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ECA Estudios Centroamericanos, Vol. 41, No. 456, 1986: 850-855.

Peace efforts of the Contadora group: Columbia, Mexico, Panama, and Venezuela.

Rising prices in energy, raw materials, and shortages of critical raw materials (CRMs) for renewable energies or electric vehicles are jeopardizing the transition to a low-carbon economy. Therefore, managing scarce resources must be a priority for governments. To that end, appropriate indicators that can identify the criticality of raw materials and products is key. Thermodynamic rarity (TR) is an exergy-based indicator that measures the scarcity of elements in the earth's crust and the energy intensity to extract and refine them. This paper uses TR to study 70 Mobile Phone (MP) Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) samples. Results show that an average MP PCB has a TR of 88 MJ per unit, indicating their intensive use of valuable materials. Every year the embedded TR increases by 36,250 GWh worldwide -similar to the electricity consumed by Denmark in 2019- due to annual production of MP. Pd, Ta and Au embedded in MP PCBs worldwide between 2007 and 2021 contribute to 90% of the overall TR, which account for 75, 600 and 250 tones, respectively, and increasing by 11% annually. This, coupled with the short lifespan of MP, makes PCBs an important potential source of secondary resources.

Rising prices in energy, raw materials, and shortages of critical raw materials (CRMs) for renewable energies or electric vehicles are jeopardizing the transition to a low-carbon economy. Therefore, managing scarce resources must be a priority for governments. To that end, appropriate indicators that can identify the criticality of raw materials and products is key. Thermodynamic rarity (TR) is an exergy-based indicator that measures the scarcity of elements in the earth's crust and the energy intensity to extract and refine them. This paper uses TR to study 70 Mobile Phone (MP) Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) samples. Results show that an average MP PCB has a TR of 88 MJ per unit, indicating their intensive use of valuable materials. Every year the embedded TR increases by 36,250 GWh worldwide -similar to the electricity consumed by Denmark in 2019- due to annual production of MP. Pd, Ta and Au embedded in MP PCBs worldwide between 2007 and 2021 contribute to 90% of the overall TR, which account for 75, 600 and 250 tones, respectively, and increasing by 11% annually. This, coupled with the short lifespan of MP, makes PCBs an important potential source of secondary resources.

Rising prices in energy, raw materials, and shortages of critical raw materials (CRMs) for renewable energies or electric vehicles are jeopardizing the transition to a low-carbon economy. Therefore, managing scarce resources must be a priority for governments. To that end, appropriate indicators that can identify the criticality of raw materials and products is key. Thermodynamic rarity (TR) is an exergy-based indicator that measures the scarcity of elements in the earth''s crust and the energy intensity to extract and refine them. This paper uses TR to study 70 Mobile Phone (MP) Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs) samples. Results show that an average MP PCB has a TR of 88 MJ per unit, indicating their intensive use of valuable materials. Every year the embedded TR in-creases by 36, 250 GWh worldwide-similar to the electricity consumed by Denmark in 2019-due to annual production of MP. Pd, Ta and Au embedded in MP PCBs worldwide between 2007 and 2021 contribute to 90% of the overall TR, which account for 75, 600 and 250 tones, respectively, and in-creasing by 11% annually. This, coupled with the short lifespan of MP, makes PCBs an important potential source of secondary resources. © 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.

Understanding the factors affecting child labor and school attendance are primordial to developing policies aimed at improving the lives of children. Policies are needed as poor households can sub-invest in human capital. Factors have individually shown to affect child labor and school attendance, but we question which factors cause the strongest effects by considering them simultaneously. We evaluate which factors have led to the decrease in child labor and the increase in school attendance of children aged 12-14 in Mexico. We consider income, the education of the head-of-household, monetary government transfers, access to public health institutions, remittances and demographic characteristics, as possible sources of the changes. We use a variant of the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition (Fairlie, 2005), which allows the decomposition in the case the variables to be explained are dichotomous. The change in child labor and school attendance over time can then be decomposed into an explained and an unexplained portion, with each factor contributing a specific amount to the explained portion of the difference. The most important factor that led to the fall child labor and the increase in school attendance was the improvement in the human capital of parents, measured as years of education. The increase in government assistance and greater access to social health insurance also play an important role. Public policies aimed at increasing school attendance and those aimed at reducing child labor should consider the improvement of education as a major goal.