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This report identifies and describes the most prominent exogenous factors affecting nature-based tourism (NBT). Megatrends and associated sub-trends were identified by means of a literature review and structured using the STEEP framework, including social, technological, economic, environmental and political drivers (Dwyer et al., 2009). Research papers published in English language journals were obtained by searching electronic databases of scientific and tourism journals (Google Scholar, Web of Science, Oria). A total of 151 research papers (including 109 peer reviewed journal articles) published between the years 1998-2017 were identified. The peer reviewed research papers were published in 55 different journals spanning a wide array of disciplines. Concluding remarks put the results in the context of Norwegian nature-based toursm. Social trends • Population growth. Will lead to an overall increase in participation in nature-based tourism. However, such unprecedented growths can also lead to an overuse of natural attractions negatively affecting natural resources. • Changes in household composition. Family households are getting smaller. Sole-parent and single-person households becoming more prevalent. More income and discretionary time to travel and participate in recreational activities. • Ageing population. Healthier, wealthier and more active older persons. Growingly interested in nature-based activities which accommodate their reduced physical abilities, i.e. less strenuous activities. • Health and well-being. More emphasis on mental health; de-stressing and self-medicating. People increasingly seek out nature-based activities as a form of natural therapy/treatment. • Urbanization. Urban congestion is threatening natural environments and leading to loss of landscape. People's need for green spaces is growing, thus, the demand for NBT is increasing as well. • Changing work patterns. A reduction in physically demanding employment and household work leads to increased demand for physical activity during leisure time. The growing middle class with more flexible working conditions and an increasing disposable time and income is allowing for more flexible travel plans and a desire to spend holidays in new and exotic natural destinations. • Gender. Modern societies are more feminized and women highly influence the choice of leisure activities. Women are prone to choosing NBT activities and products of high convenience, quality and beauty. While men value challenging NBT activities (e.g. hunting, fishing, adventure activities). • Increasing cultural diversity. Multicultural society is altering NBT visitor markets. Inflow of tourists with different cultural backgrounds, preferences and expectations, may lead to conflicts among them. New management interventions required in order to accommodate tourists' different needs and expectations, and prevent probable conflicts. • Values and lifestyles. Today's tourist is money rich/time poor, individualistic, seeking unique, personalized and authentic experiences. Tourists are increasingly interested in participating in NBT activities as it helps them understand themselves better, achieve a sense of transformation and identity. Moreover, there is an increasing environmental awareness among them. Technological trends • Transportation. New technology is reducing the cost and the increasing speed of travel. Increasing accessibility to various tourist destinations. Schemes to reduce carbon emissions are expected to negatively impact destinations far from markets. • High-tech equipment. Outdoor high-tech recreational equipment and clothing are providing recreationists with increased comfort, safety and access to nature destinations. Growth in participation in different types of NBT activities. • Information and communication technology (ICT). Advanced technology allows tourist destinations to add value for their visitors and minimize operating costs. Electronic word-of-mouth becomes an increasingly important factor for destination image and travel behavior. Social media allow for more transparency between customers and suppliers. More competition among tourist destinations and greater consumer power. Mobile technology and expanded mobile service covering remote areas will encourage tourists to visit and experience new, unknown nature areas. For NBT, Internet of Things is expected to help in managing visitors flow in outdoor areas, improve traffic management and enhance the monitoring of fragile ecosystems. Indoorization of outdoor activities and artificial recreations settings may signal a shift away from recreation in nature, but it is also argued that such services can stimulate participating in NBT. Economic Trends • Economic growth in developed economies. Economic growth, increasing income and disposable time in developed countries allow more people to spend more time and money on nature-based experiences. • Economic growth in emerging economies. Economic growth in emerging economies of the BRIC nations, especially China and India, will significantly contribute to the expansion of tourism. This is leading to an alteration in the cultural and ethnic mix of tourists arriving to the EU. These tourists bring different behaviour, expectations and demands, e.g. Chinese tourists are found to be more interested in passive enjoyment of natural scenery (i.e. sightseeing) rather than active involvement in NBT activities. • Sharing economy. Tourism services and businesses such as hotels, restaurants and tour operators are being challenged and gradually replaced by individuals who offer budget-friendly services such as accommodation, transportation, excursions and meals. • Fuel costs. Despite temporary reductions, oil prices are expected to increase again which will negatively impact travel propensity via increased cost for flight tickets and introduction of fuel charges. Greenhouse gas mitigation strategies are expected to restrict and hinder future travel. Environmental trends • Climate change. Have a direct impact on NBT. Winter tourism is negatively impacted in regions such as Northern Europe and North America as winter becomes warmer and wetter; lower-altitude ski resorts are expected to face economical problems due to decline in snow cover and decline in visitation levels. While, capacity pressures will be created in higher-altitude resorts. Dog sledding and snowmobiling are also expected to face negative effects due to reduced snow cover. Climate change is leading to receding glaciers, hence, diminishing not only their aesthetic value but also their economical value associated with NBT activities such as sightseeing, trekking and skiing. Climate change is also leading to coral bleaching, starfish outbreaks and environmental degradation which negatively impact dive and snorkel tourism. • Land use and landscape change. Urbanization, rural depopulation, exploitation of land for road construction and energy production have all led to different changes to landscapes and loss of their aesthetic values. Natural landscapes are a main driving force of NBT. Hence, all such changes were found to have a negative impact on NBT via for instance reducing the attractiveness of tourist landscapes and the quality of tourists' experiences. Conflicts between various stakeholders (e.g. tourism, forestry, energy production) is also documented in the literature. Protected areas are often significant attractions in the nature-based tourism system, and more recent environmental policies in Scandinavia have emphasized the need to integrate nature-based tourism with protection of nature so that the two can be of mutual benefit. Political trends • Political turbulence, war and terrorism. Political turbulence in regions such as the Middle East, Africa and parts of Asia are predicted to diminish tourism flows overall but is predicted to enhance the attractiveness of tourist destinations perceived as 'safe'. Tourist attractions that offer settings (e.g. outdoor recreation settings) where large numbers of visitors are gathered are more prone to terror attacks and may need more security measures to ensure safety. Loss of natural heritage due to war and civil unrest is documented in the literature; examples of damaged national parks and ruined NBT industries in countries with political turbulence and terror attacks are also documented. • Changes in border regulations. Changes in border regulations via the introduction and implementation of agreements such as the Schengen Agreement or China's Approved Destination Status 'ADS' have reduced border travel restrictions, creating huge tourism opportunities and traffic in several regions worldwide. China's ADS is expected to become the largest outbound market by 2020. • Health risks. The continuing rise in international travel is a driving force in global emergence and spread of infectious diseases (e.g. Zika or Ebola virus). Future spread of persistent life-threatening diseases may make international travel be perceived as a personal risk. Future travel may be strictly regulated to prevent the spread of any virulent diseases among tourist destinations. • Geopolitics. In today's globalised world, tourism is being used as an instrument to realize particular geopolitical goals. For example, sport events among Commonwealth member states as a unification tool. China's Approved Destination Status (ADS) as a projection of its soft power. Regional blocs such as North American and the European Union Free Trade Agreement also impact tourists' movement within these multilateral entities. The report is produced with funding from BIOTOUR – a four year research project with the objective to research and disseminate key conditions for future development of nature-based tourism in the Norwegian bio-economy that contribute to business innovation, community resilience and sustainable use of resources (www.nmbu.no/biotour). ; Denne rapporten identifiserer og beskriver de viktigste faktorene som påvirker det naturbaserte reiselivet. Megatrender og tilhørende sub-trender er blitt klarlagt gjennom en litteraturstudie og strukturert ved hjelp av et eget rammeverk, STEEP, som omfatter sosiale (Social), teknologiske (Technological), økonomiske (Economic), miljømessige (Environmental) og politiske (Political) drivkrefter (Dwyer et al., 2009). Litteraturgjennomgangen baserer seg på systematiske søk i elektroniske databaser for vitenskapelige, engelskspråklige journaler (Google Scholar, Web of Science, Oria). I alt 151 forskningsbidrag (hvorav 109 fagfellevurderte tidsskriftsartikler) publisert i årene 1998-2017 ble identifisert, og disse er blitt publisert i 55 ulike tidsskrifter innenfor et bredt spekter av fagdisipliner. I konklusjonsdelen av rapporten er hovedresultatene satt inn i en norsk naturbasert reiselivskontekst. Sosiale trender • Befolkningsvekst. Vil føre til en generell økning i deltakelsen i naturbasert reiseliv. Men en slik akselererende vekst kan også føre til stort forbruk av naturattraksjoner, som igjen kan påvirke naturressursgrunnlaget på en negativ måte. • Endringer i husholdningenes sammensetning. Familiehusholdningene blir mindre. Hushold bestående av én forelder eller aleneboende blir mer vanlig. Høyere inntekter og mer fleksibel tidsbruk øker mulighetene for å reise og delta i rekreasjonsaktiviteter. • Aldrende befolkning. Bedre helse og høyere velstand blant aktive eldre personer. Økende interesse for naturbaserte aktiviteter som er tilpasset reduserte fysiske forutsetninger, dvs. mindre krevende aktiviteter. • Helse og velvære. Mer vekt på mental helse; avstressing og selvmedisinering. Folk velger naturbaserte aktiviteter som en form for naturlig terapi/ behandling. • Urbanisering. Urban vekst truer naturmiljøer og fører til tap av naturlandskap. Folks behov for tilgang til grønne områder øker, og dermed vokser også etterspørselen etter naturbasert reiseliv. • Endrede arbeidsmønstre. Reduksjon i fysisk jobbkrav og mindre anstrengende husarbeid fører til økt etterspørsel etter fysisk aktivitet i fritiden. Den voksende middelklassen med mindre rigide arbeidsbetingelser og mer disponibel tid og inntekt åpner for mer fleksibel reising og et ønske om å tilbringe ferien på nye destinasjoner med eksotisk natur. • Kjønn. Moderne samfunn er mer feminiserte, og kvinner påvirker i stor grad valg av fritidsaktiviteter. Kvinner er tilbøyelige til å velge naturbaserte reiselivsaktiviteter preget av bekvemmelighet, kvalitet og skjønnhet, mens menn i større grad søker utfordrende aktiviteter som jakt, fiske og det som representerer spenning i naturomgivelser. • Økende kulturelt mangfold. Det multikulturelle samfunnet endrer markedene i det naturbaserte reiselivet. Tilstrømmingen av turister med ulik kulturell bakgrunn, preferanser og forventninger kan føre til konflikter mellom de ulike segmentene. Nye grep fra naturforvaltningen er påkrevd for å ivareta turistenes ulike behov og forventninger, og forhindre konflikter. • Verdier og livsstiler. Dagens turist er rik på penger men fattig på tid, individualistisk, og søker unike, persontilpassede og autentiske opplevelser. Turister er i økende grad interessert i å delta i naturbaserte reiselivsaktiviteter; det hjelper dem til å forstå seg selv bedre, bidrar til en følelse av personlig forandring og uttrykker en form identitet. Videre er det en økende miljøbevissthet. Teknologiske trender • Transport. Ny teknologi reduserer reisekostnadene og øker reisehastighetene. Tilgjengeligheten til ulike turistdestinasjoner øker. Planer for å redusere karbonutslipp forventes å påvirke destinasjoner som ligger langt fra markedene, på en negativ måte. • High-tech-utstyr. High-tech utstyr og avanserte klær gir friluftslivsutøvere mer komfort, høyere sikkerhet og lettere tilgang til naturområder. Bidrar til vekst i ulike former for naturbaserte reiselivsaktiviteter. • Informasjons- og kommunikasjonsteknologi (IKT). Avansert teknologi gir turistdestinasjoner merverdi for besøkende og reduserer driftskostnader. Turistomtale i elektroniske medier blir stadig viktigere for reismålenes image og turisters reiseatferd. Sosiale media gjør tilbyder-kundeforholdet mer transparent. Mer konkurranse mellom destinasjoner og større forbrukermakt. Mobilteknologi og flere mobile tjenester som dekker avsidesliggende områder, vil oppfordre turister til å besøke og oppleve nye, ukjente naturområder. For naturbasert reiseliv forventes utstrakt bruk av internett (Internet of Things) å kunne være til hjelp i forvaltingen av turiststrømmer i naturområder, forbedre trafikkstyringen allment og raffinere overvåkningen av sårbare økosystemer. Mer tilrettelegging for aktiviteter innendørs (indoorization) og kunstig oppbygde arenaer kan signalisere et skifte bort fra rekreasjonsaktiviteter i naturomgivelser, men det er også argumentert for at slike nye tilbud kan stimulere deltakelse i naturbasert reiseliv. Økonomiske trender • Økonomisk vekst i utviklede økonomier. Økonomisk vekst, økende inntekter og mer disponibel tid i utviklede land gjør det mulig for flere å bruke mer tid på naturbaserte opplevelser. • Økonomisk vekst i utviklingsøkonomier. Økonomisk vekst i BRIC-landenes utviklingsøkonomier, spesielt i Kina og India, vil i betydelig grad bidra til ekspansjon i reisevirksomheten. Dette fører til endinger i den kulturelle og etniske sammensetningen av turister som ankommer EU. Disse gjestene har annerledes turistatferd, forventninger og krav; kinesiske turister utviser større interesse for passiv nytelse av natur og landskap (sightseeing) framfor å engasjere seg i aktive naturbaserte reiselivsaktiviteter. • Delingsøkonomi. Kommersielle foretak som hoteller, restauranter og turoperatører utfordres og blir gradvis erstattet av individer som tilbyr budsjettvennlige tjenester som overnatting, transport, utflukter og måltider. • Drivstoffkostnader. Til tross for tidvise reduksjoner forventes oljeprisen å stige, noe om vil påvirke folks tilbøyelighet til å reise på en negativ måte på grunn av økte priser på flybilletter og introduksjon av ekstra drivstoffavgifter. Strategier for å hindre utslipp av drivhusgasser forventes å begrense/ hindre fremtidig reisevirksomhet. Miljøtrender • Klimaendringer. Har direkte påvirkning på naturbasert reiseliv. Vinterturismen vil bli negativt påvirket i regioner som Nord-Europa og Nord-Amerika ettersom vintrene blir varmere og våtere; lavtliggende skidestinasjoner forventes å få økonomiske problemer som følge av redusert snødekke og mindre besøk. Det vil bli press på kapasiteten i mer snøsikre, høytliggende områder. Hundekjøring og snøskuterkjøring forventes å bli negativt påvirket på grunn av mindre snø. Klimaendringer fører til at isbreene trekker seg tilbake, noe som fører til at ikke bare deres estetiske verdi, men også økonomiske verdi knyttet til naturbaserte aktiviteter som sightseeing, brevandringer og skiturer, reduseres. Klimaendringene fører også til bleking av koraller og miljømessig degradering av marine områder som påvirker dykke- og snorklingsaktiviteter. • Arealbruk og landskapsendringer. Faktorer som urbanisering, befolkningsnedgang i distriktene, eksploatering av arealer til veibygging og energiproduksjon har alle ført til ulike typer av endringer av landskaper og tap av deres estetiske verdier. Intakte naturlandskaper er en sentral forutsetning for naturbasert reiseliv. Derfor har de nevnte faktorene negative konsekvenser for naturbasert reiseliv ettersom attraktiviteten i turistlandskapene og kvaliteten på turistopplevelsene reduseres. Konfliktene mellom ulike interessenter (turisme, skogbruk, energiproduksjon) er også dokumentert i litteraturen. Verneområder er ofte viktige attraksjoner i det naturbaserte turismesystemet, og nyere miljøpolitikk i Skandinavia understreker behovet for å integrere det naturbaserte reiselivet med områdevern til gjensidig nytte for begge parter. Politiske trender • Politisk turbulens. Krig og terrorisme. Politisk turbulens i regioner som Midtøsten, Afrika og deler av Asia forventes å redusere turiststrømmene i alminnelighet, men vil kunne øke attraktiviteten til destinasjonsområder som anses som trygge. Turistattraksjoner som tiltrekker seg store ansamlinger av besøkende (f.eks. kjente naturattraksjoner), er mer utsatt for terroranslag og vil ha behov for sikkerhetstiltak. Tap av naturarv på grunn av krig og uro er påpekt i litteraturen, og eksempler på ødelagte nasjonalparker og ruinerte naturbaserte reiselivsnæringer i land med politisk turbulens og terror er også dokumentert. • Endringer i grensekontroller. Endringer i grensekontroller gjennom introduseringen og implementeringen av avtaler som Schengen-samarbeidet eller Kinas utreisebestemmelser (Approved Destination Status, 'ADS') har redusert grenserestriksjoner og utløst enorme reisemuligheter i flere regioner rundt om i verden. Kinas ADS er forventet å bli verdens største utreisemarked i 2020. • Helserisiko. Den vedvarende økningen i internasjonal reisevirksomhet er en drivkraft i oppblomstringen og spredningen av infeksjonssykdommer (Zika eller Ebola-virus). Fremtidig spredning av vedvarende livstruende sykdommer kan bidra til at internasjonal reisevirksomhet oppfattes som en personlig risiko. Reiseaktiviteten kan tenkes å bli strengt regulert for å unngå spredning av virussykdommer i turistområdene. • Geopolitikk. I dagens globaliserte verden er turismen et redskap for å nå visse geopolitiske mål. For eksempel er felles sportsbegivenheter i Samveldenasjonene et instrument for å ivareta samholdet blant disse nasjonene. Kinas ADS er et politisk verktøy. Regionale blokker som den nordamerikanske og europeiske frihandelsavtalen påvirker også turistbevegelsene. Rapporten er finansiert av BIOTOUR – et fireårig forskningsprosjekt der formålet er å identifisere nøkkelbetingelser for videreutvikling av naturbasert reiseliv i norsk bioøkonomi som sikrer næringsutvikling, robuste lokalsamfunn og bærekraftig ressursbruk (www.nmbu.no/biotour).

Stuck pigs on the Bossier City Council squeal, a recent
leaked audio clip reveals, that forecasts as a reactive attempt, its
origins likely illegal, to restrict public input and comment on Council
matters.

Over
the past six weeks a majority faction on the Council has taken a public
relations beating. Over a series of votes five of its members – Republicans David Montgomery,
Jeff Free,
and Vince
Maggio, and Democrat Bubba Williams
and no party Jeff Darby
– have on as many as four occasions voted in a manner to obstruct the placing
of term limits into the city charter, with two of those votes violating the
charter itself. The amendment would set a three term, lifetime and retroactive
limit that would prevent all but Maggio from running again in 2025.

Even if limits don't make it into the charter in
time to apply to that election – that majority bloc at the last Council meeting voted
to ask Bossier Parish Registrar Stephanie Agee to step outside the law to
decertify the voters' petition that the charter forces the Council to call for
an election on it, and also voted to pursue other legal action trying to derail
the petition, both over questions about the petition's format – extensive political
damage detrimental to their continuing their political careers has happened. Probing
and sometimes sharp-tongued citizen commentary when the items dealing with the
petition and related issue of term limits have come up, illuminating hypocrisy
and bad faith in the bloc's actions that raises unflattering public awareness,
not to mention producing visuals that beg to appear in negative campaign
advertising down the road.

So, it would appear the bloc wants to minimize its
bleeding. Internet podcasters/narrowcasters Bossier Watch, the duo of Rex Moncrief
and Duke Lowrie, obtained anonymously audio recordings
with the identifiable voices of Darby, Montgomery, and Council Clerk Phyllis
McGraw, with others not identified. The sparse information attached gave few
clues as to when and where it took place, but from the context of the remarks
likely it occurred nearby the Council chambers not long after the last, Sep. 5,
meeting where blistering comments occurred, in one instance prompting Montgomery
to ask for city marshals to remove from the premises local web site operator Wes Merriott.

Although Council Pres. Free himself interacted intemperately
with Merriott, he wisely declined given the troubling
current Council rules that leave it open to First Amendment violations if administering
these more than lightly. But that incident and other comments may lead to changes
to rein in the public's opportunity and ability to make comments.

The audio features Darby instructing McGraw to prepare
changes to those rules to group all comments at a period near a meeting's
start, instead of the current format where commentary may occur on each agenda
item and action. It also has Montgomery orally working out the mechanics of
passing the resolution McGraw apparently is to prepare, which would have to
occur during a Council meeting in public with comments permitted, where he
notes that Free will be absent and assumes the remainder of his bloc with vote
for it and the other two Councilors who have been supportive of term limits,
Republicans Chris
Smith and Brian Hammons,
won't.

Darby's rationale is that the volume and tone of
negative comments – being apparently oblivious or unwilling to admit that his
and others' actions spawn that – makes them "look bad" and terms the robustness
"out of control behavior," while Montgomery, egged on inappropriately by McGraw
who as clerk should remain neutral on matters of policy, complains about frequent
commenter David Crockett, alleging he's "repetitive" and goes over the three-minute
interval permitted for speakers. Never mind that the existing rules allow the presiding
officer to prevent both of these if committed, although it's far from certain Crockett
does either and enforcement easily could run afoul of the First Amendment. Both
the "look bad/out of control" complaint of Darby and the desire of Montgomery
to limit further speech rather than explore rules enforcement display thinly-disguised
arrogance and thin skins to any criticism.

Montgomery also was captured on audio making a
comment that "… all I can say to the people of Bossier City is 'welcome to
Shreveport,' 'cause that's what's going to happen." That appears to be an
attempt to cast aspersions on Shreveport city council governance, for motives
and meaning only guessable. Possibly he opines that the more robust exercise of
citizen commentary of recent vintage makes the city less governable; i.e.
shifts power out of his hands and a few others towards more democratic practice.

Actually, in many ways the Shreveport
model is more restrictive than the one currently in use in Bossier City. Section
1.11 of its City Council Rules of Procedure requires prior registration at the
meeting or online to speak at a point early in the agenda, specifying which
agenda item is the subject. The chairman or vice chairman then decides the
ordering of who speaks when, with commentary limited to three minutes unless unanimous
council approval extends that (or suspends the rules by a two-thirds vote). An
exception is made logically enough when an agenda item is to be added, when
speaking can occur without prior notification. However, during administrative
conferences, held the day prior to the regular meeting that reviews the agenda
(a practice once followed by Bossier City's), the public can bring up anything
about which to speak.

Yet it's difficult to see how a change to
frontloaded commentary by itself would discourage citizen input, unless other
rules are changed. Existing rules limit to four speakers of three minutes on each
item with no more than 45 minutes total, and apparently with no mechanism for
extensions beyond the three or 45 minutes. Shunting commentary to upfront only
removes on-the-fly commentary from discussion by the Council prior to the comment
period on each item.

But other changes really could stifle citizen
input, given Louisiana
statute puts almost no brakes on how far government can go to limit
expression, with the law merely establishing that any rules be "reasonable" and
requiring all bodies to provide a period before business as a whole or before
each item except for school boards which have to have comment on each item. This
can accommodate extremely restrictive regulations such as prior registration
and presiding officers selection liberties, limitation to agenda items, short
time limits for each item and in total,
and vague "niceness" parameters.

Therefore, the Council majority at its most extreme to
squelch potential criticism could take the Shreveport model putting comments
before business but remove the general commentary option, keep the number of speakers
per item restrictions, add the registration requirement, and shorten the total
time period, and likely this would pass state constitutional muster. Thus, the
public can expect a resolution incorporating some or all of these changes to
appear at the Sep. 19 meeting, with Free expected to be absent. That would leave
Smith as vice president in charge, creating an interesting situation as he is anticipated
to be against this change.

As disappointing, yet illustrative of the majority's
bloc's contempt for and fear of the public, as an extreme model would be, worse
is how the closed-door meeting of at least two councilors likely violated
statute. Public officials of collective decision-making bodies cannot circumvent
quorum or transparency requirements by deciding official business by
intentional arrangement (meaning on premises in a facility used for official
business, or off premises if prearranged, or by outreach such as electronic
communication including voice) even if the group in on the discussion contains
less than a quorum. Possibly as many as two councilors in addition to Darby and
Montgomery were present when they concocted their game plan – at least one
other unidentified voice is audible that appears to come from another councilor
– but the mentions of Free and two dissenting votes unlikely means any more were
present. Even if only two or three had been present, discussion of the matter and
vote-counting would violate the law if either or both of Darby and Montgomery
subsequently brought up the matter to and polled other councilors on how they
would vote.

To Darby, Montgomery, and their ilk, closed
government and its unflattering aspects allowed to fester by this opaqueness increases
their power and privilege and they must remain as inoculated as possible from
criticism for the rot to continue and spread. Any attempt to increase restrictions
on Council public commenting illuminates their escalating concern over the
advent of burgeoning democratic discourse.

학위논문 (박사)-- 서울대학교 대학원 : 공과대학 협동과정 기술경영·경제·정책전공, 2019. 2. Hwang, Junseok. ; In recent years, the mobile communications market of Bangladesh has observed booming growth. The mobile subscriptions base has become the fifth largest in Asia and has been ranked ninth in the world. This development points out the promising growth of the usage of mobile devices to access the internet. The potential escalation in demand for voice and mobile broadband data services is expected to set strain on the mobile communication networks and spectrum which is a valuable and scarce resource. Thus, examining its economic value is essential to manage it efficiently. The mobile telephony operators of Bangladesh are providing voice and mobile broadband data services through their cellular networks that are operated by insufficient spectrum resources. Currently, five cellular mobile operators are using 78.60 MHz of spectrum from typically the 900 MHz (880-915/925-960) and 1800 MHz (1710-1785/1805-1880) bands for Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) technology-based second generation (2G) services, while only 35 MHz of the spectrum from the 2100 MHz band (1920-1980/2110-2170) is assigned for third-generation (3G) services. However, in the presence of a huge amount of unused spectrum in the 700 MHz, 800 MHz, 1800 MHz, 2100 MHz and 2.6 GHz bands, the capacity of the mobile network is still improving via the additional base station sites instead of using the unoccupied spectrum. As a result, the government is losing a large amount of possible revenue and national currency is draining out of the country to pay for the importation of base station equipment. The unused spectrum has not been assigned due to the difference between the base price set by the regulator and the bidders' willingness to pay. In order to understand this pricing gap and make policy recommendations for framing an efficient spectrum management policy, the opportunity cost of spectrum is estimated from the cost savings achieved by assigning suitable amount of spectrum rather than installing additional base station sites. This dissertation analyzes the opportunity cost of spectrum by the production function method and an engineering valuation approach by taking into account the assigned spectrum, installed BTS, subscriber and so on of the GSM technology based voice service networks and WCDMA /LTE advanced technology based broadband data service networks. The economic value of spectrum is complemented with a discounted cash flow (DCF) valuation in order to estimate the net present value. Almost the same results of the estimated opportunity cost of spectrum in the production function model and the engineering valuation approach, estimation of opportunity cost of spectrum based on 4G/LTE advanced technologies, relation between spectrum price and the increment of spectrum assignment, and the introduction of radio frequency (RF) planning approach for estimating the engineering value of different spectrum bands in different technologies are valuable contribution to related literature. The estimation results have revealed that the opportunity cost of spectrum for 2G voice services is almost equal in the production function model and engineering valuation approach. However, the estimated opportunity cost of 2G spectrum is higher than the opportunity cost of spectrum for mobile broadband data services (3G and 4G), since mobile broadband data services need more spectrum. The estimation results show the important relation that the value of spectrum is decreasing with the increase of spectrum assignment. The results also indicate a valuation gap. The estimated opportunity cost is higher than the administrative price operators paid for the renewal of a 2G license in 2011. In contrast, the opportunity cost of the 1800 MHz band spectrum fell behind the reserve price proposed in the guideline for the spectrum auction in 2015. Similarly, the operators were overpriced during the 3G spectrum auction in 2013 and 4G spectrum auction in 2018. Keywords: Spectrum management, Spectrum price, Opportunity cost, Radio frequency planning, Base station. Student number: 2015-30852 ; 근래에 방글라데시의 이동 통신 시장은 매우 급속한 성장을 보이고 있다. 방글라데시는 현재 아시아에서 다섯 번째, 그리고 세계에서 아홉 번째로 많은 이동통신 가입자 수를 갖게 되었다. 이러한 급속한 발전은 모바일 기기를 통한 인터넷 사용의 괄목할 만한 증가로 이어질 것임을 예견한다. 그러나 음성 및 모바일 광대역 데이터 서비스의 잠재적 수요 증가는 이동 통신 네트워크 및 스펙트럼에 큰 부담을 줄 것으로 예상되고 있다. 그 귀중함 및 희소성을 고려할 때, 주파수의 경제적 가치를 이해하고 관리하는 것은 매우 중요하다. 현재 방글라데시의 이동통신사들은 불충분한 주파수 자원을 바탕으로 음성 및 모바일 광대역 데이터 서비스를 제공하고 있다. 현재 방글라데시의 다섯 이동통신사는 일반적으로 900 MHz (880-915/925-960), 그리고 1800 MHz (1710-1785/1805-1880) 대역에서 78.60 MHz를 사용해 GSM기술 기반의 2G 서비스를 제공하는 한편, 2100 MHz (1920-1980/2110-2170) 대역에서 고작 35MHz 만이 3G 서비스를 위해서 할당돼 있다. 그러나 700 MHz, 800 MHz, 1800 MHz, 2100 MHz, 그리고 2.6 GHz대역의 많은 영역이 사용되고 있지 않음에도 불구하고, 모바일 네트워크 용량의 증진은 추가적 기지국 설치를 통해서만 이루어지고 있다. 결과적으로, 방글라데시 정부는 막대한 양의 잠재적 수익을 잃고 있으며, 국가 통화는 기지국 설비의 수입으로 인해 외국으로 빠져나가고 있는 실정이다. 하지만 미사용중인 주파수는 규제기관이 책정한 기준 단가와 응찰자의 지불의사금액의 격차로 인하여 여전히 할당되지 못하고 있다. 이러한 가격 격차가 발생하는 원인을 이해하고 효율적 주파수 관리를 위한 정책적 제언을 하기 위하여, 본 연구에서는 주파수의 기회비용을 추정하였다. 이는 적절한 양의 주파수 할당을 하였을 경우, 추가적 기지국 건설에 대비하여 발생하는 비용 절감 효과를 바탕으로 산출되었다. 본 논문은 주파수의 기회비용을 생산함수 기법 및 공학적 가치평가(Engineering valuation) 방식을 토대로 GSM기술 기반 음성서비스 네트워크, 그리고 WCDMA/LTE advanced 기술 기반 광대역 데이터 서비스 네트워크의 할당 주파수, 기지국 설비, 가입자 등을 고려하여 산출하였다. 주파수의 경제적가치는 순현재가치 추정을 위해 현금 흐름 할인법을 적용하였다. 본 연구는 첫째, 생산함수 모형 방식과 공학적 가치평가 방식이 거의 동일한 기회비용 추정값을 보인다는 것을 밝힌 점, 둘째, 4G/LTE advanced 기술 기반의 주파수 기회비용을 추정하였다는 점, 셋째, 추가적 주파수 할당에 따른 주파수 가격 변화의 관계성을 보인 점, 그리고 마지막으로 서로 다른 기술 기반의 서로 다른 주파수 영역의 공학적 가치 추정을 위해서 무선주파수 계획 방식을 도입한 점 등에서 관련 연구에 기여를 한다. 추정의 결과, 2G 음성 서비스를 위한 스펙트럼의 기회비용은 생산함수 모형과 공학적 가치평가 방식이 거의 동일한 결과를 보이는 것으로 나타났다. 그러나 2G 스펙트럼의 기회비용은 모바일 광대역 데이터 서비스 (3G 및 4G) 보다 높은 것으로 나타났다. 이는 모바일 광대역 데이터 서비스가 더 많은 대역폭을 필요로 하기 때문이다. 또한, 추정 결과는 주파수의 가치가 주파수 할당량의 증가에 따라 감소하게 된다는 중요한 관계성을 보여주었다. 더 나아가, 본 연구의 분석결과는 통신사와 규제기관의 가치평가 사이에 격차가 존재한다는 것을 보였다. 기회비용 추정 값은 2011년 이동통신사들이 2G 라이센스 갱신을 위해 지불한 금액보다 높게 나왔다. 반면에 1800MHz 대역의 기회비용은 2015년 스펙트럼 경매 가이드라인에 제시된 최저 경매가격보다 낮은 것으로 나타났다. 마찬가지로, 이동통신사들은 2013년의 3G 스펙트럼 경매, 그리고 2018년 4G 스펙트럼 경매에서 과대책정 된 가격을 마주해야 됐다. ; Table of contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………i Contents……………………………………………………………….v List of Figures…………………………………………………………vii List of Tables…………………………………………………………viii Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 General background……………………………………….1 1.2 Problem statement…………………………………………8 1.3 Research objective……………………………………….12 1.4 Research questions……………………………………….14 1.5 Contributions…………………………………………….18 1.6 Organization…………………………………………….19 Chapter 2: Literature review 2.1 Literature review on estimating the value of spectrum….21 2.2 Literature review on the diffusion of mobile telephony…35 2.3 Literature review on theoretical model………………….36 Chapter 3: Opportunity cost of voice service based GSM spectrums 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………38 3.2 Methodology…………………………………………….44 3.2.1 Production function models…………………………….45 3.2.2 Engineering valuation approach……………………….48 3.2.2.1 Base station sites and network coverage…………….49 3.2.2.2 Relation between spectrum and BTS sites……………54 3.2.3 Economic modelling for opportunity cost estimate…….61 3.3 Analysis and results………………………………………64 3.3.1 Production function models…………………………….65 3.3.2 Engineering valuation approach……………………….67 3.3.2.2 Modelled BTS sites and assignable spectrum……….69 3.3.2.3 Opportunity cost estimates………………………….72 3.4 Comparison of spectrum value………………………….80 3.5 Conclusion……………………………………………….82 Chapter 4: Diffusion of mobile telephony in Bangladesh 4.1 Introduction………………………………………………83 4.2 Overview of the telecom. market and regulation…………85 4.3 Methodology and empirical analysis…………………….89 4.3.1 Diffusion models……………………………………….89 4.3.2 Model estimation and performance evaluation…………94 4.3 Factors affecting the speed of mobile diffusion………….97 4.4 Forecasting the future demand of mobile telephony……106 4.5 Conclusion…………………………………………….107 Chapter 5: Impact of incremental spectrum assignment on spectrum price 5.1 Introduction…………………………………………….112 5.2 Estimating the opportunity cost…………………………114 5.2.1 Opportunity cost of combined 2G and 3G networks….115 5.2.2 Opportunity cost of 4G spectrum…………………….117 5.2.2.2 Estimation of opportunity cost………………………120 5.3 Relation between revenue and spectrum usages……….128 5.3.1 Impact of market competition on tariff reduction…….129 5.3.2 Spectrum assignment………………………………….132 5.3.4 Empirical model………………………………………135 5.4 Conclusion…………………………………………….139 Chapter 6: Policy recommendations and conclusion 6.1 Summary of the findings……………………………….141 6.2 Results validation……………………………………….145 6.3 Policy recommendation………………………………………….147 6.4 Conclusion and limitation……………………………………….151 Bibliography…………………………………………………….153 Glossary………………………………………………………….159 ; Doctor

Security threats to cyber-physical systems are targeting institutions and infrastructure around the world, and the frequency and severity of attacks are on the rise. Healthcare manufacturing, financial services, education, government, and transportation are among the industries that are the most lucrative targets for adversaries. Hacking is not just about companies, organizations, or banks; it also includes critical infrastructure. Wireless Sensors Networks, Vehicle-to-everything communication (V2X), Dynamic Message Signs (DMS), and Traffic Signal Controllers are among major Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) infrastructure that has already been attacked or remain vulnerable to hacking. ITS has been deployed with a focus on increasing efficiency and safety in the face of dramatic increases in travel demand. Although many studies have been performed and many security primitives have been proposed, there are significant concerns about flawless performance in a dynamic environment. A holistic security approach, in which all infrastructure performs within the satisfactory level of security remains undiscovered. Previously, hacking of road infrastructure was a rare event, however, in recent years, field devices such as DMS are hacked with higher frequency. The primary reason that transportation assets are vulnerable to cyber-attacks is due to their location. A more dramatic scenario occurs when hackers attempt to convey tampered instructions to the public. Analyzing traveler behavior in response to the hacked messages sign on the basis of empirical data is a vital step toward operating a secure and reliable transportation system. There may be room for improvement by policymakers and program managers when considering critical infrastructure vulnerabilities. With cybersecurity issues escalating every day, road users' safety has been neglected. This dissertation overcomes these challenges and contributes to the nascent but growing literature of Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) security impact-oriented risk assessment in threefold. First, I employ a risk-based approach to conduct a threat assessment. This threat assessment performs a qualitative vulnerability-oriented threat analysis. The objective is to scrutinize safety, security, reliability, and operation issues that are prompted by a compromised Dynamic Message Signs (DMS). Second, I examine the impact of drivers' attitudes and behaviors on compliance, route diversion behavior, and speed change behavior, under a compromised DMS. We aim to assess the determinants that are likely to contribute to drivers' compliance with forged information. To this extent, this dissertation evaluates drivers' behavior under different unauthentic messages to assess in-depth the impact of an adversarial attack on the transportation network. Third, I evaluate distracted driving under different scenarios to assess the in-depth impact of an adversarial attack on the transportation network. To this extent, this dissertation examines factors that are contributing to the manual, visual, and cognitive distractions when drivers encountering fabricated advisory information at a compromised DMS. The results of this dissertation support the original hypothesis and indicate that with respect to the forged information drivers tend to (1) change their planned route, (2) become involved in distracting activities, and (3) change their choice speed at the presence of a compromised DMS. The main findings of this dissertation are outlined below: 1. The DMS security vulnerabilities and predisposing conditions allow adversaries to compromise ITS functionality. The risk-based approach of this study delivers the impact-likelihood matrix, which maps the adverse impacts of the threat events onto a meaningful, visual, matrix. DMS hacking adverse impacts can be categorized mainly as high-risk and medium-risk clusters. The safety, operational (i.e., monetary losses) and behavioral impacts are associated with a high-risk cluster. While the security, reliability, efficiency, and operational (i.e., congestion) impacts are associated with the medium-risk cluster. 2. Tech friendly drivers are more likely to change their route under a compromised DMS. At the same time, while they are acquiring new information, they need to lowering their speed to respond to the higher information load. Under realistic-fabricated information, about 65% of the subjects would depart from their current route. The results indicate that females and subjects with a higher driving experience are more likely to change their route. In addition, those subjects who are more sensitive to the DMS's traffic-related messages and those who use DMS under congested traffic condition are more likely to divert. Interestingly, individuals with lower education level, Asians, those who live in urban areas, and those with trouble finding their direction in new routes are less likely to pick another route rather the one they planned for. 3. Regardless of the DMS hacking scenarios, drivers would engage in at least one of the distractive activities. Among the distractive activities, cognitive distraction has the highest impact on the distracted driving likelihood. Meaning, there is a high chance that drivers think of something other than driving, look at surrounding traffic and scenery, or talk to other passengers regarding the forged information they saw on the DMS. Drivers who rely and trust in technology, and those who check traffic condition before starting their trips tend to become distracted. In addition, the result identified that at the presence of bogus information, drivers tend to slow down or stop in order to react to the DMS. That is, they would either (1) become involved in activities through the means of their phone, (2) they would mind wander, look around, and talk to a passenger about the sign, and (3) search for extra information by means of their vehicle's radio or internet. 4. Females, black individuals, subjects with a disability, older, and those with high trust in DMS are less likely to ignore the fabricated messages. In contrary, white, those who drive long hours, and those who see driving as a tedious task are more likely to ignore the bogus messages. Drivers who comply with traffic regulations and have a good driving record are likely to slow down under the tampered messages. Furthermore, female drivers and those who live in rural areas are more likely to slow down under fabricated advisory information. Furthermore, this dissertation identifies that planning for alternative route and involvement in distractive activities cause speed variation behaviors under the compromised DMS. This dissertation is the first to investigate the adverse impact of a compromised DMS on the road users and operators. I attempt to address the current gap in the literature by assessing and evaluating the impact of ITS security vulnerabilities. Broader impacts of this study include (1) to systematically raising awareness among policy-makers and engineers, (2) motivating further simulations and real-world experiments to investigate this matter further, (3) to systematically assessing the adverse impact of a security breach on transportation reliability and safety, and drivers' behavior, and (4) providing insights for system operators and decision-makers to prioritize the risk of a compromised DMS. Additionally, the outcome can be integrated with the nationwide connected vehicle and V2X implementations and security design. ; Doctor of Philosophy ; Security threats are targeting institutions and infrastructure around the world, and the frequency and severity of security attacks are on the rise. Healthcare manufacturing, financial services, education, government, and transportation are among the industries that are the most lucrative targets for adversaries. Hacking is not just about companies, organizations, or banks; it also includes critical infrastructure. Intelligent Transportation Systems have been deployed with a focus on increasing efficiency and safety in the face of dramatic increases in traffic volume. Although many studies have been performed and many security primitives have been proposed, there are significant concerns about flawless performance in a dynamic environment. A holistic security approach, in which all infrastructure performs within the satisfactory level of security remains undiscovered. Previously, hacking of road infrastructure was a rare event, however, in recent years, field devices, such as dynamic message signs, are hacked with higher frequency. The primary reason that transportation assets are vulnerable to cyber-attacks is that of their location in public. A more dramatic scenario occurs when hackers attempt to convey tampered instructions to the public. Analyzing traveler behavior in response to the hacked messages sign on the basis of empirical data is a vital step toward operating a secure and reliable transportation system. This study is the first to investigate the adversarial impact of a compromised message sign on the road users and operators. I attempt to address the current gap in the literature by assessing and evaluating the impact of ITS security vulnerabilities.

The World Bank's Communication for Governance and Accountability Program (CommGAP) has spent several years exploring the linkages between the media and governance reform. The first stage of this process produced public sentinel: news media and governance reform, an edited volume that explored key issues surrounding the role of the media in democratic governance and the policy interventions that might enable this role. This how-to guide represents the second stage of that process: turning theoretical and policy conclusions into a practical guide for those seeking to enhance good governance by empowering the media. An early needs assessment revealed limited understanding of media development and the role it can play in foster accountable governance. This toolkit accordingly provides the why, how, when, and what of supporting the development of independent, pluralistic and sustainable media.

This Systematic County Diagnostics is organized into six parts. The first part presents a brief overview of the country's recent socio-political and economic context. The second part examines the links between poverty, income distribution and economic growth, through the labor market, against the background of large changes in international capital flows and the unfinished structural reform agenda. The third part, examines the sustainability and vulnerability of the current growth model. The fourth part examines the structural constraints to sustainable and inclusive growth and poverty reduction, while the fifth part reviews the governance and the rule of law foundations. The assessment of each constraint is followed by a description of what the Government of Montenegro (GoM) is doing to address the issue. The sixth part examines priorities and opportunities.

Seventy years after independence and more than a decade of political and institutional reforms, Indonesia has emerged as a stable democracy. Indonesia's achievements are now under stress, with a slowdown in its commodity driven economy, stagnant rates of poverty reduction, and rapidly rising inequality. The development policy review, completed in 2014, and the systematic country diagnostic (SCD), completed in 2015, explain the limited window of opportunity for Indonesia to reach high per capita income levels. This country partnership framework (CPF), covering the period FY2016-20, builds on the previous country partnership strategy (CPS) FY2013-15 and the long-term operational and policy-based support that has been a hallmark of World Bank Group's (WBG's) engagement with the Government of India (GoI) for the past decade. The CPF concentrates on areas of infrastructure necessary to better connect the economy, provide sustainable energy, help the country reap benefits from the rapid pace of urbanization, and improve equality of opportunity through better access of the poor and vulnerable to essential water and sanitation services. The CPF will seek to maximize synergies across the WBG and take advantage of all instruments in support of the CPF goals. The CPF will require a larger financing package than the previous CPS, although WBG's total contribution will still be a very small percentage of overall borrowing needs.

With the scientific contribution that will be made, and in a debate, the Ohrid 2015 conference will answer the questions that are of interest to the scientific and social public. One of those questions addresses the issue of defining security science as a concept, which is related to the concept of security. For this concept different language systems use different terms. Also, one of the principal problems is the naming of the science which deals with researching security. Namely, security is a phenomenon which is the subject of research of philosophy and science, but it is also the subject of interest of other forms of knowledge as well, such as religious, common-sense and artistic ones. But it also denotes a state, activity and certain social creations which, one way or the other, fill human life or are in the function of meeting human needs. It deals with searching for the answer related to the nature of the destructions, the risks and prerequisites for setting up the conditions and the environment for the creation and improvement of human life, and also with the values: a) whether these values are threatened, to what extent, what from and why; b) how to improve and promote the values and eliminate their threat, who from, with what measures and against whom? Topics  Approaches and methods in researching security  Contemporary security – problem of the state or the society  Security as a public good and its transformation in the spirit of the new generation of security risks and threats  Classification of security – types of security  The concept of security system reform  Security neutrality versus European and Atlantic integration  The concept of securitization  Place and role of intelligence and counterintelligence services  Expanded approach to security  Parliamentary control over the security system  Security law  Corporate security – new type of dealing with risks  The "public's right to know" and the security system  Prevention of violence at sports events  Energetic security in Southeast Europe  Comparative experiences and latest mechanisms for preventing corruption  Types of corruption in the security system and the judiciary  Participation of citizens in the fight against corruption  Practical policies for police reforms  Police integrity yesterday, today and tomorrow  Forms of cooperation between police forces and police organizations  Structure of international police cooperation  Contents of international police cooperation  Forms of ad hoc institutionalization of international police cooperation  Educational systems and profile of police profession in the Balkan states  Forms of bilateral and multilateral cooperation in the area of dealing with crime, trafficking in humans, narcotics and psychotropic substances  Institutionalization of regional cooperation in dealing with crises and other security problems  Is the formation of joint Balkan police forces?  Is the formation of Balkan network of criminologists as well as networks of individuals coming from particular specialties possible?  Approaches in cases of domestic violence  Contemporary forms of trade, legal regulations and relations between states  Cooperation of economic subjects between legal security and security threats and risks  Regional cooperation and regional economic policies  Democracy, legal state, human rights, their enhancement and forms of protection  International standards for the protection of freedoms and rights of persons and citizens and the policies of the Balkan states  Forms of protection of freedoms and rights – experiences and perspective  Strengthening the rule of law and the responsibility of the institutions  The role of international organizations in the promotion and implementation of international norms for the protection of human rights in the Balkans  Democracy, stabilization, integration  Inter-state and inter-institutional cooperation in the protection of human freedoms and rights  Contemporary forms of crime and ways for their suppression  Contemporary forms of cyber crime (electronic: frauds, misleadings, threats, id thefts and other forms of electronic frauds and crimes)  Forms of crime related to the Internet and cyber services and manners for their detection  Criminalistic experiences, achievements, methods, means and manners for the suppression of contemporary forms of criminality  Gender perspectives in security  Relationship between criminological and victimological sciences and security as a science – independence, complementarity, distinctiveness, delimitation, subject of study and research methods.  Relationship between criminal law science and security as a science – independence, complementarity, distinctiveness, delimitation, subject of study and research methods.  Relationship between criminalistics and security as ascience - independence, complementarity, distinctiveness, delimitation, subject of study and research methods  Classical (conventional) criminality – (un) justly neglected topic  Homicides and other crimes against the person – a worrying upward trend  Capital punishment – pros and cons (reasons for reconsideration)  Frauds – unjustly neglected criminality (phenomenology, etiology, prevention, penal policy)  Victimization of vulnerable groups (women, children, older persons, persons with disabilities etc.) and their protection  Reform of the criminal material and process law  Contemporary risk management methods in socio-pathological phenomena  Modernization of criminal justice  Contemporary challenges to criminology  Prevention of juvenile delinquency  Contemporary responses to criminality suppression  Sexual abuse of children  Assistance and support to crime victims  Problems relating to the statistical recording of criminality  Gender perspective of criminality  Women and criminality  Stress and victimization in penal institutions Through an open and well-argued debate the Conference should make topical the discussion on the difference between security as an activity and the science which deals with it, i.e. the scientific deliberation and the discovering of scientific laws and rules in the social field of security. These two concepts are most commonly referred to as security and security science or sciences, respectively. Yet, no clear distinction is drawn between them. Most commonly, when talking about security science the discussion revolves around security and its structure. In that sense the concept of security is currently being used with several meanings. As far as security at national or global level is concerned, we should bear in mind the fact that its contemporary concept and basic contours date back to the period after the fall of the Berlin Wall, i.e. after the Cold War. The terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 mark a new era in the studies and the practice of security. As a result of globalization and the processes which led to the change in the structure of the world power, the phenomena encroaching security are perceived as challenges, risks and threats. The ranking of these concepts and phenomena depends on the level of their impact on the encroachment of security, and for this reason they represent latent, potential or factors of immediate encroachment. In scientific and expert debate security and security science are being disputed. Thus, instead of science, the notions of state (integral security), field (security sector) or a specific system are used. There are no doubts that security encompasses all of them. It is an important human activity in which numerous processes, subjects and relations are interwoven. That sphere is characterized by specific occurrences and phenomena which are challenges for numerous individuals, organs and organizations, and above all, for the state. Security is a complex phenomenon, a controversial concept which has very often been one-sidedly and narrowly defined through history. Security is a complex phenomenon, and, is essentially a disputable concept not only because of its elusive nature and contents bearing in mind the time and the place in which it has been discussed, but also because of the fact that discussion on security is inevitably related to other categories: fear (for physical survival), absence of structural violence, peace, well-being and stability. In international relations, security is defined in various ways, and very often in literature this concept is used without being more closely determined. As a political concept, security is evidently a pre-condition for the existence of life - individual and societal, and refers to the absence of threats and protection from threats. The understanding of security as an innate interest of every individual and broader human collectivities – family, society, nation, state, international system, points to the need for broadening the concept of security towards such approaches. Therefore, in theory concepts are formed such as national and international security, and, in more recent time, human, individual, societal and global security, which indicates an important expansion of new dimensions of security. The paradigms and the institutional models of security have a historical continuity. They have been changing. Security is inseparably related to the state and its organization, organs and function. Contemporary debates on security are expanded to the social and political sphere. Although the very mentioning of the concept of security, is, above all, associated with internal peace and peaceful life of the citizens, i.e. as freedom from threats, it also denotes a state of defence from an external enemy and encroachment of sovereignty. Therefore, the central interest of the concept of security is the state, which can be jeopardized by internal turmoil, economic and social disturbances, particularly in communities lacking the feeling of endangerment of identity and social cohesion. Hence, it can be concluded that "freedom means nothing without security" and that "the test of the freedom is the security of the minorities". For that purpose the Faculty of Security will organize an international conference in Ohrid in the period 2-3 June 2015 on the topic: "Researching security – approaches, concepts and policies". This will mean that the Faculty of Security Skopje will continue its orientation towards giving contribution to the development of scientific thought by organizing international conferences in the area of security, thus helping the decision-makers at regional, national and local level, to overcome practical problems they face in a faster, simpler and timely manner with the help of the findings and the research results.

La crescente attenzione alla tematica dei metadati testimonia l'attuale tendenza del Web ad evolvere verso una forma più adeguata alla comunicazione scientifica, strutturata in modo tale da permettere il reperimento di informazioni "pertinenti" e tutelate dal punto di vista dell'autenticità e della sicurezza. Ci si orienta cioè verso un'informazione "di qualità", le cui caratteristiche possono essere definite da quattro parole chiave: strutturata, arricchita da metadati, aggiornata, certificata.L'articolo intende focalizzare l'attenzione sui metadati, intesi come nodo di svincolo decisivo di questa fase evolutiva del Web, in cui si saldano gli interessi degli specialisti dell'informazione per la strutturazione e la standardizzazione dei dati e quelli "economici" di chi sulla rete propone beni e servizi. Pur essendo impossibile passare in rassegna tutte le esperienze in corso in questo settore, esso intende esporre le conoscenze e gli spunti di riflessione emersi dal lavoro del gruppo in relazione ad alcuni casi di applicazione concreta di metadati: l'ipotesi di digitalizzazione degli atti parlamentari italiani, la creazione di metadati a corredo degli atti parlamentari già in formato digitale, la creazione di metadati specifici per la normativa, nell'ambito del progetto "Norme in rete".I metadati consentono, infatti, di svolgere, più agevolmente e con maggiore precisione, le tre attività di base che un sistema informativo deve garantire: identificazione, fruizione e conservazione delle risorse elettroniche. Sebbene tutte le risorse presenti sul Web siano corredate in qualche modo da metadati, non esiste però l'omogeneità e l'uniformità ormai tradizionali nel mondo dell'informazione analogica (dalla forma di presentazione dei documenti alla catalogazione); d'altra parte le risorse digitali presentano una complessità e una varietà ben maggiore, e il problema fondamentale della standardizzazione si pone quindi in maniera del tutto nuova. La ricerca procede secondo due direttrici complementari: una consiste nello strutturare degli insiemi omogenei di metadati, anche complessi, finalizzati ad applicazioni e progetti specifici e quindi destinati a un ambito definito di risorse digitali; l'altra mira a sviluppare uno standard a diffusione universale, molto semplice e basato sul principio della descrizione da parte dell'autore. L'obiettivo ultimo è quello della interoperabilità. Da un lato questa viene perseguita curando la compatibilità dei set specifici con lo standard, in modo da poter elaborare delle mappature tra set diversi e anche con standard di descrizione tradizionali. Dall'altro, data la complessità di alcuni sistemi informativi, si ammette la presenza, relativamente alle stesse risorse, di set diversi e per funzioni ( ad es. uno per la descrizione del contenuto, uno per la conservazione) e per complessità (a una descrizione rapida può essere poi affiancata una più completa) e si studiano accorgimenti per ospitarli in un'architettura comune.Particolare attenzione viene dedicata al Dublin Core, uno standard tendenzialmente universale, caratterizzato da un numero limitato di elementi definiti attraverso una una semantica chiara e universalmente comprensibile e teso a garantire l'interoperabilità con altri standard e strumenti per la ricerca delle risorse in rete. L'articolo fa il punto sullo stato della discussione relativo allo sviluppo degli elementi del set e dei loro qualificatori al fine di soddisfare le esigenze più specifiche di diverse comunità di utenti, libere altresì di utilizzare la sintassi ritenuta più opportuna. Se il Dublin Core può proporsi come modello per la "semantica" dei metadati, interessanti sviluppi possono invece provenire per quanto riguarda la "sintassi", dall'adozione del modello RDF (Resource Description Framework), che, sfruttando le potenzialità del linguaggio XML, propone un approccio basato sul concetto di relazione tra dati e metadati.Altri interessanti spunti di riflessione provengono dalla estesa e sempre più avvertita problematica della conservazione delle risorse elettroniche, sia per quanto riguarda il tema della permanenza dell'accesso, sia per quanto attiene alla garanzia di autenticità dei dati. Nel tracciare un quadro delle principali strategie di conservazione delle risorse elettroniche viene posto in evidenza il ruolo che i metadati ricoprono all'interno di queste ultime: sia nella strategia cosiddetta di "migrazione dei dati" che, in modo particolare, in quella basata sull'emulazione, essi costituiscono un tentativo strutturato di descrivere i requisiti per la gestione a lungo termine dei documenti elettronici.Un cenno particolare è riservato al modello OAIS (Open Archival Information System) sviluppato appositamente per rispondere all'esigenza della conservazione a lungo termine delle risorse digitali: esso, benchè originato nel mondo della ricerca scientifica, è di grande interesse per chiunque produca e intenda conservare risorse elettroniche: esso propone una visione dinamica dei metadati per la conservazione, visti come parte integrante di un AIP (Archival Information Package), costituito dalla risorsa digitale intrinsecamente collegata ai suoi metadati. Diversi progetti di ambito bibliotecario, quali il CEDARS e il NEDLIB stanno attualmente sviluppando parti del modello OAIS nell'ambito di progetti che includono anche la sperimentazione della strategia dell'emulazione. ; The growing attention to metadata is evidence of the current trend of the World Wide Web to evolve towards forms more suited to scientific communication. This would be structured in such a way as to allow the retrieval of relevant information that is safeguarded from the point of view of its authenticity and security. We can therefore say that the trend is towards "quality information", which can be defined by four key words: structured, enriched by metadata, updated, certified.The article means to focalize attention on metadata, taken as a decisive clearance junction of this evolutionary phase of the Web, in which the interests of the specialists of information for the structuring and standardization of data and the "economic" interests of those who offer commodities and services on the net are united. While it is impossible to examine all the current experiences in this sector, it intends expounding the information and occasions for reflection that emerged from the work of the group in relation to some cases of actual application of metadata: the digitalization of Italian parliamentary papers, the creation of metadata to integrate parliamentary papers already in digital form, the creation of specific metadata for legislative provisions, within the sphere of the project Norma in rete (Regulations on the Internet).The metadata actually make it possible to more easily and precisely carry out the three basic activities that an information system must ensure: identification, use and conservation of electronic resources. Although all the resources present on the Web are provided in some way with metadata, there is a lack of the homogeneity and consistency that are by now usual in the world of analogic information (from the form of presentation of the documents to cataloguing); on the other hand digital resources offer a much greater complexity and variety, and therefore the fundamental problem of standardization is presented in a completely new way. The research proceeds according to two complementary guiding principles: one consists in structuring homogenous, even if complex, sets of metadata, aimed at specific applications and projects and therefore addressed to a definite area of digital resources; the other aims at developing a standard for universal diffusion. This would be very simple and based on the principle of description by the author. The ultimate objective is that of interoperability. On the one hand this is pursued by paying special attention to the compatibility of specific sets with the standard, in such a way as to be able to map different sets and even traditional description standards. On the other, because of the complexity of some information systems, the presence, with regard to the resources themselves, of different sets by function (e.g., one for the description of the contents and one for preservation) and by complexity (a rapid description can then be followed by a more complete one) is allowed, and devices for hosting them in a common architecture are being studied.Particular attention is devoted to the Dublin Core, a tendentially universal standard, characterized by a limited number of elements defined through clear and universally intelligible semantics and prepared for ensuring interoperability with other standards and tools for the search of online resources. The article sums up the state of the discussion regarding the development of the elements of the set and their descriptors in order to satisfy the most specific requirements of different communities of users, which are likewise free to use the syntax deemed most opportune. If the Dublin Core can be offered as a model for the "semantics" of the metadata, there can also be interesting developments as regards the "syntax" from the adoption of the RDF (Resource Description Framework) model which, by exploiting the potential of the XML language, proposes an approach based on the concept of relation between data and metadata.Other interesting occasions for reflection come from the extensive and increasingly felt problem of the preservation of electronic resources, both with regard to the permanence of access and the guarantee of authenticity. In outlining the main strategies for preservation of electronic resources, the role that metadata play within these latter is emphasized: both in the so-called "migration" strategy and, especially, in the "emulation" strategy, they constitute a structured attempt to describe the requirements for the long-term management of electronic documents.A special mention must be made of the OAIS (Open Archival Information System) model, developed especially to respond to the requirement of long-term preservation of digital resources. Although originated from the world of scientific research, it is of great interest for anyone who produces and means to preserve electronic resources. It offers a dynamic vision of the metadata for conservation, seen as an integral part of an AIP (Archival Information Package), formed from the digital resource that is intrinsically linked to its metadata. Different projects of the library area, such as CEDARS and NEDLIB are currently developing parts of the OAIS model within projects that also include testing of the emulation strategy.

Eesti majanduspoliitika on kujundatud selliseks, mis loob kõik võimalikud tingimused kapitaliühingute loomiseks ja edukaks toimimiseks. Ühistud on jäetud aga tagaplaanile, nende olemasolust ei teata ja nende tegevusvõimalusi piiratakse. Ühistute toimimiseks on jäänud valida vaid üks tee, mis on muuta oma põhimõtteid mitte ühistegevuse põhimõtetele toetudes vaid kapitaliühingutele iseloomulikuks, et praeguses turusituatsioonis toime tulla. Aidanud ei ole ka see, et Eesti Tarbijateühistute Keskühistul on juba 95 aastane kogemus oma alal tegutsemiseks. Määravaks on saanud üldise turukorralduse suund. Sealjuures ei aita ka teiste riikide kogemused ühistegevuse korraldamisel, sest kui Eesti valitsus toetab oma tegevuses vaid kapitaliühinguid, siis ühistud peavad püsima jäämise nimel oma tegevuses hakkama neile sarnanema. Sellepärast oli käesoleva uurimuse eesmärgiks välja selgitada kas ETK Gruppi kuuluvad ühistud vastavad ühistulistele põhimõtetele ja kaardistada peamised arengut takistavad tegurid, mis ei lase neil funktsioneerida ühistuliselt. Uurimuse eesmärgi täitmiseks võeti aluseks ETK Gruppi kuuluvate ühistute põhikirjad, internetis läbiviidud küsitlus tarbijateühistute liikmete seas ning Saaremaa, Tõrva ja Vändra Tarbijate Ühistute esimeeste intervjuud. Võrdluseks Eesti Tarbijateühistute Keskühistu korraldusele toodi välja ka Soome Tarbijateühistute Keskühistu tegevuspõhimõtted ja mõningad asjakohased andmed SOK turupositsiooni kohta. Uurimuses selgus, et ETK Grupp on tõepoolest võõrdunud ühistulistest põhimõtetest ning sarnaneb üha enam kapitaliühingutele. Järgnevalt tuuakse välja olulisemad töös selgunud probleemid, mis takistavad ETK Grupi toimimist ühistulistel alustel: 1. Eestis puuduvad teadmised ühistegevusest, mille üle peaksid muret tundma eelkõige ühistud, kes on ühistegevuse põhimõttest lähtudes kohustatud jagama teavet ühistegevuse olemusest ja kasulikkusest. ETK Grupi tegevusalast on jäänud välja Eesti rahvale ühistegevuse tutvustamine. Olukord on kujunenud selliseks, et isegi 61% tarbijateühistute klient-omanikest arvavad, et neile jagatakse sellekohast informatsiooni liiga vähe. 2. Raha võim, mis loob hea keskkonna erakapitalil põhinevatele ettevõtetele, kuid pärsib oluliselt ühistute toimimist. Säästukaart Plussi haldav Cofi AS on otseselt sekkunud tarbijateühistute liikmete arvelt kasumi teenimisse. Olenemata sellest, et ETK-le kuulub üle poole aktsiate kontrollpakist, ei ole ta oma tegevuses enam sõltumatu. Säästukaart Plussi teenuseid saavad kasutada vaid kindla sissetulekuga inimesed, kelle kuusissetulek on 150 eurot ja eeliseid saavad need, kes rohkem ostavad. 3. Vastuolulised seadused, mis ei toeta ühistute tegevust vaid kitsendavad nende tegevust oluliselt. ETK Grupp peab lähtuma nii äriseadustikust, tulundusühistuseadusest, kus on ühistutest räägitud väga vähe. Puudub ühtne ühistuseadus nagu Soomes, mis reguleeriks ainult ühistuid ja lähtuks ühistegevuspõhimõtetest. Eestis väljaantud ühistegevust reguleerivad seadused panevad ühistutele peale vaid piiranguid, mitte ei soodusta nende tegevust nagu demokraatlikus riigis kohane. 4. Koostöö teiste ühistutega ETK Grupil puudub, sest Eestis ei ole teisi nii suuri ühistulisi ettevõtteid, kelle kogemustest õppida saaks ning ETK peaks olema eeskujuks just teistele ühistulistele ettevõtmistele. Väljaspool Eestit toimivad aga väga suured jaekaubandusega tegelevad tarbijateühistud, kellega koostööd tehes saaks kindlasti ka enda süsteemi rohkem panustada ning asjakohasemaid otsuseid vastu võtta. Eesti Tarbijate Keskühistul oleks vaja õppida SOK tegevusest, aga oma eestimaise kangusega tahetakse omal jõul edasi minna. Kahjuks on sellisel isekusel suured ohumärgid, mis töötavad ühistulise süsteemi vastu. Eelkõige oleks oluline õppida oma liikmete hindamist nii, nagu see toimib Soome tasandil. Sest vaid nii tegutsedes suudetakse säilitada turupositsioon Eestis. 5. Ühistu sisesed probleemid ja vastuolud tekitavad pingeid tarbijateühistute, nende liikmete ja keskühistu vahel. Nagu selgus, on ETK-l liiga suured õigused tarbijateühistute osas nii põhikirjast lähtuvalt kui Säästukaardi tingimuste muutmise osas. Samuti tekitab liikmete suhtes ebaõiglust üldkoosoleku kokkukutsumisteadete vähene levitatavus, mis toimub peamiselt ETK kaupluste infostendidel ja kohalikes lehtedes. ETK Grupi liikmed jagunevad kahte leeri st need, kes tahaksid lähtuda rohkem ühistute põhimõtetest ja pingutavad selle nimel, ja teised, kes tegutsevad selgelt nende vastu. 6. Meedia, kes ei kajasta ühistegevuse uudiseid, vaid räägib kapitaliühingute ülimuslikkusest. ETK Grupi tegevusest ja käekäigust räägitakse enamasti koos Selveri, Rimi jt poekettidega, mis on tinginud asjaolu, et on hakatud sarnanema üha enam kapitaliühingutega. Kliendileht, tarbijateühistute kodulehed, reklaamid ja boonused on suunatud klientidele, liikmetest räägitakse sealjuures minimaalselt. Liikmete vastustest selgub, et 37% ei tee kaubanduskettidel mingit vahet ning 46% eristab neid lähtudes erinevast kliendikaardi kujundusest. Ühistegevus pannakse ühte patta suurkapitalistide omanduses olevate ettevõtlusvormidega ning ETK ei näe selles probleemi. Teoorias väljatoodud probleemid sarnanevad väga ETK Grupi omadele, kuid probleemid on veelgi raskekoelisemad kui varem. ETK Grupi näol on tekkinud uus ettevõtlusvorm, mis on midagi ühistute ja kapitaliühingute vahepealset. Seda tunnistavad nii tarbijateühistute liikmed, kui juhid ise, kes arvavad, et ETK Grupp tegutseb teistel põhimõtetel, kui seda tehti kunagi. ETK Grupil ei ole pääsu kapitaliühingute võimu alla jäämisest, mis muudab ühistud nende sarnaseks. Kuna ajalugu kordub, siis varsti võib oodata ühistegevuse hiilgeperioodi, kuid seni peavad ühistud suutma meeles pidada, et nad siiski tahavad jätkata tulevikus ühistutena. Töös selgus, et ETK Grupp ei lähtu oma tegevuses Rahvusvahelise Ühistegevuse Organisatsiooni väljaantud põhimõtetest. Uuringu tulemusi oleks võimalik kasutada doktoritöös või järgnevates uuringutes ning võrrelda põhjalikumalt Soome Tarbijateühistute Keskühistu ja Eesti Tarbijateühistute Keskühistu tegevust, et välja selgitada, miks ETK ei ole suutnud end ühistegevuse vallas kuuldavaks teha. Teiseks võimaluseks oleks võrrelda põhjalikumalt Eesti toidu- ja jaekaubandusega tegelevate kauplustekettide ja ETK Grupi tegevuse aluspõhimõtteid. Käesolev uurimus käsitleb küll neid kahte valdkonda pealiskaudselt, kuid edasise uurimuse käigus oleks oluline teada saada täpsed punktid, kuidas ETK Grupp suudaks säilitada oma turupositsiooni jätkates siiski ühistegevuse põhimõtete alusel. ; The new laws, regulations and statutes that accompany the restructuring of the economy give way to market economy, which hinders the development of cooperatives in Estonia. This has a negative effect on the cooperatives that have estranged from the principles developed by the International Co-operative Alliance. Stemming from this problem, the purpose of the herein thesis is to determine whether cooperatives that belong to the ETK Grupp comply with the principles of cooperatives and are functioning in a cooperative way. In order to fulfil the purpose, first a theoretical overview of different authors' viewpoints on the problems hindering cooperatives has been given. In the empirical part the statutes of the cooperatives that belong to the ETK Grupp have been studied, a survey has been carried out among the members of the cooperatives, and interviews have been conducted with chairmen of cooperatives in order to find out what kind of problems restrain cooperatives from working on the basis of cooperative principles. As a comparison to the Estonian Consumers' Cooperative, an overview of the Finnish Consumers' Cooperative has also been given. 157 members of the consumer cooperatives participated in the Internet-based survey and chairmen of the cooperatives in Vändra, Tõrva and Saaremaa commented on the situation. It appears that there are several problems. Seven out of eight respondents who considered themselves members of the consumer cooperative had a higher education. However, there are problems both in the educational system, where the topic of cooperatives is not covered, and in the cooperatives, who do not distribute relevant information neither to the public nor to their own members. Notifications about the general meeting of members are to be found only on the information stands in the shops of the consumer cooperative, and county and city newspapers. A tendency has 91 developed that the web pages, visions, missions and the newsletter of the ETK and consumer cooperatives concentrate on satisifying the needs of customers, not those of member cooperatives – a situation similar to capital associations. Members are very dissatisified – they are not pleased with the bonus system, they do not understand what membership is about, and constant changes in discount and loyalty programmes cause a lot of confusion. Comparing the consumers' cooperatives in Finland and Estonia, it appears that the ETK Grupp should be able to grow its market share and concentrate its main purposes, which at the moment give the ETK too much power over cooperatives. The bonus card should be focused on the members and the system of collecting bonus should be clearer. At the moment a large part of the profits of Säästukaart and Säästukaart Pluss go to Cofi Ltd., who is administrating the cards. 89% of the survey respondents do not or would not use Säästukaart Pluss to withdraw cash and 73% do not /would not use it as a mehtod of payment. This raises doubts about the expedience of creating a new system and questions why the system was not aimed at satisfying the members' needs as it is in Finland. The ETK Grupp could be a major leader of cooperation in Estonia, considering its present market share, number of member cooperatives and customers, and the dissipation of its shops. Unfortunately one can notice an estrangement from the principles of cooperation and a progressing adoption of the characteristics of capital associations. Members have been pushed to the background and the focus is on competing with other retail chains. The Master`s thesis has been written in Estonian. Composing the Master`s thesis 79 references were used and it consists of 91 pages. The research included three interviews and one poll, which was addressed to members of consumer cooperatives. The Master`s thesis contains two tables and ten illustrations which give a better review and understanding of the studied theme. The data has been also received from statutes of consumer cooperatives.

p. 747-758: "An act for rendering more effectual the several acts passed for the erecting of hospitals and workhouses within the city of Bristol, for the better employing and maintaining of the poor thereof." ; p. 735-743: "An act for impowering the surviving commissioners and trustees for forfeited estates to execute proper conveyances of the late Lord Widdrington's estate, in the county of Northumberland (contracted for by the York buildings company) to trustees for the creditors of the said company, upon payment of a sum of money therein mentioned into His Majesty's exchequer." ; p. 727-730: "An act for prohibiting the wearing and importation of cambricks and French lawns." ; p. 719-723: "An act for the further regulating and better government of His Majesty's navies, ships of war, and forces by sea; and for regulating the proceedings upon courts martial in the sea service." ; p. 711-716: "An act to explain, amend, and make more effectual the laws in being, to prevent excessive and deceitful gaming; and to restrain and prevent the excessive increase of horse races." ; p. 703-706: "An act to repeal a clause in an act made in the third year of the reign of King William and Queen Mary, relating to carts used by persons inhabiting within the limits of the weekly bills of mortality; and to allow such carts to be drawn with three horses; and to prevent the misbehaviour of the drivers of carts in streets, within the said limits." ; p. 679-698: "An act for continuing, amending, and making more effectual, an act made in the twelfth year of the reign of King George the First, for repairing the roads leading from Birmingham to Edghill, in the county of Warwick." ; p. 667-674: "An act for the more effectual recovering and collecting of certain duties granted towards the support of the Royal hospital at Greenwich; and to oblige agents for prizes, to register their letters of attorney." ; p. 659-662: "An act to amend an act made in the elventh year of the reign of King William the Third, intituled, An act for the more effectual suppression of piracy." ; p. 647-654: "An act for granting further powers to the commissioners for building a bridge cross the river Thames, from the city of Westminster to the opposite shore, in the county of Surrey; and for the better enabling them to finish the said bridge, and to perform the other trusts reposed in them." ; p. 639-643: "An act to indemnify persons who have been guilty of the unlawful importing, landing, or running of prohibited, uncustomed, or other goods or merchandize." ; p. 631-634: "An act for more effectually preventing the stealing of linen, fustian, and cotton goods and wares, in buildings, fields, grounds, and other places used for printing, whitening, bleaching, or drying the same." ; p. 615-626: "An act for repealing the present inland duty of four shillings per pound weight upon all tea sold in Great Britain, and for granting to His Majesty certain other inland duties in lieu thereof; and for better securing the duty upon tea, and other duties of excise; and for pursuing offenders out of one county into another." ; p. 603-610: "An act for allowing certain additional bounties on the exportation of British and Irish linens." ; p. 595-599: "An act for effectually preventing the exportation of foreign linens, under the denomination of British or Irish linens." ; p. 571-591: "An act to repair and widen the road leading from Godmanchester in the county of Huntingdon, through Fen Stanton and Cambridge, to the First Rubbing House on Newmarket Heath in the county of Cambridge." ; p. 551-567: "An act for granting to His Majesty the sum of eight hundred thousand pounds out of the sinking fund; and for granting a sum remaining in the exchequer, arisen by the surplus of the duties upon malt, mum, cyder and perry, for the service of the year One thousand seven hundred and forty five; and for the further appropriating the supplies granted in this session of Parliament; and for giving further time for the payment of duties omitted to be paid for the indentures or contracts of clerks and apprentices, and for further enforcing the payment of the said duties." ; p. 547-548: "An act to continue an act made in the sixth year of the reign of His present Majesty, for the better regulation of lastage and ballastage in the river Thames." ; p. 535-542: "An act to amend and render more effectual an act, passed in the fifth year of His present Majesty's reign, intituled, An act for the further qualification of justices of the peace." ; p. 503-531: "An act for repairing the road from Birmingham, in the county of Warwick (through Elmdon) to a lane leading by the end of Stone-Bridge, in the said county." ; p. 491-498: "An act to explain and amend the laws touching the elections of knights of the shire to serve in Parliament for that part of Great Britain called England." ; p. 483-486: "An act for giving a publick reward to such person or persons, His Majesty's subject or subjects, as shall discover a north west passage through Hudson's Streights, to the western and southern ocean of America." ; p. 455-478: "An act to repair the road leading from Tadcaster Bridge within the county of the city of York, to a place near the said city, called Hobmoor-Lane end." ; p. 431-450: "An act for making the surgeons of London and the barbers of London two separate and distinct corporations." ; p. 423-426: "An act for enlarging the terms and powers granted by several acts of Parliament for repairing the highways between Sheppards Shord and the Devizes, and the top of Ashlington Hill and Rowd Ford, in the county of Wilts." ; p. 411-420: "An act for more effectually cleansing, deepening, widening, and preserving a creek called Beverley Beck, running into the river Hull; and for more effectually repairing the staiths near the said beck, and the roads leading from the said river to the town of Beverley; and for cleansing the streets of the said town; and for regulating the carriages to and from the said beck, and the river Hull." ; p. 395-406: "An act for continuing and enlarging the term and powers granted by an act made in the twelfth year of the reign of His late Majesty King George the First, for repairing the highways from Speenhamland, adjoining the Newbury, in the county of Berks, to Marlborough, in the county of Wilts." ; p. 387-390: "An act to indemnify persons who have omitted to qualify themselves for offices and employments within the time limited by law, and for allowing further time for that purpose." ; p. 363-382: "An act for the speedy and effectual recruiting of His Majesty's regiments of foot serving in Flanders, Minorca, Gibralter, and the plantations, and the regiments of marines." ; p. 323-359: "An act for granting to His Majesty several additional duties upon all wines imported into Great Britain; and for raising a certain sum of money by annuities, and a lottery, in manner therein mentioned, to be charged on the said additional duties." ; p. 291-318: "An act for repairing the high road leading from Boroughbridge in the county of York, through North Allerton in the same county to Crostbridge on the river Tees; and from thence through Darlington in the county of Durham, to the city of Durham." ; p. 251-286: "An act for punishing mutiny and desertion; and for the better payment of the army and their quarters." ; p. 219-247: "An act for repairing the road leading from a gate commonly called Sacred Gate, on the south east side of the town of Hedon, in the East Riding of the county of York, through the said town, to Hull North Bridge." ; p. 195-214: "An act for granting and continuing the duties upon salt, and upon red and white herrings, for the further term of six years; and for declaring that the duties on salt, which arise and are payable in that part of Great Britain called Scotland, shall be subject to the same charges theron, as the same duties were liable to be the act of the fifth year of the reign of His late Majesty King George the First." ; p. 163-190: "An act for repairing the road leading from the town of Kingston upon Hull, to and through the town of Anlaby, and from thence to the town of Kirk-Ella, in the county of the said town of Kingston upon Hull." ; p. 143-158: "An act to enable the parishioners of the parish of Saint Margaret, within the borough of King's-Lynn, in the county of Norfolk, to raise money, by rates upon themselves, for finishing the church of the said parish." ; p. 119-138: "An act for continuing the duties upon malt, mum, cyder, and perry, in that part of Great Britain called England; and for granting to His Majesty certain duties upon malt, mum, cyder, and perry, in that part of Great Britain called Scotland, for the service of the year One thousand seven hundred and forty five." ; p. 3-115: "An act for granting an aid to His Majesty by a land tax, to be raised in Great Britain, for the service of the year One thousand seven hundred and forty five." ; The caption title and paging of each act follow ; Contains 38 acts, each with a duplicate of the t.-p. quoted (nos. 15-38, printed 1745) ; Initials ; Signature K² (blank), p. [407-408], omitted in binding ; Mode of access: Internet. ; Bookplate: Mr. Baron Mure ; Contemporary suède calf binding

Prior to the political and security crisis of 2012, Mali, a large landlocked country in West Africa already ranked among the poorest countries in the world. In early 2012, the vast northern regions fell under the control of extremist forces, while a coup d'état in Bamako threw the country into political instability and turmoil. A strong international military response in early 2013 prevented further destabilization, though part of the North remains outside government control and insecurity has spread to Bamako and the South. The signing of a peace agreement in June 2015 has revived hopes for peace and stability. The WBG has continued to support Mali throughout the crisis. An Interim Strategy Note (ISN, FY14-15) addressed the root causes of Mali's underestimated fragility, namely weak governance, extremely high demographic growth and the consequences of climate change. This CPF will continue to address the drivers of Mali's fragility, with a strong focus on governance, while building on the progress and experience of the ISN. Drawing from the recent Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCD), which stresses the criticality of improving rural livelihoods to sustainable poverty reduction, the Framework intends to contribute to improving rural incomes by increasing productivity and resilience in the four livelihood zones of the country. Accordingly, the CPF proposes orientations for the WBG engagement around three areas of focus: (i) improve governance, by strengthening public resource management at central and local levels and fostering citizen engagement; (ii) create economic opportunities, by enhancing the productive capacity of smallholders, increasing agricultural value added and diversification to catalyze transformation, and improving basic services by developing infrastructure and connectivity; and (iii) build resilience, by developing human capital, strengthening safety nets, improving risk management mechanisms for the poor and vulnerable and mitigating climate shock. A comprehensive program has been proposed for the first two years of the CPF that includes knowledge activities and development policy operations to address the binding constraints to poverty reduction, as well as citizen engagement, investment financing, partner-funded and joint IFC/IDA investments and guarantees. Key areas include the reinsertion of ex-combatants, competitiveness and agricultural productivity, statistical capacity, climate change, water and sanitation, safety nets programs, energy, irrigation and transport.

In mid-2014, the Government of Ukraine (GoU) requested technical assistance and financial support from the inter¬national community to assess and plan priority recovery and peacebuilding efforts in the conflict-affected regions of eastern Ukraine. Following these requests, and within the framework of the 2008 Joint Declaration on Post-Crisis Assessments and Recovery Planning, the EU, UN, and WBG agreed to support the government in undertaking a Recovery and Peacebuilding Assessment (RPA). This assessment follows the Post-Conflict Needs Assessment (PCNA) methodology. In view of the continuing conflict in eastern Ukraine, it was decided to undertake an initial rapid assess¬ment as a first phase of activity, which would provide an analytical and programmatic baseline for recovery efforts to inform urgent interventions and provide a basis for scaling up recovery plan¬ning and responses as the situation and needs evolve on the ground. This report summarizes the findings and recommendations of the first phase of the RPA, which was undertaken in the period November 2014 to February 2015. In light of the dynamic and fluid nature of the situation in eastern Ukraine, these findings should be considered as a snapshot in time. In particular, the assessment of infrastructure damage is limited to the damage that occurred on or before November 2014. Furthermore, the number of registered internally displaced persons (IDPs), utilized as a reference to estimate the needs of this affected population, corresponds to the official government estimates as of February 2015.

p. 1011-1031: "An act for the King's most gracious, general, and free pardon." ; p. 1003-1006: "An act to enlarge the time limited by an act of the last session of Parliament, for restraining the use of the Highland dress; and to enable heirs of tailzie, guardians, tutors, curators, and trustees in Scotland, to sell lands to the crown." ; p. 991-999: "An act for taking away the tenure of ward holding in Scotland, and for converting the same into blanch and feu holdings; and for regulating the casualty of non-entry in certain cases; and for taking away the casualties of single and life-rent escheats, incurred there by horning and denunciation for civil causes; and for giving to heirs and successors there a summary process against superiors; and for discharging the attendance of vassals at head courts there; and for ascertaining the services of tenants there; and for allowing heirs of tailzie there to sell lands to the crown for erecting buildings, and making settlements in the Highlands." ; p. 983-986: "An act for declaring valid such acts as have been done by Thomas Paulin, as one of the principal land coal-meters of the city and liberty of Westminster, between the twenty ninth day of September last and the eighth day of November following." ; p. 975-978: "An act to indemnify persons who have omitted to qualify themselves for offices and promotions within the time limited by law; and for allowing further time for that purpose." ; p. 967-972: "An act to continue several laws for prohibiting the importation of books reprinted abroad, and first composed or written and printed in Great Britain; for preventing exactions of the occupiers of locks and wears upon the river Thames westward, and for ascertaining the rates of water carriage upon the said river; and for better securing the lawful trade of His Majesty's subjects to and from the East Indies; and for the more effectual preventing all His Majesty's subjects trading thither under foreign commissions; and relating to rice, to frauds in the customs, to the clandestine running of goods, and to copper ore of the British plantations; and for the free importation of cochineal and indico; and for punishment of persons destroying turnpikes, or locks, or other works erected by authority of Parliament." ; p. 959-962: "An act to prevent the return of such rebels and traitors concerned in the late rebellion, as have been, or shall be pardoned on condition of transportation; and also to hinder their going into the enemies country." ; p. 943-954: "An act to continue several laws relating to the manufactures of sail-cloth and silk; to give further time for the payment of duties omitted to be paid for the indentures or contracts of clerks and apprentices, and for better securing the payment of the said duties; and declaring that prize ships lawfully condemned shall be deemed British built ships; and for allowing prize goods to be landed and secured in proper ware-houses, without payment of any duty, until it can be determined whether they are fit for exportation or home consumption." ; p. 935-939: "An act to extend the provisions of an act made in the thirteenth year of His present Majesty's reign, intituled, An act for naturalizing foreign protestants, and others therein mentioned, as are settled, or shall settle in any of His Majesty's colonies in America, to other foreign protestants who conscientiously scruple the taking of an oath." ; p. 911-931: "An act for taking away and abolishing the heretable jurisdictions in that part of Great Britain called Scotland; and for making satisfaction to the proprietors thereof; and for restoring such jurisdictions to the crown; and for making more effectual provision for the administration of justice throughout that part of the United Kingdom, by the King's courts and judges there; and for obliging all persons acting as procurators, writers, or agents in the law in Scotland to take the oaths; and for rendering the union of the two kingdoms more complete." ; p. 903-906: "An act to enforce the execution of an act of this session of Parliament, for granting to His Majesty several rates and duties upon houses, windows, or lights." ; p. 879-900: "An act for vesting in His Majesty the estates of certain traitors, and for more effectually discovering the same, and applying the produce thereof to the use of His Majesty, and for ascertaining and satisfying the lawful debts and claims thereupon." ; p. 871-875: "An act to revive, continue, and amend an act made in the ninth year of the reign of His late Majesty King George the First, intituled, An act for clearing, depthening, repairing, extending, maintaining, and improving the haven and piers of Great Yarmouth; and for depthening and making more navigable the several rivers emptying themselves at the said town; and also for preserving ships, wintering in the said haven, from accidents by fire." ; p. 863-867: "An act for granting a duty to His Majesty, to be paid by distillers, upon licences taken out by them for retailing spirituous liquors." ; p. 835-859: "An act for the relief and support of maimed and disabled seamen, and the widows and children of such as shall be killed, slain, or drowned in the merchants service." ; p. 831-832: "An act for the ease of sheriffs with regard to the return of process." ; p. 807-826: "An act for granting to His Majesty a certain sum of money out of the sinking fund, for the service of the year One Thousand seven hundred and forty seven; and also for enabling His Majesty to raise a further sum of money for the uses and purposes therein mentioned; and for the further appropriating the supplies granted in this session of Parliament; and for applying a certain sum of money, for defraying the charge of the allowances to several officers and private gentlemen of the two troops of horse guards, and three regiments of horse, lately reduced, for the year One thousand seven hundred and forty seven; and for continuing the bounties on the exportation of British and Irish coarse linens." ; p. 799-802: "An act to indemnify persons who have omitted to register their letters of attorney, appointing them agents for prizes, within the time limited by law; and for allowing further time for that purpose." ; p. 791-794: "An act to enable His Majesty to allow to the residuary legatees of Sir Joseph Jekyll, knight, late master of the rolls, deceased, part of the legacy given by his will to the use of the sinking fund." ; p. 775-788: "An act to enable the parishoners of the parish of Saint Andrew Holborn, in the city of London and county of Middlesex, to purchase a convenient piece of ground, for an additional burying-ground, for the use of the said parish; and to enable the said parishioners to raise such sum and sums of money, as shall be necessary for that purpose." ; p. 763-770: "An act for uniting the two colleges of Saint Salvator and Saint Leonard, in the University of Saint Andrews, pursuant to an agreement for that purpose." ; p. 731-759: "An act for continuing the term, and enlarging the powers granted by an act passed in the twelfth year of His late Majesty's reign, intituled, An act for repairing and widening the roads from the city of Gloucester to the city of Hereford; and for repairing other roads in the county of Gloucester." ; p. 727-728: "An act for allowing persons impeached of high treason, whereby any corruption of blood may be made, or for misprision of such treason, to make their full defence by council." ; p. 711-722: "An act to confirm an agreement made by the rector and vestrymen of the parish of Saint James, within the liberty of Westminster, for enlarging the churchyard of the said parish; and for other purposes therin mentioned." ; p. 671-706: "An act for repairing the road leading from Catherick Bridge, in the county of York, to Yarm in the said county; and from thence to Stockton in the county of Durham; and from thence through Sedgefield, in the said county of Durham, to the city of Durham." ; p. 659-667: "An act for founding and building a chapel in Wednesfield, in the parish of Wolverhampton, in the county of Stafford." ; p. 651-654: "An act for reviving and continuing an act passed in the sixth year of the reign of His late Majesty King George the First, intituled, An act for laying a duty of two penny Scots, or one sixth part of a penny sterling, upon every Scots pint of beer or ale vended or sold within the town of Bruntisland, and liberties therof, for increasing the publick revenue of the said town, and for other purposes therein mentioned." ; p. 611-647: "An act for repairing the high road leading from the town of Stockton upon Tees, to Darlington, and from thence through Winston to Barnard Castle, in the same county." ; p. 591-607: "An act for the better securing the payment of shares of prizes taken from the enemy, to the Royal hospital at Greenwich; and for preventing the embezzlement of goods and stores belonging to the said hospital." ; p. 559-588: "An act for repairing the road leading from Cirencester, in the county of Gloucester, to Birdlip's Hill, in the said county." ; p. 539-554: "An act for building a bridge cross the river Thames, from the parish of Walton upon Thames in the county of Surry, to Shepperton in the county of Middlesex." ; p. 531-534: "An act for holding the summer assizes, and sessions of the peace, for the county of Norfolk, in the city and county of Norwich, until a new shire house can be built for the said county of Norfolk; and for building a new shire house on the Castle Hill in the same county; and for raising money on the said county for that purpose." ; p. 519-527: "An act for relief of such of His Majesty's loyal subjects, in that part of Great Britain called Scotland, whose title deeds, and writings were destroyed or carried off by the rebels, in the late rebellion." ; p. 511-514: "An act for the better adjusting and more easy recovery of the wages of certain servants; and for the better regulation of such servants, and of certain apprentices." ; p. 479-506: "An act for the better preservation and improvement of the river Wear, and port and haven of Sunderland, in the county of Durham." ; p. 471-475: "An act for enlarging the term and powers granted by two acts of Parliament, for laying a duty of two penny Scots upon every pint of ale and beer brewed and vended within the town of Dundee, and the liberties and suburbs thereof, for the purposes in the said acts and this present act mentioned." ; p. 459-466: "An act for enlarging the term and powers granted by several acts of Parliament passed for repairing the highways between Wymondham and Attleborough, and from Wymondham to Hetherset, and from the mouth of Wigmore Lane, to Hall Walk Gate in Attleborough, in the county of Norfolk; and for amending the other roads adjoining to the highways directed to be repaired by the said former acts, and making the said acts more effectual." ; p. 439-454: "An act for repairing, improving, and maintaining the publick conduits, and other waterworks, belonging to the town of Southampton ; p. 431-436: "An act for opening, cleansing, repairing, and improving the haven of Southwould in the county of Suffolk." ; p. 395-426: "An act for repairing the road from Sunderland near the Sea, to the city of Durham, in the county of Durham." ; p. 355-390: "An act for repairing the high road leading from the city of Durham, in the county of Durham, to Tyne Bridge in the said county." ; p. 315-350: "An act for punishing mutiny and desertion; and for the better payment of the army and their quarters." ; p. 283-312: "An act for granting to His Majesty several rates and duties upon coaches, and other carriages therein mentioned; and for raising the sum of one million, by way of lottery, to be charged upon the said rates and duties." ; p. 251-280: "An act for repairing the high road leading from the north end of the Cow Cawsey, near the town of Newcastle upon Tyne, to the town of Belford, and from thence to Buckton Burn, in the county of Northumberland." ; p. 227-246: "An act for enlarging the term and powers granted by an act passed in the thirteenth year of the reign of His late Majesty King George the First, for repairing, widening and amending the road leading from Warrington to Wigan in the county of Lancaster; and also for amending and repairing the road leading from a place called Earl's Kill, in Warrington aforesaid, to the toll-bars in Wallgate, in Wigan aforesaid." ; p. 195-222: "An act for enlarging the term and powers granted by an act passed in the twelfth year of the reign of His late Majesty King George the First, intituled, An act for repairing the roads leading from the western part of the parish of Shenfield, to Harwich in the county of Essex, and the road leading from Chelmsford in the said county, to Sudbury in the county of Suffolk, and from Margretting to Malden in the county of Essex, and from Colchester to Langham in the same county; and for repairing other roads adjoining to the same roads." ; p. 179-191: "An act to continue and make more effectual two acts of Parliament; one passed in the twelfth year of the reign of Her late Majesty Queen Anne, and the other in the first year of the reign of His present Majesty, for repairing the highways between the Bear Inn in Reading and Puntfield in the county of Berks; and for amending other roads in the last act mentioned." ; p. 155-175: "An act for continuing the duties upon malt, mum, cyder, and perry, in that part of Great Britain called England; and for granting to His Majesty certain duties upon malt, mum, cyder, and perry, in that part of Great Britain called Scotland; and for applying a certain sum of money therein mentioned, towards the supply for the service of the year One thousand seven hundred and forty seven." ; p. 147-150: "An act to continue, explain, and amend an act made in the last session of Parliament, intituled, An act to enable His Majesty to make rules, orders and regulations, more effectually to prevent the spreading of the distemper which now rages amongst the horned cattle in this kingdom." ; p. 107-143: "An act for repealing the several rates and duties upon houses, windows, and lights; and for granting to His Majesty other rates and duties upon houses, windows, or lights; and for raising the sum of four millions four hundred thousand pounds by annuities, to be charged on the said rates, or duties." ; p. 7-102: "An act for granting an aid to His Majesty by a land tax, to be raised in Great Britain, for the service of the year One thousand seven hundred and forty seven." ; p. 3-4: "An act for the further continuing an act made in the last session of Parliament, intituled, An act to impower His Majesty to secure and detain such persons as His Majesty shall suspect are conspiring against his person and government." ; The paging and caption title of each act follow ; Contains 52 acts, each with a duplicate of the t.-p. quoted. Nos. 15-52 printed 1747 ; Initials ; Blank leaves included in paging ; Mode of access: Internet.

Keith Hart on the
Informal Economy, the Great Transformation, and the Humanity of Corporations














International Relations
has long focused on the formal relations between states; in the same way,
economists have long focused exclusively on formal economic activities. If by
now that sounds outdated, it is only because of the work of Keith Hart. Famous
for coining the distinction between the formal and the informal economy in the
1970s, Hart is a critical scholar who engages head-on with some of the world's
central political-economic challenges. In this Talk, he, amongst others, discusses the value of the distinction 40
years after; how we need to rethink The
Great Transformation nearly a century later; and how we need to undo the
legal equivalence of corporations to humans, instituted nearly 150 years back.














Print version of this Talk (pdf)




What is, according to you, the
central challenge or principal debate in International Relations? And what is
your position regarding this challenge/in this debate?







I think it is the lack of fit between politics, which
is principally national, and the world economy, which is global. In particular,
the system of money has escaped from its national controls, but politics, public
rhetoric aside, has not evolved to the point where adequate responses to our
common economic problems can be posed. At this point, the greatest challenge is
to extend our grasp of the problems we face beyond the existing national
discussions and debates. Most of the problems we see today in the world—and the
economic crisis is only one example—are not confined to a single country.







For me, the question is how we can extend our research
from the local to the global. Let the conservatives restrict themselves to
their national borders. This is not to say I believe that political solutions
to the economic problems the world faces are readily available.  Indeed, it is possible that we are entering
another period of war and revolution, similar to 1776-1815 or 1914-1945. Only
after prolonged conflict and much loss might the world reach something like the
settlement that followed 1945. This was not only a settlement of wartime
politics, but also a framework for the economic politics of the peace,
responding to problems that arose most acutely between the wars.  It sounds tragic, but my point in raising the
possibility now is to remind people that there may be even more catastrophic
consequences at stake that they realize already. We need to confront these and
mobilize against them. When I go back in history, I am pessimistic about
resolving the world's economic problems soon, since the people who got us into
this situation are still in power and are still pursuing broadly the same
policies without any sign of them being changed. I believe that they will bring
us all into a much more drastic situation than we are currently facing. Yet in
some way we will be accountable if we ignore the obvious signs all around us.











How did you arrive at where you currently are in your thinking about IR?







My original work in West Africa arose out of a view that
the post-colonial regimes offered political recipes that could have more
general relevance for the world. I actually believed that the new states were
in a position to provide solutions, if you like, to the corrupt and decadent
political structures that we had in the West. That's why, when we were demonstrating
outside the American embassies in the '60s, we chanted the names of the great
Third World emancipation leaders—Frantz Fanon, Kwame Nkrumah, Fidel Castro, and so
on.







So for me, the question has always been whether
Africans, in seeking emancipation from a long history of slavery, colonialism, apartheid
and postcolonial failure, might be able to change the world. I still think it
could be and I'm quite a bit more optimistic about the outcome now than I have
been for most of the last fifty years. We live in a racialized world order
where Africa acts as the most striking symbol of inequality. The drive for a
more equal world society will necessarily entail a shift in the relationship
between Africa and the rest of the world. I have been pursuing this question
for the last thirty years or more. What interests me at the moment is the
politics of African development in the coming decades.







Africa began the twentieth century as the least populated
and urbanized continent. It's gone through a demographic and urban explosion
since then, doubling its share
of world population in a century. In 2050, the UN predicts that 24% of the world
population will be in Africa, and in 2100, 35% (read the report here, pdf)! This is because Africa is growing
at 2.5% a year while the rest of the world is ageing fast. Additionally, 7 out
of the 10 fastest growing economies in the world are now African—Asian
manufacturers already know that Africa holds the key to the future of the world
economy.







But, besides Africa as a place, if you will, a number
of anti-colonial intellectuals have played a big role in influencing me. The
most important event in the twentieth century was the anti-colonial revolution.
Peoples forced into world society by Western Imperialism fought to establish
their own independent relationship to it. The leading figures of that struggle
are, to my mind, still the most generative thinkers when we come to consider
our own plight and direction. My mentor was the Trinidadian writer C.L.R. James, with whom I spent a
number of years toward the end of his life. I am by temperament a classicist; I
like to read the individuals who made a big difference to the way we think now.
The anti-colonial intellectuals were the most important thinkers of the 20th
century, by which I mean Gandhi, Fanon and James.







But I've also pursued a very classical, Western
trajectory in seeking to form my own thinking. When I was an undergraduate, I
liked Durkheim and as a graduate student Weber. When I was a young lecturer, I
became a Marxist; later, when I went to the Carribbean, I discovered Hegel,
Kant and Rousseau; and by the time I wrote my book on money, The Memory Bank,
the person I cited more than anyone else was John Locke. By then I realized I
had been moving backwards through the greats of Western philosophy and social
theory, starting with the Durkheim school of sociology. Now I see them as a set
of possible references that I can draw on eclectically. Marx is still probably
the most important influence, although Keynes, Simmel and Polanyi have also shaped my
recent work. I suppose my absolute favorite of all those people is Jean-Jacques
Rousseau for his Discourse on Inequality and his inventive
approach to writing about how to get from actual to possible worlds.











What would a student need (dispositions, skills) to become a specialist
in IR or understand the world in a global way?







In your 20s and 30s, your greatest commitment should
be to experience the world in the broadest way possible, which means learning
languages, traveling, and being open to new experiences. I think the kind of
vision that I had developed over the years was not one that I had originally
and the greatest influence on it was the time I spent in Ghana doing my
doctoral fieldwork; indeed, I have not had an experience that so genuinely
transformed me since!







Even so, I found it very difficult to write a book
based on that fieldwork. I moved from my ethnographic investigations into a
literature review of the political economy of West African agriculture, and it
turns out that I am actually not an ethnographer, and am more interested in
surveying literature concerning the questions that interest me. I am still an
acute observer of everyday life; but I don't base my 'research' on it. Young people
should both extend their comparative reach in a practical way and dig very
deeply into circumstances that they encounter, wherever that may be. Above all,
they should retain a sense of the uniqueness of their own life trajectory as
the only basis for doing something new. This matters more than any professional
training.











Now we see spectacular
growth rates in African countries, as you mentioned, one of which is the DRC.
How can we make sense of these formal growth rates: are they representative of
the whole economies of these countries, or do they only refer to certain
economic tendencies?







The whole question of measuring economic growth is a
technical one, and it's flawed, and I only use it in the vaguest sense as a
general indicator. For example, I think it's more important that Kenya, for
example, is the world leader in mobile phone banking, and also a leader in
recycling old computers for sale cheaply to poor people.







The political dispensation in Africa—the combination
of fragmented states and powerful foreign interests and the predatory actions
of the leaders of these states on their people -- especially the restrictions
they impose on the movements of people and goods and money and so on – is still
a tremendous problem. I think that the political fragmentation of Africa is the
main obstacle to achieving economic growth.







But at the same time, as someone who has lived in
Africa for many years, it's very clear that in some countries, certainly not
all, the economies are very significantly on the move. It's not--in principle—that
this will lead to durable economic growth, but it is the case that the cities
are expanding fast, Africans are increasing their disposable income and it's the
only part of the world where the people are growing so significantly. Africa is
about to enter what's called the demographic dividend that comes when the
active labor force exceeds the number of dependents. India has just gone
through a similar phase.







The Chinese and others are heavily committed to taking
part in this, obviously hoping to direct Africa's economic growth in their own
interest. This is partly because the global economy is over the period of
growth generated by the Chinese manufacturing exports and the entailed infrastructure
and construction boom, which was itself an effect of the greatest shift from the countryside to the city in history. Now, the Chinese
realize, the next such boom will be—can only take place—in Africa.







I'm actually not really interested in technical
questions of how to measure economic growth. In my own writing about African
development, I prefer anecdotes. Like for example, Nollywood—the Nigerian film industry—which has just past
Bollywood as the second largest in the world! You mention the Congo which I
believe holds the key to Africa's future. The region was full of economic
dynamism before King Leopold took it over and its people have shown great
resilience since Mobutu was overthrown and Rwandan and Ugandan generals took
over the minerals-rich Eastern Congo. Understanding this history is much more
important than measuring GDP, but statistics of this kind have their uses if
approached with care.











Is it possible to
understand the contemporary economic predicament that we are seeing, which in
the Western world is referred to as the "crisis", without attributing it to
vague agencies or mechanisms such as neoliberalism?







I have written at great length about the world
economic crisis paying special attention to the problems of the Eurozone. My belief
is that it is not simply a financial crisis or a debt crisis. We are actually
witnessing the collapse of the dominant economic form of the last century and a
half, which I call national capitalism—the attempt to control markets, money
and accumulation through central bureaucracies in the interests of a presumed
cultural community of national citizens.







The term neoliberalism is not particularly useful, but
I try to lay out the history of modern money and why and how national
currencies are in fact being replaced. That, to my mind, is a more precise way
of describing the crisis than calling it neoliberal. On the other hand, neoliberalism does refer to
the systematic privatization of public interests which has become normal over
the last three or four hundred years. The bourgeois revolution claimed to have
separated public and private interests, but I don't think it ever did so. For
example, the Bank of England, the Banque de France, and the Federal Reserve are
all private institutions that function behind a smokescreen of being public
agencies.







It's always been the case that private interests
corrupted public institutions and worked to deprive citizens of the ability to
act purposefully under an ideological veil of liberty. But in the past, they
tried to hide it. The public wasn't supposed to know what actually went on
behind the scenes and indeed modern social science was invented to ensure that
they never knew. What makes neoliberalism new is that they now boast about it
and even claim that it's in everyone's interest to diminish public goods and
use whatever is left for private ends—that's what neoliberalism is.







It's a naked grab for public resources and it's also a
shift in the fundamental dynamic of capitalism from production for profit
through sales tow varieties of rent-seeking. In fact, Western capitalism is now
a system for extracting rents, rather than producing profits. Rents are income
secured by political privilege such as the dividends of patents granted to Big
Pharma or the right to control distribution of recycled movies. This has got
nothing to do with competitive or free markets and much opposition to where we
are now is confused as a result. Sometimes I think western capitalism has
reverted to the Old Regime that it once replaced—from King George and the East
India Company to George W and Halliburton. If so, we need another liberal
revolution, but it won't take place in the North Atlantic societies.











In your recent work,
you refer to The Great Transformation, which invokes Karl Polanyi's famous
analysis of the
growth of 19th century capitalism and industrialization. How can Polanyi
help us to make sense of contemporary global economy, and where does this
inspiring work need to be complemented? In other words, what is today's Great Transformation
in light of Polanyi?







First of all, the
Great Transformation is a brilliant book. I have never known anyone who
didn't love it from the first reading. The great message of Polanyi's work is
the spirit in which he wrote that book, regardless of the components of his
theory. He had a passionate desire to explain the mess that world society had
reached by the middle of the 20th century, and he provided an
explanation. It's always been a source of inspiration for me.







A central idea of Polanyi's is that the economy was
always embedded in society and Victorian capitalism disembedded it. One problem
is that it is not clear whether the economy ever was actually disembedded (for
example capitalism is embedded in state institutions and the private social
networks mentioned just now) or whether the separation occurs at the level of
ideology, as in free market economics. Polanyi was not against markets as such,
but rather against market fundamentalism of the kind that swept Victorian
England and has us in its grip today. The political question is whether politics
can serve to protect society from the excesses produced by this disembedding;
or whether it lends itself to further separation of the economy from society.







And I would say that Polanyi's biggest failure was to
claim that what happened in the 19th century was the rise of "market
society". This concept misses entirely the bureaucratic revolution that was
introduced from the 1860s onwards based on a new alliance between capitalists
and landlords which led to a new synthesis of states and corporations aiming to
develop mass production and consumption. Polanyi could not anticipate what
actually happened after he wrote his book in 1944. An American empire of free
trade was built on a tremendous bureaucratic revolution. This drew on
techniques and theories of control developed while fighting a war on all
fronts. The same war was the source of the technologies that culminated late in
the digital revolution. Karl Polanyi's interpretation of capitalism as a market
economy doesn't help us much to understand that. In fact, he seems to have
thought that bureaucracy and planning were an antidote to capitalist market
economy.







If you ask me what is today's great transformation, I
would prefer to treat the last 200 years as a single event, that is, a period
in which the world population increased from one billion to seven billion, when
the proportion of people living in cities grew from under 3% to around half,
and where energy production increased on average 3% a year. The Great Transformation
is this leap of mankind from reliance on the land into living in cities. It has
been organized by a variety of institutions, including cities, capitalist
markets, nation-states, empires, regional federations, machine industry, telecommunications
networks, financial structures, and so on. I'm prepared to say that in the
twentieth century national capitalism was the dominant economic form, but by no
means all you need to know about if you want to make a better world.







I prefer to look at the economy as being organized by
a plural set of institutions, including various political forms. The Great Transformation
in Polanyi's sense was not really the same Great Transformation that Marx and
Engels observed in Victorian England—the idea that a new economic system was
growing up there that would transform the world. And it did! Polanyi and Marx
had different views (as well as some common ideas), but both missed what
actually happened, which is the kind of capitalism whose collapse is constitutes
the Great Transformation for us today. The last thirty years of financial
imperialism are similar to the three decades before the First World War. After
that phase collapsed, thirty years of world war and economic depression were
the result. I believe the same will happen to us! Maybe we can do something
about it, but only if our awareness is historically informed in a
contemporarily relevant way.











The distinction between
states and markets really underpins much of what we understand about the workings
of world economy and politics. Even when we just say "oh, that's not economic"
or "that's not rational", we invoke a separation. How can we deal with this
separation?







This state-market division comes back to the bourgeois
revolution, which was an attempt to win freedom from political interference for
private economic actors. I've been arguing that states and markets were always
in bed together right from the beginning thousands of years ago, and they still
are! The revolution of the mid 19th century involved a shift from
capitalists representing workers against the landed aristocracy to a new
alliance between them and the traditional enforcers to control the industrial
and criminal classes flocking into the cities. A series of linked revolutions
in all the main industrial countries during the 1860s and early 70s—from the
American civil war to the French Third Republic via the Meiji Restoration and
German unification—brought this alliance to power.







Modernity was thus a compromise between traditional
enforcers and industrial capitalists and this dualism is reflected in the
principal social form, the nation-state. This uneasy partnership has marked the
relationship between governments and corporations ever since. I think that we
are now witnessing a bid of the corporations for independence, for home rule,
if you like. Perhaps, having won control of the political process, they feel
than can go ahead to the next stage without relying on governments.  The whole discourse of 'corporate social responsibility'
implies that they could take on legal and administrative functions that had
been previously 'insourced' to states. It is part of a trend whereby the
corporations seek to make a world society in which they are the only citizens
and they no longer depend on national governments except for local police
functions. I think that it is a big deal—and this is happening under our noses!







Both politicians and economic theorists (OliverWilliamson got a Nobel prize for
developing Coase's theory of the form along these lines)
are proposing that we need to think again about what functions should be
internal to the firm and what should be outside. Perhaps it was a mistake to
outsource political control to states and war could be carried out by private
security firms. The ground for all of this was laid in the late 19th
century when the distinction in law between real and artificial persons was
collapsed for business enterprises so that the US Supreme Court can protect
corporate political spending in the name of preserving their human rights!
Corporations have greater wealth, power and longevity than individual citizens.
Until we can restore their legal separateness from the rest of humanity and
find the political means of restricting their inexorable rise, resistance will
be futile. There is a lot of intellectual and political work still to be done
and, as I have said, a lot of pain to come before more people confront the
reality of their situation.











What role do
technological innovations play in your understanding and promoting of shifts in
the way that we organize societies? Is it a passive thing or a driver of
change?







I wrote a book, the
Memory Bank: Money in an Unequal World
(read it here, with the introduction
here), which centered on a
very basic question: what would future generations consider is interesting
about us? In the late '90s, the dot com boom was the main game in town. It
seemed obvious that the rise of the internet was the most important thing and
that our responses to it would have significant consequences for future
generations.







When I started writing it, I was interested in the
democratic potential of the new media; but most of my friends saw them as a new
source of inequality – digital exclusion, dominance of the big players and so
on. I was accused of being optimistic, but I had absorbed from CLR James a
response to such claims. It is not a question of being optimistic or
pessimistic, but of identifying what the sides are in the struggle to define
society's trajectory. In this case the sides are bureaucracy and the people. Of
course the former wish to confine our lives within narrow limits that they
control in a process that culminates as totalitarianism. But the rest of us
want to increase the scope for self-expression in our daily lives; we want
democracy and the force of the peoples of world is growing, not least in Africa
which for so long has been excluded from the benefits of modern civilization.
Of course there are those who wish to control the potential of the internet
from the top; but everywhere people are making space for themselves in this
revolution. When I see how Africans have moved in the mobile phone phase of
this revolution, I am convinced that there is much to play for in this
struggle. What matters is to do your best for your side, not to predict which
side will win. Speaking personally, Web 2.0 has been an
unmitigated boon for me in networking and dissemination, although I am aware
that some think that corporate capital is killing off the internet. A lot depends
on your perspective. I grew up learning Latin and Greek grammar. The
developments of the last 2-3 decades seem like a miracle to me. I guess that
gives me some buoyancy if not optimism as such.







It's obvious enough to me that any democratic response
to the dilemmas we face must harness the potential of the new universal media.
That's the biggest challenge. But equally, it's not clear which side is going
to win. I'm not saying that our side, the democratic side, is going to beat the
bureaucratic side. I just know which side I'm on! And I'm going to do my best
for our side. Our side is the side that would harness the democratic potential
of the new media. In the decade or more since I wrote my book on money and the
internet, I have become more focused on the threat posed by the corporations
and more accepting of the role of governments. But that could change too. And I
am mindful of the role the positive role that some capitalists played in the
classical liberal revolutions of the United States, France and Italy.











Final Question. I would
like to ask you about the distinction between formal and informal economy which
you are famous for having coined. How did you arrive at the distinction? Does the
term, the dichotomy, still with have the same analytical value for you today?








Around 1970, there was a universal consensus that only states could organize economies for development. You were either a Marxist or a Keynesian, but there were no liberal economists with any influence at that time. In my first publication on the topic (Informal Income Opportunities and Urban Employment in Ghana, read it here, pdf)—which got picked up by academics and the International Labor Organization—I was reacting against that; the idea promoted by a highly formal economics and bureaucratic practice that the state as an idea as the only actor. In fact, people in Third World cities engaged in all kinds of economic activities, which just weren't recognized as such. So my impulse was really empiricist—to use my ethnographic observations to show that people were doing a lot more than they were supposed to be doing, as recorded in official statistics or discussed by politicians and economists.






Essentially, I made a distinction between those things
which were defined by formal regulation and those that lay outside it. I posed
the question how does it affect our understanding in the development process to
know more what people are doing outside the formal framework of the economy.
And remember, this came up in West Africa, which did not have as strong a colonial
tradition as in many other parts of Africa. African cities there were built and
provisioned by Africans. There were not enough white people there to build
these cities or to provide food and transport, housing, clothing and the rest
of it.







In my book on African agriculture, I went further and
argued that the cities were not the kind of engines of change that many people
imagined that they were, but were in fact an extension of rural civilizations
that had effectively not been displaced by colonialism, at least in that
region. Now if you ask me how useful I think it is today, what happened since
then of course is neoliberal globalization, for want of a better term, which of
course hinges on deregulation. So, as a result of neoliberal deregulation, vast
areas of the economy are no longer shaped by law, and these include many of the
activities of finance, including offshore banking, hedge funds, shadow banking,
tax havens, and so on. It also includes the criminal activities of the
corporations themselves. I've written a paper on my blog called "How the
informal economy took over the world" which argues that we are witnessing the
collapse of the post-war Keynesian consensus that sought to manage the economy in
the public interest through law and in other ways that have been dismantled; so,
it's a free-for-all. In some sense, the whole world is now an informal economy,
which means, of course, that the term is not as valuable analytically as it
once was. If it's everything, then we need some new words.







The mistake I made with other people who followed me was
to identify the informal economy with poor slum dwellers. I argued that even
for them, they were not only in the informal economy, which was not a separate
place, but that all of them combined the formal and informal in some way. But
what I didn't pay much attention to was the fact that the so-called formal
economy was also the commanding heights of the informal economy—that the
politicians and the civil servants were in fact the largest informal operators.
I realize that any economy must be informal to some degree, but it is also
impossible for an economy to be entirely informal. There always have to be
rules, even if they take a form that we don't acknowledge as being
bureaucratically normal like, for example, kinship or religion or criminal
gangs. So that's another reason why it seems to me that the distinction has
lost its power.







At the time, it was a valuable service to point to the
fact that many people were doing things that were escaping notice. But once
what they were doing had been noticed, then the usefulness of the distinction
really came into question. I suppose in retrospect that the idea of an informal
economy was a gesture towards realism, to respect what people really do in the
spirit of ethnography. I have taken that idea to another level recently in mywork on the human economy at the University of Pretoria in South Africa. Here, in addition to
privileging the actors' point of view and their everyday lives, we wish to
address the human predicament at more inclusive levels than the local or even
the national. Accordingly, our interdisciplinary research program (involving a
dozen postdocs from around the world, including Africa, and 8 African doctoral
students) seeks ways of extending our conceptual and empirical reach to take in
world society and humanity as a whole. This is easier said than done, of
course.







Keith
Hart is Extraordinary Visiting Professor in the Centre for the Advancement of
Scholarship and Co-Director of the Human Economy Program at the University of
Pretoria, South Africa. He is also centennial professor of Economic Anthropology at the LSE.











Related links










Faculty Profile at U-London


Personal webpage


Read Hart's Notes towards an Anthropology of the Internet (2004, Horizontes Antropológicos) here (pdf)


Read Hart's Marcel Mauss: In Pursuit of a Whole (2007, Comparative Studies in Society and History) here (pdf)


Read Hart's Between Democracy and the People: A Political History of Informality (2008 DIIS working paper) here (pdf)


Read Hart's Why the Eurocrisis Matters to Us All (Scapegoat Journal) here (pdf)









Print version of this Talk (pdf)