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Mexico City is a suburban metropolis, yet most of its suburbs would be unfamiliar to urbanists accustomed to thinking about US metropolitan regions. Mexico City's suburbs are densely populated--not thinly settled--and its residents rely primarily on informal transit rather than privately-owned automobiles for their daily transportation. These types of dense and transit-dependent suburbs have emerged as the fastest-growing form of human settlement in cities throughout Latin America, Asia, and Africa. Wealthier and at a later stage in its economic development than other developing-world metropolises, Mexico City is a compelling place to investigate the effects of rising incomes, increased car ownership, and transit investments in the dense, peripheral areas that have grown rapidly around informal transit in the past decades, and is a bellwether for cities like Dakar, Cairo, Lima, and Jakarta.I begin this dissertation with a historical overview of the demographic, economic, and political trends that have helped shape existing urban form, transportation infrastructure, and travel behavior in Mexico City. Despite an uptick in car ownership and use, most households--both urban and suburban--continue to rely on public transportation. Furthermore, suburban Mexico City has lower rates of car ownership and use than its central areas. In subsequent chapters, I frame, pose, and investigate three interrelated questions about Mexico City's evolving suburban landscape, the nature of households' travel decisions, and the relationship between the built environment and travel behavior. Together, these inquiries tell a story that differs significantly from narratives about US suburbs, and provide insight into the future transportation needs and likely effects of land and transportation policy in these communities and others like them in Mexico and throughout the developing world. First, how has the influence of the built environment on travel behavior changed as more households have moved into the suburbs and aggregate car use has increased? Using two large metropolitan household travel surveys from 1994 and 2007, I model two related-but-distinct household travel decisions: whether to drive on an average weekday, and if so, how far to drive. After controlling for income and other household attributes, I find that the influence of population and job density on whether a household undertakes any daily car trips is strong and has increased marginally over time. By contrast, high job and population densities have a much smaller influence on the total distance of weekday car travel that a household generates. For the subset of households whose members drive on a given weekday, job and population densities have no statistical effect at all. Contrary to expectations, a household's distance from the urban center is strongly correlated with a lower probability of driving, even after controlling for income. This effect, however, appears to be diminishing over time, and when members of a household drive, they drive significantly more if they live farther from the urban center. The combination of informal transit, public buses, and the Metro has provided sufficient transit service to constrain car use in the densely populated suburban environments of Mexico City. Once suburban residents drive, however, they tend to drive a lot regardless of transit or the features of the built environment.Second, how much are the recent trends of increased suburbanization, rising car-ownership, and the proliferation of massive commercially-built peripheral housing developments interrelated? To investigate this question, I first disentangle urban growth and car ownership trends by geographic area. The fastest-growing areas tend to be poorer and have had a much smaller impact on the size of the metropolitan car fleet than wealthier, more established neighborhoods in the center and western half of the metropolis. I then zoom in to examine several recent commercial housing developments. These developments, supported by publicly-subsidized mortgages, contain thousands of densely-packed, small, and modestly-priced housing units. Their residents remain highly reliant on public transportation, particularly informal transit, and the neighborhoods become less homogenous over time as homeowners convert units and parking spaces to shops and offices. Finally, I use the 2007 household travel survey to model households' intertwined decisions of where to live and whether to own a car. As expected, wealthier and smaller households are more likely to purchase vehicles. However, they prefer to live in more central areas where households with cars tend to drive shorter distances. If housing policy and production cannot adapt to provide more centrally-located housing, growing incomes will tend to increase car ownership but concentrate more of it in areas where car-owning households drive much farther.Third, how has the Metro's Line B, one of the first and only suburban high-capacity transit investments, influenced local and regional travel behavior and land use? To explore this question, I compare travel behavior and land use measures at six geographic scales, including the investment's immediate catchment area, across two time periods: six years before and seven years after the investment opened. Line B, which opened in stages in 1999 and 2000, significantly expanded Metro coverage into the densely populated and fast-growing suburban municipality of Ecatepec. While the investment sparked a significant increase in local Metro use, most of this increase came from people relying on informal transit, rather than cars. While this shift reduced transit fares and increased transit speeds for local residents, it also increased government subsidies for the Metro and had no apparent effect on road speeds. Furthermore, the Metro remains highly dependent on informal transit to provide feeder service even within Ecatepec. In terms of land use, the investment increased density around the stations but appears to have had little to no effect on downtown commercial development, where it might have been expected to have a significant influence. In short, the effects of Line B demonstrate much of the promise and problem with expanding high capacity transit service into the suburbs. Ridership is likely to be high, but so too will be the costs and subsidies, while the effects on car ownership and urban form are likely to be modest.Individually, each chapter contributes to a specific body of transportation and planning literature drawn from the US as well as developing countries. Collectively, they point to connection between land use and transportation in Mexico City that is different from the connection in US and other rich-world cities. In particular, there is a physical disconnect between the generally suburban homes of transit users and the generally central location of high-capacity public transit. Addressing this disconnect by shifting housing production from the periphery to the center or by expanding high-capacity transit to the periphery would require significant amounts of time and public subsidy. Thus, contemporary policies to reduce car use or increase accessibility for the poor in the short and medium term would do well to focus on improving the flexible, medium-capacity informal transit around which the city's dense and transit-dependent suburbs have grown and continue to grow.

Mexico City is a suburban metropolis, yet most of its suburbs would be unfamiliar to urbanists accustomed to thinking about US metropolitan regions. Mexico City's suburbs are densely populated—not thinly settled—and its residents rely primarily on informal transit rather than privately-owned automobiles for their daily transportation. These types of dense and transit-dependent suburbs have emerged as the fastest-growing form of human settlement in cities throughout Latin America, Asia, and Africa. Wealthier and at a later stage in its economic development than other developing-world metropolises, Mexico City is a compelling place to investigate the effects of rising incomes, increased car ownership, and transit investments in the dense, peripheral areas that have grown rapidly around informal transit in the past decades, and is a bellwether for cities like Dakar, Cairo, Lima, and Jakarta. I begin this dissertation with a historical overview of the demographic, economic, and political trends that have helped shape existing urban form, transportation infrastructure, and travel behavior in Mexico City. Despite an uptick in car ownership and use, most households—both urban and suburban—continue to rely on public transportation. Furthermore, suburban Mexico City has lower rates of car ownership and use than its central areas. In subsequent chapters, I frame, pose, and investigate three interrelated questions about Mexico City's evolving suburban landscape, the nature of households' travel decisions, and the relationship between the built environment and travel behavior. Together, these inquiries tell a story that differs significantly from narratives about US suburbs, and provide insight into the future transportation needs and likely effects of land and transportation policy in these communities and others like them in Mexico and throughout the developing world. First, how has the influence of the built environment on travel behavior changed as more households have moved into the suburbs and aggregate car use has increased? Using two large metropolitan household travel surveys from 1994 and 2007, I model two related-but-distinct household travel decisions: whether to drive on an average weekday, and if so, how far to drive. After controlling for income and other household attributes, I find that the influence of population and job density on whether a household undertakes any daily car trips is strong and has increased marginally over time. By contrast, high job and population densities have a much smaller influence on the total distance of weekday car travel that a household generates. For the subset of households whose members drive on a given weekday, job and population densities have no statistical effect at all. Contrary to expectations, a household's distance from the urban center is strongly correlated with a lower probability of driving, even after controlling for income. This effect, however, appears to be diminishing over time, and when members of a household drive, they drive significantly more if they live farther from the urban center. The combination of informal transit, public buses, and the Metro has provided sufficient transit service to constrain car use in the densely populated suburban environments of Mexico City. Once suburban residents drive, however, they tend to drive a lot regardless of transit or the features of the built environment. Second, how much are the recent trends of increased suburbanization, rising car-ownership, and the proliferation of massive commercially-built peripheral housing developments interrelated? To investigate this question, I first disentangle urban growth and car ownership trends by geographic area. The fastest-growing areas tend to be poorer and have had a much smaller impact on the size of the metropolitan car fleet than wealthier, more established neighborhoods in the center and western half of the metropolis. I then zoom in to examine several recent commercial housing developments. These developments, supported by publicly-subsidized mortgages, contain thousands of densely-packed, small, and modestly-priced housing units. Their residents remain highly reliant on public transportation, particularly informal transit, and the neighborhoods become less homogenous over time as homeowners convert units and parking spaces to shops and offices. Finally, I use the 2007 household travel survey to model households' intertwined decisions of where to live and whether to own a car. As expected, wealthier and smaller households are more likely to purchase vehicles. However, they prefer to live in more central areas where households with cars tend to drive shorter distances. If housing policy and production cannot adapt to provide more centrally-located housing, growing incomes will tend to increase car ownership but concentrate more of it in areas where car-owning households drive much farther. Third, how has the Metro's Line B, one of the first and only suburban high-capacity transit investments, influenced local and regional travel behavior and land use? To explore this question, I compare travel behavior and land use measures at six geographic scales, including the investment's immediate catchment area, across two time periods: six years before and seven years after the investment opened. Line B, which opened in stages in 1999 and 2000, significantly expanded Metro coverage into the densely populated and fast-growing suburban municipality of Ecatepec. While the investment sparked a significant increase in local Metro use, most of this increase came from people relying on informal transit, rather than cars. While this shift reduced transit fares and increased transit speeds for local residents, it also increased government subsidies for the Metro and had no apparent effect on road speeds. Furthermore, the Metro remains highly dependent on informal transit to provide feeder service even within Ecatepec. In terms of land use, the investment increased density around the stations but appears to have had little to no effect on downtown commercial development, where it might have been expected to have a significant influence. In short, the effects of Line B demonstrate much of the promise and problem with expanding high capacity transit service into the suburbs. Ridership is likely to be high, but so too will be the costs and subsidies, while the effects on car ownership and urban form are likely to be modest. Individually, each chapter contributes to a specific body of transportation and planning literature drawn from the US as well as developing countries. Collectively, they point to connection between land use and transportation in Mexico City that is different from the 3 connection in US and other rich-world cities. In particular, there is a physical disconnect between the generally suburban homes of transit users and the generally central location of high-capacity public transit. Addressing this disconnect by shifting housing production from the periphery to the center or by expanding high-capacity transit to the periphery would require significant amounts of time and public subsidy. Thus, contemporary policies to reduce car use or increase accessibility for the poor in the short and medium term would do well to focus on improving the flexible, medium-capacity informal transit around which the city's dense and transit-dependent suburbs have grown and continue to grow.

Mexico City is a suburban metropolis, yet most of its suburbs would be unfamiliar to urbanists accustomed to thinking about US metropolitan regions. Mexico City's suburbs are densely populated—not thinly settled—and its residents rely primarily on informal transit rather than privately-owned automobiles for their daily transportation. These types of dense and transitdependent suburbs have emerged as the fastest-growing form of human settlement in cities throughout Latin America, Asia, and Africa. Wealthier and at a later stage in its economic development than other developing-world metropolises, Mexico City is a compelling place to investigate the effects of rising incomes, increased car ownership, and transit investments in the dense, peripheral areas that have grown rapidly around informal transit in the past decades, and is a bellwether for cities like Dakar, Cairo, Lima, and Jakarta. I begin this dissertation with a historical overview of the demographic, economic, and political trends that have helped shape existing urban form, transportation infrastructure, and travel behavior in Mexico City. Despite an uptick in car ownership and use, most households—both urban and suburban—continue to rely on public transportation. Furthermore, suburban Mexico City has lower rates of car ownership and use than its central areas. In subsequent chapters, I frame, pose, and investigate three interrelated questions about Mexico City's evolving suburban landscape, the nature of households' travel decisions, and the relationship between the built environment and travel behavior. Together, these inquiries tell a story that differs significantly from narratives about US suburbs, and provide insight into the future transportation needs and likely effects of land and transportation policy in these communities and others like them in Mexico and throughout the developing world. First, how has the influence of the built environment on travel behavior changed as more households have moved into the suburbs and aggregate car use has increased? Using two large metropolitan household travel surveys from 1994 and 2007, I model two related-but-distinct household travel decisions: whether to drive on an average weekday, and if so, how far to drive. After controlling for income and other household attributes, I find that the influence of population and job density on whether a household undertakes any daily car trips is strong and has increased marginally over time. By contrast, high job and population densities have a much smaller influence on the total distance of weekday car travel that a household generates. For the subset of households whose members drive on a given weekday, job and population densities have no statistical effect at all. Contrary to expectations, a household's distance from the urban center is strongly correlated with a lower probability of driving, even after controlling for income. This effect, however, appears to be diminishing over time, and when members of a household drive, they drive significantly more if they live farther from the urban center. The combination of informal transit, public buses, and the Metro has provided sufficient transit service to constrain car use in the densely populated suburban environments of Mexico City. Once suburban residents drive, however, they tend to drive a lot regardless of transit or the features of the built environment. Second, how much are the recent trends of increased suburbanization, rising carownership, and the proliferation of massive commercially-built peripheral housing developments interrelated? To investigate this question, I first disentangle urban growth and car ownership trends by geographic area. The fastest-growing areas tend to be poorer and have had a much smaller impact on the size of the metropolitan car fleet than wealthier, more established neighborhoods in the center and western half of the metropolis. I then zoom in to examine several recent commercial housing developments. These developments, supported by publiclysubsidized mortgages, contain thousands of densely-packed, small, and modestly-priced housing units. Their residents remain highly reliant on public transportation, particularly informal transit, and the neighborhoods become less homogenous over time as homeowners convert units and parking spaces to shops and offices. Finally, I use the 2007 household travel survey to model households' intertwined decisions of where to live and whether to own a car. As expected, wealthier and smaller households are more likely to purchase vehicles. However, they prefer to live in more central areas where households with cars tend to drive shorter distances. If housing policy and production cannot adapt to provide more centrally-located housing, growing incomes will tend to increase car ownership but concentrate more of it in areas where car-owning households drive much farther. Third, how has the Metro's Line B, one of the first and only suburban high-capacity transit investments, influenced local and regional travel behavior and land use? To explore this question, I compare travel behavior and land use measures at six geographic scales, including the investment's immediate catchment area, across two time periods: six years before and seven years after the investment opened. Line B, which opened in stages in 1999 and 2000, significantly expanded Metro coverage into the densely populated and fast-growing suburban municipality of Ecatepec. While the investment sparked a significant increase in local Metro use, most of this increase came from people relying on informal transit, rather than cars. While this shift reduced transit fares and increased transit speeds for local residents, it also increased government subsidies for the Metro and had no apparent effect on road speeds. Furthermore, the Metro remains highly dependent on informal transit to provide feeder service even within Ecatepec. In terms of land use, the investment increased density around the stations but appears to have had little to no effect on downtown commercial development, where it might have been expected to have a significant influence. In short, the effects of Line B demonstrate much of the promise and problem with expanding high capacity transit service into the suburbs. Ridership is likely to be high, but so too will be the costs and subsidies, while the effects on car ownership and urban form are likely to be modest. Individually, each chapter contributes to a specific body of transportation and planning literature drawn from the US as well as developing countries. Collectively, they point to connection between land use and transportation in Mexico City that is different from the connection in US and other rich-world cities. In particular, there is a physical disconnect between the generally suburban homes of transit users and the generally central location of high-capacity public transit. Addressing this disconnect by shifting housing production from the periphery to the center or by expanding high-capacity transit to the periphery would require significant amounts of time and public subsidy. Thus, contemporary policies to reduce car use or increase accessibility for the poor in the short and medium term would do well to focus on improving the flexible, medium-capacity informal transit around which the city's dense and transit-dependent suburbs have grown and continue to grow.

One of the key issues of urban management is the process of drafting and approval of planning. Very particularly with regard to the definition of what in this thesis, we call urban model, i.e., trinity formed first by the use of soil, second by the build ability and finally the building typologies. In this thesis, we try to see what factors influence the determination of the urban model enshrined in planning legislation. It starts from the assumption that, besides the classical factors belonging to the urban economy (e.g. accessibility), sociology (e.g. social hierarchy of space), externalities (e.g. environmental quality) and demographics (e.g. housing needs) there are others who may be as important as the ones above. The nature all these new factors would be affiliated with the political will of those involved in drafting I planning approval, the private and the public interests. Ultimately, these conditions could be called agents (e.g. government and stakeholders) and processes (e.g. processes of social demands). Therefore the main objective of this thesis is lo study the weigh that these factors in shaping the urban model. The Thesis has two parts: a Theoretical one, which develops the theory of the urban model, its regulation, its process design, its shaping into a plan that has been approved and the determinants of land use, density and typologies. In the second part, using a logit regression model is studied to what extent the classic factors are able to predict the way in how, in the Metropolitan Region of Barcelona, has configured the model embodied in 168 urban areas of planning legislation. Therefore it the classic factors of land use allocation I density I typology would be able to explain most of the variance of the sample, and then our hypothesis should be rejected. II on the contrary, the unexplained portion was relevant, and then it would mean that the determinants (agents and processes) may have a role in this allocation process. The findings of the quantitative section suggest that the classical factors can explain only 51.2% of cases; lo see it the unexplained portion (Le. the model error) was due to problems in the source lack of information; or it they really could be due to other factors, was performed a detailed analysis of each case. Following this review, it became clear the need to study in detail and with the support of qualitative techniques, two cases in Barcelona where the model was clearly wrong. The analysis performed on the file for approval of plans, a field study and interviews with stakeholders, revealed the enormous complexity inherent to the agents and processes evidenced in the management of the drafting and approval thereof, whose influence over redirecting, i.e. reconfiguring the urban model that would result simply by considering the classic factors of land use allocation I build abilities I typologies. One of the main contributions of this thesis was therefore to highlight the important role of the planning legislation, which being closer to reality, to the agents and the processes of the territory, allows building a city hypothesis inductively, Le. while it drafts I approves I managed; quite the opposite of what happens with the general planning whose hypotheses are propositions to be compared on the occasion of its development, and often contradicted by its frequent modification. ; Una de les qüestions clau de l' urbanisme és la gestió del procés de redacció i aprovació del planejament. Molt particularment pel que fa a la definició del que en aquesta tesi s'anomena model urbà, és a dir, la trinitat formada, en primer lloc per l'ús del sòl, en segon lloc per l'edificabilitat i finalment per les tipologies edificatòries. En aquesta tesi s'intenta veure quins factors tenen influència en la determinació del model urbà consagrat en el planejament derivat. Es parteix de la hipòtesi que, a més dels factors clàssics afiliats a l'economia urbana (p.e. accessibilitat), la sociologia (p.e. jerarquització social de l'espai), les externalitats (p.e. la qualitat ambiental) i la demografia (p.e. necessitats objectives d'habitatge) hi ha altres que poden ser igualment importants com els anteriors. La naturalesa d'aquests nous factors estaria afiliada a les voluntats polítiques dels que tenen ingerència en la redacció/ aprovació del planejament, als interessos particulars i de la ciutadania. En definitiva aquests condicionants podrien ser anomenats agents (p.e. administració i administrats) i processos (p.e. processos de reivindicació social). Així doncs, l'objectiu fonamental d'aquesta tesi és estudiar el pes que tenen aquests condicionants en la configuració del model urbà. La tesi es divideix en dues parts: una teòrica, en la qual es desenvolupa la teorització del model urbà, la seva regulació, el procés de concepció, la seva plasmació en un pla que ha de ser aprovat, així com les condicionants de l'ús del sòl, la densitat i les tipologies. Una segona, en la qual, mitjançant un model de regressió lògic s'estudia fins a quin punt els factors clàssics són capaços de predir la forma en com, a la Regió Metropolitana de Barcelona, s'ha configurat el model urbà plasmat en 168 sectors de planejament derivat. De manera que, si els factors clàssics d'assignació d'usos / densitats / tipologia fossin capaços d'explicar la major part de la variància de la mostra, la nostra hipòtesi hauria de ser rebutjada, si pel contrari, la part no explicada resultés rellevant, voldria dir que els condicionants (agents i processos) podrien tenir un paper en el procés d'aquesta assignació. Les conclusions de l'apartat quantitatiu apunten a que els factors clàssics només són capaços d'explicar el 51,2% deis casos; per conèixer si la part no explicada (i.e. l'error del model) es devia a problemes en les fonts / manca d'informació o si de veritat podrien ser conseqüència d'altres factors, es va realitzar una anàlisi detallada de cada cas. Després d'aquesta revisió es va fer evident la necessitat d'estudiar amb detall, i amb el concurs de les tècniques qualitatives, dos casos a Barcelona on clarament el model es mostrava errat. L'anàlisi realitzada sobre l'expedient d'aprovació dels plans, un estudi de camp i la realització d'entrevistes en profunditat amb els agents implicats, va revelar l'enorme complexitat inherent als agents i els processos, evidenciada en la gestió de la redacció i aprovació dels mateixos, la seva influència va acabar reconduint, és a dir, reconfigurant el model urbà que hagués resultat simplement de considerar els factors clàssics d'assignació d'usos / edificabilitats / tipologies. Una de les principals aportacions de la tesi ha estat, per tant, posar en relleu l'important paper que té el planejament derivat, ja que en estar més proper a la realitat, als agents i als processos del territori, permet construir la hipòtesi de ciutat d'una forma inductiva, és a dir, alhora que es redacta / s'aprova / i es gestiona, molt al contrari del que passa amb el planejament general, on les seves hipòtesis són proposicions a ser comparades en ocasió del seu desenvolupament, i moltes vegades refutades mitjançant la seva freqüent modificació. ; Postprint (published version)

Kuivõrd majandustegevus vajab maapõueressursse (mineraalseid ja settelisi maavarasid, põhjavett), tuleb samaaegselt tegeleda ka kaevandatud alade korrastamisega ja aladele uue, keskkonnasõbraliku ning kohalike ja mujalt tulijate huvisid arvestava funktsiooni andmisega. Ükski endast lugupidav riik ei saa eksisteerida ilma maavaradeta. Need on looduse kingitus rahvale, kuid ainult juhul, kui saadav kasum jääb rahva teenistusse. Loodusvarade kasutus, sealhulgas ehitusmaavarade kaevandamine ja kasutamine on kahjuks möödapääsmatu reaalsus, sest vastasel korral pidurdub ehitus- ja arendustegevus. Kahanevate ja kallinevate loodusressursside tingimustes on ühiskond seda edukam, mida efektiivsem ta loodusvarasid kasutades on. Kaevandustega on rikutud palju unikaalset ja kaunist loodust ning ammendatud karjäärid näevad välja ebaesteetilised, sh karjäärid, mis on pärast kaevandamist jäänud rekultiveerimata ning kuhu inimesed on hakanud jäätmeid ladestama, muutes need reostuskolleteks. Meie kiiresti arenevas ühiskonnas on kaevandustegevuse seadusandlik regulatsioon jäänud ajast maha, mida kasutavad oskuslikult ära hõlptulu jahtivad ettevõtjad. Vananenud regulatsioon annab palju eeliseid kaevandajale, arvestamata sealjuures ühiskonnale tekitatavaid visuaalseid ja sotsiaalseid mõjutusi ning mõtlemata tulevastele põlvkondadele. Karjääre avatakse teadmata kaevandava materjali paigutusvõimalusi ning aktiivse tarbevaru mitterealiseerimisel taotletakse loa pikendamist, millega pikeneb ka korrastamisprotsess. Selliseid poolikult kaevandatud karjääre on Eesti maastikupildis mitmeid kümneid. Rikutud maastik ei ole see mida peaksime edasi pärandama oma järglastele. Nimetatust johtuvalt on vajalik kehtiv regulatsioon tervikuna üle vaadata, vajadusel töötada välja uusi või täiendada olemasolevaid üldpõhimõtteid ja reguleerimisalasid. Magistritöö eesmärgiks oli anda lugejale ülevaade liivakarjääride kaevandamisega tekkivatest maastikumuutustest, karjääride korrastamise praktikast ja korrastamise välistustest ning kaevandamist ja korrastamist reguleeriva seadusandluse puudustest Eestis. Töö teoreetilises osas anti lugejale ülevaate Eesti geoloogilisest ehitusest, liiva levikust ja koostisest, Eestis asuvatest liivamaardlatest ning nende varudest. Käsitleti maapõuevara aruka kasutamise vajalikkust ja kaevandatud alade korrastamist reguleerivat seadusandlust ning selle poliitilist käsitlust, anti ülevaate maastikukujundamise funktsioonidest ning võimalustest karjäärides. Välisriikide näidete taustal lisati maastikukujundamise ja korrastamise praktilisi näiteid, mida Eestis oleks võimalik rakendada maastikupildi arendamiseks. Töö tulemusena valmisid ettepanekud karjääride korrastamise kindlustamiseks ning nende rakendamiseks juba karjääri avamise planeerimisstaadiumis. Välja pakutud rakenduspõhimõtted tulenesid eesmärgist tagada kaevanduspiirkonna esialgse maastikupildi säilimine kaevandamise ja kaevandamisjärgse korrastamise lõppedes ning karjääri sihtotstarbe õige- ja kaalutletud korrastamissuuniste andmisel kaeveloa väljastamisel. Töö praktilises osas esitati analüüs karjääride korrastamise teostamisest tegelikkuses ning milliste põhjuste ajel karjääride korrastamist välditakse ja milliseid meetmeid tuleks rakendada kaevanduste seadusjärgse korrastamise tõhustamiseks. Kuue korrastusprojekti taustal tehti korrastusprojektide koostamise tasemeanalüüs. Liiva- ja kruusakarjääride korrastamine valiti magistritöö teemaks, kuna Eestis on teiste kaevandavate maavarade – põlevikivi, paekivi ja turba kaevandamine olnud üldjuhul suure avalikkuse tähelepanu all nii enne kaevanduse avamist, kui ka selle lõpus, korrastamise perioodil. Magistritöö autori seisukohalt on põhjendatud tuua lugejateni liivakarjääride kaevandamise- ja korrastamisega seonduvad probleemid. Autor tänab kõiki abistajaid ja kaasamõtlejaid. Eriline tänu kuulub Keskkonnaameti maavarade spetsialistidele Aleksandr Podgornov, Marju Kuldma, Kaija Pärtli, Jelena Ello, Aulis Saarniits ja Meelis Albert-ile. Samuti tänan Tehnilise Järelevalve Ameti töötajaid nõuannete ja informatsiooni jagamise eest. Tänan juhendajat Kaie Metsaotsa kaasamõtlemise ja abi eest. ; Economic affairs call for mineral and sedimentary resources, and ground water. Mining brings together changes in environment, landscape and bowels of the earth. Decrease in values of landscapes and tenure of surroundings, destroyed beautiful landscape views and natural environment, unpleasant objects and waste, decrease in district's real estate values among them, accompany when mining is executed. All of that evokes public confrontation. A great deal of unique and beautiful nature is ruined in the course of mining, and exhausted quarries appear inaesthetic. Also the quarries which have ended their operation around ten years ago and have been abandoned without recultivation increase the confrontation, especially due to some people and companies have brought their trash and waste to there, changing the quarries into sources of pollution. However such pollution sources have mostly been liquidated by means of EU subsidy programs for now. But the mined landscapes may even be more valuable than they were before mining. It is proven that by skillful approach the forest, water bodies and arable land may appear even more valuable than the one there was before mining. All, the sports and leisure time areas, and new natural environments created to the mined territories are the basis to develop tolerable and more environment-friendly mining. Usage of resources, mining included, is unfortunately inescapable reality – otherwise the building and development activities would be impeded. Till the recent times the planning of usage of resources could be called technology centered, but today there is natural environment in the center: the landform, water, plant cover, flora and fauna. In addition, finding new functions for the mined areas to creat possibilities for sports and leisure, is an important issue. But great problems exist in the level of property, state and local government. We can see that in planning of usage of mineral resources, ground water, land and forest there is no methodology, criteria, tools, and skills to satisfy all the parties. Lots of work has been done in former times to find out the placements and quantities of mineral resources, best possible technologies, constraints for mining, needs for infrastructure and economy, but still there are no solutions satisfactory for all the parties. Legislative regulation has become fossilized, the fail spot which is been skillfully exploited by the enterprisers looking for fast buck. The archaic legislation gives many advantages to the miner, not considering visual and social impacts to the community and to the future generations. Quarries are opened without knowing the possibilities for placing the mined material, and when reserves are not realized, the extension of mining permission is requested which brings together the extension of reclamation of the mining areas. There exist quite a little of such half-way mined quarries in Estonia. Spoilt landscape is not what we should inherit to our offspring. The reader will get the overview of distribution and composition of sands, sand deposits, and their reserves in Estonia. The need for clever usage of mineral resources, legislation regulating the reclamation of mined areas and its political approach are discussed. Overview is given about landscape design functions and possibilities in quarries. Three examples of sand and gravel quarries are chosen to demonstrate the reality of reclamation and to find out the reasons of avoidance of the reclamation and which measures should be exploited to intensificate legal reclamation of the quarries. Field works are fullfilled to compare the paper based data with real situation. Six reclamation projects are compared and analized for investigate the level of compilation of the projects. The aim of the master work is to give to the reader an overview of landscape changes brought together by sand miniing, discuss the experiences on reclamation, the avoidance of reclamation, and shortages of legislation of mining and reclamation. The sand and gravel quarries were chosen because the mining of the other Estonian mineral resources (oil shale, limestone, peat) has mostly received great public attention. So it is important to discuss the problems concerning the reclamation of sand and gravel quarries. Following tasks are set up to fullfill the aim: – to give the overview of Estonian sand quarries, – to present the shortages of legislation regulating the mining and reclamation, – to analize the execution of reclamation projects, – to give recommendations for landscape design after mining, to present recommendations for more efficient implementation of reclamation obligation following legal basis.

This thesis analyzes the complex relations between climate change, vulnerability, adaptation and violent conflict in northern Africa and Kenya. To grasp this complexity, the thesis combines seven studies, applying a multitude of research methods at different geographic scales and across disciplinary and cultural boundaries. The first study reviews the existing literature on climate change and conflict to identify core research challenges and questions. This research field is still in its early stage. Some studies have found a correlation between climatic conditions and conflict while others have not. The major research challenge is to collect and utilize spatiotemporal data which is able to capture local, non state conflict dynamics, and to integrate this data into the overall complexity of the research matter. To address this challenge, the thesis uses agent-centered approaches to combine the analysis of local conflict and climate data with qualitative field research. The theories, concepts and models needed to understand climate-security interactions are introduced in the second study. Here, a conceptual framework is developed for an agent-based model which is then used to discuss potential conflict constellations between the states of the Nile river basin. The third study analyzes climatic changes, vulnerability, adaptation and conflict in North Africa with a focus on Morocco. The results show that North Africa is highly vulnerable to climate change but the reasons for the vulnerability differ from state to state. Water scarcity, dependence on rain fed agriculture, population growth and corruption are challenges for adaptation to an increasingly drier climate. In Morocco, the applied climate simulation and the bio-economic model show that a shift in agricultural production from maximization to stabilization of output is recommendable. The analysis of socioeconomic, climate and conflict data shows further that Algeria, Egypt and Morocco are the countries most prone to climate change related social instabilities. The next study focuses specifically on social instabilities in northern Africa. The discussion of conflicts between farmers and herders in Mali shows that climate change contributes to these conflicts, although to a limited extent. Based on this finding and the models introduced earlier, the study develops a conceptual framework which can be used to explore other farmer-herder conflicts. The last three studies focus on climate change and violent inter pastoral conflicts in Kenya. Over a period of five months the author has lived in arid northwestern Kenya with the two pastoral groups, Turkana and Pokot, to analyze their violent conflicts over water, land and livestock. A variety of qualitative research methods including interviews with community members (e.g. pastoralists, elders, women, youth) and experts, focus group discussions and participating observations was applied. The conflicts are closely related to violent livestock thefts, termed "raiding". The identified motives for the raiding range from drought and poverty to payment of dowry and the expansion of territory. Other factors contributing to conflict include political and socioeconomical marginalization, commercialization of raiding and the availability of automatic small arms. Based on the analysis of climate data and a unique record of raiding incidences, a hypothesis is developed which could explain the relation between raiding during drought and during rainy periods. Climate projections suggest a warmer, overall wetter but less predictable and reliable climate for Kenya. This is likely to increase difficulties for pastoralists to utilize pasture and water resources. Additionally, the pastoral livelihoods are under pressure from the effects of the armed conflicts. The effects are discussed in detail together with the question of what can be done to mitigate violence and to promote conflict sensitive adaptation to climate change. Several overarching conclusions can be drawn from this thesis. The complex relations between climate change and conflict can only be understood if questions of vulnerability and adaptation are answered first. The complexity of the research matter calls for an interdisciplinary multimethod approach. The international community needs to increase its efforts to limit greenhouse gas emissions to minimize the potential of climate change to act as a multiplier of security risks. Further, the international community should increase its support for conflict sensitive climate change adaptation in developing countries. In countries where pastoralism is practiced it is important for the national governments to acknowledge pastoralism as a productive livelihood which is well-adopted to the harsh climatic conditions of arid and semi arid lands. This implies to respect traditional institutions, to integrate them into national policies, and to ensure safe and free pastoral mobility. ; Diese Doktorarbeit untersucht die komplexen Zusammenhänge zwischen Klimawandel, Verwundbarkeit (Vulnerabilität), Anpassung (Adaption) und gewalttätigen Konflikten im nördlichen Afrika und Kenia. Um der Gesamtkomplexität gerecht zu werden, verbindet die Untersuchung sieben Studien, in denen eine Vielzahl von Methoden auf verschiedenen geographischen Ebenen und über disziplinäre und kulturelle Grenzen hinweg zum Einsatz kommt. Die erste Studie gibt einen Überblick über die Klimawandel- und Konfliktliteratur um daraufhin zentrale Herausforderungen und Forschungsfragen zu identifizieren. Die Forschung befindet sich noch in einem frühen Stadium. Einige Studien haben einen Zusammenhang zwischen klimatischen Bedingungen und Konflikten gefunden während andere Studien dies nicht konnten. Die wesentliche Herausforderung der Forschung besteht darin, Datenquellen zu erschließen, die in der Lage sind lokale, nichtstaatliche Konfliktdynamiken raumzeitlich zu erfassen und diese in die Gesamtkomplexität der Thematik einzubetten. Dies wird in der vorliegenden Doktorarbeit versucht indem die Analyse von substaatlichen Konflikt- und Klimadaten unter Verwendung von akteurszentrierten Ansätzen mit qualitativer Feldforschung verbunden wird. Hierzu werden in der zweiten Studie zunächst die Theorien, Konzepte und Modelle eingeführt, die nötig sind um Beziehungen zwischen Klima und Sicherheit zu verstehen. Ein konzeptioneller Rahmen wird entwickelt als Grundlage für ein agentenbasiertes Modell, mit dessen Hilfe dann potentielle Konfliktkonstellation zwischen Anrainerstaaten des Nilbeckens diskutiert werden. Die dritte Studie untersucht klimatische Veränderungen, Vulnerabilität, Adaption und Konflikte in Nordafrika mit Fokus auf Marokko. Es zeigt sich, dass Nordafrika dem Klimawandel gegenüber sehr verwundbar ist. Wasserknappheit, Abhängigkeit von niederschlagsbasierter Landwirtschaft, Bevölkerungswachstum und Korruption stellen generelle Herausforderungen für die Anpassung an ein trockener werdendes Klima dar. In Marokko zeigen Klimasimulationen und ein bio-ökonomisches Modell, dass es empfehlenswert ist, die Primärproduktion der Landwirtschaft von Ertragsmaximierung hin zu Ertragsstabilisierung neu auszurichten. Die darauffolgende Studie zeigt, dass der Klimawandel in Konflikten zwischen Bauern und nomadischen Viehhaltern (Pastoralisten) in Mali eine begrenzt konfliktverstärkende Rolle spielt. Aufbauend auf dieser Feststellung und den zuvor eingeführten Modellen entwickelt die Studie einen Konzeptrahmen. Die letzten drei Studien beschäftigen sich mit Klimawandel und Konflikten zwischen Pastoralisten in Kenia. Über einen Zeitraum von fünf Monaten hat der Autor im ariden Nordwesten Kenias mit zwei Gruppen von Pastoralisten, den Turkana und den Pokot gelebt, um die gewalttätigen Konflikte der Gruppen um Wasser, Land und Vieh zu untersuchen. Die Konflikte stehen in engem Zusammenhang mit gewalttätigen Viehdiebstählen, dem so genannten "raiding". Die Motive des raidings reichen von Dürre und Armut über Zahlung von Brautsteuer bis hin zu territorialer Erweiterung. Weitere Konfliktfaktoren sind politische und sozioökonomische Marginalisierung, Kommerzialisierung des raidings und die weite Verfügbarkeit von automatischen Handfeuerwaffen. Gestützt auf Klima- und Konfliktdaten wird eine Hypothese entwickelt, die den Zusammenhang zwischen raiding während Trockenphasen und während Regenzeiten erklären könnte. Klimaprojektionen deuten auf ein wärmeres, insgesamt regenreicheres aber weniger zuverlässiges und vorhersehbares Klima in Kenia hin. Dies wird es Pastoralisten wahrscheinlich erschweren Wasser- und Weideressourcen zu nutzen. Zudem gerät die Lebensgrundlage der Pastoralisten durch die Auswirkungen der bewaffneten Konflikte unter Druck. Die Konfliktauswirkungen werden genauer diskutiert, zusammen mit der Frage was getan werden kann, um die Gewalt zu verringern und eine konfliktsensitive Klimaanpassung zu fördern. Einige Punkte von genereller Bedeutung gehen aus der Doktorarbeit hervor. Die komplexen Zusammenhänge zwischen Klimawandel und Konflikt können nur verstanden werden, wenn zuvor Fragen der Vulnerabilität und Adaption beantwortet werden. Die internationale Gemeinschaft muss ihre Bemühungen verstärken, den Ausstoß von Treibhausgasen zu begrenzen, um das Potential des Klimawandels zu reduzieren als Multiplikator von Sicherheitsrisiken zu wirken. Weiter sollte die internationale Gemeinschaft konfliktsensitive Klimaanpassung in Entwicklungsländern unterstützen. In Ländern, in denen Wanderviehwirtschaft betrieben wird, ist es für die nationalen Regierungen wichtig, Pastoralismus als produktive Lebensgrundlage anzuerkennen. Dies bedeutet vor allem traditionelle und lokale Institutionen zu respektieren, sie in nationale Politiken zu integrieren und den Pastoralisten und ihren Viehherden sichere Bewegungsfreiheit zu ermöglichen.

Diese Studie untersucht die Textentwicklung bei indigenen Kindern in der Primarschule der kleinbäuerlichen Lenca-Gemeinden in Honduras. Zahlreiche Kinder in Honduras scheitern beim Lesen- und Schreibenlernen: 1996 fielen 26% der Schüler der ersten und 17% der zweiten Klassen in Spanisch durch. Einer der Gründe ist die unzureichende Ausbildung der Primarschullehrer. Ein grundlegendes didaktisches Problem ist die Trennung zwischen der Aneignung der kulturellen Technik des Schreibens und die Vermittlung der Schriftnorm einerseits und der Bildung einer autonomen Schrift andererseits. FRAGESTELLUNGEN 1. Inwieweit haben die Lenca-Gemeinden eine elementare Literalität entwickelt, die es ihnen erlaubt an einer Schrifttradition teilzuhaben, so dass die in der Schule erlernten Lese- und Schreibkenntnisse genutzt und damit erhalten bleiben? 2. Wie entwickelt sich der geschriebene Text bei Kindern einer Kultur, die nur eine elementare Literalität entwickelt hat? METHODIK Für die Bearbeitung der ersten Frage wurde die teilnehmende Beobachtung bei literalen Ereignissen, z.B. Versammlungen, benutzt. Es wurden 19 semi-strukturierte Interviews mit repräsentativen Mitgliedern dieser Gemeinde geführt; außerdem wurde eine Auswahl aus den 163 geschriebenen und 43 gelesenen Texten in der Gemeinde gesammelt, die die Existenz einer elementaren Literalität in dieser Gemeinde belegen. Zur Beantwortung der zweiten und zentralen Frage wurde eine Quasi-Longitudinalstudie anhand von vier Fallstudien durchgeführt. Die 15 analysierten narrativen Texte, die im Rahmen eines GTZ-Bildungsprojektes im Spanischunterricht entstanden, wurden regelmäßig über zwei Jahre hinweg jeweils im Abstand von etwa sechs Monaten gesammelt. Zudem wurden offene Einzelinterviews über Kohärenz und Orthographie der Texte und das Konzept der Schrift durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse der Fallstudien aus der urbanen Lenca-Gemeinde wurden mit 216 Schülertexten einer durchschnittlichen städtischen Schule in der Hauptstadt des Landes verglichen. ERGEBNISSE Zu Frage 1: Die Gemeinde gehört zwar zu einer vorwiegend oralen Kultur, aber sie hat in Interaktion mit politischen Bewegungen, der katholischen Kirche, Regierungsstellen, nationalen und internationalen Organisationen und NGOs ein gewisses literales Bewusstsein und eine elementare Literalität entwickelt. Die Mitglieder der Lenca-Gemeinde kennen verschiedene Textsorten und deren Funktion, d. h. sie unterscheiden, wann und welche Textsorte, z. B. ein Protokoll, geschrieben wird. Sie nutzen sie bei den literalen Praktiken und Ereignissen im Rahmen von organisatorischen, religiösen sowie Aus- und Fortbildungsveranstaltungen der Gemeinde. Auch Lenca, die nicht schreiben können, verfügen über eine Vorstellung von Schrift. Das belegt das Vorhandensein einer elementaren, spezifischen Literalität, die eine soziale und pragmatische Funktion erfüllt, insbesondere um die organisatorischen Ziele der Gemeinde zu erreichen. Zu Frage 2: Der entscheidende Zeitpunkt bei der Textentwicklung der Kinder der Fallstudien ist das dritte Schuljahr. Neben der Konsolidierung der narrativen Struktur entwickeln sich zu diesem Zeitpunkt verstärkt die für textliche Homogenität und Expansion des Textes wichtigen Elemente: die Einführung und Aufrechterhaltung der Referenz, die Einführung neuer Personen und/oder Eigenschaften und ihre Verbindung mit den bereits vorhandenen sowie die Explikation der für das Textverständnis nötigen Informationen. Insgesamt ähnelt die Textentwicklung der untersuchten Fälle hinsichtlich Kohärenz und textlicher Homogenität derjenigen in der städtischen Vergleichsschule. Auf der Syntaxebene treten drei Typen von untergeordneten Konstruktionen in den analysierten Texten auf: 1. Nebensätze mit que (dass) und si (ob) und Adverbialsätze (46%); 2. Infinitiv-konstruktionen oder untergeordneten Finalsätze (30%) und 3. Relativsätze (24,1%). In den Texten der Lenca-Kinder finden sich jedoch häufig linguistische Varietäten, z. B. Ersetzungen des la (sie) durch lo (ihn) beim direkten Objekt. DISKUSSION Die Analyse der Fallstudien zeigt, dass Desymptomatisierung und Kontextualisierung ein langer und nicht linearer Prozess ist. Er hängt eng mit der Komplexität des zu kommunizierenden Themas und mit den Charakteristiken des Schriftmediums zusammen. Die elementare Literalität der Lenca-Gemeinde ist eine der Grundbedingungen für die Nachhaltigkeit der in der Schule entwickelten Literalität. Dadurch können die Kinder eine Vorstellung von Schrift und ihrer Funktion entwickeln, die sie motiviert, die Schule zu besuchen. Wünschenswert wäre die Entwicklung einer Didaktik des Lehrens und Lernens einer authentischen Schrift, d.h. aus einer kulturellen Perspektive, die die Interaktion mit literarischen Texten (mündlich/schriftlich) sowie die vorhandenen literalen Praktiken der Gemeinde integriert, und eine entsprechende Aus- und Weiterbildung der Lehrenden. ; This study analyzes textual development of indigenous primary school students in Lenca communities of small farmers in Honduras. Many children in Honduras fail at learning how to read and write: in 1996 26% of the students in first grade and 17% of the students in second grade failed Spanish. One of the reasons contributing to this is primary school teachers not being sufficiently trained and educated. A fundamental didactic problem is the separation of learning how to write as a cultural technique from teaching the writing standard on the one hand and developing autonomous writing on the other. QUESTIONS 1. To what extent have the Lenca communities developed basic literality that would enable them to participate in a writing tradition so that the knowledge of reading and writing acquired in school may be used and consequently maintained? 2. How does written text develop in children of a culture that has only developed basic literality? METHODOLOGY To analyze the first question participatory observation of literal events was used, for example of meetings. 19 semi-structured interviews with representative members of this community were conducted. In addition, a selection from the 163 written and 43 read texts collected in the community was made that prove the existence of basic literality in this community. To answer the second and central question a quasi-longitudinal study using four case studies was conducted. The 15 narrative texts analyzed were created in Spanish classes during a GTZ (German Technical Cooperation) educational project and were collected during two years at regular intervals of about six months. In addition, individual interviews on the coherence and orthography of the texts and on the concept of writing were conducted. The results of the case studies from urban Lenca communities were compared to 216 student texts from an average urban school in the country's capital. RESULTS With regard to question 1: The community may belong to a predominantly oral culture, but by interacting with political movements, the Catholic Church, government institutions, national and international organizations and NGOs has developed certain literal awareness and basic literality. The members of the Lenca community know different types of text and their functions, i.e. they differentiate which type of text is written and when, e.g. a protocol. They use them in literal practices and events during organizational, religious, and educational and training events in the community. Also those Lenca unable to write have an idea of writing. This is confirmed by the existence of a basic, specific literality fulfilling a social and pragmatic function, in particular to achieve the organizational objectives of the community. With regard to question 2: The critical point in the textual development of the children in the case studies is third grade. Not only do they consolidate the narrative structure, but at this time, they also increasingly develop the elements important to textual homogeneity and text expansion: the ability to introduce and maintain the reference, to introduce new characters and/or characteristics and to connect them with existing ones as well as to explain the information necessary for understanding the text. With regard to coherence and textual homogeneity, the textual development in the analyzed cases in general is similar to those in the urban reference school. At syntax level, the analyzed texts feature three types of subordinate structures: 1. subordinate clauses with "que" (that) and "si" (if/whether) and adverbial clauses (46%), 2. infinitive constructions or subordinate final clauses (30%), and 3. relative clauses (24.1%). However, the texts by the Lenca children frequently show linguistic varieties, e.g. substituting "la" (she) by "lo" (him) in direct objects. DISCUSSION The analysis of the case studies shows that desymptomization and contextualization constitute a long and non-linear process. This process is closely connected to the complexity of the topic to be communicated and to the characteristics of the medium of writing. The basic literality of the Lenca communities is one of the prerequisites for sustaining the literality developed in school. It allows the children to develop an idea of writing and its function that motivates them to attend school. It is desirable to develop a theory and methodology of teaching and learning authentic writing, i.e. from a cultural perspective, that integrates the interaction with literary texts (oral and written) and the existing literal practices in the community as well as the corresponding education and training and continuing education of teachers.

In April 2010, a record 45.9 percent of the unemployed were counted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics as long-term unemployed—defined as durations of six months or more. Those who were unemployed for more than a year, whom I shall call the very-long-term unemployed, numbered 23 percent of all the unemployed. We know that long-term unemployment and verylong-term unemployment generate serious and long-lasting harm to millions of individuals and to the economy. The scarring effects upon the economic, mental and physical health of longterm unemployed workers and their families are well-documented (von Wachter 2010). We also know that many of the very long-term unemployed eventually leave the labor force permanently, and some of those end up on the disability rolls. Very-long-term unemployment consequently generates adverse effects upon the Treasury and upon the capacity of the economy to grow in the long-run.In the past two years the proportion of the unemployed who have been out of work six months or longer has grown to levels not seen since the Great Depression (Chart 1). In the recession phase– from the fourth quarter of 2007 to the end of the second quarter of 2009, when GDP growth resumed—the unemployment rate rose very rapidly and to a level higher than had been forecast. Given the length of the recession phase—over 18 months—it is not too surprising the number of long-term unemployed grew at about the same rate as the number of all the unemployed (Chart 2).In the recovery phase that began in April or May of 2009, what went up quickly did not come down quickly. Thus far the overall unemployment rate has remained within a narrow range —hovering during the past year first a bit below 10 percent, then rising to a bit above 10 percent, and more recently, remaining a bit below 10 percent. But in the same period the long-term unemployment rate has continued to skyrocket as rapidly as during the recession phase. By April 2010, the proportion of the unemployed with jobless durations of six months or more hadreached 45.9 percent. By comparison, in the 1957-59 recession this proportion peaked at about 10 percent; in 1982-83, it peaked at about 26 percent.The surprising and continuing growth of long-term and very-long-term unemployment well into the economic recovery and in the face of repeated extensions of emergency benefits, up to 99 weeks in some states, poses important questions for employment policy. Have these unprecedented benefit extensions themselves kept very-long-term unemployed workers from searching for and accepting job offers? Will the economic recovery eventually reduce the number of very-long-term unemployed without further interventions?According to the best credible research studies, the answer to the first question is a very clear no. In previous recessions, when extensions of time limits on UI benefits were more modest, unemployed workers receiving UI benefits on average stayed out of work only one or two more weeks. Then, as now, well under half of the unemployed were receiving any UI benefits at all. In the current environment, with more than five job searchers for every job opening, the evidence suggests that such effects are even smaller (Valletta and Kuang 2010).The adverse effects of extending benefit limits beyond 99 weeks are also likely to be small. Employers generally choose to hire new labor force entrants or unemployed workers with short unemployment spells over those with longer spells. The very-long-term-unemployed are thus the least likely to receive job offers. Moreover, the remaining financial assets of this group are especially meager (Chetty 2010). Consequently, they are the least likely group among the unemployed to refuse job offers they do receive simply because they can continue to collect unemployment insurance benefits.The very-long-term unemployed will be the last group to benefit from an economic recovery. Will the economic recovery nonetheless be strong enough to eventually help the very long-term unemployed? The Council of Economic Advisors, the Congressional Budget Officeand many economists of all political stripes have forecast a very slow decline in the unemployment rate and argued that the continuing high level of unemployment is best combated by additional government-led increases in aggregate demand (Romer 2010; Zandi 2010). Programs such as relief for the states and relief for teachers facing layoffs are indeed called for, and on a large scale. Absent such policies, unemployment will decline only very slowly. Consequently, the argument for immediately renewing emergency unemployment benefits as well as extending recipient limits beyond 99 weeks in higher unemployment states is especially compelling. So, I would add, is the case for direct job creation programs, such as those proposed in Rep. George Miller's Jobs for America Act.In the remainder of this testimony, I will address why unemployment rates, short-term and long-term, have risen substantially higher than public and private forecasters predicted. I will also propose needed policy changes that would reduce the ranks of the unemployed and that would improve the workings of our labor market. Most of my proposals do not add big-ticket items to the Federal budget, so their merits can be considered independently of the question of how large the federal deficit should be at this time.Why did the overall unemployment rate increase so much more than was expected? I argue that employers' weakening attachment to their workers, a development that began in the 1980s, has heightened the labor market's response to economic downturns. Well-working labor markets must maintain a balance between flexibility and security. But the increase in labor market flexibility has undermined this balance, generating costs for employers and workers alike. Unfortunately, the UI system itself creates employer incentives that have reinforced the turn to greater flexibility. I suggest some reforms of the UI system that would reverse the incentives in the system and improve labor market behavior.My discussion of the rise of long-term unemployment begins with a usual suspect: the disappearance of many jobs that may never return, in industries such as manufacturing, construction, and the finance, insurance and real estate sector. A usual argument is that unemployed workers are locked in to these industries because they do not have the skills totransfer to industries that are or will be growing. My reading of the research literature suggests that the evidence for this argument is mixed. A more compelling explanation is based upon the long duration of the recession period and the weakness of the recovery, which keeps feeding the ranks of the very-long-term unemployed. The large numbers of workers who already have been unemployed for one year or more are going to be joined by many, many others. There are programs already in place to help workers weather difficult transitions. I suggest changes in some of the existing programs so that they can help the very-long-term unemployed more effectively.

Ekonomiskā krīze pasaulē ir skārusi arī Latviju. 2008.gada nogalē valdība bija lēmusi nodrošināties ar ārvalstu institūciju atbalstu Latvijas makroekonomikas stabilizēšanai un saņēma apsolījumu 7,5 miljardu eiro lielam aizdevumam. Aizdevumu programma ietver nosacījumus, ka jāsamazina budžets, izdevumi, nodarbināto skaits valsts pārvaldē. Izmaksu samazināšana notika mehāniski, neveicot pētījumus par samazinājuma efektivitāti un nozīmi katrā valsts varas atzarā. Taupības vārdā ar lozungu "krīze" tiek apdraudēts pārāk daudz būtisku lietu – gan cilvēka iespēja nopirkt grāmatu, gan viņa drošība un dzīve tiesiskā valstī. Sabiedrība vairs nevar paļauties uz vispār atzītiem tiesību principiem, tiek apdraudētas vienas no būtiskākajām cilvēka tiesībām – tiesības uz taisnīgu tiesu. Leģitimitātes problēmas, ko pieļāvusi izpildu vara un likumdevējs samazinot atalgojumu tiesnešiem, parāda šo varas atzaru vēlmi tieši ietekmēt tiesu neatkarības principu un vājināt tiesu, bet līdz ar to tiesību nozīmi sabiedrībā. Maģistra darbā "Tiesu varas neatkarība un tiesnešu atalgojuma koherences problēmas" ir analizēts tiesu varas neatkarības jēdziens un saturs, pārvaldes, likumdevēja un tiesu varas mijiedarbība. Analizēts pamatojums, kas bija pamatā tiesnešu un tiesu darbinieku darba samaksas sistēmas izveidei, sistēmas attīstība līdz 2008.gada 12.decembrim. 2008.gada 12.decembra izmaiņu tiesiskuma problēmas, kad faktiski tiek apturēta Tiesnešu atalgojuma sistēmas darbība. Darbā tiek pētīts ekonomiskās krīzes jēdziens un saturs, kā arī valsts pārvaldes politika, pieņemto lēmumu un normatīvo aktu leģitimitātes problēmas. Veikta tiesas spriešanas funkcijas un valsts pārvaldes funkciju salīdzināšanas problemātikas analīze, saistībā ar valsts pārvaldes vēlmi iekļaut tienešu atalgojumu vienotā atalgojuma likumā. Taisnīguma dažādās izpratnes Latvijas valsts varas atzaros. Valsts pārvaldes politikas ietekmes noskaidrošanai uz tiesu neatkarības principu un tiesneša statusu sabiedrībā, tika veikta tiesnešu anketēšana un sabiedrības aptauja un pētīta Valsts pārvaldes politikas ietekme uz tiesu neatkarību. Maģistra darba mērķis ir izpētīt un noteikt nepieciešamās normatīvās izmaiņas tiesnešu, tiesu varas neatkarības nodrošināšanai un nošķiršanai no izpildu varas un likumdevēja varas. Apstiprināt darbā izvirzīto hipotēzi, ka tiesu vara nevar tikt iekļauta normatīvajā aktā, kas regulē atalgojuma sistēmu valsts pārvaldē, tā kā valsts pārvaldes funkcijas, iekārta šo funkciju izpildei mērķis un filozofija nav salīdzināma ar tiesas spriešanas funkciju, līdz ar to tai nevar noteikt vienotus atalgojuma kritērijus. Darbā tika iekļauta visu līmeņu tiesu tiesnešu anketēšana par atalgojuma jautājumiem, šī atalgojumu sistēmas iespējamo izmaiņu ietekme uz tiesas spriešanas funkciju izpildi un tiesnešu kā sociāla aktīvas grupas dalībnieka subjektīvā attieksme. Aptauja ļāva novērtēt tiesneša amata statusa izmaiņas sabiedrībā. Darbs sastāv no 4 nodaļām. Pirmajā nodaļā tiks pētīts tiesu varas neatkarības jēdziens un saturs un valsts pārvaldes politikas jēdziens, kā arī valsts pārvaldes un tiesu sistēmas savstarpējā mijiedarbība Latvijā – atsvara – līdzsvara sistēma un iespējamās nobīdes tajā. Otrajā nodaļā pētīta tiesnešu darba samaksas koncepcija, tās evolūcija cēloņi, kas noteikuši koncepcijas izveidi un panāktie rezultāti. Izmaiņas, kas notikušas pēc 2008.gada 12.decembra Valsts pārvaldes politiskajiem lēmumiem. Trešajā nodaļā pētīts ekonomiskās krīzes jēdziens un valdības rīcības iespējamās tiesiskās sekas. Ceturtajā nodaļā veikts praktisks pētījums par vienotās atalgojuma sistēmas iespējamību un šādas sistēmas ieviešanas ietekmi uz tiesneša neatkarību, tiesneša statusu sabiedrībā. Darbā izmantotas empīriskās un teorētiskās pētniecības metožu grupas. Empīriskā metode izmantota, veicot teksta satura analīzi, anketēšanu, kas ir kvantitatīvā pētījuma metode. Teorētiskā metode, salīdzinot tiesnešu atalgojuma koncepciju, kas izstrādāta 2002.gadā un vienoto at ; The global economic crisis has also affected Latvia. At the end of 2008 the government decided to provide itself with foreign institution support for stabilisation of the Latvian macroeconomics and was promised to be granted a credit in amount of 7.5 billion Euro. The credit program provides for reduction of budget, expenses, number of employees in the State administration. Reduction of expenses was mechanical, without studies on efficiency of the reductions or their effect in each branch of the state authority. For the sake of economy and under the catchword "crisis" too many substantial things are threatened – from an ability of a person to buy a book to his/her safety and life in a judicial state. The society is no longer able to rely on established principles of law, one of the main human rights have been endangered – fair trial rights. Legitimacy problems caused by the executive power and the legislator reducing remuneration to judges shows their willingness to directly influence the court independence principle and to undermine the court, but therewith the meaning of the rights in society. In the Master's Paper "Independence of Judiciary and Problems of Judge Remuneration Coherence" the author analyses the concept and content of the independence of judiciary, reciprocity of administration, legislator and judiciary. The author also analyses the statement of reasons based on which the judge and court employees remuneration system was established, the system development up to 12 December 2008. The legal problems of the changes of 12 December 2008, when validity of the remuneration system of judges was actually stopped. The concept and contents of economic crisis are also studied in the Paper, as well as State administration policy and legitimacy problems of the passed decisions and laws and regulations. The author has analysed the judicature function and state administration function comparison problems in relation to the State administration willingness to include the judge remuneration into a single remuneration law. Various perception of justice in branches of the Latvian state power. In order to determine the State administration policy influence over the court independence and status of the judges in society, an inquiry of judges and a public opinion poll was carried out, as well as study of the State administration influence over the court independence. The aim of the Master's Paper is to study and determine the necessary normative amendments to ensure independence of judges and judiciary and to separate them from the executive power and legislative power. To confirm the hypothesis put forward in the Paper that the judiciary cannot be included in a normative act that regulates remuneration system in the State administration, since the State administration functions, the order for execution of these functions, aim and philosophy cannot be compared with the judicature function, therefore there cannot be single remuneration criteria. The Paper includes inquiry of judges of all levels on remuneration issues, the impact of the possible changes of this remuneration system on the judicature functions and the subjective attitude of judges as social, active members of a team. The inquiry allowed evaluating changes of the status of judges in the society. The Paper consists of 4 sections. Section 1 studies the concept and content of the independence of judiciary and concept of State administration policy, as well as reciprocity of State administration and court system in Latvia, the balance and counterbalance system and its possible offsets. Section 2 studies the concept of remuneration of judges, reasons of its evolution that have determined creation of the concept, and the achieved results. Changes that were caused by the State administration political decisions of 12 December 2008. Section 3 studies the concept of economic crisis and the possible legal consequences of the government's activities. Sec

Relevance of the dissertation is determined by the object of research – the influence of logistical factors on transport flows distribution. The growth of world economics, business globalization, progress in technology skills extends the distances between geographical points of raw materials resources, manufacturers and consumers. Due to the membership in the European Union (EU) Lithuania has got new opportunities for international trade growth, and all the Eastern Baltic countries have become the buffer region for the EU trading with the countries of the Eastern Europe and Asia. A proper transport policy and infrastructure development would increase significantly the GNP in warehousing, transport and distribution sectors. Forecasting of potential transport flows according to logistical requirements of freight suppliers is most important for transport network optimization. Scientific problem. Contemporary transport engineering theory approaches the peculiarities of transport flows formation too narrowly, only as an analysis of internal factors determining freight flows. There is no analysis of external factors. Many researchers assume that transport flows are determined only by the existing transport network and its characteristics. Other researchers consider transport flows as a result of logistic elements only. The estimating of internal and external logistical factors provides a possibility to forecast the transport flows. Aim of the research is to create a model of logistical factors influence on transport flows distribution. Seeking to meet this aim, the author of the dissertation has solved the following tasks: 1. To make an analysis of the theory provided by Lithuanian and foreign researchers concerning the common interaction of logistics and transport, as well as to point out the advantages and disadvantages in the approaches and hypotheses of many authors, and to propose own conclusions. 2. To create a model of logistical factors and their indicators, which determine transport flows distribution in the transport network. 3. To make empirical research of indices of logistical factors in Lithuanian case. Scientific novelty of the research 1. The analysis of the research level of the scientific problem shows a very narrow theoretical view of determining transport flows. Many authors analyze internal factors only and do not estimate logistical needs of consignors and consignees. 2. The created new models determine transport flows and freight flows in transport network by internal and external specific logistical factors as well. 3. The results of empirical research of external factors confirm the created new models and provide a new interpretation and theoretical view of regularities of freight flows formation. Direct influence on basic transportation process characteristics and control is exercised by clients of transport companies. The basic attitudes for defending 1 The advantages and disadvantages of approaches of numerous researchers on logistic and transportation functions. 2 The models determining distribution of transport flows according to logistical factors. 3 The conclusions of empirical research of logistical factors' influence in Lithuanian case. The significance of the research. Theories proposed by many authors on transport and logistic functioning and interaction are analyzed, and a new point of theoretical view is given. The created models would be fit for forecasting of transport flows and planning of investments in transport infrastructure. The models would help the government, transport and logistics companies to make strategic decisions for development projects. Results of empirical research, which prove theoretical models are important for transport and logistic service providers and their customers for better common understanding and common activities. Methodology of the research is based on regression and correlative analysis, forecasting, as well as on market survey and mathematical modeling. Approbation of the work. Main theses of the dissertation were approbated in 3 scientific published works and 14 scientific conferences papers. Dissertation's structure. The work consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusions and a list of literature (123 scientific works). The amount of the work is: 108 pages, 61 figures and 20 tables. The work includes 6 appendixes. Conclusions The theoretical analysis of logistics influence on transport flows distribution concepts by many researchers, the mathematical modeling of transport flows determination factors and empirical research to give the following conclusions: 1. Many scientists explore logistics and transport by different concepts, however there are no special investigations of logistical impact on transport flows distribution in their works. The analysis of scientific works shows a dual aspect of transport flows distribution. The first theory maintains that technological engineering solutions determine transport flows; the second theory considers that they are determined by logistical factors such as: 1) added value; 2) minimization of logistics costs; 3) customer service. 2. The supporters of technological approach focus the attention on mathematical modeling of freight flows in transport network, nodes and links, as well as logistical chains. According to this point of view, physical characteristics of links and nodes only give possibility to solve the task of freight flows distribution. The scientific problem is that physical characteristics do not suffice for the right solution of this task. It is important to find and estimate external logistical factors. 3. It is important to estimate that transport flows formation is determined in long-term period according to the requirements of manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. The trade centralization is one of the basic elements in formation of logistical channels and distribution centers, and transport flows of course. 4. The mathematical model of transport flows distribution is created here. The model gives peculiarities of freight flows distribution according to estimation of economical, juridical and physical parameters of nodes and links. If a logistical subsystem of the given sub-region does not constitute the entire goods traffic channel from the consignor to the consignee, but it is a constituent part of the entire logistical channel from the consignor to the consignee, then the flow traffic goods through that sub-region will be dependent not only on the characteristics of the logistical channel existing in the sub-region's logistical system, but it will also depend on other regions, the logistical systems of which are involved in the common logistical channel. The minimization of the characteristics of any element may cause the minimization of the characteristics of the entire logistical channel as well as the loss of its competitive abilities. 5. The model of shipment grouping according to peculiarities of transport flows and logistic requirements is created. The model enables the estimating of characteristics of freight origins and destination points and forecasting of grouped shipment routes. 6. The survey shows dual approach to transport flows distribution as well as theoretical analysis. Transport flows are distributed according to logistic strategy of transport service consumers and technological solutions, and implementations of providers as well. The survey demonstrates that transport companies are not only 'sellers' or 'providers' of transport services. They are logistical partners of transport service consumers. The strategic partnership of trading and transport companies determines in many cases the formation of transport flows in Lithuania. According forecast of 5 % yearly trade growth, freight volume by road and rail in Lithuania will increase to 133.6 million tons in year 2015. 7. The basic logistical factors determining the distribution of transport flows in Lithuania according to the survey are these: geography of consumers markets, geography of basic transport nodes, structures of logistical channels, perspective of urban development, shortest paths, political and anti-criminal security of transit, grouping of goods, national factor.

Relevance of the dissertation is determined by the object of research – the influence of logistical factors on transport flows distribution. The growth of world economics, business globalization, progress in technology skills extends the distances between geographical points of raw materials resources, manufacturers and consumers. Due to the membership in the European Union (EU) Lithuania has got new opportunities for international trade growth, and all the Eastern Baltic countries have become the buffer region for the EU trading with the countries of the Eastern Europe and Asia. A proper transport policy and infrastructure development would increase significantly the GNP in warehousing, transport and distribution sectors. Forecasting of potential transport flows according to logistical requirements of freight suppliers is most important for transport network optimization. Scientific problem. Contemporary transport engineering theory approaches the peculiarities of transport flows formation too narrowly, only as an analysis of internal factors determining freight flows. There is no analysis of external factors. Many researchers assume that transport flows are determined only by the existing transport network and its characteristics. Other researchers consider transport flows as a result of logistic elements only. The estimating of internal and external logistical factors provides a possibility to forecast the transport flows. Aim of the research is to create a model of logistical factors influence on transport flows distribution. Seeking to meet this aim, the author of the dissertation has solved the following tasks: 1. To make an analysis of the theory provided by Lithuanian and foreign researchers concerning the common interaction of logistics and transport, as well as to point out the advantages and disadvantages in the approaches and hypotheses of many authors, and to propose own conclusions. 2. To create a model of logistical factors and their indicators, which determine transport flows distribution in the transport network. 3. To make empirical research of indices of logistical factors in Lithuanian case. Scientific novelty of the research 1. The analysis of the research level of the scientific problem shows a very narrow theoretical view of determining transport flows. Many authors analyze internal factors only and do not estimate logistical needs of consignors and consignees. 2. The created new models determine transport flows and freight flows in transport network by internal and external specific logistical factors as well. 3. The results of empirical research of external factors confirm the created new models and provide a new interpretation and theoretical view of regularities of freight flows formation. Direct influence on basic transportation process characteristics and control is exercised by clients of transport companies. The basic attitudes for defending 1 The advantages and disadvantages of approaches of numerous researchers on logistic and transportation functions. 2 The models determining distribution of transport flows according to logistical factors. 3 The conclusions of empirical research of logistical factors' influence in Lithuanian case. The significance of the research. Theories proposed by many authors on transport and logistic functioning and interaction are analyzed, and a new point of theoretical view is given. The created models would be fit for forecasting of transport flows and planning of investments in transport infrastructure. The models would help the government, transport and logistics companies to make strategic decisions for development projects. Results of empirical research, which prove theoretical models are important for transport and logistic service providers and their customers for better common understanding and common activities. Methodology of the research is based on regression and correlative analysis, forecasting, as well as on market survey and mathematical modeling. Approbation of the work. Main theses of the dissertation were approbated in 3 scientific published works and 14 scientific conferences papers. Dissertation's structure. The work consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusions and a list of literature (123 scientific works). The amount of the work is: 108 pages, 61 figures and 20 tables. The work includes 6 appendixes. Conclusions The theoretical analysis of logistics influence on transport flows distribution concepts by many researchers, the mathematical modeling of transport flows determination factors and empirical research to give the following conclusions: 1. Many scientists explore logistics and transport by different concepts, however there are no special investigations of logistical impact on transport flows distribution in their works. The analysis of scientific works shows a dual aspect of transport flows distribution. The first theory maintains that technological engineering solutions determine transport flows; the second theory considers that they are determined by logistical factors such as: 1) added value; 2) minimization of logistics costs; 3) customer service. 2. The supporters of technological approach focus the attention on mathematical modeling of freight flows in transport network, nodes and links, as well as logistical chains. According to this point of view, physical characteristics of links and nodes only give possibility to solve the task of freight flows distribution. The scientific problem is that physical characteristics do not suffice for the right solution of this task. It is important to find and estimate external logistical factors. 3. It is important to estimate that transport flows formation is determined in long-term period according to the requirements of manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. The trade centralization is one of the basic elements in formation of logistical channels and distribution centers, and transport flows of course. 4. The mathematical model of transport flows distribution is created here. The model gives peculiarities of freight flows distribution according to estimation of economical, juridical and physical parameters of nodes and links. If a logistical subsystem of the given sub-region does not constitute the entire goods traffic channel from the consignor to the consignee, but it is a constituent part of the entire logistical channel from the consignor to the consignee, then the flow traffic goods through that sub-region will be dependent not only on the characteristics of the logistical channel existing in the sub-region's logistical system, but it will also depend on other regions, the logistical systems of which are involved in the common logistical channel. The minimization of the characteristics of any element may cause the minimization of the characteristics of the entire logistical channel as well as the loss of its competitive abilities. 5. The model of shipment grouping according to peculiarities of transport flows and logistic requirements is created. The model enables the estimating of characteristics of freight origins and destination points and forecasting of grouped shipment routes. 6. The survey shows dual approach to transport flows distribution as well as theoretical analysis. Transport flows are distributed according to logistic strategy of transport service consumers and technological solutions, and implementations of providers as well. The survey demonstrates that transport companies are not only 'sellers' or 'providers' of transport services. They are logistical partners of transport service consumers. The strategic partnership of trading and transport companies determines in many cases the formation of transport flows in Lithuania. According forecast of 5 % yearly trade growth, freight volume by road and rail in Lithuania will increase to 133.6 million tons in year 2015. 7. The basic logistical factors determining the distribution of transport flows in Lithuania according to the survey are these: geography of consumers markets, geography of basic transport nodes, structures of logistical channels, perspective of urban development, shortest paths, political and anti-criminal security of transit, grouping of goods, national factor.

Relevance of the dissertation is determined by the object of research – the influence of logistical factors on transport flows distribution. The growth of world economics, business globalization, progress in technology skills extends the distances between geographical points of raw materials resources, manufacturers and consumers. Due to the membership in the European Union (EU) Lithuania has got new opportunities for international trade growth, and all the Eastern Baltic countries have become the buffer region for the EU trading with the countries of the Eastern Europe and Asia. A proper transport policy and infrastructure development would increase significantly the GNP in warehousing, transport and distribution sectors. Forecasting of potential transport flows according to logistical requirements of freight suppliers is most important for transport network optimization. Scientific problem. Contemporary transport engineering theory approaches the peculiarities of transport flows formation too narrowly, only as an analysis of internal factors determining freight flows. There is no analysis of external factors. Many researchers assume that transport flows are determined only by the existing transport network and its characteristics. Other researchers consider transport flows as a result of logistic elements only. The estimating of internal and external logistical factors provides a possibility to forecast the transport flows. Aim of the research is to create a model of logistical factors influence on transport flows distribution. Seeking to meet this aim, the author of the dissertation has solved the following tasks: 1. To make an analysis of the theory provided by Lithuanian and foreign researchers concerning the common interaction of logistics and transport, as well as to point out the advantages and disadvantages in the approaches and hypotheses of many authors, and to propose own conclusions. 2. To create a model of logistical factors and their indicators, which determine transport flows distribution in the transport network. 3. To make empirical research of indices of logistical factors in Lithuanian case. Scientific novelty of the research 1. The analysis of the research level of the scientific problem shows a very narrow theoretical view of determining transport flows. Many authors analyze internal factors only and do not estimate logistical needs of consignors and consignees. 2. The created new models determine transport flows and freight flows in transport network by internal and external specific logistical factors as well. 3. The results of empirical research of external factors confirm the created new models and provide a new interpretation and theoretical view of regularities of freight flows formation. Direct influence on basic transportation process characteristics and control is exercised by clients of transport companies. The basic attitudes for defending 1 The advantages and disadvantages of approaches of numerous researchers on logistic and transportation functions. 2 The models determining distribution of transport flows according to logistical factors. 3 The conclusions of empirical research of logistical factors' influence in Lithuanian case. The significance of the research. Theories proposed by many authors on transport and logistic functioning and interaction are analyzed, and a new point of theoretical view is given. The created models would be fit for forecasting of transport flows and planning of investments in transport infrastructure. The models would help the government, transport and logistics companies to make strategic decisions for development projects. Results of empirical research, which prove theoretical models are important for transport and logistic service providers and their customers for better common understanding and common activities. Methodology of the research is based on regression and correlative analysis, forecasting, as well as on market survey and mathematical modeling. Approbation of the work. Main theses of the dissertation were approbated in 3 scientific published works and 14 scientific conferences papers. Dissertation's structure. The work consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusions and a list of literature (123 scientific works). The amount of the work is: 108 pages, 61 figures and 20 tables. The work includes 6 appendixes. Conclusions The theoretical analysis of logistics influence on transport flows distribution concepts by many researchers, the mathematical modeling of transport flows determination factors and empirical research to give the following conclusions: 1. Many scientists explore logistics and transport by different concepts, however there are no special investigations of logistical impact on transport flows distribution in their works. The analysis of scientific works shows a dual aspect of transport flows distribution. The first theory maintains that technological engineering solutions determine transport flows; the second theory considers that they are determined by logistical factors such as: 1) added value; 2) minimization of logistics costs; 3) customer service. 2. The supporters of technological approach focus the attention on mathematical modeling of freight flows in transport network, nodes and links, as well as logistical chains. According to this point of view, physical characteristics of links and nodes only give possibility to solve the task of freight flows distribution. The scientific problem is that physical characteristics do not suffice for the right solution of this task. It is important to find and estimate external logistical factors. 3. It is important to estimate that transport flows formation is determined in long-term period according to the requirements of manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. The trade centralization is one of the basic elements in formation of logistical channels and distribution centers, and transport flows of course. 4. The mathematical model of transport flows distribution is created here. The model gives peculiarities of freight flows distribution according to estimation of economical, juridical and physical parameters of nodes and links. If a logistical subsystem of the given sub-region does not constitute the entire goods traffic channel from the consignor to the consignee, but it is a constituent part of the entire logistical channel from the consignor to the consignee, then the flow traffic goods through that sub-region will be dependent not only on the characteristics of the logistical channel existing in the sub-region's logistical system, but it will also depend on other regions, the logistical systems of which are involved in the common logistical channel. The minimization of the characteristics of any element may cause the minimization of the characteristics of the entire logistical channel as well as the loss of its competitive abilities. 5. The model of shipment grouping according to peculiarities of transport flows and logistic requirements is created. The model enables the estimating of characteristics of freight origins and destination points and forecasting of grouped shipment routes. 6. The survey shows dual approach to transport flows distribution as well as theoretical analysis. Transport flows are distributed according to logistic strategy of transport service consumers and technological solutions, and implementations of providers as well. The survey demonstrates that transport companies are not only 'sellers' or 'providers' of transport services. They are logistical partners of transport service consumers. The strategic partnership of trading and transport companies determines in many cases the formation of transport flows in Lithuania. According forecast of 5 % yearly trade growth, freight volume by road and rail in Lithuania will increase to 133.6 million tons in year 2015. 7. The basic logistical factors determining the distribution of transport flows in Lithuania according to the survey are these: geography of consumers markets, geography of basic transport nodes, structures of logistical channels, perspective of urban development, shortest paths, political and anti-criminal security of transit, grouping of goods, national factor.

Relevance of the dissertation is determined by the object of research – the influence of logistical factors on transport flows distribution. The growth of world economics, business globalization, progress in technology skills extends the distances between geographical points of raw materials resources, manufacturers and consumers. Due to the membership in the European Union (EU) Lithuania has got new opportunities for international trade growth, and all the Eastern Baltic countries have become the buffer region for the EU trading with the countries of the Eastern Europe and Asia. A proper transport policy and infrastructure development would increase significantly the GNP in warehousing, transport and distribution sectors. Forecasting of potential transport flows according to logistical requirements of freight suppliers is most important for transport network optimization. Scientific problem. Contemporary transport engineering theory approaches the peculiarities of transport flows formation too narrowly, only as an analysis of internal factors determining freight flows. There is no analysis of external factors. Many researchers assume that transport flows are determined only by the existing transport network and its characteristics. Other researchers consider transport flows as a result of logistic elements only. The estimating of internal and external logistical factors provides a possibility to forecast the transport flows. Aim of the research is to create a model of logistical factors influence on transport flows distribution. Seeking to meet this aim, the author of the dissertation has solved the following tasks: 1. To make an analysis of the theory provided by Lithuanian and foreign researchers concerning the common interaction of logistics and transport, as well as to point out the advantages and disadvantages in the approaches and hypotheses of many authors, and to propose own conclusions. 2. To create a model of logistical factors and their indicators, which determine transport flows distribution in the transport network. 3. To make empirical research of indices of logistical factors in Lithuanian case. Scientific novelty of the research 1. The analysis of the research level of the scientific problem shows a very narrow theoretical view of determining transport flows. Many authors analyze internal factors only and do not estimate logistical needs of consignors and consignees. 2. The created new models determine transport flows and freight flows in transport network by internal and external specific logistical factors as well. 3. The results of empirical research of external factors confirm the created new models and provide a new interpretation and theoretical view of regularities of freight flows formation. Direct influence on basic transportation process characteristics and control is exercised by clients of transport companies. The basic attitudes for defending 1 The advantages and disadvantages of approaches of numerous researchers on logistic and transportation functions. 2 The models determining distribution of transport flows according to logistical factors. 3 The conclusions of empirical research of logistical factors' influence in Lithuanian case. The significance of the research. Theories proposed by many authors on transport and logistic functioning and interaction are analyzed, and a new point of theoretical view is given. The created models would be fit for forecasting of transport flows and planning of investments in transport infrastructure. The models would help the government, transport and logistics companies to make strategic decisions for development projects. Results of empirical research, which prove theoretical models are important for transport and logistic service providers and their customers for better common understanding and common activities. Methodology of the research is based on regression and correlative analysis, forecasting, as well as on market survey and mathematical modeling. Approbation of the work. Main theses of the dissertation were approbated in 3 scientific published works and 14 scientific conferences papers. Dissertation's structure. The work consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusions and a list of literature (123 scientific works). The amount of the work is: 108 pages, 61 figures and 20 tables. The work includes 6 appendixes. Conclusions The theoretical analysis of logistics influence on transport flows distribution concepts by many researchers, the mathematical modeling of transport flows determination factors and empirical research to give the following conclusions: 1. Many scientists explore logistics and transport by different concepts, however there are no special investigations of logistical impact on transport flows distribution in their works. The analysis of scientific works shows a dual aspect of transport flows distribution. The first theory maintains that technological engineering solutions determine transport flows; the second theory considers that they are determined by logistical factors such as: 1) added value; 2) minimization of logistics costs; 3) customer service. 2. The supporters of technological approach focus the attention on mathematical modeling of freight flows in transport network, nodes and links, as well as logistical chains. According to this point of view, physical characteristics of links and nodes only give possibility to solve the task of freight flows distribution. The scientific problem is that physical characteristics do not suffice for the right solution of this task. It is important to find and estimate external logistical factors. 3. It is important to estimate that transport flows formation is determined in long-term period according to the requirements of manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. The trade centralization is one of the basic elements in formation of logistical channels and distribution centers, and transport flows of course. 4. The mathematical model of transport flows distribution is created here. The model gives peculiarities of freight flows distribution according to estimation of economical, juridical and physical parameters of nodes and links. If a logistical subsystem of the given sub-region does not constitute the entire goods traffic channel from the consignor to the consignee, but it is a constituent part of the entire logistical channel from the consignor to the consignee, then the flow traffic goods through that sub-region will be dependent not only on the characteristics of the logistical channel existing in the sub-region's logistical system, but it will also depend on other regions, the logistical systems of which are involved in the common logistical channel. The minimization of the characteristics of any element may cause the minimization of the characteristics of the entire logistical channel as well as the loss of its competitive abilities. 5. The model of shipment grouping according to peculiarities of transport flows and logistic requirements is created. The model enables the estimating of characteristics of freight origins and destination points and forecasting of grouped shipment routes. 6. The survey shows dual approach to transport flows distribution as well as theoretical analysis. Transport flows are distributed according to logistic strategy of transport service consumers and technological solutions, and implementations of providers as well. The survey demonstrates that transport companies are not only 'sellers' or 'providers' of transport services. They are logistical partners of transport service consumers. The strategic partnership of trading and transport companies determines in many cases the formation of transport flows in Lithuania. According forecast of 5 % yearly trade growth, freight volume by road and rail in Lithuania will increase to 133.6 million tons in year 2015. 7. The basic logistical factors determining the distribution of transport flows in Lithuania according to the survey are these: geography of consumers markets, geography of basic transport nodes, structures of logistical channels, perspective of urban development, shortest paths, political and anti-criminal security of transit, grouping of goods, national factor.

Dieser Artikel basiert auf Feldstudien im ländlichen Westafrika. Es konzentriert sich auf die sozio-strukturellen Effekte der Entwicklungshilfe auf lange Sicht, im Gegensatz zu zahlreichen verfügbaren Evaluierungsberichten über die kurzfristigen Effekte von Entwicklungsprojekten. Die Studie zeigt, dass oberflächliche Verallgemeinerungen oder Verurteilungen von Entwicklungsprojekten, z. B., dass die großen Landwirte auf Kosten der kleineren, oder die Männer auf Kosten der Frauen profitieren, der Überprüfung nicht zundhalten. Ganz im Gegenteil beobachteten wir eine breite Palette spezifisch angepaßter Formen, mit denen die Zielgruppen auf die Anforderungen und Angebote von Entwicklungsprojekten reagieren und damit ihre eigene soziale Struktur verändern. Kurz gesagt, wir beobachteten eine große Vielfalt der sozialen Selbstorganisation. Die bürokratischen Strukturen der Entwicklungsverwaltung berücksichtigen jedoch leider oftmals nicht die soziale Dynamik ihrer Zielgruppen, die sie dennoch unbewusst aufrechterhalten. Die Entwicklungshilfe ist in den meisten afrikanischen Ländern zu einem wichtigen politischen und wirtschaftlichen Faktor geworden. Die finanziellen Auswirkungen übersteigen oft die des nationalen Haushalts. Sie trägt also wesentlich zur Entwicklung einer bürokratischen Klasse und derer Klienten bei: Die Projektentwicklung degeneriert zu einer Projektverstaatlichung / Bürokratisierung. Das kontrastiert mit den Strategien der Bauern. Männer und Frauen auf Dorfebene akzeptieren nicht mehr den paternalistischen Entwicklungsansatz. Sie wählen einfach, was sie brauchen, aus den Paketen von Lösungen, die ihnen angeboten werden, während sie ihre eigenen Lösungen entwickeln, wie eine Vielzahl von Samen, die an ihre spezifischen Ressourcen-Ausstattung, diversifizierte Einnahmequellen, verschiedene Strategien der Akkumulation und Risikoprävention angepasst sind. All dies ermöglicht eine allmähliche Entwicklung durch Variation und Selektion. Die Dynamik der ländlichen Gesellschaft beruht in hohem Maße auf einer Konkurrenz unterschiedlicher (strategischer) Gruppen über die Aufteilung der Entwicklungshilfe. Normalerweise wird dieser Kampf zwischen verschiedenen Gruppen-Interessen durch die Rhetorik der Entwicklungsplanung verdeckt. Die von den Institutionen der Entwicklungszusammenarbeit geplante Entwicklung hat sich bislang als zu starr erwiesen, um den komplexen und subtilen Stoff der Selbstorganisation berücksichtigen zu können. Die Hilfe scheint manchmal nur ein zweitbester Ersatz für eine Vision einer demokratischen Gesellschaft zu sein. Dies liegt daran, dass die Strukturen, die wir auf lange Sicht anstreben, sich mehr an der Öffnung der Märkte und nationalem Wachstum orientieren als an den Ressourcen und Bedürfnisse der Produzenten oder der Entwicklung nachhaltiger sozialer indigenen Strukturen, z.B. der Hilfe zur Selbsthilfe, eine verantwortliche und demokratische Regierung, Gewährleistung der Bürgerrechte, Rechenschaftspflicht, eine unabhängige Justiz, Pressefreiheit usw . Bis jetzt aber werden jedoch alle diese Elemente immer noch vom 'Kommando-Staat' selbst unterdrückt, der maßgeblich unterstützt wird von den verschiedenen Formen der technischen und finanziellen Entwicklungszusammenarbeit. ; Author's version ; "The long-term effects of development aid. Empirical studies in rural West Africa": This article is based on field studies in rural West Africa. It concentrates on the socio-structural effects of development aid in the long run, in contrast to numerous available evaluation reports on the short-run effects of development projects. The study reveals that superficial generalisations or condemnations of development projects, like the big farmers benefit at the expense of the smaller ones, or the men benefit at the expense of the women, do not hold up to verification. Quite to the contrary one observes a wide range of specific adapted forms by which the target groups react to the demands and offers of development projects, and thereby transform their own social structure. In short, one observes a great diversity of social self-organisation. The bureaucratic structures of the development administration do, however, unfortunately - more often than not - ignore the social dynamic of their target groups which they nevertheless sustain unconsciously. Development aid has become an important political and economic factor in most African countries. Its financial impact often exceeds that of the national budget. It contributes, therefore, significantly to the development of a bureaucratic class and of its clients: the project development degenerates into a project nationalization / bureaucratization. This contrasts vividly with the strategies of the peasants. Men and women at village level do not accept any longer the paternalistic development approach. They just select what they need out of the packages of solutions that are offered to them, while they develop their own solutions, like a variety of seeds adapted to their specific resource endowments, diversified sources of income, different strategies of accumulation and risk prevention. All this allows for a gradual evolution by variation and selection. The dynamic of the rural society is to a large extent due to a competition of different (strategic) groups, opposed to one another, about the partitioning of the cake of development aid. Normally this struggle between different vested interests is covered up by the rhetoric of development planning. Planned development has up to now proven to be to rigid, to be able to take account of the complex and subtle fabric of self organisation. Aid sometimes appears to be a second best substitute for a vision of a democratic society. This is due to the fact that the structures we are aiming for in the long run - which are to allow for open markets, an orientation of the producers at the resources and needs of the nation, and last not least, the growth of indigenous structures of self-help - would require a responsible and democratic government, as well as the guarantee of civil rights, accountability, an independent judiciary, freedom of the press, etc.; up to now, however, all these elements are still oppressed by the commando state itself, well nourished by the various forms of technical and financial aid. ; RÉSUMÉ "Les effets à long terme de l'aide au développement - études empiriques en Afrique de l'Ouest rural": Cet article est basé sur des études de terrain en Afrique de l'Ouest rural. Il se concentre sur les effets socio-structurels de l'aide au développement dans le long terme, contrairement à de nombreux rapports d'évaluation disponibles sur les effets à court terme des projets de développement. L'étude révèle que des généralisations superficielles ou condamnations de projets de développement, comme les gros agriculteurs profitent au détriments des plus petits, ou les hommes bénéficient d'avantages au détriment des femmes, ne tiens pas. Bien au contraire, on observe une vaste gamme de formes adaptées spécifiques par lesquels les groupes cibles réagissent aux demandes et les offres de projets de développement, et ainsi transformer leur propre structure sociale. En bref, on observe une grande diversité de l'auto-organisation sociale. Les structures bureaucratiques de l'administration du développement, cependant, ignorent malheureusement - le plus souvent - la dynamique sociale de leurs groupes cibles qu' ils soutiennent néanmoins inconsciemment. L'aide au développement est devenue un facteur politique et économique important dans la plupart des pays africains. Son impact financier dépasse souvent celle du budget national. Il contribue donc de manière significative au développement d'une classe bureaucratique et de ses clients: le développement du projet dégénère en un projet de nationalisation / bureaucratisation. Cela contraste vivement avec les stratégies des paysans. Hommes et femmes au niveau du village n'accepter plus la démarche de développement paternaliste. Ils sélectionnent tout ce dont ils ont besoin sur les paquets de solutions qui leur sont offertes, alors qu'ils développent leurs propres solutions, comme une variété de semences adaptées à leurs dotations en ressources spécifiques, diversification des sources de revenus, stratégies d'accumulation différentielles et la prévention des risques. Tout ceci permet une évolution progressive de variation et de sélection. La dynamique de la société rurale est dans une large mesure due à un concours de différents groupes (stratégiques), par opposition à un autre, sur le partage du gâteau de l'aide au développement. Normalement, cette lutte entre les différents intérêts est couvert par la rhétorique de la planification du développement. Le développement planifié était jusqu'à présent trop rigide, pour être en mesure de prendre en compte le tissu complexe et subtil de l'auto-organisation. Aide semble parfois être un substitut à une vision d'une société démocratique. Cela est dû au fait que les structures que nous visons dans le long terme - qui doivent permettre l'ouverture des marchés, une orientation des producteurs à des ressources et des besoins de la nation, la croissance des structures autochtones d'auto-assistance - exigerait un gouvernement responsable et démocratique, ainsi que la garantie des droits civils, une justice indépendante, la liberté de la presse, etc . Jusqu'à présent, cependant, tous ces éléments sont toujours opprimés par l'état commando lui-même, bien nourrie par les diverses formes d'aide technique et financière.

En 1929 la Sociedad Anónima Importadora y Exportadora de la Patagonia, la empresa comercial y ganadera más poderosa del sur argentino, fundó la Revista Argentina Austral que se editó hasta 1968. La continuidad y la calidad de la edición, la amplia circulación y su trascendencia convirtieron a esta revista en una de las publicaciones más significativas de la Patagonia argentina y clara expresión de los intereses económicos y sociales de los sectores dominantes del sur. El contrato fundacional de la revista centrado en la defensa de los intereses del sur, se expresó mediante representaciones discursivas de la Patagonia, de sus habitantes y de la Sociedad responsable de la publicación, que operaban como justificadoras de las argumentaciones y demandas. Nos proponemos analizar la revista Argentina Austral para interpretar las transformaciones en las representaciones y su relación con los cambios políticos y económicos y con el contrato fundacional que la revista establece con sus lectores Consideramos que Argentina Austral seleccionaría y jerarquizaría en forma permanente diferentes representaciones patagónicas para articular un discurso que permitiría a la revista posicionarse frente a los planes y decisiones de los gobiernos de turno, acompañando en forma concreta los planteos de las corporaciones agrarias o acentuando algunos aspectos de ellos en función de las necesidades del sur. ; 在1929年,帕塔哥尼亚进出口公司,阿根廷南部最有影响力的畜牧产品商贸公司出版了自己的杂志,南阿根廷杂志,该刊物一直出版到1968年为止。杂志的连续性和编辑质量,它的大发行量,它的自我超越,使其成为帕塔哥尼亚地区最重要的出版物,代表了南部地区最重要的经济社会利益。该杂志成立时的宗旨就是要保护南方的利益,具体说来,就是出版这个杂志的帕塔哥尼亚的居民和社会的利益,通过刊物对政府提出呼吁和要求。我们通过分析南阿根廷杂志的出版章程,它所代表的经济和政治利益集团的演变。我们认为该杂志综合了帕塔哥尼亚地区的各种利益,进行排序,汇总然后提出自己的话语,对政府提出要求,因具体的农事的变化,随时调整自己的行动计划。 ; Em 1929, a Sociedade Anônima Importadora e Exportadora da Patagônia, a empresa comercial e pecuária mais poderosa do sul argentino, fundou a revista Argentina Austral, publicada até 1968. A continuidade e a qualidade da edição, sua ampla circulação e sua transcendência transformaram essa revista em uma das publicações mais significativas da Patagônia argentina e em uma clara expressão dos interesses econômicos e sociais dos setores dominantes do sul. Os termos do ato de fundação da revista, centrado na defesa dos interesses do sul, expressou-se mediante representações discursivas da Patagônia, dos seus habitantes e da Sociedade responsável pela sua publicação, as quais intervinham como justificativas das argumentações e demandas. O nosso objetivo consiste em analisar a revista Argentina Austral para interpretar as transformações nas representações e a sua relação com as mudanças políticas e econômicas e com o ato de fundação estabelecido pela revista com seus leitores. Consideramos que a Argentina Austral selecionou e hierarquizou de forma permanente diferentes representações da Patagônia para articular um discurso que permitisse à revista posicionar-se diante dos planos e decisões dos governos estabelecidos, acompanhando de forma concreta as reinvindicações das corporações agrárias ou acentuando alguns dos seus aspectos em função das necessidades do sul. ; In 1929, the most powerful commercial livestock company in southern Argentina, the Sociedad Anónima y Exportadora de la Patagonia, founded Argentina Austral review, which remained in circulation until 1968. The continuity and quality of the publishing, scope of the circulation and its transcendence converted the review into one of Patagonia's most significant publications, in a clear expression of the economic and social interests of the south's dominant sectors. The review's founding contract centered on defending the south's interests, expressed by means of discursive representations of Patagonia, its inhabitants and the society responsible for the publication, which served to justify the arguments and demands. We aim to analyze Argentina Austral review in order to interpret transformations in the representations and their relationship with political and economic changes and the founding contract that the review established with its readers. We consider how Argentina Austral permanently selected and hierarchized different representations of Patagonia to articulate a discourse allowing the review to position itself up against the plans and decisions of the governments at the time, consolidating its monitoring of the tactics of agricultural corporations or accentuating several aspects of these tactics in light of the needs of the south. ; En 1929, la Société anonyme d'import/export de Patagonie, l'entreprise commerciale et d'élevage la plus puissante du sud de l'Argentine, fondait la revue Argentina Austral, dont la publication durera jusqu'en 1968. La continuité et la qualité de l'édition, son ample diffusion et sa transcendance ont su transformer cette revue en l'une des publications les plus significatives de la Patagonie argentine et en une expression limpide des intérêts économiques et sociaux des secteurs dominants du sud du pays. L'esprit fondateur de cette revue centrée sur la défense des intérêts du sud s'est manifesté à travers des représentations discursives de la Patagonie, de ses habitants et de la société à l'origine de sa publication, opérant comme justifications des argumentations et des demandes. Nous nous proposons d'analyser la revue Argentina Austral pour interpréter les transformations de ces représentations et leurs relations avec les changements politiques et économiques, ainsi qu'avec le contrat fondateur que la revue établit avec ses lecteurs. Nous considérons qu'Argentina Austral a en permanence sélectionné et hiérarchisé différentes représentations patagoniques pour articuler un discours permettant à la revue de prendre position face aux plans et décisions des gouvernements en place, en relayant de façon concrète les revendications des corporations agraires ou en accentuant certains de leurs aspects en fonction des nécessités du sud. ; Fil: Ruffini, Martha Esther. Universidad Nacional de Quilmes. Departamento de Ciencias Sociales. Centro de Estudios de la Argentina Rural; Argentina. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina