Suchergebnisse

Die Arbeit wird, nach einer Erläuterung des "First Amendment Article" der Verfassung der USA anhand der wesentlichen Supreme Court Entscheidungen, die Komplexität der Säkularisierung aufzeigen und erläutern, ob und wann eine Einschränkung der Religionsfreiheit notwendig erscheint. Hierzu wird die Glaubensgemeinde Ku Klux Klan näher betrachtet.Dann wird herausgearbeitet, welche politisch-philosophischen Überlegungen als Motivator für den Supreme Court gelten, Religion weitläufig zu verstehen und dennoch ihre Ausübung immer mehr eingeschränkt zu haben. Bei diesem Arbeitsschritt wird aufgezeigt, was den Supreme Court anhand der Smith-Entscheidung dazu veranlasst hat, dem Case-Law eine Wende zu geben.Der letzte Teil erläutert, was sich hinter dem Begriff Religion verbirgt. Rousseau und Durkheim stellten in ihren Arbeiten heraus, dass es etwas Religiöses geben müsse, das als Gesellschaftsleitfaden fundiere. Doch Rousseau sieht die Akzeptanz einer göttlichen Existenz als notwendig zum Eintritt in die Gesellschaft. Mit der Bekenntnis jedes einzelnen zur Religion, die er als Zivilreligion versteht, schafft er den Grundstein für Harmonisierung.Zivilreligion, wie sie Durkheim begreifen würde, würde diesen göttlichen Moment nicht voraussetzen, denn für ihn muss Gott nicht existieren. Denn der Begriff Religion sei nur als ein Überbegriff für ein gesellschaftliches Leitbild zu verstehen. Daraus logisch folgend wird auch Religionsfreiheit wesentlich unterschiedlich bewertet, wenn es sich um "Religiosität" handelt. Während Rousseau nur positive Religionsfreiheit anerkennt, verfechtet Durkheim volle Religionsfreiheit.Alleine diese beiden unterschiedlichen Auffassungen zeigen: Religion ist wandelbar, sowie ihre juridische Auslegungen. Vom Supreme Court wurde das, was als schützenswertes Gut angesehen wird, nie bestimmt. Zwar wurden seine Ausübungsrahmen und seine Abgrenzungen zum Staatlichen aufgezeigt, doch nie definiert, was Religion ist. ; The paper analyses the First Amendment of the Constitution of the US and figures out the difficulties of secularization by analyzing the most popular Supreme Court decisions. It deals with the question, from which point on it is necessary to restrict religious freedom. Concerning that the thesis will have a special focus on the religious group called "Ku Klux Klan".Then, the proposition investigates, which political and also philosophic background of the Supreme Court decisions can be carved out as the basement for the wide interpretation of religion and religious freedom, especially at the beginning of the 2Oth century. On the basis of the Smith-Decision the freedom of religion is restricted nowadays. The last part of the paper identifies the meaning of the term "religion". The question is, whether religion is more than part of the society, but has a specific function to rule society.Jean-Jacques Rousseau as well as Emile Durkheim identify religion as a necessary guideline for every kind of society. However Rousseau argues for the necessity of believing in the existence of god being part of the association and become a citizen. By having a denomination of every citizen he can install a system of rules, which everyone will accept, because the basement of everyone?s social ideas comes from the same religious conviction. He calls that the "civil religion".In contrast to that Durkheim does not ask for belief in the existence of god. In his opinion the term ?religion? is just any concept, which has the function to rule society or at least plays the role as a guideline. By comparing these two concepts there are two different types of religious freedom. Rousseau will just allow positive religious freedom, while Durkheim accepts also a negative one.Just by examine the two argumentations it is clearly pointed out, that religion is even for the US Supreme Court hardly to determine and therefore the interpretation of the court of justice is in a constant change. ; vorgelegt von Tina Alexandra Kaufmann ; Abweichender Titel laut Übersetzung der Verfasserin/des Verfassers ; Zsfassung in dt. und engl. Sprache ; Graz, Univ., Masterarb., 2014 ; (VLID)243160

The Mapuche people are natives of Chile and Argentina. Today, they live a sociopolitical conflict against the Chilean and Argentinean states. Before the Spanish invasion, this people had a decentralized sociopolitical structure and only in times of war they would designate a centralized authority provisionally. Nonetheless, the lengthy war against the Spanish meant the appearance of a new social order which made permanent this centralized authority and caused social, politico-administrative, economical and religious changes. This evolution resulted in the appearance of a new centralized structure. Nowadays, we can distinguish new territorial identities in the mapuche people based not only in a number of traditional aspects but also in other aspects assimilated during the colonization. The poverty condition in which the rural population lives has caused a significant urban migration that explains the existence of at least two different mapuche realities. The arduous insertion in the economic activities and in the employment, positions this population in poverty conditions. However, they find themselves able to access a higher education level in the Chilean system. This generates the conditions for the appearance of mapuche intellectuals, who promote the mapuche mobilization, which is reinforced by a relationship with both states which is marked by the political exclusion and by the application of assimilation public policies. In this process, the creation of organizations has led to the strengthening of a mapuche movement in the 1980's demanding the compensation for all the grievances they were subjected to and to demand the acknowledgment of their existence in the territory in Chile and Argentina. This movement takes place in the rural and urban areas as well as in Europe. This movement has been through several phases that have implied the emergence of different demands and strategies making evident the presence of currents in the mapuche movement. In this background emerges our research question: is the mapuche movement a social movement, a political movement or a new social movement? We approach this matter considering the local, national and international levels, applying the qualitative method to take into account the perception of the actors involved. This research is based in the theory of social movement and the theory of political movement, bearing in mind the context of Latin America, where the demands are frequently influenced by the multiplicity of cultures within the population, where the population has experienced several dictatorships, where there is an anti-imperialist element and considering also the fact that the mapuche movement shows signs, as well, of an implication in the Chilean political system. We also take into consideration the ethnical nature of the people studied in this research, which leads to the importance of incorporating the theories concerning the concept of identity, the concept of borders and the role of organizations. Last but not least, the creation and the role of organizations in the social mobilization is also particularly interesting in their function of recruitment, mobilization and establishment of social networks, to understand the functioning of the mapuche movement, both as a political movement and as a new social movement. ; (POLS - Sciences politiques et sociales) -- UCL, 2014

У статті розглянуто та проаналізовано етапи становлення британської системи підвищення кваліфікації педагогічних кадрів. Система підготовки і перепідготовки педагогічних кадрів Великої Британії набула рис структурованості, централізованості й ієрархічності. Відбулася зміна поглядів і уявлень учителів на процес навчання. Структурні реформи, які відбувалися в освіті Великої Британії з другої половини ХХ – на початку ХХІ ст., мали неперервний характер, продовжувалися протягом кількох політичних циклів, що дало змогу забезпечити їх послідовність та ефективність. Центральне місце в реформуванні британської педагогічної системи на початку ХХІ століття (етап наукового педагогічного професіоналізму) займає професіоналізація вчительських курсів. Поняття «відповідність» стало найбільш важливим поняттям у педагогічній освітній політиці.В статье рассмотрены и проанализированы этапы становления британской системы повышения квалификации педагогических кадров. Система подготовки и переподготовки педагогических кадров Великобритании приобрела черты структурированности, централизованности и иерархичности. Произошло изменение взглядов и представлений учителей на процесс обучения. Структурные реформы, которые происходили в образовании Великобритании со второй половины ХХ – начала XXІ столетия имели непрерывный характер, продолжались в течении нескольких политических циклов, что позволило обеспечить их последовательность и эффективность. Центральное место в реформировании педагогической системы в начале ХХІ столетия (этап научного педагогического профессионализма) занимает профессионализация курсов для учителей. Понятие «соответствие» стало наиболее важным понятием в педагогической образовательной политике.The article considers and analyzes the stages of formation of the British system of training teachers. System of training and retraining of teachers in Great Britain acquired the features of structure, centralization and hierarchy. There has been a change in attitudes and perceptions of teachers in the learning process. Structural reforms that have taken place in the formation of the UK in the second half of XX - beginning of XXI century had continuous, continued for several political cycles, thus ensuring their consistency and effectiveness. The centerpiece of the reform of the educational system in the early twenty-first century (step scientific pedagogical professionalism) takes professionalization of courses for teachers. The concept of «conformity» has become the most important concept in teaching educational policy. British system of training of teaching staff is one of the oldest in Europe. Beginning in the late nineteenth century to the present time, it evolves as a complex social organism, the key characteristics of which is the relationship between education and self-education courses, openness, democratic management, variety, flexibility, form and content of training and selection methods of professional skills by teachers.Nowadays teacher training in Great Britain is realized at universities, polytechnics and colleges of higher education. From 1st August 1975 the system of teacher training in England is being reorganized. All higher and further education outside the universities including teacher training is being assimilated into a common system. Teacher education refers to the policies and procedures designed to equip teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the school and classroom. In early times, teachers were often scholars or clergymen who had no formal training in how to teach the subjects of their expertise. It was not until the emergence of pedagogy, the «art and science of teaching,» as an accepted discipline that the training of teachers was considered important.

Розкрито соціально-економічний чинник як детермінант нормативно-законодавчого регулювання змісту дошкільної освіти УРСР в історико-педагогічному онтогенезі. Охарактеризовано зміст нормативно-законодавчих механізмів освітньої діяльності та їх зміни відповідно до соціально-економічних, політичних, ідеологічних та культурних впливів в УРСР. Ретроспективний аналіз становлення і розвитку змісту дошкільної освіти в радянській Україні показав, що динаміка його розвитку містить як рушійні, так і гальмівні процеси, що відбувалися під безпосереднім централізованим та уніфікованим регулюванням з боку держави. Зроблено висновок про те, що державні освітні документи відображали своєрідність тогочасної суспільної теорії та практики дошкільної освіти у період від повоєнних часів до незалежності УРСР. В статье раскрыт социально-экономический фактор как детерминант нормативно-законодательного регулирования содержания дошкольного образования УССР в историко-педагогическом онтогенезе. Зделана характеристика содержания нормативно-законодательных механизмов образовательной деятельности и их изменения в соответствии к социально-экономическим, политическим, идеологическим и культурным влияниям в УССР. Ретроспективный анализ становления и развития содержания дошкольного образования в Советской Украине показал, что динамика его развития содержит как движущие, так и замедляющие процессы, происходившие под непосредственным централизованным и унифицированным регулированием со стороны руководства страны. Сделан вывод о том, что государственные образовательные документы отражали своеобразие общественной теории и практики дошкольного образования в период от послевоенных времен к независимости УССР. Social-economic factor as determinant of normative-legal regulation of the content of pre-school education of Ukrainian SSR in historic-pedagogical ontogenesis has been revealed. The content of normative-legal mechanisms of educational activity and their changes according to social-economic, political, ideological and cultural influences in Ukrainian SSR have been characterized. Retrospective analysis of formation and development of the content of pre-school education in the Soviet Ukraine showed that the dynamics of its development contains both motive and inhibitory processes, which took place under immediate and normative-legal regulation on the side of the state. Interdependence and interacting influence of normative-legal factor of the content of pre-school education with the social-economic one has been reflected, their determination has been grounded. The conclusion is made that the state educational documents reflected originality of social theory of that time and the practices of pre-school education in the period from the postwar years till the independence of Ukrainian SSR. According to the results of the research it is determined that development of the system of pre-school education in Ukraine in the mentioned period was characterized by the search of more perfect forms, methods, contextual filling of teaching and upbringing. It is found out that pre-school education was developing according to the needs and demands of the society, which were determined in decisions of party bodies, resolutions of congresses; the model of pre-school education is totalitarian, put on ideologic blinkers; the system of regulation is centralized and unified. Although slowly, with difficulties, the science steadily, and education practice together with it was moving away from authoritarianism and found the way of democratization of the content of pre-school education.

This paper analyzes how global body; theoretical and conceptual framework of the society as a single mega social, cultural and global organism; concepts and categories of the mega social context in synergetic methodology as attractors, repeler " cultural circle" , the development of culture in the context mega society; Cultural Dialogue in the global development community. It is proved that cultural interaction seems important structure- factor that binds the human community and discovers identify forms of activity. Looking at culture as the only social, cultural and global bodies, analyzes the problem field, which is considered in the context of the category of " attractor ", " repeler", " phylogeny ", " ontogeny ", " single social, cultural and global body", "magician Society" . Concepts and categories of analysis of culture as a unified social, cultural and global body are reduced to its analysis in the context of synergetic methodology. Analysis of the body as a cultural concept used by scientists who interpret culture similar to living biological organism, which is in its development stages of birth, growth, development, aging and dying. Culture is seen as the only social, cultural and global body that represents the dynamic integrity and reveals the interaction of all its components - the metaphysical and ideological, social, spiritual, political and economic. The concept of" a single social organism" includes in its components - the economy, law, religion, language, art, symbols, traditions and stereotypes, which is an integrated combination of interrelated elements. Analyzes that today in the context of globalization and increasingly active process of developing a dialogue of cultures of different nations in the economic , political and spiritual life , sharing a variety of information that contributes to understanding the role and importance of integration and trends that appear in the social life of the sovereign Ukraine. The interaction of cultures in the context of globalization is a special kind of direct relationships and connections that develop between cultures, as well as changes that develop in the course of that relationship; basic principle of operation of cultures in a globalized, shape identification and consequent integration trends in culture. It is concluded that the purpose of culture as a unified social body - achieve strengthening local identity and local participation in cultural life and promoting cultural infrastructure, cultural activities , not just the consumption of cultural property. ; В статье дается анализ мегасоциума как глобального организма; теоретико-понятийный аппарат мегасоциума как единого социального, культурного и глобального организма; раскрыт понятийно-категориальный аппарат мегасоциума в контексте синергетической методологии, как аттрактор, репелер, «культурный круг», развитие культуры в контексте мегасоциума; диалог культур в условиях глобального развития общества. Обосновывается, что культурное взаимодействие представляется наиболее важным структурообразующим фактором, который цементирует человеческое сообщество и раскрывает формы выявления ее деятельности. ; В статті дається аналіз мегасоціуму як глобального організму; теоретико-понятійний апарат мегасоціуму як єдиного соціального, культурного та глобального організму; виясняється понятійно-категоріальний апарат мегасоціму в контексті синергетичної методології, як атрактор, репелер, "культурне коло", розвиток культури в контексті мегасоціуму; діалогу культур в умовах глобального розвитку суспільства. Доводиться, що культурна взаємодія уявляється найважливішим структуроутворюючим фактором, який цементує людську спільноту і виявляє форми виявлення її діяльності.

Migration is a never-ending process of human displacement, which is very common for the 21st century. It is associated primarily with significant changes in the socio-economic structure of states and humanitarian challenges of modern society. Thus, unlike the conscious and voluntary migration, resettlement is often associated with the unprecedented transfer case of refugees and stateless persons as a result of wars, armed conflicts, genocide, political repression and other gross violations of human rights and freedoms. Speaking of migration we should pay a special attention to the fact that it directly results in such negative phenomena as illegal border crossing and human trafficking, which is not only the violation of both international and national legislature but also a shameful form of discrimination in the civilized world. In addition, a significant illegal movement of people is closely associated with the activities of transnational criminal groups, trafficking of drugs and weapons. Due to globalization, migration processes in the world have become of a massive and sometimes disordered nature. Therefore, migration and its irreplaceable negative components – displacement of humans as asylums and stateless individuals, illegal border crossing and human trafficking are considered by the governments of democratic states as world's most urgent social, economic, legal and humanitarian problem. Moreover, it deeply concerns the issue of a tight relation between the security of a migrant and national as well as international security.Since gaining independence in 1991 Ukraine, along with other post-socialistic states like Georgia and Moldova, become not only a member of European migration system but also one of the main countries-»suppliers» of illegal migrants to Europe as well as a major transit country for the movement of refugees and asylum seekers from Asia to the European Union. Because during the last decade our country openly declares of its European integration ambitions it is ought to establish a comprehensive migration policy: raise the level of administrative and legal management of migration flows, significantly improve its migration legislation, and actively fight against illegal border crossing and human trafficking. Thus, shaping an effective and progressive migration policy is the crucially important prerequity for not only the successful integration of Ukraine into the European Society in sooner future but also for the productive international cooperation in judicial, security and humanitarian matters within Black Sea region.Aside from having a very important meaning for Ukraine, Black Sea region and wider European community in the sense of inner-state stability, transnational security and the promotion of human rights the topic of this research has a very complex approach as it combines agendas of not only legal science and public administration, but also various aspects of international relations, European studies and undoubtedly human rights protection in today's world. ; В статье дается определение термина «миграция», раскрывается сущность, основные признаки и характеристика данного процесса и обосновывается его важность для социально-экономических, политических, культурных и этнографических процессов развития современности. ; У статті надається визначення терміну «міграція», розкривається суть, основні ознаки та характеристика цьоого процесу та обґрунтовується його важливість для соціально-економічних, політичних, культурних та етнографічних процесів розвитку сучасності.

From 1990 to the early 2000s, in order to solve the sudden crisis caused by the collapse of the USSR, the Cuban government prioritized the reconstruction of the international tourism sector and the development of telecommunications services and nickel mining (Pérez-Villanueva, 2004). To this end, it enforced policies aimed at attracting direct foreign investments, mainly from Canada and Europe. At the same time, the Cuban government legalized new forms of self-employment1 in order to boost productivity and incorporate a part of the growing informal economy into the formal economy (Henken, 2005). As a result of crisis and reforms, Cuban socio-economic structures have changed. New economic sectors, the so-called emergent sectors, appeared and, more generally the services and primary sectors grew, while the secondary sector decayed (Espina-Prieto and Togores-González, 2012). Moreover, inequality started to grow and a process of social re-stratification occurred (Ranis and Kosak, 2004; Mesa-Lago, 2004; Espina-Prieto, 2004; Romanò, 2012). Studies on inequality carried out in Cuba show that in the Cuban labor market, the emergent sectors provide the most economically-profitable occupations (Espina-Prieto, 2004, 2005, 2008, 2010; Espina-Prieto and Togores-González, 2012; Zabala, 2010; Henken, 2000, 2002, 2008; Corrales, 2004). In effect, a recent study by the Center for Psychological and Sociological Studies (CIPS, hereafter), a research center affiliated with the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment, notes that Cubans associate the attainment of economically advantageous position in emergent sectors to paths of upward mobility (Espina-Prieto and Togores-González, 2012). Therefore, in the paper I will use the terms profitable and desirable interchangeably. In the evolving socio-economic structures briefly described above, control of specific resources (e.g., education, expertise, information, influence) has enabled some individuals to move to new employment or new occupational positions, while others who lacked such control remained stuck in their traditional positions. In the Cuban labor market the more economically profitable positions do not necessarily coincide with the more prestigious ones; therefore, restrictions were established to avoid skilled technicians or professionals from traditional sectors (i.e., doctors and other health workers, professors and teachers) migrating towards more gainful jobs in order to cope better with the effects of the crisis. To this end, the government has strengthened the restrictions limiting job changes between ministries. In order to be hired by an enterprise or institution a job seeker must show his or her work-record. Applicants to emergent sector jobs or those seeking self-employment licenses must also have a clean criminal record, especially if they are expected to work in front-offices, interacting with foreigners. Taking the above-mentioned basic factors into account, this paper will try to answer the following question: how do individuals reach the economically profitable state-jobs in emergent sectors? To answer this question I will focus on the role of party affiliation and personal networks in the labor market. Before formulating the hypotheses, I will first review what is already known about inequality in mixed socialist economies and in Cuban society as well.

Introduced in 1991, the right to free privatization of own's own housing favored a double transformation: of tenants into owners, and of collective housing into condominium buildings. Based on an ethnographic investigation in Moscow, this dissertation examines the implementation of the new Housing Code (2005). This legal shift led to a renewed governance of collective housing, now centered around the general meeting of owners. A contribution to post-communist social change, this research is also an investigation into the sociology of law. Based on a Weberian approach to the social practices of the law, it examines how the legal regime of joint ownership went from being abstract text to the status of social practices located.Drawing upon the sociology of the State, the study of mobilizations and researches on legal consciousness, the dissertations focuses on three groups of actors central to the construction of the new legal system. The first one consist of the lower-level agents of the Moscow administration, who resort to illegal practices in an attempt to locally implement the new legislation. The second includes local politicians, geared towards the dissemination of legal knowledge and literacy in an attempt to defend the rights of the inhabitants. The third one encompasses inhabitants particularly involved in the organization of their buildings' administration.The dissertation focuses on three mechanisms through which the new legal system came into being: legal offenses, controversies around the interpretation of the legislation, and layperson's appropriation of the law. The analysis sheds lights onto the making of these new was of inhabiting the space, as well as on the crafting of postcommunist subjectivities that reconfigure the relationships between the State and the market. ; Instauré en 1991, le droit à la privatisation gratuite de son logement a favorisé l'accession des anciens locataires soviétiques au statut de propriétaire, transformant du même coup les immeubles collectifs en copropriétés. Sur la base d'une enquête ethnographique, cette thèse étudie la mise en œuvre du nouveau Code du logement (2005) à Moscou, qui réorganise la gestion publique de l'habitat collectif autour de l'assemblée générale des copropriétaires. Contribution à l'analyse du changement social postcommuniste, cette recherche examine comment la copropriété passe du statut de texte abstrait au statut de pratiques sociales situées.Combinant les apports de la sociologie de l'État, de la sociologie des mobilisations et de l'étude des rapports ordinaires au droit, ce travail se focalise sur trois groupes d'acteurs : les agents subalternes de l'administration de Moscou ayant recours à des pratiques illégales pour mettre en œuvre localement la nouvelle législation ; des acteurs politiques tournés vers la vulgarisation et le conseil juridique dans la perspective de défendre les droits des habitants et, enfin, certains habitants particulièrement engagés dans les affaires de leur immeuble.En s'appuyant sur une approche wébérienne des usages sociaux du droit, cette recherche montre que infractions légales, batailles d'interprétation de la législation, ainsi qu'appropriations profanes du droit sont autant de mécanismes à travers lesquels le régime copropriétaire acquiert une véritable existence sociale. L'analyse de ces rapports et concurrences donne à voir la fabrique de nouvelles pratiques habitantes et subjectivités postcommunistes, reconfigurant les rapports ordinaires à l'État et au marché.

In this dissertation we study three very important types of insurance, equity-linked life insurance with surrender guarantees, pension insurance and the insurance provided by (pension) insurance guarantee funds. In chapter 2 we study the market consistent valuation of equity linked life insurance contracts, particularly the valuation of a surrender option. In our model the policyholder can surrender exogenously and endogenously. More importantly, we model the realistic perspective that the surrender option value depends on the state of the economy. The state of the economy can represent financial market regimes, macroeconomic regimes or business cycles. The consideration of economic states is an important contribution since equity-linked life insurance contracts are long-dated and in the long run there can occur several structural changes in the economic conditions which considerably affect both the value of the underlying financial portfolio and most importantly the surrender behavior of the policyholder. Chapter 3 and chapter 4 are concerned with the (re)insurance of pension guarantee funds (PGF). These government imposed pension schemes provide (re)insurance to defined benefit (DB) plan holders in terms of paying pension benefits if the corresponding sponsoring company and the pension fund are insolvent. We study and model solution concepts for pension guarantee funds to better protect policyholders by reducing the risk exposure of their financial guarantee. We model two solution concepts. In chapter 3 we provide a formal model to compute a risk-based premium paid to the PGF under distress termination, the conventional type of termination, where a pension fund is closed due to the insolvency of the sponsoring company. We incorporate several realistic perspectives and compare our theoretical pricing formula for a sample of the largest US DB plan sponsors. In chapter 4 we study the other type of termination, involuntary termination. Under involuntary termination the PGF terminates a substantially underfunded DB plan. In that case the crucial question is when the PGF should optimally intervene. We determine an optimal timing of intervention in terms of a critical funding ratio of the insured DB pension fund. The basic idea of our model is that the PGF acts in the interest of the beneficiaries and maximizes their expected utility. In addition the PGF protects its financial guarantee by controlling two solvency requirements, the shortfall probability and the expected shortfall of the DB plan. In chapter 4 the DB plan is modeled more specifically and compared to the other main pension retirement plan, the defined contribution plan (DC plan). The analysis is conducted in an expected utility framework under different preferences by taking an essential tradeoff into account. Specifically, the policyholder faces salary risk in both retirement plans, he faces investment risk only in the DC plan and portability risk, the risk of losing benefits when changing the employer is mostly present in the DB plan. As a means of comparison we take the critical job switching intensity or more intuitively the average number of job moves after which the DC plan is preferred in expected utility terms.

Der Gesetzentwurf zu ,,Leistungsverbesserungen in der gesetzlichen Rentenversicherung soll besonders langjährig Versicherten mit 45 und mehr Beitragsjahren den vorgezogenen Renteneintritt mit 63 Jahren ohne Abschläge ermöglichen. Das Vorhaben steht damit in deutlichem Kontrast zur Rentenpolitik der vergangenen 25 Jahre, auch wenn die Bundesregierung eigenen Aussagen zufolge keinen Paradigmenwechsel einleiten will und am Ziel einer verlängerten Lebensarbeitszeit festhält. Eine Prognose über die einzelnen Effekte der Rente mit 63 ist zum jetzigen Zeitpunkt nicht möglich. Sicher ist jedoch, dass die gesetzlich gegebenen Rentenzugangsmöglichkeiten und arbeitsmarktpolitischen Rahmenbedingungen einen großen Einfluss darauf haben, wann der Übergang vom Erwerbsleben in den Ruhestand vollzogen wird. Das DIW Berlin hat hierfür den Rentenübergang der Geburtsjahrgänge 1932 bis 1947 untersucht. Dazu wurde die Dynamik des Renteneintritts im Zeitverlauf zwischen 1990 und 2012 auf Basis von repräsentativen Daten des Sozio-oekonomischen Panels (SOEP) analysiert. Während Statistiken der Deutschen Rentenversicherung vor allem Informationen zum Renteneintrittsalter und der Rentenart liefern, ermöglicht das SOEP detaillierte Analysen zur Dynamik der späten Erwerbsphase und zum Übergang in den Ruhestand. Mit einer Clusteranalyse wurden typische Rentenübergangspfade identifiziert und untersucht, wie arbeitsmarkt- und rentenpolitische Rahmenbedingungen sich auf die relative Bedeutung dieser Pfade im Vergleich der Kohorten auswirken. Außerdem wurde analysiert, wie sich die späte Erwerbsphase zwischen dem 58. und 65. Lebensjahr im Kohortenvergleich verändert. Fünf Pfade beschreiben den Rentenübergang: Erwerbsarbeit bis zur Regelaltersgrenze, Erwerbsarbeit bis zum vorgezogenen Renteneintritt, Inaktivität vor Renteneintritt, Arbeitslosigkeit vor Renteneintritt und Frühverrentung oder Erwerbsminderungsrentenbezug. Ost- und Westdeutsche unterscheiden sich stark in ihrem Übergangsverhalten. Die Befunde machen deutlich, dass wenn Möglichkeiten des vorzeitigen Rentenübergangs bestehen, diese auch genutzt werden. Das künftige Ausmaß ist jedoch nicht sicher zu prognostizieren. ; Germany's draft bill to improve the benefits provided under the statutory pension insurance scheme (Gesetz über Leistungsverbesserungen in der gesetzlichen Rentenversicherungen) will entitle, in particular, those who have contributed for many years (at least 45) to retire early on a full pension (without any reductions to their pension payments) at the age of 63. The proposed reform is in stark contrast to the pension policies of past decades, even though the German government maintains it has no intention of changing course and still plans to pursue its objective of raising the retirement age. It is not currently possible to predict the effects of a statutory retirement age of 63. What is certain, however, is that statutory work-pension transition options and labor market policy framework conditions will have a significant impact on when people make the transition from working life to retirement. The German Institute for Economic Research (DIW Berlin) analyzed the impact of pension reforms over the last 20 years on the work-retirement transition of those born between 1932 and 1947. The study analyzed the retirement dynamic between 1990 and 2012 based on representative data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP). While official German Pension Insurance statistics primarily provide information on retirement age and type of pension, SOEP allows detailed analyses of developments in the phase leading up to retirement. A cluster analysis was used to identify typical work-retirement transition pathways and to examine the impact of labor market and pension policy framework conditions on the relative significance of these pathways in a comparison of cohorts. A further analysis was conducted to determine how the phase leading up to retirement changes between the ages of 58 and 65 in the cohort comparison. There are typically five pathways that characterize the work-retirement transition: in employment until statutory retirement age, in employment until early retirement, inactivity prior to retirement, unemployment prior to retirement, and early retirement or reduced earnings capacity pension. The work-retirement transition behavior of eastern and western Germans differs significantly. Findings clearly show that when options for early retirement exist, they are also used.

With the implementation of mechanisms of Transitional Justice, a process of dialogue between the Colombian Government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia - FARC, is being carried out at the present time and in addition with the intention that the National Liberation Army should become integrated in this process. Consequently, once consensus on the points that are part of the agenda is reached, a major agreement will be signed that will aim to achieve peace, putting an end to a conflict that dates back more than four decades and that has been influenced by diverse factors leaving a large number of victims as a consequence. In this context, the military and police forces have played an important role in its function of maintaining national security and public safety in the field of military confrontations which the institutions have had to reorganize in order to deal with the changes in the context of the conflict described. In the aftermath of the signing of the peace agreements, it is essential to analyze the roles which each of these institutions will have to assume in order to ensure non-recurrence of the conflict and to contribute to achieving social peace, as a next step to political peace. Terefore the objective of this research is aimed at determining the role of the Armed Forces and Police within the framework of the Colombian Post-Conflict, for which a hermeneutical historical paradigm is used. Keywords: Transitional Justice, Armed Forces, military confrontation, conflict victims, post-conflict, public safety, peace agreements, social peace, political peace. ; Con la implementación de mecanismos propios de la Justicia Transicional, se está llevando a cabo en la actualidad un proceso de diálogos entre el Gobierno Nacional Colombiano y las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia – F.A.R.C., además de tener la intención de articularse a este proceso el Ejército de Liberación Nacional. En consecuencia, una vez se logre el consenso sobre los puntos que hacen parte de la agenda, se suscribirá un gran acuerdo que tendrá como finalidad obtener la paz, poniendo fin a un conflicto armado que data de más de cuatro décadas y que ha estado influenciado por diversos factores dejando como consecuencia un gran número de víctimas. En este contexto las Fuerzas Militares y de Policía han tenido un papel relevante en su papel de mantener la seguridad nacional y la seguridad ciudadana en el ámbito de las confrontaciones bélicas para lo cual han debido reorganizarse las Instituciones con el fin de atender las mutaciones de la connotación del referido conflicto. En la etapa posterior a la firma de los acuerdos de paz es fundamental analizar los roles que deberá asumir cada una de estas Instituciones con el fin de garantizar la no repeticióndel conflicto y coadyuvar para la consecución de la paz social, como etapa siguiente a la paz política. Por lo tanto, el objetivo de la presente investigación se orienta a determinar el rol de las Fuerzas Armadas y de Policía en el marco del Posconflicto Colombiano, para lo cual se utilizará un paradigma histórico hermenéutico.

Планировочная структура городов играет важную роль в определении направлений их развития в ходе разработки градостроительной документации (генеральных планов и проектов детальной планировки). Существующие исследования малых городов Ирана освещают вопросы архитектурного наследия и не затрагивают характерные особенности планировки малых городов, такие как форма их плана, сеть улиц, их конфигурация. Не установлено, как планировочная структура малого города оказывает влияние на потенциал его устойчивого развития.В результате обследования 16 малых городов Ирана выявлено, что большинство городов имеют компактную форму плана, которая обусловлена равнинным рельефом, а также необходимостью рационально использовать ценные сельскохозяйственные земли. Вместе с тем, освоение территории под застройку в границах города носит неравномерный характер. Установлено, что города имеют крайне малоозелененных территорий. Рядом с плотно застроенными кварталами часто находятся незастроенные пустыри, принадлежащие частным лицам. Это вызвано особенностями иранского законодательства, не ограничивающего срока освоения участка. Параметры улично-дорожной сети городов (ширина в красных линиях, наличие таких элементов поперечного профиля, как озеленение вдоль проезжей части) не соответствуют действующим в Иране рекомендациям. Наиболее распространена смешанная или свободная система улиц, которая обусловлена сменой градостроительных условий в процессе длительного развития. Частая сеть узких улиц формирует систему мелких кварталов разнообразного очертания и нуждается в совершенствовании. В большинстве обследованных городов нет обходных дорог для грузового транспорта, а также существует транспортный транзит через исторический центр. ; Planning structure of cities plays an important role in shaping their sustainable development while elaborating urban planning documentation (master plans and detailed plan projects). The existing studies of small towns in Iran reveal issues of architectural heritage and do not touch upon such peculiar features of small town planning as shape of their plan, network of streets, their configuration. It has not been established how a planning structure of a small city influences on its sustainable development.An inspection of 16 small towns of Iran has shown that the majority of the cities have a compact planning form which is due to flat relief, as well as the need for efficient use of valuable agricultural land. At the same time the paper demonstrates that territory development for building construction within city boundaries has unequal character. It has been determined that cities have very few green areas. Undeveloped wastelands owned by private individuals are often located close to densely developed areas. Such situation is due to specific features of the Iranian legislation that does not specify time terms for territory development. Parameters of urban road-street networks (width in red lines, presence of such transverse profile elements as landscaping along roadways) do not correspond to the existing recommendations in Iran. Mixed or free system of streets is considered as the most common one and it is due to changes in urban conditions during the long process of development. Frequent network of narrow streets forms a system of small blocks of various shapes and needs to be improved. The majority of the inspected cities do not have bypass roads for freight transport, and there is also a transit transport through their historic centers.

This dissertation explores how knowledge construction on the English-language Wikipedia produces hegemonic representations of South Africa. Using Wikipedia's entries on Cape Town and various places in the Free State province as case studies, this dissertation demonstrates through critical discourse analysis that there is a systematic marginalisation, underrepresentation, and decontextualisation of 'black' working class communities and spaces, which echoes their historical marginalisation. This representation is contextualised through a historical narrative of Cape Town and the Free State, and explored against a theoretical background which, borrowing from Foucault, Castells, and others, sees the social construction of knowledge as an expression of power, and the networked society as an arena for the dynamics of hegemony. While Wikipedia is often hailed as a game-changer, the knowledge it produces tends to replicate and, thanks to its ever-increasing reach, further entrench hegemonic explanations of society. This might seem counter-intuitive given its credentials as a democratiser of knowledge, but can be explained with Wikipedia's architecture, which ultimately rests upon a regime of truth established during the Enlightenment. The online encyclopedia relies on well-established institutions and discourses of knowledge as sources of its content, and these, coupled with its particular preferences for some sources and topics over others, give it a particular slant in favour of the hegemonic status quo. The discourse it produces is given further gravitas and is naturalised through an insistence upon the knowledge it presents as 'neutral'. Studies have shown that Wikipedia's values are defined by its established community of editors and that, even as Wikipedia's reach is extending, it is increasingly difficult for new users to impact upon the online encyclopedia. Arguably it is rather the encyclopedia which impacts upon them by circulating seemingly uncontested representations of their communities, or, alternatively, simply ignoring the communities altogether. In a process I have, borrowing from American political satirist Stephen Colbert, termed wikiality, hegemonic representations have a tendency of becoming true when we act upon them as such. Thus, when certain communities are presented as marginal or unimportant, it becomes even more difficult for them to break out of this mould. Meaningful participation on Wikipedia can only be achieved if the user not only has access to relevant technological capital, but also the cultural capital required to make contributions which appeal to the established core of editors. In South Africa, as a result of its political economy, large parts of the population are politically, economically, and socially marginalised. This also means that they lack the cultural capital necessary to make meaningful contributions to Wikipedia. This tends to render them the subjects of Wikipedia entries, rather than their authors, which contributes to their further marginalisation. The key to understanding the relationship between knowledge and power on Wikipedia lies in the ability of some users to capture and define reality through representation and thereby effectuating it. Reducing this imbalance to a simple question of access downplays the social, economic, and political factors which created it in the first place, and accommodates discursive practices which downplay difference and perpetuate hegemony.

The article analyzes the socio-political organization of the Pskov Veche republic in the 13th–15th centuries, particularly the changes in personnel and in competences of the Pskov princes, the authority and the officials of the princely administration. The article shows the evolution of the sotnia (a hundred unit) organization from the princely one into the republican one. The research reveals Pskov's considerable differences from Novgorod in terms of regulation of commerce and defines the function of the rank-and-file traders' elder in the system of the republican power. The author argues that the Pskov veche functioned as a state institution that had been formed in the course of Pskov's fight for independence in the 13th century. The fact of adopting the documents of taxpaying at the veche assembly reveals the fully institutionalized character of governmental bodies of the Pskov republic. By drawing upon H. J. Berman's argument of independence within European cities of the 11th–12th centuries, this article contributes to the discussion of Pskov's independence by outlining the main criteria of Pskov's sovereignty. Pskov had a right to issue and supplement laws; the Pskov Judicial Charter arose out of the princes' local charters and was further edited at the veche assembly. Pskov set its own taxes and the veche was empowered to free separate groups of landowners from paying taxes. The rights to military mobilization, to the declaration of war and to making peace, which were under the complete jurisdiction of the republic, undoubtedly demonstrates the sovereignty of Pskov. Finally, the sovereignty of Pskov was manifested in the symbols of stamps and coins that were used in the Pskov republic. All these facts taken together demonstrate the feasibility of applying the medieval European cities' criteria of sovereignty to the Pskov socio-political realties. ; Целью работы является исследование социально-политической организации Псковской вечевой республики в XIII–XV вв. В статье представлен анализ изменений в персональном составе и компетенции псковских князей, изучены полномочия и состав княжеской администрации. Показана эволюция сотенной организации, ее трансформация из княжеской в республиканскую. Обнаружены существенные отличия Пскова от Новгорода в сфере контроля над торговлей; определено место купеческого старосты в системе органов республиканской власти. Приведены аргументы в пользу точки зрения о функционировании псковского веча как государственного института, сформировавшегося в ходе борьбы Пскова за независимость в XIII в. Принятие на вече документов о налогообложении свидетельствует о вполне институциональном характере органов власти Псковской республики. В статье продолжена дискуссия о критериях независимости Пскова. В соответствии с концепцией независимости европейских городов XI–XII вв., сформулированной Г. Дж. Берманом, выделены основные критерии суверенитета Пскова. Псков обладал правом издавать и дополнять собственные законы; Псковская судная грамота возникла на основе княжеских уставных грамот, но в дальнейшем редактировалась на вече. Псков устанавливал свои налоги, а вече обладало правом освобождать от налогов отдельные группы землевладельцев. Несомненно свидетельствует о суверенитете Пскова находившееся в безусловном ведении республики право военной мобилизации, объявления войны и заключения мира. Наконец, суверенитет Пскова декларировался в символике монет и печатей, использовавшихся Псковской республикой. Сумма фактов свидетельствует о принципиальной применимости критериев суверенитета средневековых городов Европы к социально-политическим реалиям Пскова.

What is capital? Despite centuries of debate, there is no clear answer to this question – and for a good reason. Capital is a polemic term. The way we define it attests our theoretical biases, ideological disposition, view of politics, class consciousness, social position, and more. Is capital the same as machines, or is it merely a financial asset? Is it a material article or a social process? Is it a static substance or a dynamic entity? The form of capital, its existence as monetary wealth, is hardly in doubt. The problem is with the content, the stuff that makes capital grow – and on this issue there is no agreement whatsoever. For example, does capital accumulate because it is productive, or due to the exploitation of workers? Does capital expand from within capitalism, or does it need non-capitalist institutions like the state and other 'external' forces? Is accumulation synonymous with economic growth, or can capital expand by damaging production and undermining efficiency? What exactly is being accumulated? Does the value of capital represent utility, abstract labour – or perhaps something totally different, such as power or force? What units should we use to measure its accumulation? Surprisingly, these questions remain unanswered; in fact, with the victory of liberalism, most of them are no longer being asked. But the silence cannot last for long. As crisis and social strife intensify, the questions are bound to resurface. The accumulation of capital is the central process of capitalism, and unless we can clarify what that process means, we'll remain unable to understand our world, let alone to change it. The seminar has two related goals: substantive and pedagogical. The substantive purpose is to tackle the question of capital head on. The course explores a spectrum of liberal and Marxist theories, ideologies and dogmas – as well as a radical alternative to these views. The argument is developed theoretically, historically and empirically. The first part of the seminar provides a critical overview of political economy, examining its historical emergence, triumph and eventual demise. The second part deals with the two 'materialistic' schools of capital – the liberal theory of utility and the Marxist theory of labour time – dissecting their structure, strengths and limitations. The third part brings power back in: it analyses the relation between accumulation and sabotage, studies the institutions of the corporation and the state and introduces a new framework – the capitalist mode of power. The final part offers an alternative approach – the theory of capital as power – and illustrates how this approach can shed light on conflict-ridden processes such as corporate merger, stagflation, imperialism and Middle East wars. Pedagogically, the seminar seeks to prepare students toward conducting their own independent re-search. Students are introduced to various electronic data sources, instructed in different methods of analysis and tutored in developing their empirical research skills. As the seminar progresses, these skills are used both to assess various theories and to develop the students' own theoretical/empirical research projects.