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In June 2022, the nation celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of Title IX. This landmark legislation, part of the Education Amendments of 1972, continues to have a huge impact, especially on colleges and universities, across efforts to counter harassment and discrimination based on sex. A persistently controversial aspect of Title IX is its application to intercollegiate athletics. Prior to Title IX, women had participated in athletics, whether through intramural sports or through dancing and cheerleading, which, despite being longstanding opportunities for women to express their athleticism and skill, were not always recognized as sports. Title IX, however, began a new era of equal opportunity for young women across higher education.

The passage of Title IX, the 1972 Education Amendments to the Civil Rights Act, expanded high school athletic opportunities to include girls, revolutionizing mass sports participation in the United States. This paper analyzes high school athletic participation in the United States and how sports offerings for boys and girls changed subsequent to the passage of this legislation. Girls' sports participation rose dramatically both following the enactment of Title IX and subsequent to enhancements to its enforcement. Approximately half of all girls currently participate in sports during high school; however, there remains a substantial gap between girls and boys participation in many states. States' average education level and social attitudes regarding Title IX and women's rights are correlated with this remaining gender gap. Examining individual high school students, sports participation is seen more frequently among those with a privileged background: white students with married, wealthy, educated parents are more likely to play sports. This finding points to an overlooked fact - while Title IX benefited girls by increasing the opportunity to play sports, these benefits were disproportionately reaped by those at the top of the income distribution.

The passage of Title IX, the 1972 Education Amendments to the Civil Rights Act, expanded high school athletic opportunities to include girls, revolutionizing mass sports participation in the United States. This paper analyzes high school athletic participation in the United States and how sports offerings for boys and girls changed subsequent to the passage of this legislation. Girls' sports participation rose dramatically both following the enactment of Title IX and subsequent to enhancements to its enforcement. Approximately half of all girls currently participate in sports during high school; however, there remains a substantial gap between girls and boys participation in many states. States' average education level and social attitudes regarding Title IX and women's rights are correlated with this remaining gender gap. Examining individual high school students, sports participation is seen more frequently among those with a privileged background: white students with married, wealthy, educated parents are more likely to play sports. This finding points to an overlooked fact—while Title IX benefited girls by increasing the opportunity to play sports, these benefits were disproportionately reaped by those at the top of the income distribution. (JEL J16, J18, J24, I2)

Front Cover -- Title Page -- Copyright Information -- Table of Contents -- Preface -- Part 1: Title IX in the Civil Rights State -- Rights Regulation -- The Civil Rights State -- Title IX: The Complexities of a Simple Statute -- The Enigmatic OCR -- Part 2: Athletics -- The Troubled Return of "Separate but Equal -- Regulation in Fits and Starts, 1972-95 -- The Triumph of Parity, 1995-2016 -- Athletic Opportunity Costs -- Part 3: Sexual Harassment -- Controversies -- A Tale of Two Titles -- Changing Culture, Building Institutions -- Part IV: Expansion and Retrenchment -- The Logic of Expansion -- The Politics of Retrenchment -- Notes -- Index -- Back Cover

This Monday, the Biden administration's Title IX regulation was formally published. Within a day, 10 states joined three lawsuits seeking to overturn the letter. Since, more state superintendents have spoken out—either decrying the regulation to the press or directing their schools to not comply.
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