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Der Autor stellt die Idee von "Kontrollkulturen" am Beispiel der Kriminalpolitik und Rechtssoziologie kurz vor. Er zeigt, dass die Institutionalisierung von sozialer Kontrolle nicht nur ein dauerhaftes Bereitstellen von Handlungsmustern und sozialen Beziehungen ist, sondern immer auch eine kulturelle Komponente umfasst. Gesellschaftliche Entwicklungen schlagen sich so in Veränderungen vorherrschender Deutungen und Interpretationen abweichenden Verhaltens und ihrer Kontrolle nieder. Selbst Kontrollformen, die mit einem Universalitätsanspruch auftreten, wie z.B. das Recht, entwickeln in ihrer praktischen Anwendung spezifische Kulturen, die als regionale und lokale Unterschiede bei Gerichtsentscheidungen deutlich werden. Normative Ordnungsbildungen und soziale Kontrolle sind also auf verschiedenen Ebenen und in vielfältigen Bedeutungen mit den kulturellen Aspekten des Wissens verbunden und die "Kontrollkultur" legt die Betonung auf deren Folgen, z.B. für die Prozesse sozialer Ungleichheit. Die Idee folgt damit einer Perspektive, wie sie mit dem Neo-Institutionalismus in der Soziologie und den Politikwissenschaften bekannt geworden ist. (ICI2)

This article argues that within the European state system, the struggle to control the institutions and instruments of organized violence produced an externally-oriented conception of security that rested upon the unconditional legitimacy of the state, a societal consensus over basic values and the near-elimination of violence from political life, which permitted a strong identification of the security of the state with the security of its citizens. The conditions for such identification do not hold in many parts of the world, and hence this conception cannot address either the threats to state structures or regimes that do not emerge from other states, or the threats that states and regimes can pose to their own citizens or societies. A more historically-sensitive three-dimensional matrix for studying security on regional/interstate, state/regime and societal/individual levels possesses greater explanatory power, while remaining true to the traditional concerns of security studies with the role and influence of institutions and instruments of organized violence. Such an approach, which is rooted in an account of the role of institutions of organized violence in state formation processes, is used to present a more nuanced account of the processes of `military development' in the modern Middle East.

THIS ARTICLE ARGUES THAT WITHIN THE EUROPEAN STATE SYSTEM, THE STRUGGLE TO CONTROL THE INSTITUTIONS AND INSTRUMENTS OF ORGANIZED VIOLENCE PRODUCED AN EXTERNALLY-ORIENTED CONCEPTION OF SECURITY THAT RESTED UPON THE UNCONDITIONAL LEGITIMACY OF THE STATE, A SOCIETAL CONSENSUS OVER BASIC VALUES AND THE NEAR-ELIMINATION OF VIOLENCE FROM POLITICAL LIFE, WHICH PERMITTED A STRONG IDENTIFICATION OF THE SECURITY OF THE STATE WITH THE SECURITY OF ITS CITIZENS. THE CONDITIONS FOR SUCH IDENTIFICATION DO NOT HOLD IN MANY PARTS OF THE WORLD, AND HENCE THIS CONCEPTION CANNOT ADDRESS EITHER THE THREATS TO STATE STRUCTURES OR REGIMES THAT DO NOT EMERGE FROM OTHER STATES, OR THE THREATS THAT STATES AND REGIMES CAN POSE TO THEIR OWN CITIZENS OR SOCIETIES. A MORE HISTORICALLY-SENSITIVE THREE-DIMENSIONAL MATRIX FOR STUDYING SECURITY ON REGIONAL/INTERSTATE, STATE REGIME AND SOCIETAL /INDIVIDUAL LEVELS POSSESSES GREATER EXPLANATORY POWER, WHILE REMAINING TRUE TO THE TRADITIONAL CONCERNS OF SECURITY STUDIES WITH THE ROLE AND INFLUENCE OF INSTITUTIONS AND INSTRUMENTS OF ORGANIZED VIOLENCE. SUCH AN APPROACH, WHICH IS ROOTED IN AN ACCOUNT OF THE ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS OF ORGANIZED VIOLENCE IN STATE FORMATION PROCESSES, IS USED TO PRESENT A MORE NUANCED ACCOUNT OF THE PROCESSES OF "MILITARY DEVELOPMENT" IN THE MODERN MIDDLE EAST.

Ethnographic research on the formation of new political subjects in the peripheries of São Paulo in a context of progressive governments and intense economic and social change suggests that cultural groups and especially poetry recitals play a fundamental role in a cultural struggle to articulate the valuation of a more communal way of life and a peripheral identity. In addition to contributing to the emergence of new public issues in the outskirts of São Paulo, the recitals have become known as venues for political formation in opposition to or in addition to more established spaces such as nongovernmental organizations, political parties, and the state itself. Pesquisas etnográficas sobre a formação de novos sujeitos políticos nas periferias de São Paulo, em um contexto de governos progressistas e intensa mudança econômica e social, sugerem que grupos culturais e, especialmente, saraus de poesia desempenham papel fundamental na luta cultural para articular a valorização de uma sociedade com mais estilo de vida comunitária e uma identidade periférica. Além de contribuir para o surgimento de novas questões públicas nos arredores de São Paulo, os saraus ficaram conhecidos como locais de formação política de oposição contra, ou além de, espaços mais estabelecidos, como organizações não-governamentais, partidos políticos e o próprio Estado.

Zmiana instytucjonalna jest nieodłącznym procesem wpisującym się w rozwój społeczeństwa i gospodarki. Najistotniejszym procesem w ramach transformacji instytucji wydaje się dopasowywanie (się) instytucji formalnych i nieformalnych. Jest to niezbędne, aby system instytucjonalny działał sprawnie, aby generował odpowiednie bodźce na rzecz aktywności gospodarczej (niski koszt transakcyjny, przewidywalność, zaufanie). Efektem takich dostosowań jest ład instytucjonalny, który jest warunkiem trwałości rozwoju gospodarczego. Cechą instytucji jest długookresowe trwanie, choć jednocześnie odbywa się ich nieprzerwana ewolucja. Powstaje pytanie, w jaki sposób kształtuje się ład instytucjonalny, jaką rolę odgrywają w nim instytucje nieformalne. Za cel artykułu przyjęto określenie roli instytucji nieformalnych w kreowaniu ładu instytucjonalnego. Można wysunąć przypuszczenie, że instytucje nieformalne wraz z upływem czasu stają się trwałą podstawą ładu instytucjonalnego. W artykule wskazano również przejawy niesprawności systemu instytucji w Polsce, w tym instytucji nieformalnych. ; Institutional change is an integral process in the development of the society and economy. The seemingly most significant process in the transformation of institutions is the adjustment (also, mutual adjustment) of formal and informal institutions. This is critical to the proper functioning of the institutional system, so that it generates sufficient stimuli for economic activity (low transaction costs, predictability, trust). The result of such adjustments is institutional order which is a prerequisite of sustainable economic growth. One of the features of imitations is their longevity, even though they are constantly evolving. The question arises about how institutional order is formed and what the role of informal institution in this process is. The aim of the article is to determine the role of informal institutions in the formation of institutional order. It is possible that, given time, informal institutions become a solid foundation of institutional order. 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Introduction. The legal order as the ordering of public relations on the basis of law is one of the main elements of the state. The problem of its provision was actualized during the Civil War. The presence of a firm legal order meant the stability of the government, and also directly influenced its support from the population, stability in the rear and success at the front. An important role in ensuring the protection of legal order, along with ordinary and emergency bodies, was played by the police. Methods and materials. With the help of historical-legal, systematic, formal-legal and comparative-legal methods, the analysis of written sources was carried out, among which the main attention was paid to legislation and other official acts of the authorities of state formations during the Civil War, works and memoirs of its participants, as well as scientific works devoted to the study of this period. Results. The article shows that the most radical changes in the organization of the police were carried out by the Soviet government. The flexibility of the leadership in matters of ideology (without affecting the foundations of Marxist doctrine and the construction of socialist statehood in the country) ensured the effectiveness of the activities of the Soviet law enforcement agencies and the significant contribution of the Soviet police to restoring elementary order and countering rampant crime on the territory of the RSFSR.