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A social and intellectual conflict was waged between Catholics and secularists in Spain at the turn of the 20th century. In 1910, following forty long years of struggle, women were finally granted access to the university system. This fact positioned women at the heart of the dispute between the two competing schools of thought, both of which supported the intellectual development of women as an essential part of their respective educational projects for political and social renewal. Nonetheless, the vision of women held on both sides fell far short of recognizing the suitability of women for participation in public life. On the basis of a close reading of the research literature in this field (84 works), this article shows that the educational projects advanced by both groups were remarkably similar, given that each drew on similar prejudices regarding women.

The academic year 2010–11 marked a century of the presence of Spanish women in university classrooms. The objective of this article is to outline the extent of women's presence in higher education until 1936 and the initiatives that emerged in Spanish society that advocated
this female presence. The article is based on an in-depth study of the scientific literature on the topic. It concerns books that vary considerably in genre, written from widely different perspectives. The article's originality lies in the endeavour to compare these studies (something
that has not been done thus far) and to compile a summary that organically presents the extent of Spanish women's admission into universities. It is centred on the two most significant initiatives that upheld this movement: the Institución Libre de Enseñanza (ILE, Free
Institute for Education) and the Institución Teresiana/Teresian Institute. The social milieu depicted is that of the bourgeois and erudite middle class, which was not very extensive, and in many cases, had little wealth. Up until the Spanish Civil War, this was the environment from
which the majority of female university students emerged.

The assumption that higher education institutions on the African continent, after gaining political independence from the erstwhile colonisers, would be accessible to all people, irrespective of gender, race, status, ethnicity or religion has not had meaningful practical consequences. In higher education, especially universities, there has not been convincingly adequate space created for women and hence their involvement remains at the periphery of its practices. In this theoretical paper, we argue that although women are involved in the current higher education, their participation is still placed at the margin of the educational practices just like in the pre-colonial and colonial periods. We posit that while the time and space have changed, the nature of involvement throughout the pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial epochs, women have been and are still left at the periphery of higher education on the African continent. It is our case that if authentic liberation for all is to be realised, the involvement of all people, including women as equal agents in higher education, ought to be the epicentre of all higher education goals and practices. This philosophical paper therefore interrogates and presents a historical exposé of Higher Education (HE) in Africa, from pre-colonial, colonial through to the post-colonial epochs, in relation to how they place women within university institutional and educational practices. DOI:10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n23p2168

Indian educational policies are conceptualised within a very narrow framework and, therefore, gender concerns find little meaningful space in the final policy documents. This is because the cultural concerns colour the vision and value frames of the policy makers. The article interrogates the process of policy formulation by looking at selected XI Plan documents. The aim is to analyse the process of policy development, unravel the rhetoric of inclusion-exclusion and the myopic decisions which hardly touch the structures of exclusivity. The exercise for the XII Plan is underway and one hopes it will move away from mere rhetoric and be an improvement both in terms of conceptualisation and delivery.