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Why do the attempts we make to explain the world around us fall short? Arguments for or against the existence of God, the question of free will, and even Principia Mathematica are all examples of explanations that look solid from some points of view, but which have serious weaknesses from other perspectives. This book explores the built-in limits of reason itself by pointing out the fact that language can only be used to create incomplete systems. Philosophy, mathematics, and logic supply the groundwork for the introduction of a framing mechanism to help thinkers understand why thinking itself can sometimes fail. Known as the metadialectic, this new frame of reference allows us to evaluate different arguments in terms of their constituent parts. Students from any background interested in improving critical thinking will benefit from this study of the dialectical archetypes--as can the more traditional philosophically minded questioners, those of us who are motivated by a deeper desire to understand the world.

This paper critically explores the thesis according to which contemporary deductive formal logic supplies methods & instruments for a theory of evaluation for natural language arguments. In this paper it is argued that deductive formal logic can only be applied to natural language arguments using what it is supposed to explain, ie., the speakers' pretheoretical intuitions about logical implication relations between sentences of those languages. Some pedagogical consequences are drawn from this standpoint. Adapted from the source document.

We proposed her a technique, which can be employed within the methodology know as process reengineering. This technique was applied in a government environment, which included an Information System and Geographical Information System, developed with financial support from The World Bank. One model used in process reengineering is the process model diagram. Ir allows finding the tasks, to be completed in each area of the organization. To understand the domain is crucial to be able to specify each one of these tasks. We show here how to use modeling of processes to find the tasks and to formalize their description using RAISE formal method. In this way, using a model of process as input, an engineer employs a systematic technique to create –as a starting point- the mail functions (tasks) of the domain using the RAISE formal method. ; Eje: Ingeniería de Software y Base de Datos ; Red de Universidades con Carreras en Informática (RedUNCI)

Considering the intricate nature of verbal irony one might assume that ironic expressions have no place in formal speech. However, only a superficial glance at a political speech, reveals that the above-stated assumption is far from the truth. Verbal irony appears to be one the favorite "weapons" in the hands of politicians, particularly, when they are determined to disparage their political opponents' repute in the eyes of the public. Not all ironic utterances in formal speech are of the same type. Ironic utterances may appear in many different forms (ironic complements, ironic criticism, ironic questions, offers, orders, promises, apologies, etc.). This particular study focuses on analyzing verbal irony employed in political TV discussions and debates. The aim is to determine which types of ironic utterances are more and which are less frequently employed in formal speech. Moreover, comparisons are drawn between Macedonian and English, and certain similar and dissimilar tendencies in both languages are established. Key words: irony, formal speech, Macedonian, English

This article explores the use of the pattern language approach in bridging the gap between formal and informal urban planning practices in the African context. This study focuses on a case application within the urbanised region encompassing the Nakivubo wetland located in Kampala, Uganda. As in other cities in Africa with a colonial past, Kampala's planning system signals a profound gap between a technocratic, European paradigms-based type of planning and the everyday practices of citizens. This results in a "dual city," with formal and informal communities using resources and spaces differently, leading to spatial segregation and non-implementation of urban plans. To overcome this challenge, the pattern language approach is utilised in this research to link formal and informal practices through facilitating meaningful community participation and integrating tacit knowledge into the planning process. To achieve this, the researchers conducted fieldwork and interacted with the local community in informal settlements to develop informal patterns, while analysing the history and current organisation of formal planning institutions in Kampala to formulate formal patterns. The patterns were used as input for a community workshop, which resulted in a pattern language of wetland management practices and a framework that begins to bridge both formal and informal domains of urban practice. By using the pattern language approach as a tool to understand informal practices and their possible incorporation into a planning process that captures the needs of citizens, this research offers relevant insights into achieving sustainable and inclusive urban environments.

Students' increasing use of text messaging language has prompted concern that textisms (e.g., 2 for to, dont for don't, ☺) will intrude into their formal written work. Eighty-six Australian and 150 Canadian undergraduates were asked to rate the appropriateness of textism use in various situations. Students distinguished between the appropriateness of using textisms in different writing modalities and to different recipients, rating textism use as inappropriate in formal exams and assignments, but appropriate in text messages, online chat and emails with friends and siblings. In a second study, we checked the examination papers of a separate sample of 153 Australian undergraduates for the presence of textisms. Only a negligible number were found. We conclude that, overall, university students recognise the different requirements of different recipients and modalities when considering textism use and that students are able to avoid textism use in exams despite media reports to the contrary.

Internet language is currently recognized as a new language variety for its neologisms, novel syntax, for its rapid growth and many more reasons. It is also feared and viewed by many for its lax standards and impact on particular languages and language in general. This research attempted to observe whether these varied uses and standards of internet language have affected formal business communication carried out through e-mails by analyzing the discourse of 174 actual emails used for formal communication in different sectors such as government, private, and nongovernment against language standards of formal letters.

International audience ; There has been much recent interest in the development of electronic voting (e-voting) systems, but there remain many outstanding research challenges for software and system engineers. Software product line (SPL) techniques offer many advantages for the practical development of reliable and trustworthy e-voting systems , but the composition of system features poses significant problems that can be addressed satisfactorily only through the use of formal methods. When such systems are used in government elections then they are obliged to follow legal standards and/or recommendations written in natural language. For the formal development of e-voting systems it is necessary to build a domain model which is consistent with the legal requirements. We have already demonstrated that Event-B models can be used to verify critical requirements for e-voting system components. However, the refinement-based approach needs to be applied to the engineering of a complete e-voting system. We report on our approach, using Event-B contexts to model an e-voting ontology, and its integration with an e-voting features model tree which formally specifies the SPL. During this work, we identified the importance of making the implicit explicit in two different ways-domain experts need to explicitly model implicit knowledge, and Event-B modellers need to explicitly communicate the semantics of the formal model constructs to the domain experts. If either of these tasks is not adequately carried out then this compromises validation of the requirements model (instance of the SPL).

International audience ; There has been much recent interest in the development of electronic voting (e-voting) systems, but there remain many outstanding research challenges for software and system engineers. Software product line (SPL) techniques offer many advantages for the practical development of reliable and trustworthy e-voting systems , but the composition of system features poses significant problems that can be addressed satisfactorily only through the use of formal methods. When such systems are used in government elections then they are obliged to follow legal standards and/or recommendations written in natural language. For the formal development of e-voting systems it is necessary to build a domain model which is consistent with the legal requirements. We have already demonstrated that Event-B models can be used to verify critical requirements for e-voting system components. However, the refinement-based approach needs to be applied to the engineering of a complete e-voting system. We report on our approach, using Event-B contexts to model an e-voting ontology, and its integration with an e-voting features model tree which formally specifies the SPL. During this work, we identified the importance of making the implicit explicit in two different ways-domain experts need to explicitly model implicit knowledge, and Event-B modellers need to explicitly communicate the semantics of the formal model constructs to the domain experts. If either of these tasks is not adequately carried out then this compromises validation of the requirements model (instance of the SPL).

Chapter 1 summarises the results of our structural analysis of the text of the GDPR. The primary goal being to derive a set of must-have structural requirements, that are necessary in order to represent the GDPR in a machine readable format. Chapter 2 in turn details our progress on the the formal representation of the GDPR, which will be iteratively refined throughout the course of the project and completed with the release of the final versions of the pilots' business policies and GDPR's formalization (as part of the implementation packages WP3 and WP5).

En el libro se analiza la problemática lógico-filosófica que se da entre los formalismos lógicos y el lenguaje natural, tratando de responder a la pregunta de si es posible formalizar la lógica natural o de sentido común. Se comienza presentando una caracterización de la lógica natural, su primer intento de formalización por J. Piaget y R. García, las limitaciones del mismo, el análisis de los obstáculos epistemológicos que se presentan en su enseñanza mostrando que estos concuerdan con ciertos resultados de la psicología experimental. En los capítulos siguientes se presentan los distintos sistemas formales creados con el objetivo de ampliar el campo de la lógica clásica para dar cuenta de dominios de lenguaje no incluidos en ella. El texto culmina con un capítulo de reflexión filosófica sobre el significado de las constantes lógicas y sobre la problemática de por qué y cómo enseñar lógica.