un género concreto. Con el objeto de estudiar estas cuestiones, esta Ttesis desarrolla tres estudios de caso concretos. Así, la segunda parte de la investigación recorre un corpus cinematográfico compuesto por veintiséis películas rodadas entre los años 1977 y 2000. Veintiuna de las películas están dirigidas por directores, y cinco por directoras. Estas películas se dividen en tres grupos temáticos y cronológicos que a su vez coinciden con géneros y corrientes cinematográficas. El criterio de selección de las películas se ha realizado teniendo en cuenta diversos factores como el protagonismo femenino, el impacto social, tanto en el momento de su rodaje como su recepción posterior y su éxito en taquilla. El primer grupo, que forman parte del capitulo cuarto, lo conforma el denominado cine social y político de la Transición. Las películas seleccionadas son Vámonos, Bárbara, de Cecilia Bartolomé, Tigres de papel, de Fernando Colomo, Asignatura pendiente, de José Luis Garci, todas ellas del año 1977, Gary Cooper que estás en los cielos, de Pilar Miró, del año 1980 y Función de noche, de Josefina Molina del año 1981. En estas cinco películas rodadas en un breve lapso de tiempo (1977-1981), en clave política y social y desde diversos registros que van desde el drama a la comedia, se recoge de forma visible la nueva situación de mujeres y hombres en la sociedad española y las rupturas en sus formas de relacionarse e interactuar. La incorporación de un considerable número de mujeres a la vida laboral, la conquista del espacio público, el divorcio y el aborto marcan las temáticas de estas películas que son una fuente histórica de primera mano para ver cómo se transformaron las relaciones entre mujeres y hombres como consecuencia de la nueva realidad democrática. Las películas de las cineastas se han seleccionado por su peso específico en la historia del cine español, por su marcado protagonismo femenino y por ser las primeras que desde un más que evidente punto de vista de género abordan las problemáticas específicas de las mujeres en los inicios de la democracia. Las películas de Colomo y Garci se han seleccionado, además de por su éxito de público y por iniciar en el caso de Colomo una nueva forma de hacer cine que se desarrollará de forma notable en las siguientes décadas, porque permite analizar, desde el punto de vista masculino que sus películas adoptan, las transformaciones ya apuntadas. En el segundo grupo, en el capítulo quinto, el período de estudio abarca un marco cronológico más amplio, del año 1979 al año 1995, y, lo integran once películas. Todas tienen un denominador común, son comedias, diez de ellas dirigidas por directores y una dirigida por una directora. La comedia, uno de los géneros cinematográficos de gran arraigo en el cine español se transforma en los años 80, de la mano de cineastas como Fernando Colomo, cuya ópera prima forma parte del primer grupo, y Fernando Trueba. Es la denominada comedia madrileña que en los años 90, Manuel Gómez Pereira y su equipo de guionistas reinterpretan como comedia sentimental en la que la guerra de sexos tiene una gran presencia. Son películas que cuentan con el respaldo del público y que desde la perspectiva de las relaciones heterosexuales entre mujeres y hombres permiten analizar de qué manera ha asumido la sociedad las transformaciones apuntadas en el primer grupo de películas y qué conflictos generan. En el caso de las películas de Trueba y Colomo este análisis se realiza desde el punto de vista de los personajes masculinos. Trueba con Ópera prima (1979), Sal gorda (1984) y Sé infiel y no mires con quién (1985), retrata nuevas reacciones masculinasidades y posibilita el estudio de nuevos personajes femeninos que si bien son secundarios reflejan los cambios desde un punto de vista propio. Colomo con La vida alegre (1987), Miss Caribe (1988) y Bajarse al moro (1989) va más allá de mostrar las relaciones entre mujeres y hombres y se interesa por temas como la prostitución desde una forma nunca vista con anterioridad en el cine español y por personajes que viven en los márgenes. Cómo ser mujer y no morir en el intento (1991), dirigida por Ana Belén, adaptación cinematográfica de la novela homónima de la escritora Carmen Rico Godoy, escrita en el año 19901, con ironía y mordacidad pone sobre la mesa las nuevas problemáticas sociales y personales derivadas de la masiva incorporación de las mujeres a la vida laboral, desde el punto de vista de las mujeres. Gómez Pereira con Salsa rosa (1991), Por qué lo llaman amor cuando le quieren decir sexo? (1993) y Todos los hombres sois iguales (1994) disecciona las relaciones de pareja (heterosexuales) desde un nuevo escenario marcado por las consecuencias de los divorcios y la resistencia de las masculinidades patriarcales al cambio. Álvaro Fernández Armero también sigue la estela que iniciara la comedia madrileña. Al igual que en éstas películas, los y las protagonista son jóvenes, pero pertenecen a otra generación. El ambiente cambia notablemente así como el público al que va dirigido, pero las problemáticas persisten. En definitiva, la popularidad de estas comedias y el tratamiento de las relaciones de pareja, ejes de las tramas, justifican la elección de las mismas ya que permiten realizar un profundo estudio de cómo asume y asimila la sociedad española las rupturas apuntadas en el primer grupo de películas. El tercer grupo de películas, reunidas en el capítulo sexto, son películas rodadas en la década de los 90. Se trata de películas que desde el punto de vista cronológico coinciden con parte de las películas del capítulo anterior, pero que se diferencian de éstas por estar protagonizadas de forma exclusiva por personajes jóvenes. El nexo de unión en este caso es el protagonismo de la juventud perteneciente a la generación, pero a diferencia de las comedias de Fernando Trueba y Fernando Colomo, es la juventud de la generació de los hijos y las hijas de la democracia. Por medio del análisis de diez películas, que abarcan diferentes géneros cinematográficos y temáticas como las películas generacionales, la comedia canalla, el cine protagonizado por jóvenes marginales o el cine protagonizado por mujeres, se estudian las vivencias y problemáticas propias de una nueva generación. Éstas permiten analizar de qué manera ha superado la juventud española, si es que lo ha hecho, las problemáticas a las que se enfrentaban sus mayores y a qué nuevas y específicas realidades se enfrentan. Entre la extensa producción de la década se han seleccionado diez películas, que a su vez se han agrupado en dos bloques. De un lado Historias del Kronen (1995) dirigida por Montxo Armendáriz y Páginas de una historia. Mensaka (1998) que destacan, de forma especial la primera, por visibilizar la forma de vida y ocio de la generación X. De otro, Más que amor, frenesí (1996) y Atómica (1997) dirigidas la primera por Alfonso Albacete, Miguel Bardem y David Menkes y por Albacete y Menkes la segunda, películas canallas que tras una pátina de modernidad esconden comportamientos reaccionarios. Cierran el corpus un grupo de películas en las que el protagonismo de las mujeres jóvenes es más que relevante. Este protagonismo vehicula la creación de nuevos modelos que enriquecen el panorama cinematográfico y que desde un punto de vista femenino posibilitan nuevos análisis. Las cuatro primeras películas de Daniel Calparsoro Salto al vacío (1995), Pasajes (1996), A ciegas (1997) y Asfalto (2000) conforman una tetralogía cuyo nexo principal son los personajes interpretados por la actriz Najwa Nimri. Cierran este segundo grupo las películas Hola, estas sola? (1995) primera película de Icíar Bollaín, y Amor, curiosidad, prozac y dudas (2001), dirigida por Miguel Santesmases, basada en la primera novela de Lucía Etxebarría escrita en 1997. Se trata de sendas propuestas en las que las protagonistas visibilizan la dificultad de construir una identidad propia por la falta de referentes válidos con los que enfrentarse a la realidad. Cierra esta investigación las conclusiones extraídas, una bibliografía temática y un apartado de anexos, que se adjuntan en formato cd, donde se recogen por una parte información referente a las cineastas de los 90, las fichas técnicas de las películas seleccionadas y finalmente un diccionario de mujeres cineastas que abarca desde los orígenes hasta el año 2000. ; [EN] This research aims to analyze the representations that the Spanish cinema of the Century built on femininities and masculinities . In the last quarter of the twentieth century, the Spanish company assists after four decades of brutal dictatorship , one of his most profound revolutions , the radical transformation of the status of women and thus the transformation of the whole society . Cinema is no stranger to this new reality and from different points of view reflects these changes, which in turn renew the frames and film genres . How do you interpret this new reality cinema women , and what transformations collects and what not , and what degree of prominence granted the filmmakers and female characters , and what type of female characters are appearing in movies , how are the male characters ? do you assume the film changes and conflicts that arise in a new escenarioéstos generated? , what is the hegemonic gaze ? These are some of the questions posed by this thesis . In writing this research two methodological lines converge . On the one hand hhistoria women and gender hhistoria analyzing reality and history from the gender category , and secondly the cultural history of representations that dissects how the film builds identities . We assume that this construction of femininity and masculinity models influences the creation of imaginary gender from the social, political and cultural realities are interpreted. In preparing converge ideological , political, economic , social and cultural factors.

IEn vísperas de cumplirse una década de los atentados del 11 de Septiembre de 2001 (11-S), los tiempos agitados no se detienen. Por simplemente señalar un corte, en el último lustro la atención mundial ha discurrido desde los fracasos militares de Estados Unidos en Iraq y Afganistán, pasando por una enorme crisis económica originada en los países más desarrollados, el recambio político en Washington con la llegada del primer presidente afroamericano de la historia de este país, un nuevo y cruento bloqueo a Gaza por parte de Israel, una brevísima guerra en el Cáucaso con Rusia como protagonista, los gestos cada vez más manifiestos del ascenso de China a la condición de super-potencia, el estallido del carrusel de rebeliones en el Mundo Islámico a comienzos de este año, la actual y ambigua intervención militar bajo rótulo humanitario en Libia, hasta llegar recientemente a la muerte de Osama Bin Laden días atrás, siendo éstos sólo algunos de los sucesos más importantes a señalar. Si algo queda claro es que hay demasiado para analizar.En tal sentido, artículos como Imperial by design de John J. Mearsheimer (2011), dondees abordado el rumbo estratégico reciente, actual y futuro de la primera potencia mundial, constituyen una interesante oportunidad para alentar y actualizar el debate sobre las características emergentes en el sistema internacional y sobre el status de sus principales actores. En él, Mearsheimer monta una crítica abierta a la grand strategy que a su criterio ha imperado en la conducción de los asuntos externos de Estados Unidos desde la finalización de la Guerra Fría y cuyoleit motif ha consistido en garantizar por distintos medios —más multilaterales en ciertos momentos, más unilaterales en otros— la dominación global del país, su primacía absoluta. El artículo de alguna manera viene a cristalizar el disgusto de los más renombrados académicos realistas respecto al desempeño en política exterior de la administración Obama, con un llamamiento para una reorientación del timón en la línea del off-shore balance,que aleje al país del espiral de problemas que lo acechan.En el número 117 de Letras Internacionales, el Profesor Nicolás Terradas efectuó lo que a nuestro criterio es una afortunada reseña de Imperial by design donde identifica con lucidez una contradicción central en la lógica del académico de la Universidad de Chicago: su propuesta "alternativa" a la postre peca del mismo ambicioso objetivo que ha perseguido Washington desde 1989, esto es, "permanecer en la cumbre". Desde una más pertinente perspectiva realista, lo atinado sería administrar su declive y no negarlo, siguiendo el ejemplo histórico de Gran Bretaña a fines del siglo XIX y comienzos del XX. La presente contribución tiene como objeto retomar estos aspectos y complementar estas visiones en juego a partir de la consideración de ciertos elementos que entendemos necesarios. Retomaremos de manera puntual dos líneas interpretativas provenientes de la Economía Política Internacional (EPI) y necesarias para re-enmarcar la dinámica política actual, así como la prospectiva que enfrenta Estados Unidos. La primera es la lógica del mecanismo de cambio y redistribución de poder a nivel mundial identificado en su momento por Robert Gilpin y la segunda es la propuesta interpretativa de Immanuel Wallerstein sobre la relocalización de la estructura productiva global.IIPreocupado precisamente por el estudio del cambio a nivel internacional, Gilpin escribe a comienzos de los '80 su célebre War and Change in World Politics(1981). Allí explica que la principal constante histórica en la política mundial es su dinámica de cambio, la cual se haya determinada por la generación de incongruencias o disyunciones entre la distribución de poder político, militar, económico y tecnológico y la estructura del sistema internacional (hegemónica, bipolar o multipolar). Las incongruencias son inevitables a causa del constante crecimiento desigual de poder entre las potencias en ascenso y las potencias en declive. Esto conduce a un desequilibrio sistémico que, si se conjuga con ciertas percepciones y un cálculo costo-beneficio que empuje a una o varias potencias desafiantes hacia la opción del cambio, tarde o temprano dará paso a una fase de resolución crítica de la incongruencia. Allí, ya sea de manera pacífica —como en el ejemplo transitorio del Pacto de Münich— o bien a través de la guerra hegemónica, se alumbrará una nueva distribución de poder que por un tiempo reflejará un incipiente equilibrio en relación a una nueva estructura de Estados dominantes.La inclusión de una aproximación histórica a esta lógica lleva a Gilpin a reconocer una fase contemporánea en la política internacional signada por a) el triunfo del Estado-Nación como la principal unidad, b) el advenimiento de un crecimiento económico relativamente continuo basado en la ciencia moderna y la tecnología, y c) la emergencia de una economía mundial de mercado (1981: 116). Tales factores explican que "the champions of an interdependent world market economy have been politically the most powerful and economically the most efficient nations. Both elements, hegemony and efficiency, are necessary preconditions for a society to champion the creation of an interdependent market economy. Hegemony without efficiency tends to move toward imperial-type economies, as is the case in the Soviet bloc. National economic efficiency without a corresponding political-military strength may not be able to induce other powerful societies to assume the costs of a market system" (129). Por tanto, en el marco de la dinámica de cambio descrita y de las particularidades de la época, poderío militar y eficiencia económica son las claves que una potencia debe asegurar ya sea para aspirar con éxito a mantener el status quo o bien buscar su revisión. A ello debe sumarse la voluntad política de la acción y el liderazgo. Ahora bien, en un trabajo más reciente este mismo académico llama sin embargo la atención que el liderazgo estadounidense en la economía mundial se ha debilitado notoriamente en el nuevo siglo. Identifica las causas de ello en el flaqueante consenso doméstico sobre el rumbo de los asuntos económicos y en la erosión de los lazos de cooperación con los principales aliados que condujeron a que la política exterior y la política económica sea más unilateral y autocentrada (Gilpin, 2000: 10-11). Pero en breve retomaremos el status actual de la gran potencia, volvamos antes al otro complemento de análisis que estimamos necesario también traer a colación. Se trata como anticipáramos de la interpretación clásica de Wallerstein sobre elsistema-mundo. Partiendo tanto de la tradición marxista como de la Escuela de los Annales, este sociólogo estadounidense entiende que en la historia de la Humanidad se han manifestado tres grandes clases de sistemas sociales: a) los mini-sistemas, pequeñas sociedades homogéneas y relativamente autónomas, como por ejemplo las organizaciones tribales; b) los imperios-mundo, basados en una economía de extracción de recursos y beneficios desde las periferias y semiperiferias hacia el centro político, extracción garantizada por un dominio político directo y con una autoridad político-administrativa única; y c) las economías-mundo, donde la economía extractiva persiste pero sin un sistema político unificado y sin la necesidad de una dominación directa. Ahora bien, para Wallerstein los últimos cinco siglos se han caracterizado por la expansión global de la economía-mundo capitalista europea, proceso en el que fue desarrollando sus propias reglas, estructuras, normas y funcionamiento en virtud de su lógica interna. Dentro de ella, el vínculo básico entre las partes del sistema es económico, aunque reforzado en cierta medida por vínculos culturales y eventualmente por arreglos políticos e incluso estructuras confederales. Las realidades geopolíticas de su sistema interestatal no se basan exclusivamente en larapport de forces militares entre las grandes potencias sino también y fundamentalmente en la división axial internacional del trabajo. En efecto,"[l]a economía-mundo capitalista es un sistema que incluye un desigualdad jerárquica de distribución basada en la concentración de ciertos tipos de producción (producción relativamente monopolizada, y por lo tanto de alta rentabilidad) en ciertas zonas limitadas, que por eso mismo pasan inmediatamente a ser sedes de la mayor acumulación de capital. Esa concentración permite el reforzamiento de las estructuras estatales, que a su vez buscan garantizar la supervivencia de los monopolios correspondientes. Pero como los monopolios son intrínsecamente frágiles, a lo largo de toda la historia del sistema mundial moderno esos centros de concentración han ido reubicándose en forma constante, discontinua y limitada, pero significativa" (Wallerstein, 1998: 29).Por tanto, lo que Wallerstein observa es que la concentración y relocalización de las industrias o actividades económicas más dinámicas a nivel mundial, proceso intrínseco al capitalismo y particularmente visible a través de las fases cíclicas de éste último, es la variable fundamental a observar en cuanto a la redistribución internacional de poder. Ciertamente este fenómeno no es caótico pues puede presentarse el caso de una potencia que sea hegemónica, es decir, con capacidad de imponer por cierto tiempo de un orden estable de poder y que será reconocido como "legítimo" por los principales actores políticos. En tal caso, señala, estaremos en una etapa de relativa "paz" interestatal. De esta forma, tenemos aquí dos importantes aspectos tomados de la EPI para terminar de evaluar la propuesta del off-shore balance de Mearsheimer en particular, y los rumbos actuales y futuros de Estados Unidos en general: por parte de Gilpin, el reconocimiento de la inevitabilidad del cambio internacional en virtud del desigual crecimiento en atributos de poder entre las potencias, y por parte de Wallerstein, la atención sobre el fenómeno de la relocalización mundial de las fuerzas productivas.IIICon estos insumos, obtenemos una imagen más dinámica en la que Estados Unidos se inserta como actual hegemón, condición heredada de la finalización de la Guerra Fría, pero respecto del cual se vienen ya advirtiendo claras señales de declive, en conjunción con fuertes síntomas de ascenso de nuevas potencias, muy en especial China. En otro reciente artículo, Paul Kennedy (2010) una vez más ha vuelto a insistir con su tesis sobre la declinación de la gran potencia, identificando debilidades tanto en la capacidad de proyección de su soft power como en el desempeño económico, fuertemente golpeado por la última crisis económica. En su conclusión señala con inevitabilidad que:"the ebb and tides of history will take away [the american] hegemony, as surely as autumn replaces the high summer months with fruit rather than flower. America's global position is at present strong, serious, and very large. But it is still, frankly, abnormal. It will come down a ratchet or two more. It will return from being an oversized world power to being a big nation, but one which needs to be listened to, and one which, for the next stretch, is the only country that can supply powerful heft to places in trouble. It will still be really important, but less so than it was".Un proceso central en esta tendencia, siguiendo a Wallerstein, es la transferencia de capacidad productiva desde Norteamérica (y Europa) hacia China y el sudeste asiático. Grandes corporaciones como General Electrics, Emerson, Honeywell y Rockwell han movido buena parte de sus plantas fabriles hacia allí. Incluso, parte de la base industrial de defensa ha sido relocalizada en el extranjero o depende de insumos provenientes de aquel país y aquella región, lo que para un informe reciente de AFL-CIO constituye una seria amenaza para la seguridad nacional. Asimismo, el rezago productivo de Norteamérica también se observa al revisar por ejemplo el último ranking Fortune 500 donde se encuentran sólo dos compañías estadounidenses entre las 10 principales a nivel mundial, WalMart (1°) y Exxon Mobile (3°), mientras que ya hay tres chinas en el top ten, Sinopec (7°), State Grid (8°) y China National Petroleum (10°). De continuar estas tendencias,estimaciones recientes indican que alrededor del año 2019 —o bien en el primer lustro de la década siguiente— el Producto Bruto Interno chino superará por primera vez en la historia al estadounidense. A estas consideraciones debe sumarse que Estados Unidos está financiando su supremacía militar y la onerosa guerra en Afganistán mediante su déficit fiscal y gracias en especial a la chequera china. Beijing es hoy el principal acreedor en el mundo y el primer acreedor de Estados Unidos con 800 mil millones de dólares en bonos del Tesoro, mientras que Washington ostenta la seria condición de primer deudor mundial con 14 billones de deuda pública. La relación se complejiza además por el sostenido desbalance en cuenta corriente entre ambos países y en particular en la balanza comercial (273 mil millones de dólares en 2010 a favor del país asiático). Si bien en contrapartida China todavía queda por detrás de Estados Unidos en diversos indicadores de poder, razón que vuelve arriesgado dar por segura una transferencia fundamental de poder entre ambas naciones (Walt, 2011), no debe perderse tampoco de vista que, como indica Gideon Rachman: "China's spending on its military continues to grow rapidly. The country will soon announce the construction of its first aircraft carrier and is aiming to build five or six in total. Perhaps more seriously, China's development of new missile and anti-satellite technology threatens the command of the sea and skies on which the United States bases its Pacific supremacy. In a nuclear age, the U.S. and Chinese militaries are unlikely to clash. A common Chinese view is that the United States will instead eventually find it can no longer afford its military position in the Pacific. U.S. allies in the region —Japan, South Korea, and increasingly India— may partner more with Washington to try to counter rising Chinese power. But if the United States has to scale back its presence in the Pacific for budgetary reasons, its allies will start to accommodate themselves to a rising China. Beijing's influence will expand, and the Asia-Pacific region —the emerging center of the global economy— will become China's backyard".Esto es parte de lo que el ascenso chino puede generar en términos geopolíticos en relación a Estados Unidos. Y es en este escenario, es en esta dirección del análisis que piensa Mearsheimer (2011) cuando propone que "the United States should concentrate on making sure that no state dominates Northeast Asia, Europe or the Persian Gulf, and that it remains the world's only regional hegemon. […] We should build a robust military to intervene in those areas, but it should be stationed offshore or back in the United States". Sin embargo, tal lógica parece no abarcar la complejidad mayor del desafío que enfrenta la gran potencia. Por caso, los aspectos anteriormente señalados, tomados de la EPI, resultan materia que la estrategia del off-shore balance no resuelve. ¿Qué hacer frente a la aparentemente irrefrenable transferencia de capacidad productiva hacia el Sudeste Asiático? ¿Cómo acomodar el rumbo estratégico de un país que pretende conservar su supremacía frente a la ley de crecimiento diferencial de poder, frente al inevitable proceso histórico de ascenso y descenso de potencias? Ahora bien, estos dilemas tampoco están pasando desatendidos —sería iluso creerlo—, a tal punto que en abril pasado el Pentágono autorizó la publicación de un ensayo elaborado por dos oficiales del Estado Mayor Conjunto, bajo el pseudónimo "Mr. Y", en el que articulan una narrativa sobre el rumbo actual y futuro del país. Se trata de A National Strategic Narrative, donde buscan corregir un cúmulo de políticas públicas relativas a inversiones, seguridad, desarrollo económico, ambiente e inserción internacional en el siglo XXI, dejando atrás el obsoleto interés nacional de la contención en pos de la sustentabilidad en materia de prosperidad y seguridad, y respondiendo a un cambiante mundo signado por la complejidad, la multimodalidad e interconexión de los desafíos. Intentando emular el impacto político de George Kennan y su The Sources of Soviet Conduct(1947), los autores sintetizan una visión guía en la que Estados Unidos debe convertirse en "the strongest competitor and most influential player in a deeply inter-connected global system, which requires that we invest less in defense and more in sustainable prosperity and the tools of effective global engagement". Para ello, es necesario el equivalente moderno del NSC 68, unaNational Prosperity and Security Act cuyo fin sea apuntalar la capacidad innovadora y emprendedora del país, verdaderas fuentes —a su entender— del crecimiento cualitativo y del poder con que cuenta Estados Unidos.En tal sentido, nos parece aquí que este tipo de propuesta, más allá de las valoraciones subjetivas a favor o en contra que despierten sobre la gran potencia, más allá de los disensos u errores que puedan señalarse sobre sus postulados o afirmaciones, es la clase de análisis y pensamiento estratégico-prescriptivo que más atinadamente da cuenta de las nuevas realidades internacionales. *Candidato doctoral, Universidad Nacional de General San Martín (UNSAM, Argentina). Investigador del Centro de Estudios Interdisciplinarios en Problemáticas Internacionales y Locales (CEIPIL-UNCPBA).Referencias bibliográficasGilpin, Robert: War and Change in World Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981). Gilpin, Robert: The Challenge of Global Capitalism (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000).Kennedy, Paul: "Back to Normalcy. Is America really in decline?", The New Republic(December 30, 2010), pp. 10-11.Mearsheimer, John J.: "Imperial by Design", The National Interest, No. 111 (Jan/Feb 2011), pp. 16-34.Rachman, Gideon: "Think Again: American Decline", Foreign Policy (Jan/Feb 2011). Disponible enhttp://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/01/02/think_again_american_decline