Abstract: This article examines how ableism reinforces racialized ideals of sexual difference, focusing on elite sport regulations that condition eligibility for women's competition on intersex athletes' testosterone levels. These regulations disqualify cisgender women athletes, overwhelmingly African runners like Caster Semenya, by rendering their athleticism a symptom of disease. In doing so, this practice of sex testing reinscribes anti-Black and colonial frames of sexual dimorphism through the vector of ability. Analysis of statements from athletes and sport governing bodies demonstrates how sex operates as a racialized measure of ability within these regulations. Ableism shapes the anti-Blackness of these regulations in multiple ways: delimiting the racialized boundaries between exceptional and excessive ability, pathologizing intersex variations as illness, and coercing athletes into cures that both normalize and disable. Bringing together Hortense Spillers's concept of "ungendering" with disability analytics, the article develops the concept of ableist ungendering to characterize how such appeals to disability define the anti-Black bounds of womanhood. In turn, this withholding of gendered recognition becomes a key site where Blackness and disability meet. The article concludes by addressing how resistance to these regulations unsettles the existing contours of anti-ableist imaginaries.
In: Camporesi , S 2019 , ' When does an advantage become unfair? Empirical and normative concerns in Semenya's case ' , Journal of Medical Ethics , vol. 45 , no. 11 , pp. 700-704 . https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2019-105532
There is a fundamental tension in many sports: human sex is not binary, but there are only two categories in which people can compete: male and female. Over the past 10 years, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) regulations have been at the centre of two notable legal disputes. The Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) reached two contradictory rulings: in the first case (Dutee Chand vs Athletics Federation India and IAAF), the IAAF regulations for the eligibility of athletes to compete in the female category were suspended (24 July 2015) on grounds of discrimination against the female category; in the latter (Caster Semenya and Athletics South Africa vs IAAF), the regulations were reaffirmed (1 May 2019) on grounds that although discriminatory, they are necessary to maintain a level playing field and to "protect" the female category. Although Semenya's case has paved the way for questioning existing gender norms in sport, a new stable norm has yet to emerge from her case. The pharmacological solution put forward by IAAF to the tension between fairness and inclusivity of bodies non-conforming to two sexes is not, however, the only possible solution/resolution to the case, as I aim to show in this paper. Here I present some reflections on this topic and suggest how CAS should approach the case if it hopes to resolve it.
Intro -- Foreword -- Contents -- Introduction to Teaching Sex and Gender -- Part I: Reframing Gender -- Chapter 1: Sex and Gender in International Sports: Athletes and the Social Construction of Sex -- 1.1 Using Sports to Teach About the Social Construction of Sex -- 1.2 Sex as a Faulty Dichotomy -- 1.3 Bodies Under Scrutiny -- 1.4 Caster Semenya and Dutee Chand -- 1.5 Sex Verification and Hyperandrogenism in International Sports -- References -- Chapter 2: The Mis-education of Lady Gaga: Confronting Essentialist Claims in the Sex and Gender Classroom -- 2.1 Context -- 2.2 "Born This Way" Anthem -- 2.3 Sexuality and Social Constructionism -- 2.4 Biological Revivalism and the Science of "Gaydar" -- 2.5 Overcoming the "Paranoia of Choice" Discourse in the Classroom -- 2.6 Conclusion -- References -- Chapter 3: Performances of Pronouns: Using Feminist Post-structuralism to Explore the Social Construction of Gender -- 3.1 Introduction -- 3.2 Feminist Poststructuralism: Discourse, Language, and Subjectivity -- 3.2.1 Discourse -- 3.2.2 Language and Subjectivity -- 3.3 Poststructuralism in the Higher Education Classroom -- 3.4 The Creation of the Natural: Gender Imitation and Performance -- 3.5 Reconceptualizing Agency and Resisting Essentialism -- References -- Chapter 4: Undoing Gender: Making the Invisible Visible -- 4.1 Theoretical Foundations -- 4.2 Pre-assignment Activities -- 4.3 Challenges -- 4.4 Student Feedback -- References -- Chapter 5: Gender Bending in the Classroom: Teaching Gender Inequity Without Reifying Gender Essentialism and Heteronormativity -- 5.1 Introduction -- 5.2 Challenges and Opportunities in Discussing Gender Inequity -- 5.2.1 The False Idea That Gender Is Dichotomous (and Inextricably Connected to Sex and Sexuality) -- 5.2.2 Constraints of Language -- 5.2.3 Hegemony -- 5.2.4 Queer Everything -- References.
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On April 26, 2018, the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) released its updated version of its policy on athletes with hyperandrogenism, in a discriminatory attempt to define the term female through specified levels of testosterone, and to thereby provide asolution to the problem of athletes who fell outside of their socially constructed gender binary. The IAAF's attempts to uphold this outdated binary system is a reflection of normalized scientific discourse which creates accepted, supposedly normal, behaviors and bodies at the expense of and resulting in the oppression of those who challenge these dominant regimes of knowledge (Foucault, 1978). Certainly, the prioritization of scientific knowledge is nothing new for the intersex community, given the history of irreversible genital surgery on newborns and young children with genitalia that is incongruent with current sex standards to make them fit societal gender ideals (Davis, 2015; Karkazis, 2008). In this paper, I trouble the IAAF's supposed solution to intersex athletes through a Foucauldian understanding of biopower and science-based constructions of knowledge and truths, with particular attention to the perpetuation of health disparities within the intersex community. More specifically, I examine the site and role of female athletes' bodies, such as Caster Semenya, whose rights to equitable and just treatment were cast aside in order to uphold artificially constructed and societally accepted ideas of male and female. I use Semenya's narrative, coupled with the scientific discourse in the IAAF's decision, to explore the subsequent, but unsurprisingly repetitive, reproduction of the hierarchical power relations between governing sports bodies and athletes, especially female athletes.
Mit der Geschlechtszugehörigkeit ist eine spezifische Vorstellung von körperlicher Leistungsfähigkeit verbunden. Im Sport zeigt sich diese darin, dass eine Trennung in Männer und Frauen als grundlegende Voraussetzung erachtet wird, um fairen Wettbewerb zu ermöglichen. Doch was bedeutet eine solche Trennung für intersexuelle Sportler*innen, die sich schon körperlich der Zweigeschlechterordnung entziehen? Dennis Krämer arbeitet aus soziologischer, medizinischer und sexualwissenschaftlicher Perspektive die existierenden Vorstellungen über Intersexualität als zeitgenössische Körperpolitiken heraus und reflektiert ihre Entstehung unter Berücksichtigung der gesellschaftlichen Verhältnisse.
Recently, the so-called Semenya case has brought the problem of gender in sports competitions back into the spotlight. But the fact is that it is not a unique case; rather, it seems a recurrent and inconclusive problem in the history of sports. In this context, the Spanish athlete Martínez-Patiño is an important figure in the history of sport and gender verification, as well as the Indian sprinter Dutee Chand. Martínez-Patiño's story thus serves as an important case study of the gender-based anxieties that hampered women's advancement in track and field. Martínez-Patiño's experience in Spanish athletics demonstrates the difficulties women faced when attempting to compete in track and field, both in Spain and internationally. Moreover, her experience with gender policies shows the inadequacies of the chromosomal check as a sex marker, as well as the harms caused by the technique. Finally, Martínez-Patiño's protest of the International Association of Athletics Federations' policy started to dismantle compulsory sex verification used as a criterion for gender eligibility. The publicity surrounding her case pushed the track and field federation to abandon mandatory, on-site testing in 1992. Seven years later, the International Olympic Committee also dropped its compulsory control. Martínez-Patiño became the face of the fight against sex/gender verification in sport and helped dismantle the practice. The case of Martinez-Patiño remains in the collective memory of elite sports and serves as an argument for national and international sporting institutions to reconsider discriminating policies in the context of progress being made for women's rights. ; Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científcas (CSIC) (PID2019-105428RB-I00) ; "Hybrid epistemologies: bodies, biometrics and assemblies" and CNRS laboratory IRL 2006 "Epigenetics, Data, Politics." ; 4.507 JCR (2020) Q1, 25/130 Psychology, Clinical ; 1.288 SJR (2020) Q1, 39/475 Arts and Humanities (miscellaneous) ; No data IDR 2020 ; UEM
Mit der Geschlechtszugehörigkeit ist eine spezifische Vorstellung von körperlicher Leistung verbunden. Im Sport zeigt sich diese etwa darin, dass eine Trennung in zwei Geschlechter als notwendige Praxis erachtet wird, um fairen Wettbewerb zu ermöglichen. Doch was bedeutet eine solche Trennung für intersexuelle Menschen, die sich schon körperlich der Zweigeschlechterordnung entziehen? Aus soziologischer, sexualwissenschaftlicher und medizinischer Perspektive arbeitet Dennis Krämer die existierenden Vorstellungen von Intersexualität als zeitgenössische Körperpolitiken heraus und reflektiert ihre diskursiven Konsolidierungen unter Berücksichtigung der gesellschaftlichen Verhältnisse.
After an arduous fight for the rights of women and black people practically throughout the entire twentieth century, the voice of members of community encompassing sexual minorities and other individuals with non-normative genders has been increasingly appearing in the public discourse. This is another group that began to demand respect and acceptance. Their actions are carried out at different levels. One of such ventures are the Olympic Games, whose range of influence and popularity is regularly increasing. Is there, therefore, a time-dependent correlation between the biannually held (alternately summer and winter), most recognized international sports competitions and the actions of people belonging to sexual minorities whose orientation is not heterosexual and people with gender identity different from their assigned sex? The following analysis shows the Olympic history in that regard, which, supplemented with numerous sport threads about the fight for the rights of women and people with a skin color other than white, is designed to verify the presented hypothesis. References 1 Müller N. Olympism. Selected writings. Lausanne: IOC; 2000. p. 711-713. 2 Lennartz K. Two women ran the marathon in 1896. Citius, Altius, Fortius. 1994; 2(1): 19-20. 3 Tarasouleas A. Stamata Revithi, 'Alias Melpomeni'. Olympic Review. 1997; XXVI(17): 53-55. 4 Quintillan G. Alice Milliat and the Women's Games. Olympic Review. 2000; XXVI(31): 27-28. 5 Młodzikowski G. 20 olimpiad ery nowożytnej. Warszawa: Sport i Turystyka; 1973. 6 Porada Z. Starożytne i nowożytne igrzyska olimpijskie. Kraków: KAW; 1980. 7 Rempel B. [Internet] Women's ski jumping aim at the Winter Olympics [cited 2019 Ago 12]. 2013. Available from www.skiinghistory.org. 8 Hart S. [Internet] Sochi Winter Olympics 2014: Carina Vogt wins women's ski jumping gold [cited 2019 Ago 12]. 2014. Available from www.telegraph.co.uk. 9 Lipoński W. All Games, All Nations? Problems of cultural universality of the Olympic Movement. Studies in Physical Culture and Tourism. 2003;10(1): 107-14. 10 Holmes J. Olympiad 1936. New York: Ballantine; 1971. 11 Blundell N. Hitler w obiektywie. Nieznane zdjęcia. t. J. Złotnicki, Warszawa: Amber; 2018. 12 Shaikin B. Sport and politics. The Olympics and the Los Angeles Games. New York: Praeger Publishers; 1988. 13 Walters G. Igrzyska w Berlinie. Jak Hitler ukradł olimpijski sen. Poznań: Rebis; 2008. 14 Willemsen E. Togo's 1st Winter Olympian wants to inspire Africa. Associated Press, 13 Feb 2014 [cited 2019 Ago 10]. Russia: ABC News. 15 Berg S. (2009). How Dora the Man Competed in the Woman's High Jump. Der Spiegel, 15 Sep 2009 [cited 2019 Jul 29]. 16 García J. [Internet] Der Mann, der eine Hochspringerin war. 18 Oct 2017, [cited 2019 Ago 11]. Available from www.die-tagesport.de. 17 Tucker R, Collins M. The science of sex verification and athletic performance. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 2010; 5(2): 127-139. 18 Padawer R. [Internet] The humiliating practice of sex-testing female athletes. The New York Times, 28 Jun 2016 [cited 2019 Ago 11]. Available from https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/03/magazine/the-humiliating-practice-of-sex-testing-female-athletes.html 19 Lenskyj H.J. Gay Games or Gay Olympics? Implications for lesbian inclusion. Sociological Perspectives on Sport: The Games Outside the Games. 2015: 352. 20 Kirby SL, Demers G, Parent, S. Vulnerability/prevention: Considering the needs of disabled and gay athletes in the context of sexual harassment and abuse. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2008; 6(4): 407-26. 21 Hubbard P, Wilkinson E. Welcoming the world? Hospitality, homonationalism, and the London 2012 Olympics. Antipode. 2015; 47(3): 598-615. 22 Camporesi S, Maugeri P. Caster Semenya: sport, categories and the creative role of ethics, J Med. Ethics. 2010; 36: 378-9. 23 Karkazis K, Jordan-Young RM. The powers of testosterone: Obscuring race and regional bias in the regulation of women athletes. Feminist Formations. 2018; 30(2): 1-39. 24 Wojnarowski G. [Internet] Dla Jóźwik to powinna być złota medalistka IO. Piękna Kanadyjka kontra afrykańskie maszyny. 13 Aug 2017 [cited 2019 Ago 08], Available from www.sportowefakty.wp.pl. 25 Fabian M. [Internet] MŚ w Dausze. Caster Semenya z zakazek startu na 800 m. Nie obroni tytułu mistrzowskiego. 30 July 2019 [cited 2019 Ago 08]. Available from www.sportowefakty.wp.pl. 26 Stern, C. [Internet] (2016). I wanted to give up – but I didn't: Nike casts its first transgender sports star, Olympic triathlete Chris Mosier, in a groundbreaking new ad campaign [cited 2019 Ago 10]. Available from www.dailymail.co.uk. 27 Sawicka-Stępińska B. Women in the Polish Language of Sports: Feminatives and other displays of gender asymmetry [w:] Bogusławska-Tafelska M, Haładewicz-Grzelak M. Editors. Communication as a Life Process, volume 2. The Holistic Paradigm in Language Sciences. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing; 2019. p. 237-247. 28 IOC. Olympic Charter. Lausanne: IOC; 2018. ; Después de una ardua lucha por los derechos de las mujeres y los negros durante la mayor parte del siglo XX, la voz de los miembros de la comunidad que abraza a las minorías sexuales y otros individuos de género no normativos aparece cada vez más en el discurso público. Este es otro grupo que ha comenzado a exigir respeto y aceptación. Sus acciones se realizan en diferentes niveles. Una de esas empresas son los Juegos Olímpicos, cuyo rango de influencia y popularidad aumenta constantemente. ¿Existe, por lo tanto, una correlación dependiente del tiempo entre las competiciones deportivas bienales reconocidas internacionalmente (alternativamente en verano e invierno) y las acciones de personas de minorías sexuales cuya orientación no heterosexual y personas con una identidad de género diferente a su género designado? El siguiente análisis muestra la historia olímpica a este respecto, que se complementa con numerosas líneas de investigación deportiva sobre la lucha por los derechos de las mujeres y las personas con un color de piel diferente al blanco, está diseñado para verificar la hipótesis presentada. Referencias 1 Müller N. Olympism. Selected writings. Lausanne: IOC; 2000. p. 711-713. 2 Lennartz K. Two women ran the marathon in 1896. Citius, Altius, Fortius. 1994; 2(1): 19-20. 3 Tarasouleas A. Stamata Revithi, 'Alias Melpomeni'. Olympic Review. 1997; XXVI(17): 53-55. 4 Quintillan G. Alice Milliat and the Women's Games. Olympic Review. 2000; XXVI(31): 27-28. 5 Młodzikowski G. 20 olimpiad ery nowożytnej. Warszawa: Sport i Turystyka; 1973. 6 Porada Z. Starożytne i nowożytne igrzyska olimpijskie. Kraków: KAW; 1980. 7 Rempel B. [Internet] Women's ski jumping aim at the Winter Olympics [cited 2019 Ago 12]. 2013. Available from www.skiinghistory.org. 8 Hart S. [Internet] Sochi Winter Olympics 2014: Carina Vogt wins women's ski jumping gold [cited 2019 Ago 12]. 2014. Available from www.telegraph.co.uk. 9 Lipoński W. All Games, All Nations? Problems of cultural universality of the Olympic Movement. Studies in Physical Culture and Tourism. 2003;10(1): 107-14. 10 Holmes J. Olympiad 1936. New York: Ballantine; 1971. 11 Blundell N. Hitler w obiektywie. Nieznane zdjęcia. t. J. Złotnicki, Warszawa: Amber; 2018. 12 Shaikin B. Sport and politics. The Olympics and the Los Angeles Games. New York: Praeger Publishers; 1988. 13 Walters G. Igrzyska w Berlinie. Jak Hitler ukradł olimpijski sen. Poznań: Rebis; 2008. 14 Willemsen E. Togo's 1st Winter Olympian wants to inspire Africa. Associated Press, 13 Feb 2014 [cited 2019 Ago 10]. Russia: ABC News. 15 Berg S. (2009). How Dora the Man Competed in the Woman's High Jump. Der Spiegel, 15 Sep 2009 [cited 2019 Jul 29]. 16 García J. [Internet] Der Mann, der eine Hochspringerin war. 18 Oct 2017, [cited 2019 Ago 11]. Available from www.die-tagesport.de. 17 Tucker R, Collins M. The science of sex verification and athletic performance. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 2010; 5(2): 127-139. 18 Padawer R. [Internet] The humiliating practice of sex-testing female athletes. The New York Times, 28 Jun 2016 [cited 2019 Ago 11]. Available from https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/03/magazine/the-humiliating-practice-of-sex-testing-female-athletes.html 19 Lenskyj H.J. Gay Games or Gay Olympics? Implications for lesbian inclusion. Sociological Perspectives on Sport: The Games Outside the Games. 2015: 352. 20 Kirby SL, Demers G, Parent, S. Vulnerability/prevention: Considering the needs of disabled and gay athletes in the context of sexual harassment and abuse. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2008; 6(4): 407-26. 21 Hubbard P, Wilkinson E. Welcoming the world? Hospitality, homonationalism, and the London 2012 Olympics. Antipode. 2015; 47(3): 598-615. 22 Camporesi S, Maugeri P. Caster Semenya: sport, categories and the creative role of ethics, J Med. Ethics. 2010; 36: 378-9. 23 Karkazis K, Jordan-Young RM. The powers of testosterone: Obscuring race and regional bias in the regulation of women athletes. Feminist Formations. 2018; 30(2): 1-39. 24 Wojnarowski G. [Internet] Dla Jóźwik to powinna być złota medalistka IO. Piękna Kanadyjka kontra afrykańskie maszyny. 13 Aug 2017 [cited 2019 Ago 08], Available from www.sportowefakty.wp.pl. 25 Fabian M. [Internet] MŚ w Dausze. Caster Semenya z zakazek startu na 800 m. Nie obroni tytułu mistrzowskiego. 30 July 2019 [cited 2019 Ago 08]. Available from www.sportowefakty.wp.pl. 26 Stern, C. [Internet] (2016). I wanted to give up – but I didn't: Nike casts its first transgender sports star, Olympic triathlete Chris Mosier, in a groundbreaking new ad campaign [cited 2019 Ago 10]. Available from www.dailymail.co.uk. 27 Sawicka-Stępińska B. Women in the Polish Language of Sports: Feminatives and other displays of gender asymmetry [w:] Bogusławska-Tafelska M, Haładewicz-Grzelak M. Editors. Communication as a Life Process, volume 2. The Holistic Paradigm in Language Sciences. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing; 2019. p. 237-247. 28 IOC. Olympic Charter. Lausanne: IOC; 2018. ; Após uma árdua luta pelos direitos das mulheres e das pessoas negras durante praticamente todo o século XX, a voz dos membros da comunidade que abrange as minorias sexuais e outros indivíduos com gênero não normativo, vem aparecendo cada vez mais no discurso público. Esse é outro grupo que começou a exigir respeito e aceitação. Suas ações são realizadas em diferentes níveis. Um desses empreendimentos são os Jogos Olímpicos, cuja gama de influência e popularidade aumenta progressivamente. Existe, portanto, uma correlação dependente do tempo entre as competições esportivas reconhecidas internacionais realizadas bianualmente (alternadamente verão e inverno) e as ações de pessoas pertencentes a minorias sexuais cuja orientação não é heterossexual e pessoas com identidade de gênero diferente de seu sexo designado? A análise a seguir mostra a história olímpica a esse respeito, que é complementada com inúmeras linhas de pesquisa do esporte sobre a luta pelos direitos de mulheres e das pessoas com uma cor de pele diferente de branca, é projetada para verificar a hipótese apresentada. Referências 1 Müller N. Olympism. Selected writings. Lausanne: IOC; 2000. p. 711-713. 2 Lennartz K. Two women ran the marathon in 1896. Citius, Altius, Fortius. 1994; 2(1): 19-20. 3 Tarasouleas A. Stamata Revithi, 'Alias Melpomeni'. Olympic Review. 1997; XXVI(17): 53-55. 4 Quintillan G. Alice Milliat and the Women's Games. Olympic Review. 2000; XXVI(31): 27-28. 5 Młodzikowski G. 20 olimpiad ery nowożytnej. Warszawa: Sport i Turystyka; 1973. 6 Porada Z. Starożytne i nowożytne igrzyska olimpijskie. Kraków: KAW; 1980. 7 Rempel B. [Internet] Women's ski jumping aim at the Winter Olympics [cited 2019 Ago 12]. 2013. Available from www.skiinghistory.org. 8 Hart S. [Internet] Sochi Winter Olympics 2014: Carina Vogt wins women's ski jumping gold [cited 2019 Ago 12]. 2014. Available from www.telegraph.co.uk. 9 Lipoński W. All Games, All Nations? Problems of cultural universality of the Olympic Movement. Studies in Physical Culture and Tourism. 2003;10(1): 107-14. 10 Holmes J. Olympiad 1936. New York: Ballantine; 1971. 11 Blundell N. Hitler w obiektywie. Nieznane zdjęcia. t. J. Złotnicki, Warszawa: Amber; 2018. 12 Shaikin B. Sport and politics. The Olympics and the Los Angeles Games. New York: Praeger Publishers; 1988. 13 Walters G. Igrzyska w Berlinie. Jak Hitler ukradł olimpijski sen. Poznań: Rebis; 2008. 14 Willemsen E. Togo's 1st Winter Olympian wants to inspire Africa. Associated Press, 13 Feb 2014 [cited 2019 Ago 10]. Russia: ABC News. 15 Berg S. (2009). How Dora the Man Competed in the Woman's High Jump. Der Spiegel, 15 Sep 2009 [cited 2019 Jul 29]. 16 García J. [Internet] Der Mann, der eine Hochspringerin war. 18 Oct 2017, [cited 2019 Ago 11]. Available from www.die-tagesport.de. 17 Tucker R, Collins M. The science of sex verification and athletic performance. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 2010; 5(2): 127-139. 18 Padawer R. [Internet] The humiliating practice of sex-testing female athletes. The New York Times, 28 Jun 2016 [cited 2019 Ago 11]. Available from https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/03/magazine/the-humiliating-practice-of-sex-testing-female-athletes.html 19 Lenskyj H.J. Gay Games or Gay Olympics? Implications for lesbian inclusion. Sociological Perspectives on Sport: The Games Outside the Games. 2015: 352. 20 Kirby SL, Demers G, Parent, S. Vulnerability/prevention: Considering the needs of disabled and gay athletes in the context of sexual harassment and abuse. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. 2008; 6(4): 407-26. 21 Hubbard P, Wilkinson E. Welcoming the world? Hospitality, homonationalism, and the London 2012 Olympics. Antipode. 2015; 47(3): 598-615. 22 Camporesi S, Maugeri P. Caster Semenya: sport, categories and the creative role of ethics, J Med. Ethics. 2010; 36: 378-9. 23 Karkazis K, Jordan-Young RM. The powers of testosterone: Obscuring race and regional bias in the regulation of women athletes. Feminist Formations. 2018; 30(2): 1-39. 24 Wojnarowski G. [Internet] Dla Jóźwik to powinna być złota medalistka IO. Piękna Kanadyjka kontra afrykańskie maszyny. 13 Aug 2017 [cited 2019 Ago 08], Available from www.sportowefakty.wp.pl. 25 Fabian M. [Internet] MŚ w Dausze. Caster Semenya z zakazek startu na 800 m. Nie obroni tytułu mistrzowskiego. 30 July 2019 [cited 2019 Ago 08]. Available from www.sportowefakty.wp.pl. 26 Stern, C. [Internet] (2016). I wanted to give up – but I didn't: Nike casts its first transgender sports star, Olympic triathlete Chris Mosier, in a groundbreaking new ad campaign [cited 2019 Ago 10]. Available from www.dailymail.co.uk. 27 Sawicka-Stępińska B. Women in the Polish Language of Sports: Feminatives and other displays of gender asymmetry [w:] Bogusławska-Tafelska M, Haładewicz-Grzelak M. Editors. Communication as a Life Process, volume 2. The Holistic Paradigm in Language Sciences. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing; 2019. p. 237-247. 28 IOC. Olympic Charter. Lausanne: IOC; 2018.
In: Forthcoming under the title 'Switzerland' in 2021 Global Review of Constitutional Law (Richard Albert, David Landau, Pietro Faraguna, Simon Drugda, and Rocío De Carolis, eds.) I•CONnect & Clough Center for the Study of Constitutional Democracy at Boston College
Mit der Geschlechtszugehörigkeit ist eine spezifische Vorstellung von körperlicher Leistungsfähigkeit verbunden. Im Sport zeigt sich diese darin, dass eine Trennung in Männer und Frauen als grundlegende Voraussetzung erachtet wird, um fairen Wettbewerb zu ermöglichen. Doch was bedeutet eine solche Trennung für intersexuelle Sportler*innen, die sich schon körperlich der Zweigeschlechterordnung entziehen? Dennis Krämer arbeitet aus soziologischer, medizinischer und sexualwissenschaftlicher Perspektive die existierenden Vorstellungen über Intersexualität als zeitgenössische Körperpolitiken heraus und reflektiert ihre Entstehung unter Berücksichtigung der gesellschaftlichen Verhältnisse.
Background: The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted routine hospital services globally. This study estimated the total number of adult elective operations that would be cancelled worldwide during the 12 weeks of peak disruption due to COVID-19. Methods: A global expert response study was conducted to elicit projections for the proportion of elective surgery that would be cancelled or postponed during the 12 weeks of peak disruption. A Bayesian β-regression model was used to estimate 12-week cancellation rates for 190 countries. Elective surgical case-mix data, stratified by specialty and indication (surgery for cancer versus benign disease), were determined. This case mix was applied to country-level surgical volumes. The 12-week cancellation rates were then applied to these figures to calculate the total number of cancelled operations. Results: The best estimate was that 28 404 603 operations would be cancelled or postponed during the peak 12 weeks of disruption due to COVID-19 (2 367 050 operations per week). Most would be operations for benign disease (90·2 per cent, 25 638 922 of 28 404 603). The overall 12-week cancellation rate would be 72·3 per cent. Globally, 81·7 per cent of operations for benign conditions (25 638 922 of 31 378 062), 37·7 per cent of cancer operations (2 324 070 of 6 162 311) and 25·4 per cent of elective caesarean sections (441 611 of 1 735 483) would be cancelled or postponed. If countries increased their normal surgical volume by 20 per cent after the pandemic, it would take a median of 45 weeks to clear the backlog of operations resulting from COVID-19 disruption. Conclusion: A very large number of operations will be cancelled or postponed owing to disruption caused by COVID-19. Governments should mitigate against this major burden on patients by developing recovery plans and implementing strategies to restore surgical activity safely.