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AbstractIn this research note, we document the extent to which negative beliefs about women's capacity to hold public office are widespread in Canada. Using a list experiment, our results demonstrate that many Canadians believe that men are "naturally better" leaders than are women and that women are "too emotional" and "too nice" for politics. While some groups are willing to explicitly own these views when asked directly about them (for example, older people, men, those who are more conservative and religious), others are unwilling to do so unless social desirability is mitigated (for example, younger people, left-leaning). By overcoming concerns with social desirability, we show that women still face explicit, often sexist, barriers in political work.

This Article offers two main contributions to the study of sex stereotyping. First, it identifies an organizing principle that explains why some forms of sex stereotyping are today legally prohibited while others are not. Second, it argues for a shift in the current rights framework—from equal opportunity to individual liberty—that could assist courts and other legal actors to appreciate the harms of currently permissible forms of sex stereotyping. Commentators and courts have long observed that the law of sex stereotyping has many inconsistencies. For instance, it is lawful today for the state to require that unwed biological fathers, but not mothers, establish a relationship with a child as a condition for parental rights, but it is unlawful to exclude fathers from the category of "primary caregiver" for medical leave purposes. It is lawful to deny a female guard a position at an all-male prison but unlawful to refuse to hire a woman as a researcher for a physics clinic. It is lawful to post a "men only" sign on a bathroom door but unlawful to post the same sign on a courthouse door. This Article offers an organizing principle that explains these seeming inconsistencies. The main thesis is that there are today two primary branches of sex-stereotyping law: one that prohibits stereotyping and one that permits it. The prohibiting branch reflects an event in antidiscrimination law that began in the 1960s and involved integrating the private sphere of the family with the public spheres of the market and political life. This event involved three steps: (1) a new rationale regarding the harm of sex stereotyping—anti-subordination; (2) a new concept of gender—gender role; and (3) a new articulation of an equality principle—equal opportunity for women to participate in the market and for men to participate in domestic activities. These shifts produced statutes and decisions that rejected traditional division-of-labor stereotyping. In the same years, however, a parallel branch of permissible sex stereotyping flourished. This branch includes mandatory appearance codes in the workplace, schools, and prisons; denial of parental rights of unwed fathers; and sex segregation in bathrooms, locker rooms, prisons, and the military. This Article argues for a shift of focus in the law of sex stereotyping. It underscores the limits of an equal opportunity framework and argues that an individual liberty framework better captures the harms of many individuals who are today subjected to currently lawful forms of body stereotyping.

part PART 1 HISTORY -- chapter 1 The study of stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination within social psychology: A quick history of theory and research -- part PART 2 COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE, NEUROLOGICAL PROCESSES -- chapter 2 Stereotype Accuracy: One of the Largest and Most Replicable Effects in All of Social Psychology -- chapter 3 Upward and Downward Spirals Intergroup Interactions: Compassionate Goals and Transcending the Ego -- chapter 4 Stereotype Threat -- chapter 5 How our Means for Feeling Transcendent of Death Foster Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Intergroup Conflict: Terror Management Theory -- chapter 6 Intergroup Emotions Theory -- chapter 7 Measures of Prejudice -- chapter 8 Attributions to Discrimination: Antecedents and Consequences -- chapter 9 The Role of Intentions in Conceptions of Prejudice: An Historical Perspective -- chapter 10 Intergroup Threat Theory -- chapter 11 You Were Always on my Mind: How Event-related Potentials Inform Impression Formation Research -- chapter 12 Insights from Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Research on Race -- part PART 3 TARGETS OF PREJUDICE -- chapter 13 Sexism -- chapter 14 Ageism -- chapter 15 The Social Psychology of Sexual Prejudice -- part PART 4 REDUCING PREJUDICE -- chapter 16 Understanding and Reducing Interpersonal Discrimination in the Workplace -- chapter 17 The Self-regulation of Prejudice -- chapter 18 A Common Ingroup Identity: Categorization, Identity, and Intergroup Relations -- chapter 19 Understanding and Reducing Racial and Ethnic Prejudice Among Children and Adolescents -- part PART 5 EPILOGUE -- chapter 20 The Future of Research on Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination.

"Commercial advertising and commodity culture have been major influences of western societies since the late nineteenth century, creating both images of identity and of otherness. Emerging in post-abolition America and colonialist Europe, early marketing campaigns presented a range of racial stereotypes and set the base for racialized trademarks and for widespread usage of racially charged visual language in promotional activities during the following century. Facing critique and opposition from social movements, racist advertising changed, but did not disappear. Following critical approaches to the analysis of commercial imagery and covering a range from early stereotyping to contemporary multiculturalism, this chapter reveals the perpetual promotion of whiteness through continuing pictorial exclusion and observes techniques of visual subordination as well as their historical transformation." (author's abstract)

Focusing on the two fundamental dimensions underlying stereotype content (warmth/competence), the major aim of the present research was to test implicit stereotyping toward persons with disability. We hypothesized that persons with disability are associated with less warmth than persons without disability and with less competence, especially when a competence-relevant context is activated (work context). Three experimental studies were conducted using two different priming paradigms: conceptual priming (Study 1) and evaluative priming (Studies 2 and 3). In Study 3, context (work vs. control) was introduced as an additional factor. Our results showed that persons with disability were systematically associated with less warmth than persons without disability, and with less competence when priming a work context. These results provide a more comprehensive understanding of discriminatory behaviors toward people with disability, despite legislation promoting equal rights.