Suchergebnisse

The article investigated the ability of gray seals to develop a differentiating conditioned reflex to light sources with different wavelengths corresponding to red, yellow, green, cyan and blue colors. According to the obtained data, light sources with different wavelengths can serve as an irritant for the gray seal, which produces a conditional differentiation reflex. The development of a differentiating conditioned reflex to the light source occurs in the studied gray seals much faster than on color painted objects. The results of the experiment showed the presence of protanopia in the studied gray seals.

The article continues the theme of the tantric sādhana's soteriology and analyses stages of the spiritual tantric path. Depending on the specific text or school, dif­ferent stages of such a path can be distinguished. We consider the spiritual tantric path, consisting of 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 stages. Three stages of practice are considered by Satyananda Saraswati (purification, "inspiration", connection). Three stages are also mentioned in the Sahajiyā's treatise "The Necklace of Immortality" by Mukundadāsa (17th cent.). Bhāskararāya (18th cent.) marks five hierarchical levels of liberation, reducing them to three "city", or stages of the path (pious life, reverence for the higher Self and reverence for the undifferentiated Abso­lute). Kashmir Śaivism develops a system of four "means", one of which (the so-called "non-means", which in turn is divided into two types) opposes the others. G. Kaviraj develops the idea of four stages of the spiritual path (indirect knowl­edge of Self, removal of doubts, direct knowledge and recognition). The Svac­chanda Tantra knows the five stages of the development process. There is also a model of six paths (ṣaḍadhvan) in Tantrism, which is appropriate to consider in the context of pravṛtti-nivṛtti, analyzed in our previous publication in this journal. A brief overview of the "six paths" is given by Maheśvarānanda (14th cent.). The very concept of the "stages" may go against the monistic posi­tions of a number of tantric schools (i.e. Trika), reflecting on the moment of lib­eration, but any such moment is preceded by a long preparatory work. There is another version of the "six paths" (viz. Yoginī Hṛdaya) as the stages of spiritual development and deepening of the levels of tantric hermeneutics. Finally, the septenary model of development (acara) includes the hierarchization of various spiritual systems and actually means the levels of development of an individual.

The article deals with the central aspects of tantric practice (sādhana) related to soteriological issues. Sādhana aims at siddhi as an ideal realization; liberation (mokṣa) is considered the highest siddhi. It is permissible to discern two interre­lated aspects of sadhana, i.e. narrow (specialized) and wide (coinciding with the whole way of life of the follower). Tantric sādhana positions itself as a highly effective tool for human improvement in Kali Yuga. While addressing all people, Tantra at the same time requires the observance of the secret of practice. Leading, as it were, a "double life", a number of tantric traditions (Śrīvidyā, for example) adapt to the needs of the orthodox Hindu society. Tantric works sometimes report the "lightness" of the spiritual path, which means the acquisition of the highest ideal during the earthly life of the practitioner, but does not mean the ease of the tantric procedures themselves. In general, Hindu Tantrism agrees with general In­dian soteriology that sādhana is a "return" (nivṛtti) process, which is accompanied by an increase of holistic perception of reality. Nevertheless, in Tantrism, nivṛtti and pravṛtti (deployment) are closely related to each other, since they represent different phases of the Śakti's "game" (B.K. Majumdar), also understood as the divine vibration-spanda. Depending on the level of his development, sādhaka is engaged in exercises either in the spirit of nivṛtti or pravṛtti. The effectiveness of pravṛtti at the final levels of the path is turned against pravṛtti itself. The vari­ability of tantric methods and ethical standards correlate with the level of con­sciousness of the practitioner. The stage of nivṛtti, as it were, models the ultimate state reached by the tantric adept after the end of his spiritual path.

The tantric interpretation of karma is in many ways in line with general Indian be­liefs. Karma is a complex causal mechanism that enslaves souls, which itself, in turn, is based on the activities of these souls. The actions of the soul arise from karmic impulses, which prepare it for a certain experience. Tantra knows the vari­ous classifications of karma (as valuable as neutral) and karmic fruits, as well as bodies into which souls enter under the influence of karma. Karma is "sleeping" and "waking up". The Supreme God controls karma for his own purposes, provid­ing the souls with their well-deserved living conditions; the unfolding of the world itself correlates with an increase in karmic activity. In Kashmir Śaivism, karma be­comes one of the three main types of enslavement of individuals (kārma-mala) and a direct source of saṃsāra. "Karma is the cause of saṃsāra" (Abhinavagupta). Karma is a part of the universal restrictive mechanism, niyati (Utpaladeva). The distinction between an action that carries karmic consequences (karma) and an action that doesn't carry such consequences (kriyā) can also be considered a tantric contribution to the concept of karma. Representatives of the Nātha school under­stand karma as a part of the physical body and distinguish five types of karma

The tantric interpretation of karma is in many ways in line with general Indian be­liefs. Karma is a complex causal mechanism that enslaves souls, which itself, in turn, is based on the activities of these souls. The actions of the soul arise from karmic impulses, which prepare it for a certain experience. Tantra knows the vari­ous classifications of karma (as valuable as neutral) and karmic fruits, as well as bodies into which souls enter under the influence of karma. Karma is "sleeping" and "waking up". The Supreme God controls karma for his own purposes, provid­ing the souls with their well-deserved living conditions; the unfolding of the world itself correlates with an increase in karmic activity. In Kashmir Śaivism, karma be­comes one of the three main types of enslavement of individuals (kārma-mala) and a direct source of saṃsāra. "Karma is the cause of saṃsāra" (Abhinavagupta). Karma is a part of the universal restrictive mechanism, niyati (Utpaladeva). The distinction between an action that carries karmic consequences (karma) and an ac­tion that doesn't carry such consequences (kriyā) can also be considered a tantric contribution to the concept of karma. Representatives of the Nātha school under­stand karma as a part of the physical body and distinguish five types of karma.

Alexander Sobolev – Doctor of Science in Economics, Professor, Russian University of Cooperation. Address: 12/30, V.Voloshina St., Mytishchi, Moscow Region, 141014, Russian Federation. E-mail: sobolev-alekc@mail.ru
Alexander Kurakin – Senior Researcher, Laboratory for Studies in Economic Sociology, National Research University Higher School of Economics; Senior Researcher, Center for Agrarian Studies, Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration (RANEPA). Address: 11, Myasnitskaya St., Moscow, 101000, Russian Federation. E-mail: akurakin@hse.ru
Vladimir Pakhomov – Doctor of Science in Economics, Professor, Russian University of Cooperation. Address: 12/30, V.Voloshina St., Mytishchi, Moscow Region, 141014, Russian Federation. E-mail: vmpahomov@yandex.ru
Irina Trotsuk – Doctor of Science in Sociology, Senior Researcher, Center for Agrarian Studies, Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration; Associate Professor, RUDN University. Address: 82, Vernadskogo Av., Moscow, 119571, Russian Federation. E-mail: irina.trotsuk@yandex.ru
Citation: Sobolev A., Kurakin A., Pakhomov V., Trotsuk I. (2018) Cooperation in Rural Russia: Past, Present and Future. Mir Rossii, vol. 27, no 1, pp. 65–89. DOI: 10.17323/1811-038X-2018-27-1-65-89

The authors consider cooperation as a specific, alternative form of economic organization to the standard business firm within a market economy, and focus on agricultural cooperation in Russia. First, the article engages with the key milestones of the history of cooperation in Russia: (1) the first attempts to establish cooperative organizations before the Russian Revolution (agricultural societies, agricultural partnerships and credit cooperatives) which gave the poor rural population a chance to improve living standards and ensured promising prospects for the long-term development of cooperation in all forms; (2) the dependent forms of consumer and production cooperation under the Soviet regime that deprived all collective forms of their true cooperative nature. In the second part of the article, the authors describe the current state of the cooperative movement in the Russian countryside and identify its basic features, such as opposition to family farming and the state capitalist tendencies of the concentration and vertical integration in the form of agroholdings; state rural cooperation policies which aim to promote and financially support small farming including the development of rural cooperatives; the number and types of cooperatives in the countryside; the reasons for debates on cooperation legislation; the viability of the main types of agricultural cooperatives (production, consumer, credit cooperation). Finally, the authors emphasize that cooperation in contemporary Russia does not fit the classic Western scheme of cooperative development and still has to overcome a number of substantial challenges (the soviet legacy, lack of bottom-up initiatives, the ideological and economic dominance of large-scale farming, poor academic expertise in the field of cooperation studies).

The article examines modern economic and integration processes in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in the context of opportunities and constraints to implement the foreign economic policy of Russia and the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) in the region. The results of the research revealed systemic problems of an economic and administrative nature, those are limiting economic cooperation to projects of a narrow group of state corporations and state companies, mainly in the field of foreign trade, energy and military-technical cooperation. The analysis and conclusions can be used in the framework of bilateral consultations on cooperation of ASEAN and the EAEU. However, such cooperation has priority for Russia and EAEU and it should be viewed as a positive trend. ; В статье рассматриваются современные экономические и интеграционные процессы в Ассоциации стран Юго-Восточной Азии (АСЕАН) в контексте возможностей и ограничений для реализации внешнеэкономической политики России и Евразийского экономического союза (ЕАЭС) в данном регионе. Результаты исследований выявили системные проблемы экономического и административного характера, из-за которых ЕАЭС и АСЕАН на данном этапе ограничивается проектами узкой группы госкорпораций и госкомпаний, работающих в основном в сфере внешней торговли, энергетики и военно-технического сотрудничества. Проведенный анализ и выводы могут быть использованы в рамках двусторонних консультаций по сближению между группировкой АСЕАН и ЕАЭС. Данное направление сотрудничества представляется приоритетным для России и Евразийского Союза, и его следует рассматривать как позитивный тренд.