IntroductionThe Report that the AIB has decided to publish starting from this year aims at presenting, even if synthetically, the main characteristics of an overview of Italian libraries, each time pointing out the questions, tendencies and some of the events that are of most interest to those who are interested in the development of the library service in our country.When it is proposed to describe a national picture of the situation of the libraries of the various types (public, university, state, scholastic, ecclesiastic, private, etc.) one finds oneself before the almost total absence of comparable and trustworthy organic information. Using the various sources available, it is possible to estimate with a certain approximation that the over 15,000 Italian libraries (in which approximately 20,000 people work) possess almost 200 million documents, that they acquire annually almost 7 million books, that their annual users are little less than 10 million and the loans made are around 65 million. It is believed that in the year 2001 the running costs exceeded 1000 billion lire, of which a little more than 10% were destined to the purchase of documents.LegislationThe year 2001 was rich in new details with regard to the sector of legislation for libraries. This was also due to the effect of the constitutional reforms and the new scenarios relative to the responsibilities and federalist arrangement of the State.Regulations of particular importance for libraries and indirectly linked to the overall institutional situation are those contained in the law of 28 December 2001, no. 448 (finance law 2002). This prescribes that the management of services aimed at the improvement of the public use and development of the artistic patrimony (and therefore also of the state libraries) can be entrusted to subjects other than those of the state. It also introduces an art. 113 bis in the sole text of the laws on the organization of local bodies (legislative decree 18 August 2000, no. 267), on the basis of which "local public services without industrial importance are managed through direct entrusting to: a) institutions; b) special businesses, including consortiums; c) joint-stock companies" and only as a residual solution (paragraph 2) "is economic management permitted when, due to the small dimensions or the characteristics of the service, it is not opportune to proceed to entrusting it to subjects as described in paragraph 1". Awaited on many sides as the chance to respond to a number of the age-old problems that have afflicted the sector of state public libraries for decades, the new organization regulations of the Ministry for cultural and artistic heritage, issued with the Presidential Decree of 29 December 2000, no. 441, actually only indicate, without solving, some fundamental questions that regard the sector, postponing their settlement, without any time limits, to subsequent second degree regulations.As regards the more strictly library themes of interest, the necessity to solve the problems of the legal deposit drove the AIB to revive the bill proposal, which had already been discussed and had arrived at the threshold of final approval in Parliament in the 13th legislature.During the year 2001, moreover, the European Parliament and the European Union Council finally approved the Directive 2001/29/CE, that aims at integrating the laws of the member countries regarding reproduction rights, rights of communication of works to the public and distribution rights, in reference to those works, on every kind of medium, including digital medium, subject to authors' rights. Art. 5 provides the faculty of member states to order exceptions and limitations to the above mentioned rights, to guarantee the right balance between authors' rights and other social interests. This article furthermore contains the "exceptions" that are to the advantage of libraries or of didactics and scientific research.Cooperation and consortiumsThe last two years have shown considerable progress in the field of cooperation activities, confirming also in Italy the current tendencies at international level. These developments generally - but with different nuances - regard various types of libraries and involve different sectors of activity, from those already established (such as cataloguing and purchases) to emerging activities, more directly linked with the diffusion of Internet (management and development of digital resources, etc.).Access to information and the development of electronic collections are surely the areas that are most involved in the new cooperation initiatives. The university sector is that which demonstrates most vitality in this area, but a certain recent enterprise of state and public libraries should be noted. The initiatives promoted by two large university computer consortiums should also be mentioned: the Cilea and Caspur.The CiBit project for digitalisation, archiving and networking, with a special research interface for Italian literature texts should be noted.In Italian universities, as in other developed countries, the idea of creating alternative models of academic electronic publishing is being increasingly encouraged: in this field mention must be made of the initiative of the University of Florence with the Firenze University Press project.On-line cataloguesThe catalogues of Italian libraries available through Internet number 420. For the year 2001 growth stabilized around 15% and mainly regarded the local body systems, the libraries of which cover municipal or provincial areas.The Italian university OPACs (On line Public Access Catalog) form approximately 40% of the total.National Library Service (SBN) and national projectsIn the last two years the SBN network has been established as the largest public network of libraries in Italy, both due to the number of libraries participating and to the considerable increase in the information in the catalogue: at the end of the year 2001 the libraries numbered approximately 1400, the size of the national collective catalogue was 5,500,000 titles (corresponding to approximately 12 million localizations, that is mentions of the presence of the works in the participating libraries). Daily hits, also as a result of the availability on Internet of the catalogue, are currently on average 160,000 on weekdays, with high points on some days of over 200,000 hits.Other cooperation projects are underway in the field of antique books and manuscripts.The Anagrafe delle biblioteche italiane (Registry of Italian libraries) data base, it too available for consultation on Internet, provides an instrument of general information on the patrimonies, services to the public and specializations of approximately 12,500 libraries.But it is "SBN on line" that has really marked a further step forward towards the improvement of the services: from a single access point, with identical modalities, users can consult catalogues of different institutions (libraries, archives, museums); they can compile a bibliography according to their own specific requirements by integrating information sources; they can also locate documents and ask for them on loan or in reproduced form.Formation, occupation and professionItaly also considers university formation as the basis for the initial preparation of librarians. In the nineties especially, the degree course in Preservation of Cultural Heritage was a source of considerable attraction among young people and in the year 2000/01 it ended up having over 23,000 students registered in the 17 universities offering the course as well as almost 3,000 registered in various related diploma courses (Operators of Cultural Heritage), for a total of 26,339 students. As a whole this is a small sector with respect to all university education (1.6% of the total of students, 2% of those enrolled, 0.6% of those graduated or having obtained diplomas), but a large group with respect to the degree or diploma "arts" group into which it is statistically inserted (16% of those registered, 23% of those enrolled and 7% of those graduated or having obtained diplomas).In the year 2000/01, the first year of the "3+2" university reform, among the 42 first level degree classes, that in Sciences of Cultural Heritage is at the 12th place as regards number of enrolled (9079) and is generally in the first place among the characteristic courses in the Arts Faculty (in the order Arts, Sciences and technologies of figurative arts, of music, entertainment and fashion, Philosophy, Historical Sciences). Sixty-six percent of the students in the degree courses in the archive-library field are female.As a whole the number of students registered is certainly greatly increased with the new courses (9079 enrolled in 2001/02 as against the 5920 of the previous year, +53%). The current offer is of 71 courses in 41 universities: among these, 9 (in a like number of universities) are specifically dedicated to the formation of librarians and archivists, while 33, 2 of which by distance-learning, have a general nature (18 with a specialization for librarians and archivists), and 29 regard other specific sectors (artistic, archaeological, musical, etc., heritage ). Overall, there are therefore at least 27 courses aimed at the formation of librarians, in 26 universities and with locations in 25 different cities.Those who graduated in Cultural Heritage have up to now obtained rapid and effective insertion into the world of work, initially above all with assistance initiatives or contract jobs but also with permanent employment, demonstrating among other things their capacity to temporarily or permanently exploit employment opportunities even in related fields (publishing, multimedia production, Web services, communications, etc.).Generally speaking, the offer of long-term employment in public administration is about 180 positions per year. The main employers are the local bodies, with 64%, followed by the Universities with 27%. Absent for years now is the Ministry for Cultural Heritage (except for two small competitions in 1998 and 1999); some offers come from the sector of research (institutions of the CNR and other bodies, for 7% in the three-year period under consideration), and exceptionally from other public bodies.From the point of view of geographic distribution, the vast majority of the jobs offered is in the North (72%, as against 11% in the Centre and 17% in the South and in the islands), and the percentage exceeds 80% for places in the local bodies: about half of the jobs offered by Italian local bodies are in the region of Lombardy; this is followed at a great distance by Emilia Romagna and then the Veneto region. In the universities, the distribution is a little less unbalanced, again with Lombardy in the first place but with a good offer also in regions of the Centre (Lazio) or of the South (Campania, Puglia).The offer of contract employment or with assistance positions is very active, both through competitions and screening for contract jobs in public administrations and through the search for assistants by service companies, mainly in the field of cataloguing, and of library structures: we can consider that through these forms of selection approximately 300 persons per year find temporary employment.The Italian Libraries Association and the Professional RegisterAn indicator of the dynamism of the profession is given also by the activity of the Italian Libraries Association (AIB) which, during the year 2000 extended to include all twenty Italian regions and considerably increased its number of members: 4407 members (+2% with respect to the previous year). This shows a much larger and clearer growth than that of employment in the sector, which therefore testifies to a greater group thrust, of "self-recognition" and identification, while a considerable number of occasional registrations remain: these are not renewed with any continuity.Since 1998, the AIB manages the Italian Professional Register of librarians, a private register that was established along the lines indicated by the European directives on the recognition of professional titles and by the bills on the unrecognised professions presented in the last legislatures but not yet approved. On 31 December 2001 the Register had 566 qualified librarians enrolled, 160 of which enrolled during the last year.The following persons co-operated to this work: Giovanni Solimine (Introduction); Luca Bellingeri, Gianni Lazzari (Law); Anna Maria Mandillo (Law, SBN and national projects); Gabriele Mazzitelli, Serafina Spinelli (Academic library systems); Tommaso Giordano (Cooperation and consortia); Antonella De Robbio (Italian OPACs); Vanni Bertini (Automation systems in Italy); Alberto Petrucciani (Training, employment and profession). ; Hanno collaborato alla redazione del Rapporto: Giovanni Solimine (Introduzione); Luca Bellingeri, Gianni Lazzari (Legislazione); Anna Maria Mandillo (Legislazione, SBN e progetti nazionali); Gabriele Mazzitelli, Serafina Spinelli (Sistemi bibliotecari di ateneo); Tommaso Giordano (Cooperazione e consorzi); Antonella De Robbio (OPAC italiani); Vanni Bertini (Sistemi di automazione in Italia); Alberto Petrucciani (Formazione, occupazione e professione).
Mención Especial en Investigación Arquitectónica en el XXV Premio de Arquitectura convocado por el Colegio Oficial de Arquitectos de Huelva ; [SPA] La clase proletaria en España habría de recorrer un largo y tedioso trayecto de algunas décadas hasta la definitiva consecución del derecho a unas vacaciones anuales retribuidas. Esta demanda histórica será satisfecha por vez primera en la Constitución Republicana del año 1931, y consolidada algunos años después con la promulgación del Fuero del Trabajo de 1938, lo que llevará al régimen franquista a afrontar el reto de idear modelos para la organización del ocio y las vacaciones de los trabajadores del país. Con la mirada puesta en aquellas experiencias de problemática similar llevadas a cabo previamente por otros regímenes totalitarios en Italia, Alemania o Portugal, la conocida como Obra Sindical de Educación y Descanso instauraría en España una compleja red de albergues y residencias de veraneo con localizaciones diversas a lo largo y ancho de la geografía del país, resultando significativo el número de instalaciones de este tipo emplazadas en el ámbito litoral. El rotundo éxito que entre las masas trabajadoras cosechase la labor desempeñada por este organismo estatal durante las dos primeras décadas del régimen franquista, propiciaría el escenario idóneo para la implementación de un novedoso modelo para la organización, como sin duda el control, del descanso y el ocio estival de los productores españoles: las ciudades de vacaciones de Educación y Descanso. Promovidas durante el tramo intermedio de la década de los años cincuenta, la Obra Sindical de Educación y Descanso construiría en España hasta tres ciudades de vacaciones para trabajadores, ejecutadas ex nihilo como asentamientos autosuficientes estratégicamente localizados en privilegiadas parcelas a pie de playa, y destinadas no sólo a garantizar el descanso de sus residentes durante el asueto estival, sino también a un adoctrinamiento político que, de manera soterrada, se pondría en práctica en el distendido ambiente que estas instalaciones vacacionales ofrecerían. El modelo ciudad de vacaciones de Educación y Descanso, objeto de un profundo estudio en este trabajo, encuentra su punto de partida en la playa Larga de Tarragona, extendiéndose en pocos años a sendas parcelas en Marbella y Perlora, convirtiéndose así en una sutil avanzadilla de lo que la década siguiente depararía al litoral español. El presente trabajo se propone dar respuesta a tres interrogantes surgidos en torno a este novedoso modelo de organización y control del descanso proletario en España. El primero de ellos aborda la especificidad que, como consecuencia de sus singulares circunstancias, se le presume a este tipo de asentamientos vacacionales. Para ello, se ha elaborado un análisis comparativo entre las ciudades de vacaciones de Educación y Descanso y otros modelos alternativos para la organización de las masas trabajadoras en el territorio que, contemporáneamente, se estarían desarrollando en España tanto en las periferias de la ciudad industrial tradicional, como en el ámbito rural como resultado del proceso de urbanización al que el Instituto Nacional de Colonización sometería al campo español. El segundo de los interrogantes planteados en este trabajo aflora tras la elaboración del estado del conocimiento sobre la materia, y versa sobre la posible continuidad del modelo en el tiempo. Esta investigación pone en entredicho la literatura especializada en las ciudades de vacaciones de Educación y Descanso, que sitúa dicho modelo como un hecho puntual y aislado de la década de los cincuenta, negando de forma precipitada la existencia de experiencias adicionales promovidas durante la etapa final del régimen franquista. El tercer y último interrogante que se plantea en este trabajo se centra en la revisión del modelo, tratando de identificar la probable influencia que sobre el mismo ejerciera el cambio de contexto experimentado con la llegada de la década de los años sesenta, cuando el fenómeno turístico de masas, tanto nacional como internacional, irrumpiría definitivamente en las casi inalteradas costas de nuestro país. Como colofón de esta investigación se han planteado una serie de conclusiones como resolución de las hipótesis de partida formuladas en el trabajo. La identificación de algunos parámetros inherentes a las tres ciudades de vacaciones ejecutadas por Educación y Descanso en la década de los años cincuenta, como la especificidad de su programa o su especial posicionamiento respecto al lugar y el paisaje, ha resultado determinante a la hora de demostrar la singularidad de estos conjuntos respecto de otros modelos analizados para la organización de las clases obreras en el territorio. Así mismo, como aportación al conocimiento sobre la temática, se han documentado hasta dos nuevos proyectos de ciudades de vacaciones promovidos por Educación y Descanso en la segunda mitad de los años sesenta, en Guardamar del Segura (Alicante) y en Punta Umbría (Huelva), ignoradas hasta hoy por la bibliografía específica. A pesar de no haber sido ejecutadas, estas propuestas han permitido constatar las intenciones de la Obra Sindical de dar continuidad a su novedoso modelo de organización y control del descanso de los trabajadores durante la etapa final del régimen franquista, un periodo en el que, sin embargo, asistiremos a la pérdida de la hegemonía sobre las costas españolas de la institución estatal Educación y Descanso en beneficio de las arrolladoras promociones de apartamentos y hoteles de promoción privada que ocuparán a partir de entonces las privilegiadas posiciones a pie de playa. Este contexto obligará a introducir variaciones sustanciales sobre el modelo objeto de este trabajo ante la ineludible necesidad de competir con otras actuaciones que en el orden privado se comenzarían a ejecutar en el litoral español. Situado este episodio de las ciudades de vacaciones de Educación y Descanso dentro del debate sobre la gestación del fenómeno turismo de masas en España, se abren ahora nuevos interrogantes que conducen a futuras líneas de trabajo, como desentrañar las causas reales que llevaron a la Obra Sindical al abandono prematuro de un modelo aparentemente exitoso, o identificar las posibles reminiscencias del mismo sobre otras propuestas de organización del ocio turístico en el territorio implementadas en las décadas posteriores, como los denominados resorts turísticos que tan en boga estuvieron en España a partir de los años noventa. ; [ENG] The proletarian class in Spain had to go through a long and tedious journey of some decades until the final attainment of the right to a paid annual vacation. This historical demand was fulfilled in the Republican Constitution of 1931 and consolidated some years later with the enactment of the Jurisdiction of Labour in 1938. It made the Franco's regime face the challenge of devising models for the organization of leisure and vacation of workers. With an eye towards those similar experiences carried out previously by other totalitarian regimes in Italy, Germany or Portugal, the so-called Trade Union Work of Education and Rest established a complex network of hostels and summer residences with different locations throughout Spain, being significant the number of this kind of facilities located in the coastal area. The clear success that the labour of this State institution had among the working class in the first two decades of Franco's regime favoured the perfect setting for the implementation of a new model for the organization, as well as the control, of Spanish producers' rest and summer leisure: holiday cities of education and rest. Promoted during the middle part of the 1950s, the Trade Union Work of Education and Rest built three holiday cities for workers in Spain. They were performed ex nihilo as self-sufficient settlements, strategically located in privileged plots at the beach and intended not only to guarantee the rest of its residents during the summer holidays, but also to a political indoctrination which would be covertly implemented in the relaxed atmosphere that these holiday facilities offered. The model of holiday city of education and rest, object of a deep study in this research, has its starting point at Larga beach, in Tarragona, extending itself in a few years to two plots in Marbella and Perlora. Therefore, it became a subtle advance of what the next decade would bring to the Spanish coast. The present study intends to answer three questions about this new model of organization and control of proletarian rest in Spain. The first question is about the specificity that, as a consequence of its unique circumstances, this kind of holiday settlements is assumed to have. To do this, a comparative analysis has been carried out among holiday cities of Education and Rest and other alternative models for organization of working masses in the territory that at the same time would be developing in Spain, not only in the surroundings of the traditional industrial city, but also in the rural area. This is the result of the urbanization process that the National Institute of Colonization would subject to Spanish countryside. The second question, which is raised in this study after the development of the state of knowledge on the subject, deals with the possible continuity of the model over time. This research calls into question the specialized literature in the holiday cities of Education and Rest. This literature finds this model as a punctual and isolated fact from the fifties, hastily denying the existence of additional experiences promoted during the final stage of Franco's regime. The third and final question of this study focuses on the review of the model, trying to identify the probable influence that the change of context experienced with the arrival of the sixties had on it, when mass tourism phenomenon, both national and international, would definitely break into the almost unchanged coasts of our country. As a culmination of this research, some conclusions have been proposed as a resolution of the starting hypotheses formulated in the study. The identification of some parameters inherent in the three holiday cities performed by Education and Rest in the fifties, such as the specificity of its program or its special positioning regarding place and landscape, has proved to be decisive to demonstrate the uniqueness of these sets in relation to other models analyzed for the organization of working classes in the territory. Likewise, as a contribution to knowledge on the subject, two new projects of holiday cities promoted by Education and Rest have been documented in the second half of the sixties, in Guardamar del Segura (Alicante) and in Punta Umbría (Huelva), being ignored until today by specific bibliography. Despite not having been performed, these proposals have revealed the intentions of the Trade Union Work to continue its innovative model of organization and control of workers' rest during the final stage of Franco's regime. However, there will be a loss of hegemony of the state institution Education and Rest over Spanish coasts for the benefit of overwhelming promotions of apartments and hotels of private promotion which will be on privileged positions at the beach from then on. This context will force the introduction of substantial variations on the model being studied in this work because of the unavoidable need to compete with other performances which would privately start to be carried out in Spanish coast. Having placed this episode of holiday cities of Education and Rest within the debate on the gestation of the mass tourism phenomenon in Spain, there are some new questions leading to future lines of study, such as finding the real causes that made the Trade Union Work leave prematurely a model apparently successful or finding its possible reminiscences on other proposals for organizing tourist leisure in the territory being implemented in subsequent decades. An example of this aspect would be the so-called tourist resorts which were so popular in Spain since the 1990s. ; Escuela Internacional de Doctorado de la Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena ; Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena ; Programa Oficial de Doctorado en Arquitectura y Tecnología de la Edificación
*This series is the result of an adaptation of a paper presented as part of a seminar on "Theories and Research in International Relations" at Hebrew University, July 2012. Commentaries are welcome to daniel.wajner@mail.huji.ac.il Click here to read Part II of the series In the first article of this series we have introduced the debates on the ontology of power, while in the second one we have presented the main epistemological approaches of the different paradigms. In this third and final article we will deal with methodological schemes for Power Analysis in IR, while indicating areas for possible innovation using the "Arab Spring" cases as illustrations. Power, Outcomes, and what brings them togetherAs we have seen in the last part, the contribution made by Barnett and Duvall with his taxonomy of four dimensions of power is very helpful as theoretical framework; nevertheless, it is still weak to implement as a methodological tool - it is very difficult to distinguish in a real case what is originated through the structure or the actor, as well as to measure if the specificity is direct or diffuse.But the same could be expressed about the majority of the mentioned schemes. In fact, Dahl itself warned about the difficulties of combining variables to compare power relations and argued that it depends on the requirements of the research.1 This complexity is even larger when normative factors are included; for example, despite the proposal of Nye of measuring soft power through polls and focus groups, he also cautioned about the limits of the intangible variables.2 Hurt addresses certain ways of skipping the difficulties in measuring the power of legitimacy, such as examining: the rates of compliance, the reasons given for compliance and for non-compliance, the support given by the centers of Power and the need for legitimacy argument (akin to a counterfactual technique).3 But, once again, no combined power relations framework is presented.In addition, Lukes argues that power depends on the "significance" of the outcomes, namely, in the capacity of affecting the interests of the agents. He refers to two methods: by changing incentives structures (indoctrination) and by influencing interests (subject freedom). However, Lukes confesses that the main question remains open: how to use certain power to shape certain preferences?4In conclusion, in these approaches no power relation mechanism explains, in a measurable way, how material and normative resources are combined to shape power and influence decisions. Therefore, I would like to subsequently suggest a very simple framework that may allow us to implement the knowledge mentioned hitherto to study specific cases in IR.In line with the majority of the authors, in order to make power measurable I consider that we have to divide it in two variables: material power (or simply Power) and legitimation power (or legitimacy). In international politics, the power of an actor is expressed by its military (backed-by-economical) resources, and for the scheme it would receive "high" or "low" values. The legitimacy of the actors, which is based on their capacity to be perceived as norms-compliers and to build consensus around them5, would receive also "high" or "low" values.A power analysis based on the combination of those two variables, as it is shown below in illustration I, leads us to the taxonomy of four types of cases, each one ascribed to an "outcome". It is important to clarify that, for this paper, the outcomes would reflect the domestic situation of the main agent (the State) given an international system; it is a sort of outside-in analysis if we take into account Gourevitch´s second image reversed.6 Further work has to be done to adapt this scheme so as to explain the conduct of the State vis-à-vis other States as well as to include the domestic sphere of legitimacy.The first actor, which has high power and high legitimacy, could describe his situation as "stable"; that means, the actor would overcome the domestic and external challenges without internal changes and high international costs.The second actor, having high power but low legitimacy, is considered to be in a "changeable" situation. Although this actor is capable of overcoming internal and external challenges, due to the fact that it lacks of support from the other actors he could suffer from high international costs and possibly domestic changes.Illustration I – Taxonomy of Power-Legitimacy outcomesPOWERLEGITIMACYHigh PowerLow Power High Legitimacy "STABLE" "PROTECTABLE" Low Legitimacy "CHANGEABLE" "REVOLUTIONABLE" To the third actor, which has low power but high legitimacy, his situation is defined as "protectable". Due to his incapacity to overcome alone the internal and external challenges, this actor may count on the support of other actors to reduce the possibility of domestic changes; otherwise he will suffer from it.The fourth actor, with low power and low legitimacy, is placed in a "revolutionable" situation; that means, this actor is candidate to suffer from internal changes and high international costs at the time he would face challenges.Testing the Power Analysis framework with the "Arab Spring"The phenomenon known as the "Arab Spring", composed of dozens of countries in which massive protests were held, constitutes an outstanding test for the theory. A large quantity of those cases happened in a very short range of time, with all the variety of domestic conditions, reactions from the regime and from the world, as well as different outcomes. This makes those events ideal for the present examination; even though it is just a "sample" of a more deeply study.7Although no State of those that suffered uprisings is considered in a "stable" situation at all, Saudi Arabia and Jordan could be mentioned as good examples of Arab countries that combined high power (relatively, of course) and high legitimacy. Their regimes faced the uprisings from the beginning (mid-January 2011), but were capable of overcoming the internal challenges through a combination of repression and reforms, without suffering changes in their regime and being supported by the international community.Egypt is probably the best representation of a country whose regime kept high power at the moment of facing domestic challenges but received low legitimacy from the world; this "changeable" situation caused drastic changes at the top of the leadership (including the president, ministers, etc), albeit not of the whole regime (still leaded by the Military Council). Syria seems to be in a similar situation; while the power of the regime is still high, the legitimacy is not low enough to bring to major changes due to the sustained support of Russia, China and Iran. As a result, Syria constitutes today an excellent test for the power of legitimacy (and norms) in international politics.Between those countries that experienced a combination of low power and high legitimacy, experiencing a "protectable" situation, it is possible to mention Bahrain. Despite its regime was not capable of overcoming the internal revolts alone, it counted with the support of most of the Arab countries in the repression, and the Western approval of the "regional intervention" leaded by Gulf countries around the GCC. Yemen was in a comparable position, but at the end of 2011 the legitimacy of its regime was reduced when the region and the world understood the necessity to remove the President to maintain the remaining, in what was denominated later "the Yemenite option".Finally, Libya constitutes the case in which the regime was in a "revolutionable" situation, owing to its low Power to contain the rapid domestic rebellion and its low legitimacy after the first days of tremendous repression. The international costs were so high that included a military intervention leaded by NATO (with the endorsement of the Arab League), that led to the total collapse of the regime. It is possible to say that Tunisia was in an analogous situation while it did not need for a civil war and an external intervention to consummate finally a revolution (i.e., the complete removal of the existing regime).ConclusionsThroughout the paper we were able to observe that the ontological, epistemological and methodological discussions about the complex concept of Power maintain their relevance in the main schools of IR, and in some cases even constitute an essential part of their latest developments.At the same time, the inter-paradigmatic efforts of the last decades are demanding new power analysis approaches; that means, theoretical schemes that would embed a combination of the different factors at stake (material and non-material, resources and interactions, agents and structures) to specific cases of study.Deeper examinations of the "Arab Spring" cases need to be implemented so as to confirm the presented findings, as it was previously said. However, these small samples could possibly reveal that the implementation of a framework that combines both material and non-material resources is possible and, even more, desirable, to a better understanding of the devices of power in IR. 1 Robert A. Dahl, "The concept of Power", p.2142 Joseph S. Nye, Soft Power- The Means to Success in World Politics. p.63 Ian Hurt, "Legitimacy and Authority in International Politics". International Organization 53 No2 (Spring 1999), 390-3914 Stephen Lukes, "Power and the Battle for Hearts and Minds", p.4925 This short definition is based on concepts presented in Ian Clark, "Legitimacy in International Society" (London: Oxford University Press, 2005). It includes components both from the structure and the agent.6 Peter Gourevitch, "The second image reversed – the international sources of domestic politics" International Organization 32 No4, (Autumn 1978), 881-911.7 An investigation is "under construction", called "The Arab League and its legitimation role in the Arab Spring". It focuses on the power of the Arab League to yield legitimacy (or not) in six different cases. Bibliography Bachrach, Peter and Baratz, Morton S. "Two Faces of Power". The American Political Science Review 56 No4, (December 1962), 947-952 Baldwin, David A. Paradoxes of Power (NYC: Basil Blackwell, 1989). Barnett, Michael and Duvall, Raymond. "Power in International Politics", International Organization 59, No1 (Winter 2005), 39-75 Berenskoetter, Felix and Williams, Michael J. Power in World Politics. (NYC: Routledge, 2007) Bourdieu, Pierre. Language & Symbolic Power (NYC : Polity Press, 2001) Carr, Edward H., The Twenty Years' Crisis,1919-1939 (NYC: Harper Torchbooks, 1964) Clark, Ian. "Legitimacy in International Society" (NYC: Oxford University Press, 2005) Claude, Inis L., Power and International Relations (New York: Random House, 1962). Dahl, Robert A. "The concept of Power", Behavioral Science 2 No3, (July 1957), 201-215 Haas, Ernst B. When Knowledge is Power (University of California Press, 1990). Finnemore, Martha and Sikkink, Kathryn "International Norm Dynamics and Political Change," International Organization 52, No. 4 (Autumn 1998), 887-917. Foucalt, Michael. Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-77 (Brighton: Havester, 1980) Franck, Thomas M., "The Power of Legitimacy and the Legitimacy of Power: International Law in an Age of Power Disequilibrium." American Journal International 88 (2006), 88-106 Gourevitch, Peter. "The second image reversed – the international sources of domestic politics" International Organization 32 No4, (Autumn 1978), 881-911. Guzzini, Stefano, "The Concept of Power: A Constructivist Analysis" Millennium 33 No3, 2005, 495-521. Guzzini, Stefano, "Structural power: the limits of neorealist power analysis", International Organization 47, No3 (Summer 1993), 443-478. Hurt, Ian, "Legitimacy and Authority in International Politics". International Organization 53 No2 (Spring 1999), 379-408 Ikenberry, John and Kupchan, Charles A. "Socialization and hegemonic power", International Organization 44, No3 (Summer 1990), 283-315. Keohane, Robert O. and Nye, Joseph S., Power and Interdependence, 2nd edition (New York: Harper Collins, 1989) Krasner, Stephen D. "Regimes and the Limits of Realism: Regimes as Autonomous Variables", International Organization 36 (Spring 1982), 497-510 Lukes, Stephen. "Power and the Battle for Hearts and Minds", Millennium 33 No3, (2005), 477-493 Mearsheimer, John. The Tragedy of Great power Politics (NYC: Norton, 2001) Morgenthau, Hans J., Politics among Nations, 4th edition (NYC: Knopf, 1967). Nye, Joseph S. Soft Power- The Means to Success in World Politics (NYC: PublicAffairs, 2004) Putnam, Robert. "Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games," International Organization 42, No3, (1988), 427-460 Risse, Thomas. "Let's Argue! Communicative Action in World Politics," International Organization 54 No1 (Winter 2000), 1-40. Schmidt, Brian C. "Competing Realist Conceptions of Power", Millennium 33 No3, 523-549 Walt, Stephen. The Origins of Alliances (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987) Waltz, Kenneth. Theory of International Politics. (NYC: McGraw-Hill, 1979) Weber, Max. Economy and Society: An Outline of Interpretive Sociology. (California: University of Berkeley, 1978. Edited by Guenther Roth and Claus Wittich). Wendt, Alexander. "Anarchy is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics," International Organization 46 (1992), 391-425. Wendt, Alexander. "The Agent-Structure Problem in International Relations Theory", International Organization 41/3 (1987), 335-370. Fabian Daniel Wajner is a Research and Teaching Assistant at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (Department of International Relations) and a Fellow of the Liweranth Center for Latin America Studies.
In the National Financial Banking we find the celebration of specific contracts on The Guarantee Mobiliaria that come operating without difficulty, such it is the case of the contract of vehicular credit, constitution of guarantee mobiliaria and deposit solidary celebrated International Bank of the Peru S.A.A. - INTERBANK and the client. Another of the cases, is the one taken place by the Bank of Credit of the Peru with the Company of Transports Leopards SAC, with RUC. Nº 20480882106. Of the universe of the antecedents of this investigation, with more fame we find it in Julio's opinion Panez it Rocks, who affirms that the social economy of market that characterizes our social economy "it is the economy in which the intervention of the State is admitted as superior entity that regulates and it orders the exercise of the initiative deprived in benefit of the social interest, planning, rationalizing and fomenting the production, as well as it rules the distribution and consumption of the wealth in order to impel the economic development of the country." The investigation is justified because it will allow us to know the way of thinking of the Peruvian Society and especially of the Society Trujillana, on the financial world that demands a culture change and adaptation to the being of the capitalist society and that this last in its modern version it privileges like financial instrument to the Guarantee Mobiliaria, whichever it is its modality. As much in the problem as in the hypothesis it has been conjugated in different addresses the constituent variables of the financial market in the Peru, the models and political economic in such a way that our objectives drive us to be in favor of the Guarantee Mobiliaria like an effective instrument to energize the development of the country. In the results and discussion we have played the central topics of the Guarantee Mobiliaria and thinking especially of the Peruvian resident of the merchants, managers and industrial condensing them in the following topics: Macro Economy of the Peru, Globalization and Guarantee Mobiliaria in the Peru a Year 2009. In this title we solve the macroeconomic contradiction of the peacefulness of the country in front of the rest of the world and the one denominated economic drip doesn't benefit the Peruvian resident, standing out this contradiction characteristic of the social economic system in which our inmerso country is; it is joined to this contradiction the form and methods of thinking of the diverse social classes of the country that you/they don't still understand the dynamics and the financial rules of the capitalist pattern to adopt behavior, behaviors and attitudes in front of the novísima Law Nº 28677 that it regulates The Guarantee Mobiliaria like a technique of financial leverage. Thinking Micro-economic - Political and Social of the Peru a Year 2009. In this result inversely in front of the desbalance of the globalization in our country have found enough reasons to settle down that at microeconomía level and in the products of family consumption, that is to say, in the one denominated family breed the prices they fluctuate, they break outlines and they are to the unison of what happens in the international economic relationships and many of these activities of market of supplies begin to take enormous dimensions as for example the case of Martingale in Lima and in others that succinctly discuss him. Philosophical and Artificial Concepción of the Peruvian Economy. We arrive wing conclusion that the guarantee mobiliaria besides energizing the internal market and being of financial nature demands quick and deep changes in the mental outline from each one of the Peruvian residents as they sustain the theoretical ones that tie these philosophical phenomena to the economy and world facts as they are the fall of the Wall of Berlin, the emergence of the Czars of the Petroleums and of those who manage the terrorism of the drugs and the politics is civil or state. Thinking of the Social Economy of Market of the Peru; because the development of the German economy in whose society this economic model was invented you/he/she is completely different with the development of the Peruvian society; however as countries of the third world we are forced to think as the countries of the first world and in our political constitution of the Peruvian State of 1979 this model is constitutionalized that for the time being have serious difficulties to adopt it like appropriate model; however, our form of thinking is in a market economy to the Peruvian, reason for the one which our merchants, managers and industrial they don't understand the financial and technical dimensions of the use of the guarantee mobiliaria. The Initiative of the Private Economy as Alternative of Development. This is the spine of the capitalist pattern with face or without human face and he/she responds necessary, correlative and prioritarily to the existence of the Law Nº 28677 that it regulates the Guarantee Mobiliaria; in other terms, the ideological support - philosophical and economic of the private initiative it is the Guarantee Mobiliaria, because it rewards to the talents that energize to the internal or external economy of the country and with their you criticize or without them it is a reality of which no Peruvian should escape. The proposal for the effectiveness of the Guarantee Mobiliaria in the Peru that comes to be the corollary of the discussion of the previous results, for he/she will intend it like national project an educational program of so much financial order in the public institutions as private that they allow to change the Peruvian resident's commercial, industrial and financial paradigms to understand and to apprehend what is the guarantee mobiliaria and their great necessity to build in any social stratum a competitive national bourgeoisie against the strange capitals that he/she brings the globalization and nowadays they have us colonized as he/she is necessary in the data provided in the discussion of the results of this investigation. As regards conclusions and recommendations we arrive to intellectual and academic constructos that you/they respond to the objectives proposed to the beginning of the investigation and therefore these conclusions should be analyzed by the reader in function of the results and other articles of the investigation in order to be formed an appropriate trial and valorativo of what we propose in the whole investigation. Finally, we culminate the presentation of the investigation with the bibliography and the pertinent annexes. ; En la Banca Financiera Nacional encontramos la celebración de contratos específicos sobre La Garantía Mobiliaria que vienen operando sin dificultad, tal es el caso del contrato de crédito vehicular, constitución de garantía mobiliaria y fianza solidaria celebrado Banco Internacional del Perú S.A.A. – INTERBANK y el cliente. Otro de los casos, es el celebrado por el Banco de Crédito del Perú con la Empresa de Transportes Leopardos SAC, con RUC. Nº 20480882106. Del universo de los antecedentes de esta investigación, con mayor notoriedad lo encontramos en la opinión de Julio Panez Meza, quién afirma que la economía social de mercado que caracteriza nuestra economía social "Es la economía en la que se admite la intervención del Estado como ente superior que regula y ordena el ejercicio de la iniciativa privada en beneficio del interés social, planificando, racionalizando y fomentando la producción, así como regla la distribución y consumo de la riqueza a fin de impulsar el desarrollo económico del país". La investigación se justifica porque nos permitirá conocer el modo de pensar de la Sociedad Peruana y en especial de la Sociedad Trujillana, sobre el mundo financiero que exige un cambio de cultura y adecuación al ser de la sociedad capitalista y que ésta última en su versión moderna privilegia como instrumento financiero a la Garantía Mobiliaria, cualquiera que sea su modalidad. Tanto en el problema como en la hipótesis se ha conjugado en diferentes direcciones las variables constitutivas del mercado financiero en el Perú, los modelos y políticas económicas de tal forma que nuestros objetivos nos conduzcan a ser partidarios de la Garantía Mobiliaria como un instrumento eficaz para dinamizar el desarrollo del país. En los resultados y discusión hemos tocado los temas centrales de la Garantía Mobiliaria y el pensar del poblador peruano especialmente de los comerciantes, empresarios e industriales condensándolos en los siguientes tópicos: Macro Economía del Perú, Globalización y Garantía Mobiliaria en el Perú al Año 2009. En este título resolvemos la contradicción macroeconómica de la bonanza del país frente al resto del mundo y el denominado chorreo económico no beneficia al poblador peruano, resaltando esta contradicción propia del sistema económico social en el cual está inmerso nuestro país; se aúna a esta contradicción la forma y métodos del pensar de las diversas clases sociales del país que aún no entienden la dinámica y las reglas financieras del modelo capitalista para adoptar conducta, comportamientos y actitudes frente a la novísima Ley Nº 28677, que regula La Garantía Mobiliaria como una técnica de apalancamiento financiero. El Pensar Microeconómico - Político y Social del Perú al Año 2009. En este resultado inversamente frente al desbalance de la globalización en nuestro país hemos encontrado razones suficientes para establecer que a nivel de microeconomía y en los productos de consumo familiar, es decir, en la denominada casta familiar los precios fluctúan, rompen esquemas y están al unisono de lo que sucede en las relaciones económicas internacionales y muchas de estas actividades de mercado de abastos comienzan a tomar dimensiones descomunales como por ejemplo el caso de Gamarra en Lima y en otros que sucintamente lo discutimos. Concepción Filosófica y Jurídica de la Economía Peruana. Llegamos ala conclusión que la garantía mobiliaria además de dinamizar el mercado interno y ser de naturaleza financiera exige cambios rápidos y profundos en el esquema mental de cada uno de los pobladores peruanos como sostienen los teóricos que ligan estos fenómenos filosóficos a la economía y hechos mundiales como son la caída del Muro de Berlín, el surgimiento de los Zares del Petróleos y de quienes manejan el terrorismo de las drogas y la política sea civil o estatal. El Pensar de la Economía Social de Mercado en el Perú; pues el desarrollo de la economía alemana en cuya sociedad se inventó este modelo económico es totalmente diferente con el desarrollo de la sociedad peruana; sin embargo como países del tercer mundo estamos obligados a pensar como los países del primer mundo y en nuestra constitución política del Estado Peruano de 1979 se constitucionaliza este modelo que por ahora tenemos serias dificultades para adoptarlo como modelo adecuado; sin embargo, nuestra forma de pensar es en una economía de mercado a la peruana, razón por la cual nuestro comerciantes, empresarios e industriales no entienden las dimensiones financieras y técnicas del uso de la garantía mobiliaria. La Iniciativa de la Economía Privada como Alternativa de Desarrollo. Esto es la columna vertebral del modelo capitalista con rostro o sin rostro humano y responde necesaria, correlativa y prioritariamente a la existencia de la Ley Nº 28677 que regula la Garantía Mobiliaria; en otros términos, el soporte ideológico – filosófico y económico de la iniciativa privada es la Garantía Mobiliaria, porque premia a los talentos que dinamizan a la economía interna o externa del país y con sus criticas o sin ellas es una realidad de la cual ningún peruano debe escapar. La propuesta para la eficacia de la Garantía Mobiliaria en el Perú, que viene a ser el corolario de la discusión de los resultados anteriores, por lo se deberá proponer como proyecto nacional un programa educativo de orden financiero tanto en las instituciones públicas como privadas que permitan cambiar los paradigmas comerciales, industriales y financieros del poblador peruano para comprender y aprehender lo que es la garantía mobiliaria y su gran necesidad para construir en cualquier estrato social una burguesía nacional competitiva contra los capitales foráneos que trae la globalización y hoy día nos tienen colonizados como se precisa en los datos proporcionados en la discusión de los resultados de esta investigación. En materia de conclusiones y recomendaciones arribamos a constructos intelectuales y académicos que responden a los objetivos propuestos al inicio de la investigación y por lo tanto estas conclusiones deben ser analizadas por el lector en función de los resultados y demás ítems de la investigación a fin de formarse un juicio adecuado y valorativo de lo que proponemos en toda la investigación. Finalmente, culminamos la presentación de la investigación con la bibliografía y los anexos pertinentes.
Issue 48.3 of the Review for Religious, May/June 1989. ; R~z,.'n~w vor R~.t~3~oos (ISSN 0034-639X) is publishcd bi-monthly at St. Louis University by thc Mis- ¯ souri Province Educational Institute of the Society of Jesus; Editorial Office: 3601 Lindcll Blvd. Rm. 428: SI. l.x~uis. MO 63108-3393. Sccond-class postagc paid at St. Lxmis MO. Single copies $3.00. Subscriptions: $12.00 pcr year: $22.00 for two years. Other countries: for surface mail. add U.S. $5.00 per year; for airmail, add U.S. $20.00 per year. For subscription orders or changc of address, write: R~,.'u~w voa R~t.~Gous: P.O. Box 6070: Duluth. MN 55806. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Rv:vtv:w v(m REI.I(;IOtJS; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, MN 55806. David L. Fleming, S.J. Iris Ann Ledden, S.S.N.D. Richard A. Hill, S.J. Jean Read Mary Ann Foppe Editor Associate Editor Contributing Editor Assistant Editors Ma\'/June 1989 Volume 48 Number 3 Manuscripts, books fnr review and correspnndence with the editor should be sent to REvtEw wm Rr:t,t(;mt~s; 3601 Lindell Blvd.; St. la~uis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the department "Canonical Counsel" should be addressed to Rich-ard A. Hill, S.J.; J.S.T.B.; 1735 l~eRoy Ave.; Berkeley, CA 94709-1193. Back issues and reprints shnuld be nrdered from R~:\'t~:w vo~ R~:~,nntms; 3601Lindell Blvd.; St. la~uis, MO 63108-3393. "Out nf print" issues are available frnm University Micrnfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.; Ann Arbor, MI 48106. A major pnrtion of each issue is also available on cassette recordings as a service for the visually impaired. Write to the Xavier Snciety fnr the Blind; 154 East 23rd Street; New York, NY 10010. PRISMS . Color plays an important role in our human lives. Before modem psy-chological studies were done about color and its effect upon our human psyche, the Church emphasized color to highlight liturgical seasons and to enhance individual feast-day celebrations. Both the colors for deco-rating altar, tabernacle, and sanctuary and the colors for priestly vest-ments and stoles conveyed a mood or feeling of the season or feast. REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS over the past ten years has distinguished its is-sues within any one volume by color. Willy-nilly, whether by foresight or only upon reflection, color for us, too, tends to have a certain sym-bolic relationship to the seasonal and liturgical placement of an issue. An obvious point can be made with the blue cover of this issue--a blue which is associated with Mary, Mother of God and Mother of the Church, and with her special identification with the month of May. In more recent times, the popular place of Mary in the devotional lives of Catholics has dimmed. The Vatican II renewal of our liturgy and sacramental celebrations necessarily focused our attention and re-education upon the central mysteries of our faith-life. Devotions in their myriad forms of litanies, novenas, vigils or holy hours, and various other pious practices--whether in honor of Mary or of any of the saints-- naturally received less attention during this period. Our time and ,our en-ergies were being re-directed so that we could recapture the Eucharistic celebration and the other celebrations of sacraments with all the fervor and participation that marked our popular devotions. It sometimes appeared that, with popular devotions less emphasized, Mary and the saints were also losing their place in Catholic life. Instead, this has been a time of nurturing fresh growth, with new insights and em-phases to invigorate and renew our faith-lives. The recent Marian year stands as a proclamation of the renewed understanding of Mary's place in the life of the Christian faithful. In this issue, we look through four different prisms at Mary. The first article is "Mary in Contemporary Culture" by Father Stan Parmisano, O.P. Just as Mary has played a distinctive role in the various ages of the Church, for example, in the "lady" ideal of the Middle Ages culture, so we need to ask how our relation to Mary facilitates our Christian re-sponse to.the issues and values prevalent in culture today. The author 321 399 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 stimulates our own thinking about the hidden ways in which Mary might be said to be prevalent in our culture. The second article in this issue is "Through Mary" by Ms. Hilda Montalvo. As wife, mother, and teacher, Ms. Montalvo calls us all into a personal reflection upon what the dogmas about Mary mean to us. She points the way to seeing how Marian dogmas are necessarily Christian dogmas, helping us to clarify our own relationship with God and to en-rich the meaning of our human lives. Sister Mary Eileen Foley, R.G.S., writes the third article on Mary, raising the question in her title, "Reflections on Mary, Bridge to Ecu-menism?" In view of an existing Reformation tradition in which the honor given to Mary continues to divide Roman and Eastern Catholic and Orthodox Christian from the majority of other Christian churches, Sis-ter Mary Eileen suggests ways of seeing how a new understanding of Mary may well be in our day a true ecumenical bridge. The fourth article allows us all to pursue further at our leisure the most recent writings on Mary. Father Thomas Bourque, T.O.R., pro-vides us with a selected bibliography of writings about Mary which have been published between the time of Paul VI's exhortation, Devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary, and John Paul II's encyclical, Mother of the Redeemer. Hopefully this compact bibliography can serve as a helpful resource for a fresh and renewed understanding of Mary's role in the lives of Christian peoples. Finally, I will note that in a newly added section to our Book and Cassette Reviews area, called "For the Bookshelf," we have briefly noted the contents of a few books about Mary just recently published. I hope that you will find the occasional addition of this section to Re-views a help in highlighting those recently published books, which we want to note and can often group around certain themes or issues. David L. Fleming, S.J. Mary In Contemporary Culture Stan Parmisano, O.P. Father Stan Parmisano, O.P., is Regent of Studies for the Western Dominican Prov-ince. He teaches at the Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley, California in the area of Religion and the Arts. His address is 5877 Birch Court; Oakland, California 94618. ~ have been asked to specify the difference Mary, the Mother of Jesus, makes or can make in our contemporary culture. Let me first propose some principles, or basic thinking, that may help toward a fruitful dis-cussion of the complex of issues and subjects involved in the question. Afterwards, we may consider some of these particulars in terms of Mary and her possible role within them. We think of the presence or absence of Mary, as of Jesus, in terms of visibility or of imaginable or intelligible content. Thus if there is a dearth of "thinking" about Mary or of images of her, we would say that she is absent in our time; on the contrary, we would say that she was pre-sent in former times, especially in the medieval and early renaissance worlds, when she was quite "visible" in the content of theology, art, architecture, poetry, music. But there is another kind of presence: invis-ible, unconscious, the presence of form rather than content, the kind of presence we are asked to look for, say, in non-representational art or in music, or in poetry where the music or rhythm precedes idea and image and helps create them. t This is a presence of thrust, of dynamic, of spirit ¯ . . like that of the Spirit of God (ruach Elohim) hovering over the yet unformed waters of chaos and warming them toward visibility and life. I want to suggest that perhaps Mary is present here and there in our time in this last manner, and that we should strive to promote her more universal presence in this direction as well as in that of visible content. In fact, this is the direction in which we should seek to define culture 323 324 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 itself. Culture is not a matter of any one specific content or subject or activity nor of all taken en masse. Rather, it is the inherited dynamism or spirit or form that produces each of them in all their various nuances, though it itself is affected and reshaped by them.z The same is true with regard to God and Jesus: it is not so much the content of our thought about them, not the images we have of them that is telling, but what un-derlies these, beyond thought and image, inspiring and shaping the con-tent of our belief. I would regard Mary in a similar way. In the earliest Church there was not, perhaps, much content or visibility of Mary, at least when com-pared to Jesus and his male disciples, to Paul and his entourage. But, to borrow an image from one of her later lovers, I would suggest that she was there from beginning to end as "atmosphere," as "world-mothering air, air wild," as form or spirit shaping the emerging thought and action of the Church.3 Certainly it was in her modest context, her "atmosphere," that Christ was preserved from mere myth and acknowl-edged as substantially and earthily human (so Paul's almost casual aside: "born of a woman"). By the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance that spirit had blossomed into a fullness of content. Then that content be-gan to harden till in some instances and locales it quenched the moving spirit and became identified with Mary. And could it be that Vatican II tried to recover her spirit, the "form" of Mary? If so, we must not mis-take what it had to say about Mary for the fullness of Mary but, with its beginnings, refocus on the thrust of Mary in our time and beyond. In speaking of Mary's presence in this way I would hope to suggest another presence, that of the Holy Spirit. Saint Maximilian Kolbe spoke boldly of Mary as the quasi-incarnation of the Holy Spirit, emphasizing the latter part of this hyphenation. Since then, less venturesome theolo-gians have accentuated the quasi.4 In any case few Catholic theologians will deny Mary's special and intimate relationship with the Spirit. They go hand in loving hand, indissolubly Wedded--not only because they were cooperatively together at the conception of Christ and later at the birth of the Church, but because they have a kind of natural affinity. Both are hidden, in the background as it were, but dynamically so, strik-ingly reemerging at critical moments in Jesus's adult years--as when the Spirit leads Jesus into the desert to prepare him for his ministry, and when Mary, waiting for Jesus "apart from the crowd," inspires in him the revolutionary declaration as to his true and lasting kindred (Mk 3:31 - 35). There are other shared characteristics. These are discoverable in cer-tain movements or thrusts of our time, and I suggest that we look here Mary in Contemporary Culture / 395 for the presence of Mary/Spirit in our time as well as in any explicit Marian theology or devotion. Some of these revelatory movements are as follows. The interiorization of religion. Certainly emphasis today is on the sub-jective aspect of belief and morality. Even those who rightly uphold the objectivity of belief and morals are concerned more than ever with lib-erty of conscience, personal and cultural limitations of understanding, the virtue of prudence and its largely intuitive functioning, the unique-ness of a given "situation," the restoration in one form or another of casuistry(the individual case). But interiorization, subjectivity, intuition are of the unpredictable Spirit "who blows where he wills" and of the traditionally feminine rather than of the predictably and predicting ra-tional and the traditionally masculine. Purged of all excess and distor-tion, they are, in other words, of the Holy Spirit and Mary. Contemplative prayer. In the last twenty to thirty years there has been in the western world a mounting interest in and practice of medita-tive prayer, sparked by eastern imports such as TM, Zen, Yoga, and now developed along lines of traditional Christian contemplation. This prayer is seen now to be not just for the select few, mainly among nuns and monks, but for all in whatever walk of life. Here is obviously another aspect of interiorization and the letting go of content in favor of a poised and expectant darkness. It is not a looking to what is outside (image, word, symbol, creed) but to what is within, to the private, personal "reve-lation," to what God is "saying" to me here and now--like a pregnant woman turned inward, quietly aware of the mystery growing within her. Here again is the Holy Spirit praying within us when, as St. Paul tells us (Rm 8:26-27), we do not know what to pray for (that is, when all con-tent is surrendered) and here is Mary, the silent, surrendering contem-plative par excellence. Unseen, unfelt, they are at the heart of so many today who are trying to pray such prayer, and so many others desper-ately in need of it if only to avoid being torn apart and scattered by the noise and confusion of a world off-center. Ecumenism. Another mark, and need, of the contemporary Church is ecumenism, conceived now as the unification not just of the various Christian churches but of the worldreligions as well. Again we may see here the stirring of.the Spirit who is the bond of love, the vinculum cari-tatis, uniting Father and Son, the one hovering over the deep bringing, at the Father's Word, order out of chaos, the one forming and securing the one Church in the beginning. And as Mar~,, with and in the Spirit, brought to birth the one undivided Christ, so is her labor today with re- 326 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 gard to the Church. It is the opinion of many Catholic theologians that Mary should be downplayed today so as not to offend our Protestant broth-ers and sisters and thereby impede ecumenism. I should think it would be just the opposite, providing the depth of Mary is presented, which is her spirit, her form more than her traditional content; yet the latter, in the purity of Church teaching and practice, is of marked importance, too, for itself and for what it reveals of her spirit and the new directions that spirit may take, for all the churches, in the future.5 Social Justice. Whereas in former times we would speak of charity and the works of charity, now the cry is for justice and the doing of jus-tice: we do for the poor not so much out of our love and their need as out of our sense of justice and their rights. Again, in the past justice has been in the main the province of the male, the one actively engaged in the world, in politics, business, civil defense, and so forth. But women are more and more coming to the fore in it, seeking justice for themselves and for the marginal and oppressed in general. Here we may note a fresh dynamic of Mary--the seed of which, however, was there from the be-ginning. Thus those writing of Mary today, particularly women, view her in the context of the women of justice in the ancient Hebrew world-- Esther, Deborah, Judith--and see a whole theology of social justice in Mary's Magnificat.6 And if the movement toward social justice is of the Holy Spirit, who as creative Love seeks balance, harmony, substantial peace and concord, then, yes we can find, if we look, the Spirit's spouse at work with the Spirit toward the same goal. Mary, while drawing us within in contemplative stillness, also directs us outward to the Christ who lived and lives in our objective, tangible world and identified him-self with the quite visible poor and needy. She points to this Christ dwell-ing outside us as well as within, just as does the Holy Spirit who, as the gospel tells us, is there to remind us continually of all Christ has visibly done and audibly spoken. Perhaps part of the new "content" of Mary today is this visibility of the woman in works of justice and peace, not as having lost the interiorization, the contemplative spirit, the gentle, mothering love of her past, but as gaining something in addition: the hid-den life while, paradoxically still remaining hidden, come forth openly to help heal the world. Mary remains what she was in the past and there-fore under the press of current need becomes someone new for the pre-sent. When considering Mary in her relationship to women, past and pre-sent, we must be cautious. Christ is male; his maleness is part of his his-tory, and history is important in the religion known as Christianity. But Mary in Contemporary Culture / 327 his maleness is meant mainly as a means of access to his humanity and person which are neither male nor female. Christ is equally for both men and women, though, of course, in different ways according to different psychologies and cultures. However, the h~stoncai fact of Christ s male-ness has often dominated our thinking about him, with regretful results; as when, in spite of changes in psychologies and culture it is used to jus-tify an ongoing exclusive male ecclesiastical leadership. Similarly with Mary. Her femininity is a providential part of her history, but it is as a human being and person that she is of greater moment. Accordingly she is for the man as well as the woman; she serves both equally and both are equally to learn from her, though, again, in different ways. Yet her femininity has had its influence, for good and bad. For bad." it has tended to limit our ideal of the Christian woman to what it was in Mary's own day and to which, accordingly, she herself was in good measure bound. For good: it has softened our conception of God and so made our ap-proach to God easier, more inviting, loving rather than fearful. In and through the gospels, past art and poetry and drama, seeing God in the arms and in the care and "power" of this then insignificant Jewish woman--quiet, gentle, lowly, we find some of that same womanhood rubbing off, as it were, on Father God. A fair part of the accessibility of Jesus himself, his merciful compassion, is the fact that he has Mary as his flesh and blood mother. Without her, would we be altogether con-vinced of the mercy of God and the understanding compassion of Jesus? Here is one way in which the "content" or dogma of Mary has affected us in the past, with its mark still upon us, thankfully. In the present thrust of woman toward justice, with Mary behind (and before) her, it would be tragic if this content were surrendered in favor of one that is hard, merely active, superficially and imitatively masculine. Eventually God himself might regress into the terror and cruelty of past and present dark religions. Mary, the Spirit, and Christ Above I recalled the bold but, to my mind, accurate Mariology of St. Maximilian Kolbe. Mary is the spouse of the Holy Spirit in a unique way, such that we can speak of her as the very incarnation of the Spirit, with some reservation (quasi). As indicated above, some Catholic theo-logians are embarrassed by this as by much else in the Church's past the-ology and practice concerning Mary. They think it an exaggeration of the biblical teaching and find it an impediment to union with our Protes-tant sister churches. As to the first objection we must insist that Scripture was not meant Review for Religious, May-June 1989 to stand alone: it sprung up out of the Church (community of believers) and its seeds are meant to grow within the Church under the care of the same Spirit who once inspired it. There was an initial content, to be re-spected as the Spirit's word through all time; but there were also drives, dynamisms within the original word, forms yet to find their specific con-tent or matter. Thus the gospels' powerful presentations, lovingly and carefully lingered over, of the relationship between Mary, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit cry out for meditation and penetration and so the revelation of truths beneath the surface. Thus we have the doctrines of the Immacu-late Conception, Assumption, the Queenship of Mary, and so forth; and her quasi-incarnation of the Spirit. This last is not to make a god of Mary. The gospels are clear on this score: Mary is the handmaid of the Lord, his lowly servant. Rather it is to point up something in God--the femininity, womanhood,, motherhood of God. Mary can be looked upon in two ways: as an historical person, flesh and blood, the daughter of Anna and Joachim (or of whomever), the physi-cal, natural mother of Jesus. Here she is all and only human. But she must also be seen as symbol, but the special kin~ of symbol that makes what is symbolized present in very reality. Thus as the Eucharist does not simply remind us of Christ but makes him really present upon our altars, so Mary does not simply recall the Holy Spirit to our minds and point us in the Spirit's direction; she makes the Spirit. really present among and within us. Seeing her we see the Spirit, as seeing the Eucha-rist we see Christ himself. This is a good and legitimate reason for ad-dressing the Spirit as feminine--not as a sop for the marginal woman but simply because as there are reasons for addressing God as Father or Son there is this equally cogent reason for addressing God as Mother.7 As in time, in the mystery of the Incarnation there is eternal Father, mother Mary, and Son Jesus, so in eternity there is Father and Son with mother-ing Spirit as their bond of Love. As for the difficulties such teaching may hold for ecumenism, they may be only initial difficulties. As suggested above, if we view Mary and present her in terms of form, thrust, spirit, and not just as already shaped content, and if we continually move deeper within this content in context of present needs and lawful desire, perhaps Protestants will eventually come to see what Catholic belief and theology have long since held as truth and will thank us for having led the way back home, as we have reason to thank them for having helped bring us back to much that had been lost. One final remark before considering some of the specifics of our sub- Mary in Contemporary Culture / 329 ject: it has to do with Mary's relationship with Christ. Again, in sensi-tivity to Protestant criticism and in reaction to exaggerated statements about Mary and misguided devotion to her, Vatican II and ecclesiastical documents and theology since have been most careful to insist upon the subjection of Mary to Christ. Salvation is through Christ alone; he is the one mediator between God and humankind. There is little if any talk about what formerly there was lots of talk about, namely of Mary as co-redeemer and mediatrix of all graces. Such theologizing, it is believed, and the devotion arising from (or producing) it detracts from the power and mission of Christ. But I wonder if we are not here misconceiving power and the whole matter of Christ's redemptive work. We seem to be equating Christ's (God's) power with power as we ordinarily think of it: dominating rule, often exclusive. But Christ's power is not univo-cal with ours, and he himself quite literally took the greatest pains to turn the tables in the matter: "You know how those who exercise authority among the gentiles lord it over them . It cannot be like that with you. Anyone among you who aspires to greatness must serve the rest . Such is the case with the Son of Man who has come, not to be served by others, but to serve" (Mt 20:25-28). And what about the power of love, which is Christ's power, or that of helplessness: the power of the sick to draw upon the strengths of oth-ers to heal and console, the power of the ignorant to create scholars and teachers, and so forth? I have often observed that the one with most power in a family is not the father or mother but the newly born baby, the whole life of the family revolving around the child precisely because of its powerful helplessness. If this seems farfetched relative to God, we have only to think of the Christ child in the crib at Bethlehem and the adult Christ upon the cross on Calvary. And what of the power of one who knows how to share his or her power, which requires greater strength, ability, "power" than to keep it all to oneself? I should think the great power of Christ, of God himself, is most manifest in the power to empower, to raise others to his very life and level. Jesus at the Last Supper remarked: "I solemnly assure you, the one who has faith in me will do the works I do, and greater far than these" (Jn 14:12). Not ex-clusive but inclusive--such is the power of Christ. Though our Holy Father in Redemptoris Mater follows Lumen Gen-tium in insisting upon Mary's subordination to Christ, h~, together with the Vatican II document, reiterates an old principle we ought to consider with equal care: "The maternal role of Mary towards people in no way obscures or diminishes the unique mediation of Christ, but rather shows 330 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 its power" (emphasis mine). Why not assert this aspect of Christ's power and see Mary as true queen "at the side of her Son," as the encyclical expresses it? Indeed, for centuries and still today, at least in our Christ-mas liturgies and devotions, we see the King rather in the power of his mother and in her arms, enfolded by her who gives him to the nations: "and so entering the house, (they) found the child with Mary his mother. Who am I that the mother of my Lord should come to me . He went down with them then, and came to Nazareth, and was obedient to them . Figlia del tuo figlio, queen of heaven" (Mt 2:1 I ; Lk 1:43; Lk 2:51; T. S. Eliot, Dry Salvages, after Dante's Paradiso, xxxiii). In one mariological conference that I attended the speakers were in-sistent that we not view Mary apart from Christ. I kept thinking yes, but might not the reverse also be true: we must not view Christ apart from Mary. In Redemptoris Mater, John Paul several times reminds us of the indissolubility of the bond between Mary and Jesus and explicitly de-clares that "from the very first moment the Church 'looked at' Mary through Jesus, just as she 'looked at' Jesus through Mary." Christ does not want to be viewed in splendid isolation with everyone insisting that everything and everyone else is subordinated to him. His own image of himself is of one who serves, just as Mary's self-image is of the Lord's handmaid, neither thought less of their dignity for that: "Behold, all gen-erations shall call me blessed" (Lk 1:48). Mary is the first-fruits of the redemption, the Church in promised fulfillment, the Mother of the Re-deemer, of God himself, the spouse of the Holy Spirit and the effective symbol of the Spirit's presence and action in the world--this woman who embodies the very motherhood of God holds the new creation in her arms and nurtures it, just as she did her divine Son centuries ago. She has a greater, more powerful (loving) role in the work of redemption than much of our present theology is prepared to concede or any of us begin to imagine.8 At the conclusion of Redemptoris Mater we read: ". the Church is called not only to remember everything in her past that testifies to the special maternal cooperation of the Mother of God in the work of salva-tion in Christ the Lord, but also, on her own part, to prepare for the fu-ture the paths of this cooperation. For the end of the second Christian millennium opens up as a new prospect." Our Holy Father also calls for "a new and more careful reading of what the Council said about the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of God, in the mystery of Christ and the Church . " Renewed thinking about Mary and action relative to her Mary in Contemporary Culture / 33"1 are called for.9 But we are to do our thinking and acting in the context of both Scripture and the wider tradition, and of current need. We are to listen to the living Spirit as "she" shows within this treasure, Mary, both the old and the new. Mary and Some Specifics of Culture: Psychology In light of the above generalized reflections on Mary and contempo-rary culture I would like to comment briefly upon several segments of our culture in terms of Mary's possible role within them. In the area of psychology, so overwhelmingly influential in the shaping of our contem-porary culture and such an intimate part of it, it depends on what psy-chology we are talking about. If it is Jungian depth psychology, we need not look long or far to find Mary's place within it. Much of the work has already been done by the master and his disciple. Jung maintained that ideas and archetypes such as the anima, the intuitive, the dark, the yin--in general, the feminine--are underdeveloped in our western cul-ture, with disastrous results. His psychology must go even further today and add they are also on the wane in much of the eastern world in com-petition now with the west in its masculine drives toward action and domi-nance, rational knowledge and acquisition. This psychology's percep-tion, then, of the need for Mary or some equivalent dynamic is evident. Jung himself expressly spoke of the need in terms of Mary. He rejoiced over the definition of the doctrine of Mary's assumption, declaring it to be "the most important religious event since the Reformation." At last the feminine was given the exaltation it requires and deserves.~° However, as suggested above, and as Jungian psychology insists, we must not think of the feminine exclusively in terms of the woman. In the past maybe so, and in our present world still many women may be said to possess more of the "feminine" than do men. But feminine charac-teristics are meant to be part of the male psychology as masculine ones of the female, and cases abound where dominance in one or the other is reversed. I think of the two great sixteenth-century Carmelites. Both Teresa of Avila and John of the Cross had the organizational skills and drives and other "masculine" traits appropriate to founders and reform-ers of religious orders, and in these Teresa, as evidenced in her numer-ous religious foundations and governance thereof, may be said to have surpassed John. Again, both were richly passive, intuitive, contempla-tive, steeped in dark and mystery and in cleaving, passionate love, all notable feminine characteristics. Yet it is John, at least as revealed in his poetry, who appears the more feminine: he is the anima, the woman pas-sive under the strong and passionately active love of a quite virile God. 332 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 To what extent, therefore, the feminine characteristics are de facto ¯ found in women more than in men may be moot. But they are definitely the major component of the psyche of the woman Mary as she appears in the gospels. Mary's strong, paradoxically active passivity (she brings .forth the Word as she receives it), her alert and watchful hiddenness, her concern and compassion for those in need (Cana) and for the suffering (Calvary), her motherhood (of Christ and the Church), her deep, loving fidelity (from thefiat of Nazareth and before to that of Calvary and be-yond) are purposely emphasized that both men and women might real-ize their indispensability in each life that would be Christ's. They are also underscored to draw our attention to the feminine in Christ, whom oth-erwise we might tend to view simply as masculine: visibly out front, ac-tive in his preaching, teaching, healing, immersed in religious contro-versy-- a male among a world of males. In the context of his mother (and the other women who surround him), Jesus is still masculine but we are forced to attend to the deep roots of his masculinity, which is his femi-nine Spirit: his passivity (his prayer and passion), his hidden life even as he actively encountered the world, his cleaving love and compassion unto death, his motherhood (Mt 23:37; Lk 13:34). In Mary's presence, her "atmosphere," such qualities of Christ are not simply seen, but they are seen to be the best of him. Jesus was so powerfully and creatively masculine--such a leader for his time as for all time--because his mas-culinity was rooted in and suffused by the feminine, the Spirit. It is Mary who as his mother nurtured him in this, and who helps draw our atten-tion to it. It is she, then, who as our mother nurtures us in the same Spirit and in a similar way. As for other psychologies suffice it here to say that Mary should be looked for behind and within any therapy working toward healing and wholeness. Again, it is Christ who is the healer, but it is Mary who in-itiates the process by bringing Christ to birth, in the world at large and in each individual. Mary, one with the Spirit, struggles and groans in each of us to bring us to the wholeness, the sanity of Christ. Like her, and with her, we concentrated on the activefiat that allows it all to hap-pen. Politics, Economics, Sociology In the political, economic, and sociological concerns of our time Mary points up the need for the hidden, the contemplative, and for uni-versal justice (as in her Magnificat), and, though unnoticed, she is be-hind and within all creative efforts toward these ends. The absence of the contemplative, of the feminine in general, in contemporary politics Mary in Contemporary Culture / 333 is evident, and results have been tragic. Because they lack roots, our poli-tics, both domestic and foreign, change even as they are being formed; and this condition is aggravated by lack of goals other than immediate and pragmatic. But it is the contemplative spirit that gives depth and con-stancy and lights up the future and beyond. Also, our current concentration is upon superficial differences and divisions (my need, my race, my country, my self) rather than on our deeper oneness, which only contemplation, in the one God-centered form or another, can reveal and promote. Further, the disturbance we experi-ence within and among nations may well have as its root cause the fail-ure of the contemplative, the fruit of which is "the peace that surpasses understanding." And so we find divisions among us, the growth of fear, the expan-sion of military might to safeguard our "own" war or the cold threat of war. We look, then, to Mary, universal Mother and Queen of peace, for political healing. She is already there, in this felt social need, but also in those religious orders of men and women whose main concern is con-templation. One of the concrete ways in which the state might help work its own remedy, and so implicitly acknowledge Mary in its functioning, is itself to encourage and promote contemplative communities within its boundaries. These would help make up for the failure of prayer else-where and would be invitation and incentive for the rest of us to unite ourselves with them, at least from time to time, and so help bring our nation and the world to greater depth, unity, and peace. If the need for Mary and what she represents is obvious in politics, it is more so in the field of economics. Here the masculine dominates to the complete exclusion of the feminine, and material concerns have been so isolated from the spiritual that never the twain do meet. This is especially disturbing when we realize that it is economics that determines even our politics. Science too, as technology, is subordinated to it and dominated by it. Indeed, economics has become the dominant factor of our culture or a-culture; it is our pseudo-religion, often becoming, in fact if not in theory, the determining force in more legitimate and traditional religion. If, then, Jesus needs to be born into our world today, it is cer-tainly here in our economic systems and practice. And if born here, he may begin to penetrate the rest of our world. So once again we look to Mary to mother Jesus where he is most needed and we do what we can to help her in the birthing. To see sociology in terms of Mary is to reconsider love. Whatever the other theories as to the origin of society, from the Christian perspec- 334 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 tive it is love that first brings us together and, accordingly, it is love that is society's fundamental problem. So from its beginnings Christianity has taught that the basic unit of society is not the individual but the family which (ideally) is the product of love; and social workers, I believe, would readily agree that it is the lack of love, with the resulting fear and loneliness, that is their chief concern. But today love which is meant to unite is itself fragmented. Sex, in-tended to be integral with love, has been divided from it and made to function alone with all the consequent evils, both mental and physical, that plague our society. The inward-outward directions of love have also been severed, so that now it is either love of self (inward) to the exclu-sion of others or the love of others (outward) to the neglect and loss of self. One of the results of this is the breakup (further division) of the fam-ily which, accordingly, is now challenged by sociologists as the de facto basic unit of society. Mary can and, in secret ways, does have a curative place in all of this. Her love was integral. It reached out to others in and through Christ's large love; indeed, she brought that very love to birth. But she also reached deep within herself to the Spirit of love wherein she found her personal growth and happiness: "All generations will call me blessed." True, she "knew not man." But this does not mean her love was sexless. It is the myopia of our time that sees sex as having but one kind of expression. Mary can alert us to look for the depth in sex and sexual love and so open to us new possibilities of love. And love restored to wholeness should work toward the restoration of the centrality of fam-ily with consequent diminution of fear and loneliness. The Arts and Sciences Mary can have, and has, her place in those areas of our culture known as the arts and sciences. In any presentation or exercise of the hu-man, as in the arts and sciences, we are to see Christ, of course, but also Mary who, in her Immaculate Conception and her conception and birth-ing of Christ, was the first to bring the human to perfection. But as in Christ the human is perfected in and through the divine (Christ's person and divine nature) so also we find Mary bringing the human to perfec-tion in, through, and toward the divine. Again, it is a matter of whole-ness, which our contemporary world tends always to divide. Apart from the divine the human can only degenerate into the inhuman; but with the divine all of its gifted potential is realized. It is in this sense that the only true humanism is Christian humanism. Thus in the arts and sciences Mary is present as they express and promote the human, and she is dy- Mar), in Contemporary Culture / 335 namically present, moving them forward and deeper into the divine to become divinely human. Christ alone might be said to suffice for this: he is the one who in his very person brings the human to perfection. But Mary gives assurance of and added emphasis to Christ's humanity (he is of herflesh) and his divinity (she is Mother of God) and is responsible for the becoming of these in our world (she conceives and nurtures the perfect human being). She is behind the process of the arts and sciences. Here, then, as elsewhere in our contemporary world, Mary, together with her Son, may be found, not just as a possibility, but as actively engaged in shaping a reemerging culture. Our concern ought to be to look for them together and, having found them, enter into their work. NOTES ~ "I know that a poem, or a passage of a poem, may tend to realize itself first as a particular rhythm before it reaches expression in words, and that this rhythm may bring to birth the idea and the image; and I do not believe that this is an experience peculiar to myself." T. S. Eliot. "The Music of Poetry" in On Poetry and Poets (New York: 1957), p. 32. z Eliot again: "Culture cannot altogether be brought to consciousness; and the cul-ture of which we are wholly conscious is never the whole of culture: the effective culture is that which is directing the activities of those who are manipulating that which they call culture." Christianity and Culture (New York: 1949), p. 184. For Eliot's summary definition of culture see p. 198. 3 Gerard Manley Hopkins in "The Blessed Virgin compared to the Air We Breathe." 4 Ren~ Laurentin, indeed, disapproves of the expression altogether, reserving the term "incarnation" for that bf Christ alone~ However, he proceeds to speak of Mary as "pure transparency for the Spirit . . . she is wholly relative to the Spirit; this indeed is at the very core of her deep relationship to Christ and the Father." "Mary and the Holy Spirit," in Mary in Faith and Life in the New Age of the Church (Ndola- Zambia: 1983),"pp. 287-288. 5 See note 9 below for C. Jung's defense of Mary, precisely as in Catholic dogma, as a remedy for a defective Protestantism. In a letter to The Tablet, Sept. 5, 1987, p. 944, Dora Bede Griffiths, writing from his ashram-in Tamil Nadu, South India, suggests a rapprochement, between eastern religions and Christianity through the femi-nine. He notes that in Hebrew the "word for the Spirit (ruach) is feminine and in the Syrian Church, which spoke a form of Aramaic, which is close to the Hebrew, reference was made to 'our Mother, the Holy Spirit.' " The same for the Hebrew word for Wisdom (hokmah): it too is feminine and "this Wisdom is described as 'coming forth from the mouth of the Most High' as a feminine form of the Word of God." He suggests the possible enrichment of our Christian tradition by contact with Hinduism which "has no difficulty in calling on God as 'My Father, my Mother' and with Mahayana Buddhism which conceives of the highest form of Wis-dom as a feminine figure. Dora Bede does not mention Mary here, but it is my sug-gestion that she it is who concretizes the divine feminine, gives it flesh. Thus she 336 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 is the one who, rather than impede universal ecumenism, is meant to help in its re-alization. 6 There are the fine women theologians writing on Mary, such as E. S. Fiorenza and E. Moltmann-Wendel. But I am also thinking of the poets who perhaps do even more to deepen and broaden our knowledge and appreciation of Mary: a Caryll Houselan-der of the past generation and an Ann Johnson of the present. For the Magnificat especially, see the latter's Miryam of Nazareth: Woman of Strength and Wisdom (In-diana: Ave Maria Press, 1984). 7 In his essay "Sur la maternit~ en Dieu et la feminit6 du Saint-Esprit," Escritos del Vedat !I (1981), Yves Congar argues from Scripture and Tradition to the femi-ninity of the Holy Spirit, but is here silent as to Mary's role in the "sacramentiz-ing" of it. The essay may also be found in Theology Digest 30:2 (Summer, 1982) pp, 129-132. 8 Solus Christus, as solafides and sola scriptura, requires severe qualification. For centuries Catholic theologians have argued vigorously against ~he two latter formu-lae. They have been rightly suspicious of such exclusivity in view of the fullness of Christian revelation. For the same reason, perhaps, they should also challenge the solus Christus, this time in view of the fullness of Christ who is our revelation. 9 In an interview carried in America (June 6, 1987), pp. 457-458, Cardinal Suenens stressed the incompleteness of Vatican II's declaration on Mary. "I felt we needed to say more . She is not merely an historical figure; from the beginning she has been given an ongoing mission to bring Christ to the world." ~0 C. G. Jung, "Answer to Job," in Psychology and Religion: West and East, trans. by R. F. C. Hull, Bollinger Series XX (Pantheon Books, 1958), p. 464. Jung goes on to criticize Protestantism for its criticisms of the dogma. "Protestantism has ob-viously not given sufficient attention to the signs of the times which point to the equal-ity of women. But this equality requires to be metaphysically anchored in the figure of a 'divine' woman, the bride of Christ." Jung realizes that the dogma does not give Mary "the status of a goddess," still "her position (now) satisfies the need of the archetype." 1 don't know how this last can be, however, unless it is in and through Mary that we recognize that within the godhead itself the feminine is real-ized in the Person of the Spirit. Through Mary. Hilda S. Montalvo Hilda Montalvo is currently teaching at St. Vincent de Paul Regional Seminary in Boynton Beach, Florida. She is a wife and mother, currently a candidate for a Doc-torate in Ministry. She has completed the graduate program in Christian Spiritual Guid-ance from the Shalem Institute for Spiritual Formation in Washington, D.C. Her ad-dress is 7151 Pioneer Road; West Palm Beach, Florida 33413. The other day at a Lay Ministry workshop there was a spontaneous burst of applause when I shared my way of praying Mary's life. From the be-ginning of my spiritual journey over twenty years ago I have had an in-tuitive knowledge that the objective "facts" and titles about Mary were important not only because they honored and revered the mother of God but also because they spoke of my reality as a human being and a Chris-tian. These Marian dogmas have helped me to clarify and understand my basic assumptions of myself, my relationship with God, and the mean-ing of my life. I have always had a problem with original sin. To inherit Adam's sin is simply not fair, and so at seven I became an agnostic. The idea of a God that punishes and condemns innocent people--and I experi-enced myself as innocent--was repulsive and frightening. Christianity was not good news. If I was good, if ! kept the commandments, then God would love me. The dogma of the Immaculate Conception simply meant that God had wai.ved that evil from one person. To be born with original sin was bad enough but at least it was a shared human experi-ence and it explained (somewhat!) evil and death. But if Mary was born without it, not only was she not totally human but her "fiat" was pre-destined and she had no actual freedom. Christianity became good news when I realized that the fall/ redemption concept of original sin was simply one way of understand- 337 331~ / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 ing the Genesis story. The traditional interpretation of the story of Adam and Eve posits a paradise lost because of disobedience and the conse-quent punishment of suffering and death. But modern biblical interpret-ers such as Brueggemann are recognizing that the fundamental revela-tion of Genesis is that God's creation is good and that God is constantly gracing and blessing it. God made man and woman in "our" image and it was very good. That has to be the most important assumption of our spiritual life. Each person must come to a personal conviction of this truth that is not only an intellectual response but a lived, grounded ex-perience. The story of Adam and Eve is now being understood as that moment in history when human beings first become self-consciously aware, the first truly human act. Before that there was simply undifferentiated ex-istence; total unconscious dependence on environment and relationship, such as each baby.lives through his or her first year. The process of be-coming self-conscious, of becoming autonomous, in a child can be de-scribed a bit facetiously as the "terrible two's," in humankind, as the Fall. Original sin is not a 'thing' that we are born with: it simply de-scribes in mythological language our natural tendency for independence. Catholicism has always affirmed that grace builds on nature. Crea-tion spirituality, which has its origins in the earliest writer of the Bible, the Yahwist, emphasizes the constant presence and blessings of God in spite of the seeming sinfulness of his creatures. The main thrust of the whole Yahwist Saga which culminates in that beautiful and simple story of Balaam and the talking ass (Nb 22:25) is to celebrate God's refusal to curse his people and his insistence of unconditional love and bless-ing. We, like Balaam, are blinded by our needs and expectations. Per-haps .the Immaculate Conception is yet another reminder of our innate gracefulness? Could not this be the fundamental celebration of baptism? Jesus experienced the unconditional love of his Father at his baptism; we celebrate this same unconditional love and our acceptance into a lov-ing community at our baptism. Mary's Immaculate Conception could be the reminder of God's unconditional covenant with each one of us and the celebration of his covenant through one individual. It is not a nega-tive gift--but a positive statement: God is with us and for us. Original sin (and now I can begin to forgive God and Adam!) is the mythical explanation of our desire for independence from God and his creation--autonomy--with the inevitable consequence of alienation and death. Baptism is the celebration of the fact that God not only loves us unconditionally but is present within us and among us; it effects what it Through Mary / 339 signifies. The truth and hope beyond individualization is unity with God and interdependence with others--co-creators of the parousia, paradise, but now conscious and mature and in freedom. Mary is the archetype of this truth which has been named as Immaculate Conception. At the experiential level I resonate with Mary's "fiat." I also have experienced, am experiencing, the overshadowing of the Holy Spirit and have been afraid and anxious. I also wrestle with the "how" and "why" and the "why me." I also (carefully and tentatively) have said "fiat" and Christ has become incarnate, is now conceived, and contin-ues to be conceived in my life moment by moment. I also have felt com-pelled to go forth and share this good news with others. I give birth daily to Christ in my family, in my ministry. I also sing daily "My soul mag-nifies the Lord, my spirit exalts in God my savior." Mary's story is my story and every Christian's story. She is the ar-chetype of the Disciple as well as the archetype of Woman and Mother for both men and women. An archetype, in Jungian terms, is an image in thepsyche that when recognized and owned can serve to integrate be-liefs, feelings, and behavior. Unless one allows the Word to be con-ceived within one's very being, Christianity remains barren and lifeless, a moral code. It is onlywhen I become willing to accept the transform-ing gracefulness of God's love and presence in my life that I become ca-pable of writing my own Magnificat. As I journal the events of my life I become aware that God "has done great things for me," not least of which is to radically change my values and priorities. Mary is both virgin and mother. If this is understood only in the physi-cal sense, it is simply a faith statement that speaks exclusively of Mary. Mary "undefiled" stands above and beyond created reality, sexuality, and life itself. By implication, then, all persons who express their love sexually, even in stable and committed relationships, are impure, cor-rupted, polluted, tainted, or unclean. The list of synonyms in Roget's Thesaurus is much longer. But dogmas and doctrines speak of the truth of our nature and our relationship with God and with one another. Thus it behooves Catholic Christians to question what God is revealing through this dogma. Might it not mean that "perpetual virginity" means a life of integrity and innocence in any walk of life? Every disciple must conceive and birth Jesus; must be reborn; must be both virgin and mother regardless of his or her sex or sexuality. This way of perceiving Mary's virginity and motherhood can be especially fruitful for men who, in Jung's terms, project their ideal image of woman instead of accepting and owning their own femininity or anima. Mary Review for Religious, May-June 1989 within, for all disciples, symbolizes openness, receptivity, gentleness, gracefulness--many of those feminine virtues that have been lacking in our contemporary society. As a wife and mother I recognize and celebrate both the gift of moth-erhood and the wholeness and purity of my own life that is bespoken of through virginity. In and through motherhood I continue to be uncon-taminated, unprofaned, spotless, unblemished, andchaste. As I pray this dogma I become more comfortable with the paradoxical reality of my own inner being; I begin to name and own my authentic self; I become more open and vulnerable to the healing presence of Christ within. To meditate on the dogmas of Mary in this fashion helps us come in touch with the paradoxical nature of creation. It helps us to see be-yond the either/or stance that divides, judges, and creates conflict and war. It helps us to accept that much broader vision of both/and that is so freeing and encompassing. It helps us to see and understand the dif-ference between facts and Truth, between knowledge and wisdom. It is an invitation to live and enjoy mystery, to be surprised by newness and resurrection and Presence. Meditating on the dogma of the Assumption can be especially help-ful for us in recognizing our projections of the categories of time and space unto life after death. We were taught that heaven and hell were places for all time---eternity. Purgatory was a transient place of purifi-cation. The time and place one went to depended on one's choices. All very neat and logical--and totally contradictory to Revelation. The mag-nificence and mystery of the Spirit's presence in the Church is especially obvious in this dogma of the Assumption. Again we must take it seri-ously and symbolically--in the deepest sense of symbol which is to point beyond the literal sense to the mystery of which it speaks. Mary, the Dis-ciple, is assumed, taken up into heaven, body and soul, after her death. In mythological language she passes into timelessness and spacelessness. She simply is. Westerners tend to equate rational thought with knowledge, thus de-nying intuitive, imageless wisdom. The Assumption--as the Resurrec-tion- is revealed knowledge that goes beyond rational logical thought into mystery and Truth. But as finite human beings we factualize and ex-teriorize the nameless, misunderstand symbol, and live mystery as if it were actuality. The invitation of the dogma of the Assumption is to .let go of our need to understand, to know, to control, and simply trust the goodness and kindness of God. The invitation is to live this life to the fullest and trust that God will take care of our future--name it resurrec- Through Mary / 341 tion or assumption. The invitation is to experience beyond imagining and to live with the paradox of knowing but not understanding. My skepticism/agnosticism has served my faith in the sense that by doubting, questioning, and mistrusting religious experience I have not succumbed to superstition or fanaticism. On the other hand--as was pointed out to me by a wise fellow-traveler--skepticism was also an "ego defense, behind which lies a fear of change and loss of control that giving in to the religious experience may bring." Gifted with this insight I have consciously approached the dogma of the Assumption with as much of an attitude of "letting-go" and an open mind as possible. This has allowed me to see beyond the constricting barriers of space, time, matter and form. It has encouraged me to become open to mystery and surprise and to think in other terms than those of classical theology which comes to logical and rational conclusions about the mystery of God: "It is fitting and right." The Assumption means that when I die I become present. The.As-sumption means no more time, space, dualism, paradox. The Assump-tion means no more becoming. All the barriers to fullness of life that I have struggled with either because of environment or because of genes will disappear and I will become--I am, one with Christ. Catholics have traditionally prayed "through Mary to Jesus." This archetypal way of praying Mary, in fact, allows Jesus to become incar-nate in our very being. As I "ponder" the Immaculate Conception I be-come aware of the goodness of creation and my innate gracefulness; I conceive Jesus' within me by the power of the Holy Spirit; I give birth to him daily and discover him in others; I slowly let go of my need to control through power and knowledge. Through Mary belief statements become faith experiences; factual knowledge becomes lived Truth. I can then say with Paul: "I live now not with my own life but with the life of Christ who lives in me." Some Reflections On Mary, Bridge To Ecumenism? Mary Eileen Foley, R.G.S. Sister Mary Eileen Foley, R.G.S., has been teaching courses in Scripture in a par-ish and to her own Sisters, in addition to her free lance writing. She has been princi-pal and teacher of special needs of teenage girls. Her address is Convent of the Good Shepherd; Cushing Hill Drive; Marlboro, Massachusetts 01752. The hopeful days of ecumenism following Vatican Council II in the 1960s highlighted a maj6r difference between Catholics and Protestants, namely, devotion to Mary. For a long time after the Reformation in the sixteenth century, there was an absence of any productive or even respect-ful communication between us, and consequently there was little under-standing of each other's point of view, especially regarding the mother of Jesus. Historical Background Devotion to Mary, an outstanding characteristic of most Catholics, became the dividing line, with symbolic rather than logical origins. Mary represented Catholicism, against which the Reformers were protesting on the Continent. About the same time in England, the suppression of Catholicism un-der Henry VIII was more specifically directed against the papacy. The destruction of monasteries, however, depri red the people of religious in-struction and centers where Mary was honored; as a consequence, devo-tion to her almost died out. Elizabeth I, motivated politically rather than religiously, continued her father's efforts to dominate Ireland, capitalizing on the anti- Catholic movement by implementing the policy of "Anglicization 342 Mary, Bridge to Ecumenism? / 343 through Protestantization." In Ireland, the mere possession of a rosary was sufficient evidence of treason against the Crown, and was punish-able by death. Under Cromwell's dictatorship in England, Anglicanism, as well as Catholicism, was repressed, and even the celebration of Christmas was forbidden. "Where was the Blessed Mother in thought and practice if her son's birthday was repudiated by the law of the land?"~ Divinity vs. Discipleship Influenced by the history and the politics of the times, misunderstand-ings grew in regard to the Church's attitude toward Mary. Protestants were disturbed about the apparent centrality of devotion to Mary; it seemed to be taking something away from Christ. Non-Roman Catho-lics balk at giving Mary the title of "Co-Redemptrix," fearing that Christ will be displaced as unique mediator of salvation.2 In time, Catholics were able to hear Protestants voice their concern about our apparent "divinization" of Mary, yet countless explanations to the contrary did not seem to convince them, either to put their fears at rest or to allow them the comfort and friendship of the Mother of God. The Council actually approached the subject of Mary with the concerns of non-Catholics in mind, even over the objections of some of the bish-ops, who felt that ecumenism should not be the focus of a document on Mary. Some wished her to be declared Mediatrix of All Graces, but this did not happen at the Council. Actually no separate document on Mary materialized. In the final analysis, Mary appears in the context of the document on the Church. In a discussion of Christ (the Redeemer) and the Church (the Redeemed), she is very clearly identified with the Church, the people of God, rather than with Christ, the Son of God. The document portrays her, not as Christo-typical but as Ecclesio-typical. The implications of this decision were far-reaching indeed. First, this is a very different focus from that to which we have been accustomed. We have tended to see Jesus and Mary together, and while Mary was by no means deified, we did tend to .pray to them together. We looked up to them. Her stance now, however, is with us, the re-deemed, the beneficiaries of the passion and death of Christ. Discipleship Part of the reason for the change seems to be the emphasis on Mary's role in Scripture as disciple. As a hearer of God's word, she is an out-standing disciple of Christ, and she is logically first among his disciples :344 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 and members of the Church. The concept of disciple, clearly presented in .the Scripture, seems to be more acceptable to our Protestant brethren and carries with it no overtones of divinity. All four Evangelists as a matter of fact paint her portrait as the faith-ful disciple, and in so doing, they reflect this role as seeming to surpass her title of Mother of God. "Blessed is the womb that bore you and the breasts that nursed you," cried a woman in the crowd, to whom Jesus responded, "Yea, blessed are they who hear the word of God and keep it" (Lk 12:27-28). "Your mother and brethren are outside, awaiting you," he was told, and he deftly responded with a question: "Who is my mother? Who are my brethren? He who does the will of my Father, is mother, brother, and sister to me" (Mk 3:31-35). Near the cross of Jesus stood his mother and the disciple whom Je-sus loved. "Woman, behold thy son," he said; then to John, "Behold thy mother" (Jn 19:25-27). Jesus is speaking to his ideal followers, who henceforth will model discipleship for all who desire to follow the Mas-ter. It struck me while comparing these Gospel passages that the Evan-gelists are at great pains to demonstrate that Mary's dignity comes from the fact that she was a woman of faith, which is the outstanding charac, teristic of a disciple. She was open to the word of God and completely obedient in carrying out whatever it called her to do. Whether it was ac-ceptance of the angelic message ("be it done unto me according to thy word," Lk i:38) or responding to the call to go to Bethlehem, then Egypt, and finally Calvary, she modeled clearly for us what the disciple of Christ should be. Grace and Discipleship No one, it seems, could be faulted for honoring one who followed Christ so perfectly. Yet, here again, differing beliefs on grace playa part. Protestants believe that salvation is effected by God alone, that hu-man nature plays no role. Protestants tend to view human nature as totally corrupted by sin, and grace as the merciful disposition of God to forgive and to treat the sin-ner as justified . To speak of human cooperation is to underestimate either the radical nature of human sin or the absolute gratuity of grace. In this perspective (from the Protestant point of view) the use of Mary's fiat becomes a primary example of Catholic presumption of God's sov-ereignty, making God dependent on humanity or making a creature mu-tually effective with God in the work of redemption.3 Mary, Bridge to Ecumenism? / 345 Resistance to the title "Co-Redemptrix" is related to this belief also. The Catholic point of view has been adequately stated, and to quote Tambasco again: "Mary's life simply reflects the fullest effects of grace which enable a faith-filled freedom that responds to and engages in the sovereign work of God in Christ .F.reedom does not substitute for grace, or grace, freedom."4 Because she is preeminent in carrying out his word, Mary's signifi-cance lies, according to the synoptics, in this characteristic of disci-pleship, more than the fact that she is Jesus's natural mother. At the foot of the cross, howe~,er, the beloved disciple, John, and the faithful disci-ple, Mary, seem to be called to discipleship in terms of a family rela-tionship, specifically that of mother and son. The role of disciple now seems to be expressed best in terms of mothering! Discipleship And Motherhood Actually, Mary conceived Jesus by means of an act of faith, the mark of the disciple: When the invitation to be Christ's mother is proposed to her, she says, "Behold the handmaid of the Lord; be it done unto me according to thy word" (Lk 1:38). And then the Word becomes flesh . Faith comes first, and then motherhood. John, too, is to carry out his discipleship in similar terms. In his First Letter, John's words are as tender as any mother's: "Remain in him now, little ones . See what love the Father has bestowed on us in letting us be called the children of God! Yet that is what we are' (1 Jn 2:28; 3:1). Mothering is what disciples do. Whatever our ministry is, we hope to bring to it compassion and caring. As a teacher l felt honored to be involved in nurturing the intellectual and spiritual growth of students. The Scriptures are full of mother images that apply not only to a disci-ple but were, in fact, chosen by the Lord for himself. The scriptural im-age of Christ weeping over Jerusalem is very explicit: "How often have I wanted to gather your children together as a mother bird collects her young under her wings, and you refused me!" (Lk 13:34). The disciple of Christ shares in his life-giving approach to those to whom he has been sent. Life-giving calls up images of motherhood, and lately it has been very popular to speak of God as Mother. Julian of Nor-wich often prayed to "Mother Jesus." Mary images motherhood for us, not only her own, but the motherhood of Christ as well. Even the Apos-tle Paul says: "You are my children, and you put me back in labor pains until Christ is formed in you" (Ga 4:!9). Finally the God of the Old Testament speaks through Isaiah: "Can 346 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 a mother forget her infant, or a woman be without tenderness for the child of her womb? Yet even if she should forget, I will never forget you" (Is 49:15). It looks to me that, although Protestants accept the fact that Mary is the mother of.Jesus, they do not seem to see her as their mother, too. While we sometimes see ourselves in the role of mothering, at other times we, too, need to be nurtured or affirmed. The mother of Jesus seems to be a natural one to turn to, especially since we understand that she has been given to us in the words spoken to John, "Behold thy mother" (Jn 19:27). The motherly qualities so ~befitting a disciple are surely present in a special way in Mary, the paramount disciple of all. Doctrine, Scripture, And Tradition Another possible ecumenical barrier regarding Mary is the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (Mary conceived without sin) and the dogma of the Assumption (Mary taken into heaven, body and soul.) A dogma is a doctrine that has been presented for belief, and the idea of the evo-lution of dogma is an enlightening one for many, Catholics included. A doctrine emerges from tradition, which has been explained as follows: Tradition is the living faith experience of the Church which preserves the truths enunciated in the Scriptures but also explicates these truths, draws out what is hidden, and develops more fully insights consistent with but not wholly expressed in the biblical text.5 As has been better expressed above, sometimes a dogma affirms what was not known in complete form from the beginning, but devel-oped from reflections on, for example, the mystery of the Incarnation, and has been the constant teaching of the Church for centuries. Dogma may appear to have been imposed exteriorly, in a context that is a-historical. The vagueness of its scriptural basis is difficult for Protestants, who are biblically, and therefore, historically, oriented. Rootedness in history and Scripture, sources that are being mined assiduously by Catho-lics today, may well provide the undergirding necessary to place devo-tion to Mary in properperspective for all. The aforementioned dogmas on Mary were defined during what we now call the Marian Age (1850 to 1950), although they have been part of the tradition of the Church since the sixth century. Belief (in the Assumption) originated not from biblical evidence nor even patristic testimony but as the conclusion of a so-called argument from convenience or fittingness. It was fitting that Jesus should have res-cued his mother from the corruption of the flesh and so he must have Mary, Bridge to Ecumenism? / 347 taken her bodily into heaven.6 At the end of the sixth century, they began to celebrate the Immacu-late Conception in the East, but it remained unknown in the West until the eleventh century . To eastern ears, which had a different under-standing of original sin, it meant only freedom from mortality and genu-ine human weakness.7 Such doctrines are based on what has been described as "theology from above," or an understanding of the Incarnation as originating in the Trinity. When the Father sent his Son to earth to be born of the Vir-gin Mary, it was incompatible with his nature that the Son would inherit original sin, taught to be transmitted through birth into the human race. Therefore, it was appropriate that Mary be conceived immaculate. The honor is for the sake of Jesus, not Mary. The Communion Of Saints An understanding of the communion of saints, a belief shared by both Catholics and Protestants, may be helpful in seeing Mary's role more clearly. The idea seems to have originated with the martyrs who gave their lives for Christ, and, as a result, were believed to be enjoying his presence and the rewards of their sacrifice. Obviously, they would be in a unique position to be allowed by God to hear the prayers of those still struggling on and would be willing and able to offer these petitions for help to Christ himself, in whose presence they now live. The idea of intercessory prayer is accepted by most people, who pray not only to the saints who have distinguished themselves in the service of God, but to their own friends and relatives who led good lives on earth and as-suredly are still mindful of the needs of those they have left behind. Peo-ple who are still living are also asked to pray for the intentions of oth-ers! That people should present their petitions to Mary in order that she might intercede with her Son for them follows logically in this tradition. It would seem that he would be especially attentive to one who was his model disciple on earth, to one who spent, her life hearing his word and accomplishing it, especially if she were interceding for one who was ask-ing her help to be an effective disciple also. - In ordinary life we often speak to someone with influence in order to present our case. Such is the nature of intercessory prayer, not to be confused with praying directly to Mary,'as if she were able to grant these petitions herself. Protestants dislike seeing Mary in the role of Media-tor, since Jesus Christ is the one Mediator. A movement at the Council to declare Mary Mediatrix of all Graces was scrapped, although this be- Review for Religious, May-June 1989 lief has been part of the tradition of the Church since the eighth century. The ecumenical dimension of the Council reflected the Church's percep-tion of herself now as a world church, with respect for the truth possessed by all churches. Theology -From-Below The contributions of Karl Rahner to contemporary religious thought seem to have great value for the ecumenical movement. Rahner, consid-ered to be one of the greatest theologians of our time, is especially im-pressed with the sacramentality of creation--the fact that God himself is revealed in his works. When creation first came from the hand of God as recorded in Genesis, it was seen to be good--to be holy. God was in his creation from the beginning. Although it was good, it was not com-plete, and in the p.rogress of time, all creation moves to fulfillment, which is finally achieved in Jesus Christ. Rahner's idea is that Christ emerged naturally from God's creation, rather than emphasizing his "being sent down from heaven." He says things often like "the more one is like Christ, the more he is truly him- ~elf." To be like Christ is to approach being a perfect human being. Rahner's ideas allow for experiential learning on the part of Jesus, like any human person going through the normal stages of growth and de-velopment. This Christology is very attractive to a Catholic today, and perhaps it has been better known to Protestants all along. This Christology does not deny his divinity, of course, but the em-phasis is very different from the implications of the theology:from-above design, which seems to emphasize his divinity more, although it does not deny his humanity. One argument advanced was that since one is the mother of a person, rather than a nature, it seemed logical to em-phasize Mary as Mother of God. "In 451," writes Charles W. Dickson, a Lutheran pastor who has served as Chairman of the Commission on Ecumenical Relations of the North Carolina Council of Churches: the Council of Chalcedon dealt with the subject of dual natures by af-firming the inseparability of the two natures, each nature being pre-served and concurring in one person (prosopon) and one subsistence (hy-postasis). 8 Reverend Dickson continues: If this Chalcedonian formulation is given serious attention in contem-porary Protestant thought, some feel the human nature of Christ will not continue to suffer the devaluation of the past, nor will, therefore, its pre- Mary, Bridge to Ecumenism? / 349 cursor in the Incarnation--the Virgin Mary.9 The title, Mother of God, does seem to imply that Mary is divine, and although Protestants accept Mary as the mother of Jesus, tradition-ally they seem to resist the title of "Mother of God." In pagan mythol-ogy, the mother of the god or gods was considered to be a goddess. There seemed to be anxiety in New Testament times from the beginning not to equate Mary with the pagan goddesses, and although this distinc-tion has always been understood by Catholics, it may have looked to Prot-estants that we were divinizing Mary. Popular Religion - An Aid To Ecumenism? In view of the ecumenical dimension, the relationship between sym-bol, basic human need, and religion is very important. Clifford Geertz says that religious symbols provide not only the ability to comprehend the world but to endure it. Man depends upon symbols and symbol systems with a dependence so great as to be decisive for his creatural viability and, as a result, his sen-sitivity to even the remotest indication that they may prove unable to cope with one or another aspect of experience, raises within him the grav-est source of anxiety. ~0 In worship, people tend to clothe God with attributes that will meet their innermost needs. Sometimes in the past the abstract definitions of the theologians left people cold. God was oftentimes seen to be a dis-tant, transcendent God, and a judging God, who dispensed rewards and punishments in strict accordance with one's deeds. People were longing to see him as loving and compassionate, like a mother. If ordinary Catholics had been accustomed to reading the Scripture for themselves, as they are beginning to do now since Vatican II, they might have experienced firsthand the motherly concern of Jesus for the poor, the sick, and the scorned. Probing the Bible now, one is touched, for example, by his attitude toward women, especially disgraced women, regardless of the disapproval of males present. I do understand, however, that Bible reading for Catholics was sharply curtailed at the time of the Reformation due to so many people leaving the Church because of pri-vate interpretation of the Scripture. We understand now that in God there is a perfect balance of so-called masculine and feminine qualities; thanks to insightsfrom psychol-ogy, we are more theologically sophisticated than our predecessors. How-ever, in the early centuries of Christianity, people turned to the feminine Mary, in whom they felt that they had a ready-made mother who cared 350/Review for Religious, May-June 1989 about them. Based, no doubt, on the idea of the communion of saints and the practice of asking for the intercession of the martyrs, who were surely with God, there was a normal development of devotion to Mary, who, as the mother of Jesus, w,a_.,s seen to be more than willing to help those for whom her Son died such a cruel death. Popular Religion And The Apparitions When Catholics finally turn to the Scripture for news of Mary, they are amazed at how little is there! The immense body of material that is available on Mary derives from tradition and also from popular religion, which is based on Mary's relationship to Jesus ~nd the needs of people. Our knowledge of her has been shaped also by .accounts of her various appearances throughout the world. However, as Tambasco comments: ". (the) return to biblical and ecumenical considerations has rightly reduced these devotions to a minor role (p. 71)." Their value is in the Gospel teaching that each affirms. The Church moves very slowly in granting approval for belief in ap-paritions, and even when approval is received, there is no obligation to believe. The one important guideline in regard to any appearance is the fact that nothing is presented or ordered that is contrary to the constant teaching of the Church. An example would be when Mary reportedly appeared to Catherine Labour6 in France in 1830 and to Bernadette Soubirous in Lourdes, also in France, in 1858, she said, "I am the Immaculate Conception," a tra-dition in the Church since the sixth century. At LaSalette she insisted on the observance of the Lord's Day, which the people were ignoring, treating Sunday as any other day. She also re-proved them for blasphemy and taking the Lord's name in vain, thus un-derscoring the second and third commandments. At Fatima she asked them to do penance and to pray for peace. In 1879 at Knock, in County Mayo in Ireland, she said nothing at all! She appeared with St. Joseph and St. John, beside an altar sur-mounted by a lamb and a cross, over which angels hovered. The Irish saw in her appearance a message of comfort for the persecution they had suffered for their faith, dating back to the sixteenth century. They iden-tified the symbols with those of the heavenly liturgy in the Book of Reve-lation, seeing in them an affirmation of their fidelity to worship. Priests had risked their lives to offer the Sacrifice of the Mass, symbolized by the Lamb. St. John the Evangelist is holding the Gospel book in one hand, with the other hand raised, as if he is making a point in a sermon. Mary, Bridge to Ecumenism? / 35"1 The theme or instruction accompanying each visit was not a new teaching in any way, but an old teaching which needed a new emphasis, depending on the times. When I was at Knock in 1987, I remember think-ing to myself: it really doesn't matter whether Mary actually appeared here or not! All around me at the shrine there was evidence of faith, as people prayed, participated in the liturgy, reflected on the passion of Christ at the stations, or were merely kind and friendly to each other. I felt a renewal of my own spirituality in such a faith-filled atmosphere. The element of pilgrimage is, of course, very strong at Knock, and pil-grimage from the earliest days has been a vibrant expression of popular religion among people. Pilgrimage Pilgrimages stemming from the apparition at Lourdes are legendary. According to Victor and Edith Turner (Image & Pilgrimage in Christian Culture, New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1978), who did an anthropological study on popular religion, people do not necessarily go on pilgrimage for the cure, but for the atmosphere in which their spiritu-ality is nourished. People see a pilgrimage, or a journey, as a symbol of the journey of life, and they value their association with fellow trav-elers oriented toward God in the service of neighbor. There is a leveling of classes on a pilgrimage; kings travel with ordinary folk, as will be the case in heaven. They volunteer as stretcher-bearers or wherever there is a need, and are energized in the role of service to their fellow human be-ings. In writing about pilgrimages to the shrine of Our Lady at Guadalupe, Segundo Galilea says that here the rich can discover the world of the poor and become sensitive to their need for justice and reconciliation. The movement towards Mary obliges the rich to go out of themselves and to meet the poor. It gives the poor a sense of security and allows them to meet the rich without apology, on an equal footing. Mary is, then, one of the rare symbols of integration in Latin America . ~ The apparition at Guadalupe in i 53 I, perhaps one of the first appa-ritions on record, is said to to be a large factor in popular religion in Latin America, and as a result, has given impetus to the liberation theology movement there. It has touched the hearts of the oppressed, making them feel that they are loved by God, and consequently raised in their own self-esteem, to the point where they are seriously struggling for self-determination in their living situation there. 352 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 Mary and Liberation Theology A new reading of Luke's gospel, which emphasizes salvation his-tory, yields much that is pertinent today in regard to saving, or liberat-ing, the oppressed. Accustomed as we are to seeing Mary as queen, it is a new thing for us Catholics to see Mary as a peasant woman as she was at Guadalupe, and, indeed, at Nazareth. It is a challenge for us to take another look at the Magnificat, which we sing every day in the Liturgy of the Hours. There are places in South America where the recitation of the Magnifi-cat is forbidden, as being subversive. Mary's song begins with the praise of God. "My soul proclaims the glory of the Lord; my spirit rejoices in God my Savior." The use of the word Savior emphasizes her stance with us, in need of salvation. She re-fers to herself as his lowly handmaid, on whom he has looked with fa-vor. All generations will call her blessed because he, the mighty one, has done great things for her. In countries where there is no middle class, but only the poor and the rich, who possess all the wealth of the land, the poor hear Mary's Magnificat message in the Virgin of Guadalupe: He has shown might in his arm; he has scattered the proud in their con-ceit. He has cast down the mighty from their thrones and has lifted up the lowly. He has filled the hungry with good things and the rich he has sent away empty (Lk 1:51-53). They look to God for the mercy he promised to "our fathers,"-- and here all peoples sharing the Fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of Christ, unite in looking back even to the patriarchs, to whom God prom-ised mercy and liberation, which was accomplished first through Moses and eventually through Jesus Christ. And now there is hope for these poor also. The Exodus and Exile theme of liberation fit the situaiion to-day. A new look at Scripture will allow us to see Mary as homeless and as an exile, driveh out of her homeland to Egypt for the safety of her child. Popular religion often forges ahead of the theologians, and the hier-archy has only recently given its approval to the liberation theology move-ment in Latin America. A Latin American theologian says that the Mariology of Vatican II was more preoccupied by dialogue and relations with Protestants than with the simple people and popular Mariology. What is important now is to prolong the'deep and rich Mariological affirmations of Vatican II by a popular Mariology, a renewed Mariology . ~2 Mary, Bridge to Ecumenism? / 353 The basic idea of this renewed Mariology is that Mary is the sign and sacrament of the motherly mercy of God towards the poor, of the ten-derness of God who loves and defends the poor (Puebla, no. 291). ~3 (ital-ics mine) How will these considerations serve as an ecumenical bridge for us? By recognizing the need among peoples for freedom of conscience, free-dom from oppression, freedom of religion, justice for all. It is said that the problem with the doctrines presented for belief in former days was not with the dogmas themselves, but with authority. (Belief in the Im-maculate Conception predated the Reformation.) The wording was that he who did not believe, let him be anathema! Even Martin Luther did not deny the doctrines themselves, but pronounced them pious opinions. John XXIII insisted that there be no condemnations! He condemned no one. Evangelization itself must be an invitation, even a lure, to Christi-anity. No one is to be coerced in this matter in any way. John Paul II in Mother of the Redeemer.says that the Church's jour-ney now, near the end of the second Christian millennium, involves a renewed commitment to her mission. In the words of the Magnificat, the Church renews in herself the awareness that the truth about God who saves cannot be separated from his love of preference for the poor and humble, expressed in the word and works of Jesus. These points are di-rectly related to the Christian meaning of freedom and liberation' (p. 51 ). One must be free from oppression in order to respond to the call of Christ to do one's part toward the building up of the kingdom of God. In discussing Mary's role at the wedding feast at Cana, when she ad-vised Jesus that "they had no wine," the Pope sees this as expressing a new kind of motherhood according to the spirit and not just according to the flesh, that is to say, Mary's solicitude for human beings, her com-ing to th'em in the wide variety of their wants and needs (P. 30-1). I feel that the orientation toward ecumenism observed at Vatican Council II, especially in regard to Mary, has borne fruit and hopefully will continue to do so in the future. I am intrigued by the interpretation offered by Edward Yarnold in regard to reconciling Protestants and Catholics in regard to the Immacu-late Conception and the Assumption. It is possible that Christians disagree over the symbolic form of doctrine, while not disagreeing over the theological meaning. Thus, Roman Catho-lics could take literally that Mary was immaculately conceived and then assumed into heaven, but that is just the symbolic meaning. Protestants might not agree with that, but could accept the ultimate theological mean- 354/Review for Religious, May-June 1989 ing that says God's grace requires response, providers conditions for re-sponse, and results in sanctification even after death. There would thus be theological unity with a plurality regarding symbolic meaning. ~'~ When the late Rev. Arthur Carl Piepkorn, was professor at Concor-dia Seminary, St. Louis, he explained that "other Christians" (he did not refer to them as non-Catholics) have taken hope from references to Mary at Vatican II as follows: It may yet happen in our time that there will come about a happy bal-ance between excess ardor in the veneration of the Mother of God and in excessive coldness to the role that God himself has given her in the drama of human salvation. If it does, as I pray it will, we shall see in our time what the "Mag-nificat" placed on the lips of the mother of God--'All generations will count me blessed.' Other Christians feel that the more we esteem Mary, the more we honor her Son; when men (sic) refuse to honor Mary, they really do not believe in the Incarnation.~5 NOTES ~ William L. Lahey, "The Blessed Virgin Mary in the Theology and Devotion of the Seventeenth-Century Anglican Divines," Marian.Studies,,XXXVlll (1987), p. 143. 2 Anthony J. Tambasco, "Mary in Ecumenical Perspective," What Are They Say-ing About Mary? (Ramsey, N.J.: Paulist Press, 1984), p. 54. 3 lbid, p. 57. '~ lbid, p. 58. 5 lbid, p. 60. 6 Richard P. McBrien, Catholicism (Minneapolis: Winston Press Inc., 1980), p. 873. 7 Ibid. 8 Charles W. Dickson, Ph.'D., "Is a Protestant Mariology Possible?" Queen of All Hearts (Vol. XXXIX, No. 4) Nov./Dec. 1988, p. 26. Quoted from Willison Walker-- A History.of the Christian Church, p. 139. 9 lbid, p. 26. ~0 Clifford Geertz, "Religion as a Cultural System," Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion (London: Travistock Publications, Ltd., 1968), p. 13. ~ Segundo Galilea, "Mary in Latin American Liberation Theologies," ed. Bertrand de Margerie, S.J., Marian Studies, XXXVIII (1987), p. 57. ~2 Victor Codina, "Mary in Latin American Liberation Theologies," ed. Bertrand de Margerie, S.J., Marian Studies, XXXVIII (1987), p. 49. ~3 Ibid. 14 Quoted in Tambasco, What Are They Saying About Mary? p. 64. ~5 "Lutheran Hails Mary in Vatican ll's Words," The Boston Pilot (June 29, 1973), p. 2. Prayer and Devotion to Mary: A Bibliography Thomas G. Bourque, T.O.R. Father Thomas Bourque, T.O.R., is Chairperson of the Philosophical and Religious Studies Department of St. Francis College in Loretto, Pennsylvania. He has been involved in youth ministry, parish ministry, and the ministry of Catholic education and adul( education. His address is St. Francis College; Loretto, PA 15940. The Marian Year is meant to promote a new and more careful reading of what the Council said about the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of God, in the mystery of Christ and of the Church . We speak not only of the doctrine of faith but also of the life of faith, and thus of authentic "Marian spirituality," seen in the light of tradition, and especially the spirituality to which the Council exhorts us. Marian spirituality, like its corresponding devotion, finds a very rich source in the historical expe-rience of individuals and of the various Christian communities present among the different peoples and nations of the world. John Paul II Mother of the Redeemer, #48 ~,lohn Paul II invites all of us to reflect upon our.journey of faith with our Lord in light of our relationship with his Mother Mary. As many Catho-lics and Christians continue to question the role of Mary in the Church today, the Pope's encyclical is very timely. Solid devotion to Mary can only spring from an authentic knowledge of her role in salvation history. The Mariology of John Paul lI's encyc-lical, Mother of the Redeemer, as well as the Mariology of Paul Vl's ex-hortation, Devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary, can truly be summed in the words of Paul VI: "In Mary, everything is relative to Christ and de-pendent upon him." Both pontiffs remind us that Mary is never to be 355 356 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 considered in isolation. She must be seen in relationship to Christ, the head, and to his Body, the Church. Both Paul VI and John Paul II con-tinually link Mary to Christ, and not only is Mary Mother of Jesus, but also to the Church. The basic principle of Mariology is that Mary is Mother and Associ-ate of the Redeemer. She is a woman of faith, simplicity, loving avail-ability, and a disciple of faith. As a follow-up to the Marian year, the following selected bibliogra-phy is offered as an aid for reflection and prayer. This selected bibliog-raphy can serve as a guide to study and reflection on the contemporary devotion to Mary. The concentration of this work is a modern approach to Mariology from the time of the apostolic exhortation, Devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary, to the time of promulgation of the encyclical let-ter, Mother of the Redeemer. The selected bibliography is divided into four sections. The first sec-tion consists of books which deal with Marian prayer, devotion and spiri-tuality. The second section lists articles from periodicals from the years 1974 to 1987. Encyclicals and pastoral letters are cited in the third sec-tion, while typescripts and tape cassettes of value are cited in the fourth section. Books and Pamphlets: Ashe, Geoffrey. The Virgin. London: Routledge and Paul, 1976. ¯ Bojorge, Horacio. The Image of Mary: According to the Evangelists. New York: Alba House, 1978. Branick, Vincent P., ed. Mary, the Saint and the Church. Ramsey, New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1980. Brown, Raymond E., ed. Mary in the New Testament. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1978. Buby, Bertrand. Mary: The Faithful Disciple~. New York: Paulist Press, 1985. Callahan, Sidney. The Magnificat: The Prayer of Mary. New York: Seabury Press, 1975. Carberry, John Cardinal. Mary Queen and Mother: Marian Pastoral Reflections. Boston: St. Paul Editions, 1979. Carretto, Carlo. Blessed Are You Who Believed. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis Books, 1982. Carroll, Eamon R. Understanding the Mother of Jesus. Wilmington, Delaware: Michael Glazier, Inc., 1979. Cunningham, Lawrence and Sapieha, Nicolas. Mother of God. San Francisco: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1982. A Mary Bibliography / 357 Deiss, Lucien. Mary, Daughter of Zion. Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1972. Flanagan, Donal. In Praise of Mary. Dublin: Veritas Publications, 1975. --. The Theology of Mary. Hales Corner, Wisconsin: Clergy Book Service, 1976. Flannery, Austin P. The Documents of Vatican II. New York: Pillar Books, 1975. Graef, Hilda C. Mary: A History of Doctrine and Devotion. New York: Sheed and Ward, Two Volumes, (Volume I, 1963 and Volume II, 1965). --. The Devotion to Our Lady. Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1963. Greeley, Andrew M. The Mary Myth: On the Femininity of God. New York: Seabury Press, 1977. Griolet, Pierre. You Call Us Together." Prayers For the Christian As-sembly. Paramus, New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1974. Guste, Bob. Mary At My Side. Mystic: Twenty-Third Publications, 1986. Habig, Marion. The Franciscan Crown. Chicago: Franciscan Her-ald Press, 1976. Harrington, W. J. The Rosary: A Gospel Prayer. Canfield, Ohio: Alba House, 1975. Haughton, Rosemary. Feminine Spirituality: Reflections on the Mys-tery of the Rosary. Paramus, New Jersey: Paulist Press, 1976. Hertz, G. Following Mary Today. Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor Press, 1979. Houselander, Caryil. Lift Up Your Hearts to Mary, Peace, Prayer, Love. New York: Arena Letters, 1978. Hurley, Dermot. Marian Devotion For Today. Dublin: C. G. Neale, 1971. Jegen, Carol Frances. Mary According To Women. Kansas City: Leaven Press, 1985. Jelly, Frederick. Madonna: Mary in the Catholic Tradition. Hunt-ington, Indiana: Our Sunday .Visitor Press, 1986. Johnson, Ann. Miryam of Judah: Witness in Truth and Tradition. Notre Dame: Ave Maria Press, 1987. --. Miryam of Nazareth. Notre Dame: Ave Maria Press, 1986. Jungman, Joseph A. Christian Prayer Through The Centuries. New York: Paulist Press, 1978. 351t/Review for Religious~ May-June 1989 Kern, Walter. New Liturgy and Old Devotions. Staten Island, New York: Alba House, 1979, 119-184. Kung, Hans and Moltmann, Jurgen. ed. Mary in the Churches. New York: Seabury Press, 1983, Concilium, volume 168. La Croix, Francois de. The Little Garden of Our Blessed Lady. Ilkley, England: Scholar Press, 1977. Long, Valentine. The Mother of God. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1976. Maestri, William. Mary: Model of Justice. New York: Alba House, 1987. Malinski, Mieczslaw. Joyful, Sorrowful, Glorious Reflections on Life and Rosary. Chicago: Claretian Publications, 1979. Maloney, George A. Mary: The Womb of God. Denville, New Jer-sey: Dimension Books, 1976. Moloney, John. Pilgrims With Mary. Dublin, Ireland: Irish Messen-ger, 1976. Obbard, Elizabeth Ruth. Magnificat: The Journey and the Song. New York: Paulist Press, 1986. Pelikan, Jaroslav. Flusser, David. Lang, Justin. Mary: Images of the Mother of Jesus in Jewish and Christian Perspective. Philadelphia: For-tress Press, 1986. Pennington, Basil. Daily We Touch Him. Garden City, New Jersey: Doubleday, 1977, 135-148. Rahner, Karl. Mary, Mother of the Lord. New York: Herder and Herder, 1963. Randall, John. Mary, Pathway To Fruitfulness. Locust Valley, New York: Living Flame Press, 1978. Ratzinger, Joseph. Daughter Zion: Meditations On The Church's Marian Belief. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1983. Rosage, David. Praying With Mary. Locust Valley, New York: Liv-ing Flame Press, 1980. Ruether, Rosemary Radford. Mary, the Feminine Face of the Church. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1977. Schillebeeckx, Edward. Mary, Mother of the Redemption. London: Sheed and Ward, 1964, 164ff. Sheed, Frank. The Instructed Heart--Soundings At Four Depths. Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor Press, 1979. Stevens, Clifford. The Blessed Virgin: Her L~]'e & Her Role In Our Lives. Huntington, Indiana: Our Sunday Visitor Press, 1986. Tambasco, Anthony. What Are They Saying About Mary? New A Mary Bibliography / 359 York: Paulist Press, 1984. Unger, Dominic J. The Angelus. Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1956. Viano, Joseph. Two Months With Mary. New York: Alba House, 1984. Wright, John Cardinal. Mary Our Hope. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1984. Articles: Abberton, J. "On the Parish: Marian Devotion." Clergy Review. 63 (April 1978), 147-150. Albrecht, Barbara. "Mary: Type and Model of the Church." REvtEw ~oR REt~tG~Ot~S. 36 (1977), 517-524. Alfaro, Juan. "The Marioiogy of the Fourth Gospel: Mary and the Struggles for Liberation." Biblical Theology Bulletin. 10 (January 1980), 3-16. Barrionveuo, C. "For A Better Rosary." Christ to the Christian World. 18 (I 979), 304-307. Billy, Dennis J. "The Marian Kernel." REview ~oR R~t.~ous. 43 (May/June 1983), 415-420. Blackburn, Robert E. "The Reed of God Continues To Flourish." U.S. Catholic. 47 (May 1982), 2. Browne, Dorothy. "Mary, the Contemplative." Spiritual Life. 23 (Spring 1977), 49-60. Buby, B. "The Biblical Prayer of Mary: Luke 2:19-51 ." R~v~w RE~.tG~Ot~S. 39 (July 1980), 577-581. Buono, Anthony M. "The Oldest Prayers to Mary." Catholic Di-gest. 48 (August 1984), 111-113. Burns, Robert E. "Don't Let Sleeping Devotions Lie." U.S. Catho-lic. 52 (January 1987), 2. Carberry, John Cardinal. "Marialis Cultis: A Priestly Treasure." Homiletic and Pastoral Review. 78 (May ! 978), 7-13. Carroll, Eamon. "A Survey of Recent Marioiogy." Marian Stud-ies. 36 (1985), 101-127. b. "A Survey of Recent Mariology." Marian Studies. 35 (1984), 157-187. --. "A Survey of Recent Marioiogy." Marian Studies. 31 (1980), 11-154 (Similar surveys may be found within volumes 24 to 31 of Marian Studies). b. "A Woman For All Seasons." U.S. Catholic. 39 (October 1974), 6-11. 360 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 --. "In the Company of Mary." Modern Liturgy. 9 (May 1982), 4-10. -- "Mary After Vatican II." St. Anthony Messenger. 91 (May 1984), 36-40. --. "Mary and the Church: Trends in Marian Theology Since Vati-can II." New Catholic World. 229 (November-December 1986), 248- 250. --. "Mary, Blessed Virgin: Devotion." New Catholic Encyclope-dia. 9 (1967), 364-369. -- "Mary: The Woman Come Of Age." Marian Studies. 36 (1985), 136-160. --. "Prayer and Spirituality: The Blessed Virgin Mary in Catholic Prayer-Life." Today Catholic Teacher. 12 (March 1979), 40-41. Chantraine, George. "Prayer Within the Church." Communio. 12 (Fall 1985), 258-275. Ciappi, L. "The Blessed Virgin Mary Today and the Contemporary Appeal of the Rosary." Origins. 44 (October 30, 1975), 4. Clark, Allan. "Marialis Cultus." Tablet. 228 (April 6, 1974), 354- 356. Colavechio, X. "The Relevance of Mary." Priest. 36 (June 1980), 14-16. Coleman, William V. "A Peasant Woman Called to Guide the Church." Today's Parish. 13 (May-June 1981), 7. Coiledge, E. "The Church At Prayer: To The Mother of God." Way. 19 (July 1979), 230-239 and 19 (October 1979), 314-321. Conner, Paul. "The Rosary Old Or New?" Sisters Today. 59 (Oc-tober 1986), 108- I 10. Curran, Patricia. "Women Reclaim the Magnificat." Sisters Today. 55 (August-September 1983), 24-30. Daly, Anne Carson. "A Woman For All Ages." Homiletic and Pas-toral Review. 86 (May 1986), 19-22. Davies, Brian A. "Mary In Christian Practice." Doctrine and Life. 26 (June 1976), 403-407. Deak, Mary Ann. "Mary's Faith: A Model For Our Own." Catho-lic Update. UPD 108 (I 978). Dehne, Carl. "Roman Catholic Popular Devotions." Worship. 49 (October 1975), 446-460. Demarco, A. "Hail Mary." New Catholic Encyclopedia. 6 (1967), 898. Donnelly, Dorothy H. "Mary, Model of Personal Spirituality." A Mary Bibliography / 361 New Catholic World. 219 (March-April 1976), 64-68. Emery, Andree. "On Devotion To Mary." New Covenant. 11 (May 1982), 12-14. Finley, Mitchel. "Rediscovering The Rosary." America. 148 (May 7, 1983), 351. Fischer, Patricia. "The Scriptural Rosary: An Ancient Prayer Re-vived." Catechist. 20 (October 1986), 21. Flanagan, Donald. "The Veneration of Mary: A New Papal Docu-ment." Furrow. 25 (1974), 272-277. Frehen, H. "The Principles of Marian Devotion." The Marian Era. 10 (1971), 34-36 and 272-277. Foley, Leonard. "Mary: Woman Among Us." St. Anthony Messen-ger. 94 (May 1987), 12-16. Gabriele, Edward. "In Search of the Woman: Reformulating the Mary Symbol in Contemporary Spirituality." Priest. 42 (February 1986), 28-29. Gaffney, John P. "APortrait of Mary." Cross and Crown. 24 ~Spring 1975), 129-138. h. "Marialis Cultis: Guidelines to Effective Preaching." Priest. 38 (December 1982), 14-18. Galligan, John Sheila. "Mary: A Mosaic Joy." REw~wFoR R~L~G~Ot~S. 43 (January-February 1984), 82-92. Galot, Jean. "Why the Act of Consecration to Our Lady?" Origins. 3 (January 18, 1982), Galvin, John P. "A Portrait of Mary In the Theology of Karl Rahner." New Catholic World. 229 (November-December 1986), 280- 285. Gordon, Mary. "Coming To Terms With Mary." Commonweal. 109 (January 15, 1982), 1. Green, Austin~ "The Rosary: A Gospel Prayer." Cross and Crown. 28 (June 1976), 173-178. Grisdela, Catherine. "How May Processions Began." Religion Teacher's Journal. 18 (April-May 1984), 28. Gustafson, J. "A Woman For All Seasons." Modern Liturgy. 9 (May 1982), 4-10. Hamer, Jean Jerome Cardinal. "Mary, Our Foremost Model." Con-templative Life. 10 (1985), 173- i 74. Hanson, R. "The Cult of Mary as Development of Doctrine." Way ,Supplement. 51 (Fall 1984), 8-96. Hebblethwaite, P. "The Mariology of Three Popes." Way Supple- 369/Review for Religious, May-June 1989 merit. 51 (Fall 1984), 8-96. Herrera, Marina. "Mary of Nazareth in Cross-cultural Perspective." Professional Approaches For Christian Educators. 16 ( i 986), 236-240. Hinneburgh, W.A. "Rosary." New Catholic Encyclopedia. 12 (I 967), 667-670. Hofinger, Johannes. "Postconciliar Marian Devotions." Priest. 37 (January 1981), 43-45 and 37 (February 1981), 15-17. Hogan, Joseph. "Hail Mary." Sisters Today. 57 (January 1986), 258-261. Jegen, C. "Mary, Mother of a Renewing Church." Bible Today. 24 (May 1986), 143-166. Jelly, Frederick M. "Marian Dogmas Within Vatican II's Hierar-chy of Truths." Marian Studies. 27 (1976). --. "Marian Renewal Among Christians." Homiletic and Pastoral Review. 79 (May 1979), 8-16. --. "Reply to 'Homage To a Great Pope and His Marian Devotion: Paul VI.' " Marian Studies. 31 (1980), 96-98. -- "The Mystery of Mary's Meditation." Homiletic and Pastoral Review. 80 (May 1980), 11-20. Johnson, Elizabeth A. "The Marian Tradition and the Reality of Women." Horizons. 12 (Spring 1985), 116-135. Karris, Robert J. "Mary's Magnificat and Recent Study." REVIEW ~OR REt~G~OUS. 42 (November-December 1983), 903-908. Keolsch, Charity Mary. "Mary and Contemplation In the Market-place." Sisters Today. 54 (June-July 1983), 594-597. Kerrigan, Michael P. "The Beginnings Of A New And Prosperous Way of Life." New Catholic World. 229 (November-December 1986), 251. Kleinz, John P. "How We Got The Hail Mary." Catholic Digest. 50 (May 1986), 55-57. Koehler, A. "Blessed From Generation to Generation: Mary In Pa-tristics and the History of the Church." Seminarium. 27 (1975), 578- 606. --. "Homage To A Great Pope And His Marian Devotion." Marian Studies. 31 (1980), 66-95. Krahan, Maria. "The Rosary." Mount Carmel. (Autumn 1977), 124-131. Kress, Robert. "Mariology and the Christian's Self-Concept." REVIEW ~OR RELiGiOUS. 31 (1972), 414-419. Lawrence, Claude. "The Rosary From the Beginning To Our Day." A Mary Bibliography / 363 Christian World. 28 (July-August 1983), 194-201. Leckey, Dolores. "The Rosary Time of My Life." Catholic Digest. 47 (October 1983), 57-58. Leskey, Roberta Ann. "Ways To Celebrate Mary." Religion Teacher's Journal. 17 (April-May 1983), 28-29. Lewela, M. Pauline. "Mary's Faith-Model Of Our Own: A Reflec-tion." Africa Theological Journal. 27 (April 1985), 92-98. Low, Charlotte. "The Madonna's Decline and Revival." Insight. (March 9, 1987), 61-63. MacDonald, Donald. "Mary: Our Encouragement In Christ." REviEw FOR REt.tG~Ot~S. 44 (May-June 1985), 350-359. -- "Our Lady of Wisdom." REvtzw FOR REt.~G~Ot~S. 46 (May-June 1986), 321-331. Main, John. "The Other-Centeredness of Mary." R~w~w FOR RELIG~Ot~S. 38 (March 1979), 267-278. Maloney, George A. "A New But Ancient Mariology." Diakonia. 8 (I 973). 303-305. -- "Do Not Be Afraid To Take Mary Home." Catholic Charis-matic. 1 (October-November 1976), 30-33. --. "Mary and the Church As Seen By the Early Fathers." Diakonia. 9 (1974). Marino, Eugene A. "Mary: The Link Between Liturgy and Doc-trine." Origins. 14 (December 27, 1984), 467-471. Marshner, William H. "Criteria For Doctrinal Development in Marian Dogmas." Marian Studies. 28 (1977), 47-97. "Mary and the Saints." National Bulletin on Liturgy. 12 (Septem-ber- October ! 979), 178-183. Mary Francis. "Blessed Mary: Model of Contemplative Life." Homi-letic and Pastoral Review. 8 i (Mary 1981), 6-12. Mary of the Sacred Heart. "Remember the Rosary." Religion Teacher's Journal. 20 (October 1986),39-40. McAteer, Joan. "What the Rosary Means to Me." Ligourian. 72 (October 1984), 16-20. McCarry, Vincent P. "Mary, Teach Us To Pray." Catholic Digest. 50 (May 1986), 40-43. McDermott, John Michael. "Time For Mary." Homiletic and Pas-toral Review. 83 (May ! 983), I i- 15. McHugh, John. "On True Devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary." The Way Supplement. 25 (Summer 1975), 69-79. McNamara, Kevin. "Devotion to The Immaculate Heart of Mary." 364 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 Furrow. 36 (October 1985), 599-604. -- "Mary Today." Furrow. 31 (July 1980), 428-450. Miller, Ernest F. "Why We Honor Mary?" Liguorian. 63 (August 1975), 13-15. Montague, George. "Behold Your Mother." New Covenant. 10 (May 198 I), 4-7. Moore, M. and Welbers, T. "The Rosary Revisited." Modern Lit-urgy. 9 (May 1982), 4-10. Motzel, Jaqueline. "Growing Through the Rosary." Liguorian. 73 (October 1985), 28-3 I. NC News Service. "Mary: An Image of Obedience and Freedom." Our Sunday Visitor. 75 (April 12, 1987), 17. Nienaltowski, Mary Ellen and Metz, Kathleen. "How Do We Pray The Rosary?" Religion Teacher's Journal. 21 (March 1987), 17-18. Noone, P. "Why Catholics Hail Mary?" U.S. Catholic. 44 (May 1979), 47-49. Nouwen, Henri J. "The Icon of the Virgin of Vladimir: An Invita-tion to Belong to God." America. 152 (May 1 I, 1985), 387-390. O'Carroll, M. "Recent Literature On Our Lady." Irish Theologi-cal Quarterly. 45 (I 978), 281-286. Offerman, Mary Columba. "Mary, Cause of Our Joy: A Bibliogra-phy On Mariology." REvl~.w ~oR RE~.~lous. 35 (1976), 730-734. Palazzini, P. "The Exhortation Marialis Cultus and the Rosary." Origins. 27 (July 4, 1974), 9-10. Pellegrino, M. "Comments on the Apostolic Exhortation: Marialis Cultus." L'Osservatore Romano. 35 (August 29, 1974), 3-1 I. Pennington, M. Basil. "The Rosary: An Ancient Prayer For All Of Us.'" Our Sunday Visitor. 72 (October 23, 1983), 3-ff. Peter, Val J. "Marian Theology and Spirituality." Communio. 7 (Summer 1980), 100-178. Puzon, B. "All Generations Shall Call Me Blessed." Sisters Today. 45 (May 1974), 533-537. Quinn, Jerome D. "Mary the Virgin, Mother of God." Bible To-day. 25 (May 1987), 177-180. Rasmussen, Eileen. "Accept Devotion To Mary." National Catho-lic Reporter. 11 (January 3 I, 1975), I I- 14. Rausch, Thomas P. "The Image of Mary: A Catholic Response." America. 146 (March 27, 1982), 231-234. Roberts, William P. "Mary and Today's Classroom." Catechist. 18 (April-May 1985), 28-29. A Mary Bibliography / 365 Schreck, Alan. "Devotion To Mary." New Covenant. 13 (July- August 1983), 14-18. Senior, Donald. "New Testament Images of Mary." Bible Today. 24 (May 1986), 143-166. Shea, John J. "Mary's Melody of Amazing Grace." U.S. Catho-lic. 47 (May 1982), 6-10. Smith, Herbert. "Mary: Mother and Disciple." Liguorian. 73 (Oc-tober 1985), 52-53. Smith, Joanmarie. "Re-Seeing the Rosary." Professional Ap-proaches for Christian Educators. 16 (1986), 12-15. Smith, Patricia. "Images and Insights: Mary In A Modern Mode." New Catholic World. 229 (November-December 1986), 269-273. Smolenski, Stanley. "Rosary or Chaplet?" Homiletic and Pastoral Review. 86 (October 1985),9-15. Snyder, Bernadette. "Who's Praying the Rosary Today?" Liguorian. 74 (October 1986), 2-6. Speyr, A. "Prayer In The Life Of The Blessed Virgin." Commu-nio. 7 (Summer 1980), 113-126. Stahel, Thomas H. "Redemptoris Mater." America. 156 (May 2, 1987), 353-354. Tambasco, A. "Mary: A Biblical Portrait For Imitation." New Catholic World. 229 (November-December 1986), 244-271. Tannehill, R.C. "The Magnificat As Poem." Journal of Biblical Lit-erature. 93 (1974), 263-275. Tutas, Stephen R. 'Who Is Mary For Me?" REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. 43 (September-October 1984), 778-780. Unger, Dominic J. "Does the New Testament Give Much Histori-cal Information About the Blessed Virgin or Mostly Symbolic Mean-ing?" Marianum. (1977), 323-347. Van Bemmel, John. "How To Pray The Rosary." Religion Teacher's Journal. 17 (April-May 1983), 29-30. Ward, Jack. "The Rosary-A Valuable Praying and Teaching Tool." Catechist. 19 (October 1985), 24-25. Ware, Kallistos, Timothy. "The Jesus Prayer and the Mother of God." Eastern Churches Review. (Autumn 1972), 149-150. Zyromski, Page. "Rosary Meditations Especially For Catechists." Catechist. 20 (October 1986), 20-22. Church Documents, Pastoral Letters and Addresses: John Paul II. "Address to a General Audience About the Rosary As An Opportunity of Pray With Mary." Origins. 44 (November 2, 1981 ), 366 / Review for Religious, May-June 1989 --. "Address to the Faithful About Mary and Her Spiritual Testa-ment." Origins. 30 (July 25, 1983), 2. --. "Address to the Faithful Saying That With the Rosary We Are Armed With the Cross and the Word." Origins. 41 (October 10, 1983), I. --. "Address to the Faithful Saying That Mary Is Present In Every Liturgical Action." Origins. 8 (February 20,, 1984), 10. --. Address to the Faithful Stressing Devotion to Mary Our Mother." Origins. 880 (April 9, 1985), 12. ~. "Address to the Faithful Urging Honor to the Infinite Majesty of God Through Mary." Origins. 891 (June 24, 1985), I. --. "Homily Announcing A Fourteen Month Marian Year To Be-gin Pentecost Sunday." Origins. 16 (January 15, 1987), 563-565. --. Mother of the Redeemer. Boston: Daughters of St. Paul, 1987. --. "Renewal of the Act of Consecration of the World to the Mother of God." Origins. 14 (April 2, 1984), 9-10. --. Redemptoris Mater. Tablet. 241 (March 28, 1987), 355-359. National Catholic Conference of Bishops. Behold Your Mother: Woman of Faith. (Pastoral Letter on the Blessed Virgin Mary). Wash-ington, D.C.: United States Catholic Conference, November 21, 1973. Paul VI. "Apostolic Exhortation: Marialis Cultus." L'Osservatore Romano. April 4, 1974. ~. "Mary, Model of the Church." REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. 34 (March 1976), 161 - 164. ~. "Renewal of Devotion to Mary." The Pope Speaks. 20 (1975), 199-203. --. Devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary. Boston: Daughters of St. Paul, 1974. Poletti, U. Cardinal. "Significance, Value and Practice of Devotion to the Rosary." Origins. 42 (October 16, 1975), 9. Transcripts, Lectures and Tapes: Clark, Alan. "The Holy Spirit and Mary." Mary's Place In Chris-tian Dialogue. (Occasional Papers and Lectures of the Ecumenical), 1982, 79-88. DeSatage, John and McHugh, John. "Bible and Tradition in Regard to the Blessed Virgin Mary: Lumen Gentium." Mary's Place In Chris-tian Dialogue. (Occasional Papers and Lectures of the Ecumenical), 1982, 51-60. Dimock, Giles. "Practical Devotion to Mary." Marian Conference A Mary Bibliography / 367 at the University of Steubenville, 1986, (Cassette). Hutchinson, Gloria. Mary, Companion For Our Journey. Cincinnati: St. Anthony Messenger Press, 1986, (Cassettes). Peffley, Bill. Prayerful Pauses With Jesus and Mary. Mystic: Twenty-Third Publications, 1987, (Audiocassettes). Pittman, Robert S. "The Marian Homilies of Hesychius of Jerusa-lem." Ph.D. Thesis. Catholic University of America, 1974. Powers, Isaias. Quiet Places With Mary: A Guided Imagery Retreat. Mystic: Twenty-Third Publications, 1986, (Audiocassettes). Scanlan, Michael. "Prominence of Mary: The Time of Visitation." Marian Conference at the University of Steubenville, 1986, (Cassette). Ware, Kallistos. "The Mother of God in Orthodox Theology and Devotion." Mary's Place in Christian Dialogue. (Occasional Papers and Lectures of the Ecumenical), 1982, 169- ! 81. An Ignatian Contemplation on the Baptism of Our Lord Michael W. Cooper, S.J. Father Michael Cooper, S.J., teaches in the Theology Department and the Institute of Pastoral Studies at Loyola University of Chicago. His address is 6525 N. Sheri-dan Road; Chicago, Illinois 60626. Baptism has once again become an integral part of the Christian experi-ence. Instead of simply an individual event between God and the bap-tized, the sacrament once more celebrates a person's entrance into the community of believers. Moreover, with the renewal and expansion of the understanding of ministry, it is baptism that now offers the founda-tion for the call to mission and service for every member of the People of God. Even with all these rich theological and liturgical developments, I have still found it difficult to make any vital connection between them and my own baptism. In part, I simply have no sentiments or recollec-tions to explore or deepen. Like many other pre-Conciliar born, I was rushed to the local parish on the Sunday following my birth to save me from a sudden case of limbo. Nor does my mother have any spiritual re-membrances of my baptism to share with me, since on that day she was still in the hospital recuperating from my worldly entrance. Thus until very recently the experiential and spiritual sense of my own baptism re-mained in a limbo of its own. The meaning and power of my own baptism finally came alive, how-ever, as I shared Jesus' experience of his own baptism during several pe-riods of prayer on my recent thirty-day retreat. The thrust of contempo-rary spirituality reminds us to pay close attention to our human experi-ence- whether in prayer, in ministry, or in the rest of life--and to ask 368 Contemplation on Baptism / 369 what the Lord might be saying or how he might be inviting. Often these moments become actual revelations of God's living Word for us-~either individually or collectively. Through these experiences we realize the Gos-pel no longer as. a onetime event in the past but as always happening-- and now most immediately to us. From this perspective of the ongoing Gospel I share the fruits of a very transforming experience of the baptism of our Lord. Though admit-tedly the very personal encounter of one individual, maybe my experi-ence will contribute to our collective efforts to reclaim the experiential and spiritual roots of our baptismal call to community and ministry with God's people. I entitled this article "An Ignatian Contemplation . . ." to highlight a very definite approach to praying the Scriptures. Instead of methodi-cally plodding through the Gospel, I contemplated, that is, I watched at-tentively and receptively the scene of our Lord's baptism, letting it touch my mind and heart. I began by reading through the scripture text (Mt 3:13-17) several times, then I put down my Bible, closed my eyes, and let the event come alive before the inner eye of my imagination. Following Ignatius' instructions in the Spiritual Exercises (no. 114), I then took my place in the scene, so that I would be experiencing the baptism as an engaged participant and not as a disinterested spectator. Paying attention to the persons, their words, and their actions, I contem-plated the event as if it were happening now for the first time. On the banks of the Jordan, Jesus steps out from the crowd and pre-sents himself to his cousin John for baptism. His voice filled with emo-tion, John protests saying, "I should be baptized by you, yet you come to me!" But Jesus responds very straightforwardly. "Let it be for now." Then in a very powerful moment of the contemplation, I hear Jesus go on to explain himself, "I'm no different from the rest of the people gath-ered here. We're all struggling to gain our human freedom and whole-ness. With all the fear and unfreedoms we carry around from growing up plus all the pressures and demands on us today, it's a wonder we're not more wounded than we are." For Jesus, this very heartfelt experience becomes his baptism into a deep identification and solidarity with the rest of the human family united together in the struggle to become more human and free. Jesus' words to John then cannot be taken as some sort of pious self-effacement. Rather, our brother Jesus is experiencing his baptism as a deep, deep bond-edness with the human family gathered at the healing waters of rebirth and wholeness. 370/Review for Religious, May-June 1989 As I continue to contemplate the baptism unfolding before me, I am drawn to even closer physical proximity with Jesus by the magnetism of his human compassion and tenderness. At the same time I begin to feel close again to several friends from whom I have parted company because of certain decisions on their part that hurt me very deeply. Along with this new feeling of closeness comes the realization that despite the pain and darkness that have separated us, there exists a deeper bond of soli-darity in the human struggle that binds us together. We are no different from each other or from the rest of the people on the face of the earth. In one way or another we are each carrying around within us parts of our wounded child and of our stressed adult. The shadow of our fuller human potential and psychic wholeness always seems to lie just beyond our reach. With this realization a lot of the bite to my pain and anger subsides and I hear myself saying very serenely, "In our choices and endeavors, we really do try to give as much as we can at the moment. Sometimes our responses aren't adequate or all that the situation might call for or that we or others might hope for. Because we will always be carrying around our wounded and unfinished selves, we at times end up creating pain and darkness--for others as well as for ourselves--despite our best and freest possible intentions at that moment. I am no different from the rest of mortals. We are all in our own way longing and strug-gling for our human freedom and wholeness as daughters and sons of the living God." These intense feelings of solidarity with my friends that ac-company these reflections free me to let go of a lot more of the pain and misunderstanding in our relationship. And almost immediately these peo-ple actually appear on the banks of the Jordan and, ecstatic and teary-eyed, we embrace one another. By this time Jesus and John are sitting off to the side talking intently to one another. I am savoring the wonderful feelings of reconciliation and the pure joy of this moment when all of a sudden my attention switches. Several close friends for whom I had initially been either .teacher, spiritual director, or mentor become present to me. These new feelings of solidarity in the human struggle now bring a different sort of bondedness with them. Any leftover images of being in some way "the expert" or "the helper" or simply the one who is a couple of steps ahead of the others seem to disappear forever. I am just acutely aware of'how similar our journeys and struggles have been at such a profound level. A marvelous celebration of deep friendship and belonging to each other takes place as they, too, appear on the banks of the Jordan and I jump up to embrace them. Contemplation on Baptism / 371 This first moment of the baptism climaxes as I join hands with my friends who have come to the Jordan. Together with Jesus and John we dance in circles and zigzag chains across the sands. Then we run into the water to splash and frolic like little children and truly we are, because so many of the hurts and wounds of growing up and of adult life are be-ing healed. This wonderful moment comes to a close when with ecstatic reverence we take turns baptizing one another in these life-giving wa-ters of human compassion and solidarity. The second major moment of the baptism begins as Jesus steps out of the water. This time the heavens open and a voice proclaims, "This is My Son, the Beloved, on whom My favor rests." Along with his sense of profound solidarity with the human family, Jesus now experiences most intensely his deep, deep solidarity with God. Because the baptism has become not only Jesus' but mine as well, I feel myself being drawn into that same solidarity with God. I now hear a voice from the heavens addressed to me, "You, too, are My son, the beloved, on whom My favor rests." Initially, I simply rest in this deep sense of belonging to God. Though still feeling very much the earthen vessel, chipped and bro-ken in so many ways, I receive nonetheless a strong assurance in the prayer that I will have whatever I need by way of resources for my per-sonal journey and for my ministry. With God's favor there will be enough of hope, courage, and justice, of human and psychic energy, and of whatever else needed for today with more to come tomorrow. The Lord has spoken . Rather than end a prayer that is really only be-ginning to unfold, I simply thank the Lord from the depths of my spirit for sh.aring the baptism with me both in contemplation and in life. This Ignatian contemplation of the baptism of our Lord invites sev-eral brief comments. First of all, we realize that the foundations for a renewed understanding of Christian baptism do not come so much from our own sacramental initiation as from sharing the experience of baptism with Jesus. Like the Lord, we are baptized into covenantal solidarity with both our brothers and sisters and with our gracious God. From this perspective, baptism loses much of its static notion as sim-ply a once-in-a-lifetime event. Especially for adults being baptized or re-claiming their baptismal call, as we did in this contemplation, the cele-bration of baptism becomes a dynamic initiation into a lifelong process that continues to open up new levels of human and divine solidarity as our Christian existence unfolds day by day. This sacred bondedness with the human family confronts the blatant Review for Religious, May-June 1989 barriers and subtle alienation that separate us from each other. Baptism invites us to embrace the human family--both near and far--as "my peo-ple" and not just God's people. Our experience is meant to mirror that of Jesus: "I am no different from anybody else." The heart of the mat-ter remains this recognition that we are all struggling with varying de-grees of success for our human freedom and wholeness--two of the gate-ways to encountering the divine in ourselves. Here, too, our experience follows the pattern of Jesus in discovering his own divinity. In facing the forces that would shrink, wound, or destroy these most precious gifts of God to us, we plumb the depths of our human resources and discover the wellsprings of the divine energy in us as well. Second, this baptism into human solidarity against the enemies of our humanity celebrates our entrance as adults into the Christian com-munity. We now recognize and claim for our own this community both broken and healed yet always struggling for greater wholeness. Third, this very sacred experience of human solidarity becomes the foundational stance for each Christian's involvement in ministry as part of our baptismal commitment. It is only from a vital sense of bonded-ness to each other that we can enter into the.joys and struggles of one another without pretense or feigned empathy. By the Lord's design we are in this human struggle together. Baptism then celebrates our call to be companions to one another and to all our brothers and sisters in the unfolding of the kingdom of God in our time. Fourth, the divine bondedness solidifies as we hear the voice from heaven address us withthe same love and promise offered to Jesus: "You are My beloved on whom My favor rests." This proclamation then nurtures our heartfelt sense of belonging utterly to God. Moreover, this divine connectedness touches all the dimensions of who we are, so that we begin to look and feel more and more with the eyes and heart of our gracious God on our~e, lves, others, and our world. In the face of our human wounds and inadequacies, this sense of di-vine favor sustains Christian perseverance and empowerment for life and ministry. We can be stretched to the limits of our understanding and of our physical and psychic energies, yet we now know deep down that no matter what comes God's favor will sustain us this day and there will be more of what we need tomorrow. From the Lord we need only ask with Ignatius in the Suscipe of the Spiritual Exercises: "Give me only Your love and Your grace; that is enough for me" (no. 234). For those hungry to deepen their commitment to Christian commu-nity and ministry, an Ignatian contemplation of the baptism may be the Contemplation on Baptism I 373 occasion to nourish those desires as they share this moment with Jesus as though it were happening for the first time. We never know whom or what we might meet on the banks of the Jordan! the woman with the hemorrhage i was tired of their pity and their prayers now for how many years each face became compulsive to be good with kindness--their helpful helplessness i've seen their looks that worried into silence "i'm so sorry" drove me to distraction until they learned my shame would last God only knowswperhaps forever then they disappeared like frightened children and the very thing
Dottorato di ricerca in Storia e cultura del viaggio e dell'odeporica nell'età moderna ; La famiglia Volkonskij appartiene a un ramo tra i più antichi della nobiltà russa. I suoi membri si distinsero per spirito di abnegazione e coraggio sia che fossero al servizio della zar, come Nikita Grigor'evič o Petr Michajlovič, sia che ne contestassero apertamente le politiche come il giovane Sergej Grigor'evič, che prese parte alla rivolta decabrista del 1825. Anche le rappresentanti femminili annoverano personaggi di spicco, su tutte Marija Nikolaevna Raevskaja, moglie di Sergej, che decise coraggiosamente di seguire il marito nel lungo e difficile esilio siberiano al quale era stato condannato. Un altro membro che fece onore al prestigio di questa famiglia, divenendo celebre tanto in Russia quanto in Europa fu Zinaida Aleksandrovna Belosel'skaja-Belozerskaja, moglie di Nikita. Il suo nome rimbalza praticamente in ogni memoria dei personaggi a lei contemporanei sparsi per tutto il continente europeo. Zinaida era la figlia del raffinato principe Belosel'skij-Belozerskij, ambasciatore di Caterina II prima a Dresda e poi a Torino, che aveva affascinato i suoi contemporanei distinguendosi per i suoi principi, le idee illuministe e l'enorme cultura nel segno della quale aveva cresciuto la sua incantevole figlia. Zinaida era la degna erede di suo padre: dopo aver trascorso l'infanzia tra Dresda e Torino, si era trasferita molto giovane a San Pietroburgo e qui era presto entrata a palazzo in qualità di dama di compagnia dell'imperatrice vedova attirando le attenzioni dello zar Alessandro I. Dopo aver fatto parte del seguito imperiale durante la marcia trionfale in seguito alla vittoria nella guerra patriottica del 1812, la Volkonskaja partecipò al Congresso di Vienna, a quello di Verona, affascinò la corte austriaca, quella francese, inglese e papale, stringendo rapporti profondi e stimolanti con gli uomini più influenti del suo tempo, fossero essi politici, intellettuali o artisti. In Russia il suo nome divenne celebre grazie al suo salotto sulla via Tverskaja, nel palazzo che attualmente ospita i magazzini Eliseev. A Roma era universalmente nota non solo per risiedere in una delle ville più belle della città, divenuta oggi residenza dell'Ambasciatore inglese in Italia, ma soprattutto per il suo generoso mecenatismo volto a sostenere la colonia degli artisti russi e, negli ultimi anni della sua vita, come fervente cattolica convertita. Gli ospiti dei suoi salotti erano luminari dell'università di Mosca, come Ševyrev, Del'vig, Odoevskij e Pogodin, poeti del calibro di Puškin, Mickiewicz e Belli, artisti affermati e alti prelati quali Thorvaldsen, Walter Scott, i cardinali Consalvi e Mezzofanti così come Kipreenskij, Bruni, Ščedrin e Gal'berg, giovani promesse dell'arte russa. In una parola: chiunque fosse amante del bello, della cultura o frequentasse il bel mondo a Mosca come a Parigi, a Odessa come a Roma fu almeno una volta suo ospite. Da parte sua Zinaida Volkonskaja fu cantante, mecenate, compositrice, membro delle principali società intellettuali di Russia e Italia, ispiratrice di alcuni tra i più bei versi dei poeti più acclamati e intima amica dello zar. Intratteneva fitte corrispondenze con intellettuali e funzionari e si distingueva per intelligenza, arguzia e innato savoir faire. La sua biografia, per quanto attraversi fasi assai differenti fra loro, è costantemente popolata da figure di primo piano e la vede presente nei luoghi dove si fa la Storia. In primo luogo Zinaida fu un'instancabile viaggiatrice. Iniziò a viaggiare fin da piccola per seguire il padre da Dresda a Torino, poi il ritorno in Russia, la marcia europea al seguito di Alessandro, l'entrata a Parigi delle truppe russo-prussiane, i festeggiamenti in Inghilterra, i congressi di Vienna e Verona. E ancora i soggiorni in Italia nel 1815 e nel 1820, quello a Parigi, Odessa, Mosca e di nuovo l'Italia e Roma. Anche quando si stabilì col suo salotto nella vecchia capitale russa, si rimise in cammino per il (quasi) definitivo trasferimento in Italia dopo soli quattro anni. Dei primi quarant'anni della sua vita, ne trascorse circa quindici in viaggio. La principessa è stata celebrata dai suoi contemporanei e in molti si sono prodigati nella descrizione della sua lunga e intensa vita: esistono infatti almeno cinque biografie, ciascuna delle quali si distingue dalle altre per l'approfondimento di un tratto peculiare o lo studio di un particolare periodo. La biografia pubblicata da N.A. Belozerskaja su «Istoričeskij vestnik» e il libro Pilgrim princess di Maria Feirweather offrono i resoconti più completi della vita della Volkonskaja, sebbene in entrambe le opere si riscontrino inesattezze o informazioni mancanti e spesso imprecise circa avvenimenti e periodi della biografia della principessa. Dalla bibliografia presa in considerazione emerge la mancanza di un approfondimento circa i salotti di Odessa e Parigi, ma la lacuna più evidente riguarda i lunghi anni trascorsi da Zinaida in viaggio. Solo Ettore Lo Gatto e Giulia Baselica trattano l'argomento, sebbene restringendo il campo al solo viaggio del 1829 alla volta dell'Italia, unico tra tutti sul quale si hanno notizie più dettagliate, non tanto per i frammenti delle memorie pubblicate da Zinaida (presentate qui in traduzione integrale, corredate da due lettere inedite provenienti dall'archivio statale russo di letteratura e storia dell'arte di Mosca – RGALI), quanto per il dettagliato resoconto che il prof. Ševyrev, compagno di viaggio della principessa, trascrisse sui suoi diari pubblicati in patria su numerose riviste e successivamente in un libro sulle Impressioni italiane. Sugli altri viaggi non ci sono testimonianze dirette e possono essere ricostruiti solo grazie a fonti indirette. La ricerca è stata resa particolarmente complessa dalla scarsa accessibilità dei documenti: se si escludono i manoscritti conservati nell'archivio statale e i materiali della biblioteca nazionale di Mosca – successivamente pubblicati sui «Severnye cvety» del 1830 e 1831, la maggior parte delle fonti si trova nell'archivio della Houghton Library dell'Università di Harvard, mentre pochi altri documenti sono sparsi nelle biblioteche di Francia, Germania, Polonia e Inghilterra. L'archivio privato della principessa, dopo la sua morte, in pochi anni è andato disperso tra i discendenti, riaffiorando non di rado nelle collezioni private e nelle aste degli antiquari romani. Il barone Lemmermann, dopo averne raccolto una parte consistente, lo donò nel 1967 ad Harvard, dove dovette attendere molti anni prima di essere catalogato. Unica testimonianza dei contenuti di tale archivio, sebbene parziale, è costituita dal libro di Bayara Aroutunova Lives in Letters, che raccoglie alcune tra le missive più significative ricevute dai numerosi corrispondenti della principessa. Il presente lavoro raccoglie e organizza per la prima volta tutti i materiali disponibili circa i viaggi della principessa Volkonskaja, con lo scopo di metterne in luce la centralità in un'esistenza votata alla realizzazione del progetto che Pietro il Grande aveva solo vagheggiato qualche decennio prima: quel ponte tra Russia ed Europa che Zinaida attuerà tanto nel privato dei suoi salotti, quanto nelle diverse ambascerie. Inoltre questa tesi presenta una nuova biografia dettagliata dalla quale sono state eliminate le frequenti imprecisioni, rivaluta l'attività letteraria della Volkonskaja e mette in luce la rilevanza delle opere pie che contraddistinsero gli ultimi anni della sua vita. Infine l'Appendice Documentaria presenta, accanto ai già citati resoconti di viaggio, la traduzione di alcune delle opere più significative della principessa e frammenti della sua corrispondenza privata inediti in italiano. Malgrado tutti gli sforzi compiuti la ricerca non si definisce né può essere completa: i documenti conservati in archivi inaccessibili, quali gli archivi segreti vaticani o gli archivi imperiali russi, potrebbero costituire materiale prezioso per far luce su alcuni punti della biografia della principessa rimasti oscuri o fornire nuovi dettagli sulla sua figura: interi periodi sono stati ricostruiti finora solo grazie alle testimonianze indirette di chi conobbe la Corinna del Nord. Tali lacune sono da attribuirsi inoltre all'azione censoria che Aleksandr Nikitič operò sull'archivio privato di sua madre dopo la morte di Zinaida per salvaguardarne l'onore distruggendo informazioni e materiali potenzialmente compromettenti, ragione che spinse anche Propaganda Fide a secretare le lettere dell'archivio del cardinal Consalvi, tra le quali alcune della Volkonskaja, e probabilmente anche i custodi delle memorie della famiglia imperiale russa. Il più accessibile resta l'archivio statunitense, di cui è disponibile una dettagliata catalogazione alla luce della quale è possibile ipotizzare la possibilità di rinvenire informazioni se non del tutto nuove, quantomeno più dettagliate su questa donna straordinaria che tanto diede alla cultura del primo Ottocento europeo. ; Volkonsky family have been one of the older and nobler branches of Russian aristocracy. Its members stood out for abnegation and bravery, whether in favour, such as Nikita or Petr, or against the Emperor, such as the decembrist Sergey Grigorevich. The female branch includes high ranking personalities as well: amongst all Maria Nikolaevskaya Raevskaya, Sergey's wife, who decided voluntarily to follow her husband to the Siberian exile, to which he had been condemned. Another woman, who honoured the name and the prestige of this family was Zinaida Aleksandrovna Beloselskaya-Belozerskaya, Nikita's wife. Her name can be found in quite every memory of her contemporaries all over Europe. She was the daughter of the sofisticated prince Alexander Beloselsky-Belozersky, Catherine the Great's ambassador first in Dresden, than in Turin, who fascinated his contemporaries with his principles, Illuministic ideas and huge culture. Princess Zinaida was educated following her father's steps. She was his worthy heiress: grown up in Dresden, than in Turin, she left for Petersburg in her early adolescence, becoming after few months lady-in-wating of the Empress Dowager and drawing the attentions of young Emperor Alexander I. After Napoleon's defeat in the great patriotic war of 1812, Zinaida followed the imperial entourage across Europe, took part in the Congresses of Vienna and Verona, fascinating Austrian, English, French and Vatican courts, establishing heartfelt and stimulating friendships with the most influential figures of her times, might they be politicians, intellectuals or artists. In Russia her name became famous thanks to her salon in Tverskaya street, in the building now housing Eliseev's stores. In Rome she was well-known not only for her beautiful villa, in which nowadays England's ambassador resides, but particularly thanks to her patronage in support of the roman Russian artistic colony and, in the last days of her life, for her passionate support to catholicism. The guests of her salons were eminences from Moscow university, such as Shevyrev, Delvig, Odoevsky and Pogodin, distinguished poets like of Pushkin, Mickiewicz and Belli, prominent artists and prelates like Thorvaldsen, Walter Scott and cardinals Consalvi and Mezzofanti, as well as Kipreensky, Bruni Shchedrin and Galberg, who showed promise as painters and artists. Everyone who loved culture, beauty and elegance was at least once in her place. Zinaida herself was a singer, a philantropist, a composer, a member of the most important intellectual societies both in Russia and in Italy, inspired many acclaimed poets and was an intimate friend of Emperor Alexander I. She also had correspondences with intellectuals and officials and distinguished herself for cleverness, intellect and innate savoir faire. Her biography, though it includes very different periods, is constantly featured by prominent figures and during her entire life she was in every place, where History was made. First of all she was an unceasing traveller. She began travelling since she was a child in order to follow her father from Dresden to Turin, then their journey back to Russia, the European march following the tsar, the Russian-Prussian army entry to Paris, the celebrations in England, the Congresses of Vienna and Verona. The sojourn in Italy in 1815 and 1820, in Paris, in Odessa, in Moscow and once again in Rome. Even when she decided to open her salon in Moscow, her stay lasted not more than four years, before she moved (quite) definitely to Rome. As she was forty she had already spent fifteen years travelling. Princess was celebrated by her contemporaries and many of them wrote about her: there are at least five biographies and each of them particularly focuses on a single stage or a peculiarity of her life and personality. Biographies published by A.N. Belozerskaya and M. Fairweather seem to be the most complete works on Volkonskaya's life, even if in both of them there can be found mistakes and lack of information. Considering the analyzed bibliography, there are so far poorly examinated seasons of her life, such as the salons in Paris or in Odessa, but the most evident lack concerns her travels. In Italy only Ettore Lo Gatto and Giulia Baselica wrote about this topic, but only analyzed the 1829-year travel, the only one about wich we have detailed information. Zinaida, actually, wrote some travel memories (here presented in their first Italian complete translation, with two non-published letters from the Moscow State archive for literature and arts), but mainly we have details about this journey thanks to the diaries of Shevyrev, who took part in this travel. Researches about Volkonskaya were also difficult on account of hard access to documents: the main part of sources from Zinaida's private archive can be found at Harvard's Houghton Library, while some manuscripts and few other materials are conserved in Moscow (RGALI and Russian State Library) or in French, German, Polish or English libraries. Princess Volkonskaya's private archive, firstly scattered in numerous private collections, was out together by baron Lemmermann, who in 1967 donated it to Harvard University, where it was classified only many years later. The only direct, but partial, evidence of the content of this archive is Aroutunova's Lives in letters, a book collecting some of the most significant letters received by Zinaida from her correspondents. The present work is aimed to gather and organize all available information and materials about Volkonskaya's travels, in order to underline their importance in a life dedicated to the realization of Peter the Great's long for dream about a bridge connecting Russia and Europe. Finally the Appendix presents the Italian translation of some of the most significant literary works of princess Zinaida and few fragments of her private correspondence. In spite of all the efforts made this work is not, and it can't be complete: documents stored in unaccessible archives, such as the Vatican or the Imperial ones, might reveal helpful knowledge about some obscure years in the life of princess Volkonskaya. These lacks are due, furthermore, to the censorship by Alexander Nikitich of the private collection of his mother, in order to preserve her memory from likely compromising materials. Maybe the same reasons forced Propaganda Fide and the imperial Russian officers to take the same action. Harvard University is the main accessibile archive: thanks to its detailed cataloguing we can hold that there is a possibility to reveal accurate information about this extraordinary woman, to whom XIX century european culture owes so much.
Author's introductionThis article examines the process of social differentiation in the context of sex, gender and sexuality, providing insight into the ways in which all three rely on mutually exclusive and dichotomous categories. Intersexuality, transgender and bisexuality are all exceptions to these boxes and the boundaries around them that can call our categorizations and the decisions we make based upon them into question. Given that social inequality and stratification rely on our ability to make clear distinctions between categories (or boxes, as conceptualized here), the existence of individuals, experiences and identities that cross these boundaries problematizes the persistence of inequality.Author recommendsHere I focus on monographs and edited volumes rather than articles. Many of the chapters in these books began life as journal articles. When examining issues related to intersexuality, transgender and bisexuality, it is important to give voice to individual experiences rather than relying solely on 'expert' accounts by outsiders. These recommendations reflect a mix of scholarly approaches (empirical and theoretical) and narratives.Baumgardner, Jennifer. 2007. Look Both Ways: Bisexual Politics. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.Known for her third‐wave feminist work with co‐author Amy Richards, Baumgardner writes here about her experiences as a bisexual woman. She does a fine job of situating her experiences in a broader social and cultural context, offering a nice mix of the personal and the political. This book is an excellent example of the potential of theoretically informed memoir.Fausto‐Sterling, Anne. 2000. Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality. New York: Basic Books.As a pioneer among biologists questioning the dichotomy between male and female, Fausto‐Sterling challenges us to question our most basic assumptions about sex, gender and sexuality. In this book, she provides both an historical and a biological/medical perspective on the key issues. Her book is an excellent resource for social scientists who may feel ill‐prepared to answer their students' questions about natural‐science perspectives.Hutchins, Loraine and Lani Kaahumanu, eds. 1991. Bi Any Other Name: Bisexual People Speak Out. Los Angeles, CA: Alyson Books.This book of narratives was one of the first to give voice to the diverse experiences of bisexual people. Students reading this book will hear the stories of bisexual women and men, people of different races and religions, making sense of their experiences living outside the conventional boxes of sexuality.Kessler, Suzanne J. 1998. Lessons from the Intersexed. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Kessler was doing research (talking to physicians, parents of intersexed children and intersexed adults) on these issues before they even appeared on most people's radar. This book examines key questions related to intersexuality, including the 'medical management' that has become so controversial. Kessler includes a glossary of terms that many readers will find useful.Meyerowitz, Joanne. 2002. How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Historian Meyerowitz provides a detailed overview of the social and cultural development of transsexuality in the United States during the twentieth century. She includes the perspectives of transgendered individuals themselves, as well as the wide‐ranging views of others involved in the debate, from doctors, journalists and lawyers to feminists and gay‐rights advocates.Nestle, Joan, Clare Howell and Ricki Wilchins, eds. 2002. GenderQueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary. Los Angeles, CA: Alyson Books.This volume of narratives written by people who identify as somehow differently gendered offers students windows into the day‐to‐day lives of people living outside the boxes and on the boundaries. Paired with academic accounts that offer theoretical and conceptual information, this book will show students what it means to live beyond conventional categories – both the pain and the joys of such existences are on display here.Preves, Sharon E. 2003. Intersex and Identity: The Contested Self. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.As one of the first studies to provide first‐person accounts of the experiences of intersexed people, Preves's book offers incredible insights into the consequences of how our society has reacted to intersexuality. Intersex and Identity is also a fine piece of sociology, integrating medical sociology, sociology of gender and the social psychology of Erving Goffman into a compelling theoretical perspective.Rust, Paula C. Rodriguez, ed. 2000. Bisexuality in the United States: A Social Science Reader. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.Rust brings together 30 articles that provide a variety of perspectives on bisexuality, many of them her original contributions to this literature. Anthologies like this one provide an important service, offering overviews of a variety of topics and gathering diverse perspectives in one volume.Serrano, Julia. 2007. Whipping Girl: A Transsexual Woman on Sexism and the Scapegoating of Femininity. Emeryville, CA: Seal Press.Transwoman Serrano provides a compelling account that links our culture's responses to transgender individuals (especially transwomen) to its negative valuation of femininity. Some of what she argues is sure to be controversial; but she examines issues like 'cissexual privilege' (i.e. privileges afforded to those people who do 'normal' genders) as no one else has.Stryker, Susan and Stephen Whittle, eds. 2006. The Transgender Studies Reader. New York, NY: Routledge.While a bit heavy on humanities perspectives, this volume provides an invaluable resource on transgender issues. It gathers important historical documents as well as contemporary perspectives by and about transgender people. Everything from Janice Raymond's infamous diatribe against transwomen to Gayle Rubin's call for feminists to accept and celebrate gender diversity is included here.Online materialsBisexual Resources Center http://www.biresource.org/ This website provides links to 'all things bisexual.' From resources to information about events and conferences to links to bi and bi‐inclusive groups around the world, it can all be found here. Through virtual storefronts, one can purchase books, art and the newest edition of the Bi Resource Guide. Links to 'sibling sites' provide users with access to even more information.Intersex Society of North America website http://www.isna.org/ Intersex Society of North America (ISNA) was one of the first organizations to bring intersexed people together and work to protect their rights. Their site includes a list of frequently asked questions; a section on intersexuality and the law; a library of bibliographies, books and videos; and a section on intersex in the news that also documents mass media portrayals of intersexuality. Note that, in an attempt to get people to rethink the concept of intersexuality, ISNA has started to use the term 'disorders of sexual development.'Trans‐Academics.org website http://www.trans‐academics.org/ This website is a project of the Association for Gender Research, Education, Academia & Action (AGREAA). It provides a reference library, educational materials (including documents on terminology and syllabi), a document for those considering doing research with transgender subjects, links to academic transgender studies programs, and a list of community announcements. Approximately twenty syllabi are posted here.TransBiblio: A Bibliography of Print, AV and Online Resources Pertaining to Transgendered Persons and Transgender Issues http://www.library.uiuc.edu/wst/Transgender%20Bibliography/transbiblio.htm One of the first links on this page is to a list of transgender definitions. Many versions of such a list exist on the Web. Such lists are an important resource for students: most transgender terms are new to them and it helps to have a list to keep referring back to; definitions also provide a good starting point for discussion of relevant issues (e.g., names, pronouns and language). This website indexes: films, autobiography/biography/interviews, cultural and historical studies, other directories and bibliographies, fiction/poetry/drama, literary and cinematic studies, periodicals and journals, photographic and pictorial works, and other websites and online resources. It includes articles on cross‐dressing, gender identity and expression, intersexuality, legal and employment issues, medical and health issues, psychology and counselling, public policy, religion/ethics/spirituality, theory and politics, and transsexualism (general, female‐to‐male and male‐to‐female).FilmsThere are a number of feature films about transgender and bisexual topics, some better than others. Boys Don't Cry (Kimberly Peirce, 1999) and Transamerica (Duncan Tucker, 2005) provide much material for discussion. Note that Boys Don't Cry is very violent at the end (it depicts the rape and murder of Brandon Teena and is based on a true story). Chasing Amy is one of the few feature films that provides a complex portrait of bisexuality. Here are a few documentaries to consider. Hermaphrodites Speak (Cheryl Chase, 1997, 30 minutes)The camera work leaves something to be desired and the voices are sometimes difficult to hear – but this is a film that should not be missed. A small group of intersexed people gathered at the first Intersex Society of North America conference to talk about their experiences. They sit together outside on a blanket, talking matter of factly and compellingly about their lives. (Available for purchase at ISNA website.) No Dumb Questions (Melissa Regan, 2001, 24 minutes)This short film documents the experiences of a family (mother, father and three daughters, ages 6, 9 and 11) who has learned that Uncle Bill is becoming Aunt Barbara. The focus is on the reactions of the various family members; Barbara appears only briefly (but significantly, as this is the first time the family has seen her as a woman) in the film. The different reactions of the daughters provide much material for class discussion. (Available for purchase from various outlets, including nodumbquestions.com.) Southern Comfort (Kate Davis, 2001, 90 minutes)Transman Robert Eads is dying from ovarian cancer. This film documents his life and family, providing a compelling portrait of the failure of the medical profession to provide care to transgender individuals and of the creation of support networks by trans people. Of all the films I have ever shown in a class, none has outraged my students more than this one. It does an excellent job of showing the daily lives of transgender folks and documenting their loves and struggles. (Available for purchase from various outlets.)Sample syllabus Topics for lecture and discussion Week I: Making Sense of Sex, Gender and Sexuality Reading:Connell, Robert William. 2002. 'Difference and Bodies.' Pp. 28–52 in Gender. Malden, MA: Polity Press.Jackson, Stevi. 2005. 'Sexuality, Heterosexuality and Gender Hierarchy: Getting Our Priorities Straight.' Pp. 15–37 in Thinking Straight: The Power, the Promise and the Paradox of Heterosexuality. New York, NY: Routledge.Johnson, Allan. 2005. 'Ideology, Myth, and Magic: Femininity, Masculinity and "Gender Roles".' Pp. 78–98 in The Gender Knot: Unraveling our Patriarchal Legacy (revised and updated edition). Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.Lorber, Judith. 1994. '"Night to His Day": The Social Construction of Gender' and 'Believing Is Seeing: Biology as Ideology.' Pp. 13–54 in Paradoxes of Gender. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Weeks II–III: Beyond Dichotomies The Social Construction of Sex Reading:Fausto‐Sterling, Anne. 2000. 'The Five Sexes, Revisited.'The Sciences 40: pp. 18–23.Preves, Sharon E. 2003. 'Beyond Pink and Blue.' Pp. 1–22 in Intersex and Identity: The Contested Self. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. The Social Construction of Gender Reading:Dozier, Raine. 2005. 'Beards, Breasts and Bodies: Doing Sex in a Gendered World.'Gender & Society 19: 297–316.Lucal, Betsy. 1999. 'What It Means to Be Gendered Me: Life on the Boundaries of a Dichotomous Gender System.'Gender & Society 13: 781–797. The Social Construction of Sexualities Reading:Ault, Amber. 1999. 'Ambiguous Identity in an Unambiguous Sex/Gender System: The Case of Bisexual Women.' Pp. 167–185 in Bisexuality: A Critical Reader. New York, NY: Routledge.Clausen, Jan. 1999. 'Introduction.' Pp. xv–xxix in Apples and Oranges: My Journey through Sexual Identity. Boston. MA: Houghton Mifflin.Putting It All Together ...Reading:Lucal, Betsy. 2008. 'Building Boxes and Policing Boundaries: (De)Constructing Intersexuality, Transgender and Bisexuality.'Sociology Compass 2: 519–536, DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-9020.2008.00099.x.Etc ...Focus questions
What are some ways in which our society supports the idea that sex, gender and sexuality each comprise two mutually exclusive categories? In other words, how do we contribute to building the boxes that Lucal discusses? Think of an experience from your own life that was a result of people (perhaps yourself) policing the boundaries of the sex, gender or sexuality categories. Describe this experience (its context, your reaction, etc.). How did it feel to be policed in this way? How does 'policing' relate to the concept of norms? Imagine that you are the parent of an infant born with an intersexed condition. What would you do? What are the pros and cons of medical and surgical intervention? How do these considerations relate to the concept of boxes and boundaries? Consider a day in the life of a transgendered person, from waking up in the morning to going to bed at night. List all the times throughout the day when this person will be expected to place themselves in one of the gender boxes. Reflect on your list: What would a day in this life be like? Make a list of stereotypes of and slang terms for bisexuals, gays and lesbians (together and separately) and heterosexuals. How are these lists similar and different? How do these lists relate to the idea of boxes and boundaries?
Seminar/project idea Individual project: considering the wider social context Choose a social institution (e.g. family, education, mass media, religion, health and medicine) related to sex, gender and sexuality. Within that social institution, choose a narrower topic (e.g. access to health care, having and raising children, sitcom images). Do some research on how this specific topic relates to the lives of intersexed, transgender and bisexual individuals. Prepare an oral presentation for your class in which you compare and contrast the issues facing these three groups in the context of this topic. (Keep in mind, of course, that individuals might be members of more than one of these groups.) How are the issues facing each group in this context similar? How are they different?
v. 750. V -- Vallejo L -- v. 751. Vallejo M -- Vans -- v. 752. Vänt -- Vážn -- v. 753. Vazo -- Venezuela Com -- v. 754. Venezuela Con -- Vereim -- v. 755. Verein -- Vers L -- v. 756. Vers M -- Victor M -- v. 757. Victor O -- Vigd -- v. 758. Vige -- Vinea -- v. 759. Vineb -- Vision R -- v. 760. Vision S -- Voice C -- v. 761. Voice D -- Voso -- v. 762. Vosp -- Vz -- v. 763. W -- Wagner, Richard A -- v. 764. Wagner, Richard B -- Walker, William F -- v. 765. Walker, William G -- Walz -- v. 766. Wam -- Ward A -- v. 767. Ward B -- Warsh -- v. 768. Warsi -- Waso -- v. 769. Wasp -- Water Supply Engineering B -- v. 770. Water Supply Engineering C -- Weak -- v. 771. Weal -- Wedk -- v. 772. Wedl -- Welc -- v. 773. Weld -- Wenzel R -- v. 774. Wenzel S -- West Virginia I -- v. 775. West Virginia J -- Whare -- v. 776. Wharf -- White E -- v. 777. White F -- Whittier L -- v. 778. Whittier M -- Wijg -- v. 779. Wijh -- William B -- v. 780. William C -- Willis S -- v. 781. Willis T -- Wimh -- v. 782. Wimi -- Winters G -- v. 783. Winters H -- Wit and Humor, American R -- v. 784. Wit and Humor, American S -- Woh -- v. 785. Woi -- Woman-Employment-U.S.T -- v. 786. Woman-Employment-U.S.U -- Wood G -- v. 787. Wood H -- Woold -- v. 788. Woole -- World Politics, 1919- T -- v. 789. World Politics, 1919- U -- World War, 1939-1945 EC -- v. 790. World War, 1939-1945 ED -- World War, 1939-1945 Ph -- v. 791. World War, 1939-1945 Pi -- World War, 1939-1945 Regional C -- v. 792. World War, 1939-1945 Regional D -- Wright G -- v. 793. Wright H -- Wz -- v. 794. X -- Yeast V -- v. 795. Yeast W -- Young C -- v. 796. Young D -- Yz -- v. 797. Z -- Zehn J -- v. 798. Zehn K -- Zimmerman C -- v. 799. Zimmerman D -- Zoology A -- v. 800. Zoology B -- Zy. ; v. 730. U -- Underdeveloped Areas A -- v. 731. Underdeveloped Areas B -- Union of South Africa So -- v. 732. Union of South Africa Sp -- United States Adu -- v. 733. United States Adv -- United States Army R -- v. 734. 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Poland G -- Polish Literature, Hist. & Crit. O -- v. 587. Polish Literature, Hist. & Crit. P -- Polska Akademja Umiejetnosci A -- v. 588. Polska Akademja Umiejetnosci B -- Popar -- v. 589. Popas -- Portrait S -- v. 590. Portrait T -- Postage Stamps R -- v. 591. Postage Stamps S -- Poula -- v. 592. Poulb -- Pram -- v. 593. Pran -- Press, Liberty of H -- v. 594. Press, Liberty of I -- Prier -- v. 595. Pries -- Printing G -- v. 596. Printing H -- Privies N -- v. 597. Privies O -- Proj -- v. 598. Prok -- Protection V -- v. 599. Protection W -- Prussia-History-Frederick II C -- v. 600. Prussia-History-Frederick II D -- Psyk -- v. 601. Psyl -- Puli -- v. 602. Pulj -- Pyz. ; v. 509. N -- Nan -- v. 510. Nao -- Nash -- v. 511. Nasi -- National C -- v. 512. National D -- National Sh -- v. 513. National Si -- Natural History R -- v. 514. Natural History S -- Naval E -- v. 515. Naval F -- Navy R -- v. 516. Navy S -- Ned -- v. 517. Nee -- Neh -- v. 518. Nei -- Netherlands (Kingdom, 1815- ) O -- v. 519. Netherlands (Kingdom, 1815- ) P -- Neud -- v. 520. Neue -- New England D -- v. 521. New England E -- New K -- v. 522. New L -- New York (city) B -- v. 523. New York (city) C -- New York (city) L -- v. 524. New York (city) M -- New York N -- v. 525. New York O -- New York (state) H -- v. 526. New York (state) I -- New Zealand C -- v. 527. New Zealand D -- Newspapers E -- v. 528. Newspapers F -- Nicol -- v. 529. Nicom -- Ninn -- v. 530. Nino -- Nole -- v. 531. Nolf -- North Am -- v. 532. North An -- Northwestern O -- v. 533. Northwestern P -- Noth -- v. 534. Notti -- Numismatics C -- v. 535. Numismatics D -- Nz -- v. 536. O -- Occupations C -- v. 537. Occupations D -- Oese -- v. 538. Oesf -- Ohio H -- v. 539. Ohio I -- Old L -- v. 540. Old M -- Omaha R -- v. 541. Omaha S -- Oor -- v. 542. Oos -- Oratory R -- v. 543. Oratory S -- Organic R -- v. 544. Organic S -- Orrego L -- v. 545. Orrego M -- Ostl -- v. 546. Ostm -- Outs -- v. 547. Outt -- Oz. ; v. 450. M -- Mccol -- v. 451. Mccom -- Mcgrad -- v. 452. Mcgrae -- Mackenzie G -- v. 453. Mackenzie H -- Macq -- v. 454. Macr -- Maga -- v. 455. Magb -- Maic -- v. 456. Maid -- Malat -- v. 457. Malau -- Maml -- v. 458. Mamm -- Mana -- v. 459. Manb -- Mannk -- v. 460. Mannl -- Many -- v. 461. Manz -- Marc -- v. 462. Mard -- Maris -- v. 463. Marit -- Marriage F -- v. 464. Marriage G -- Martens E -- v. 465. Martens F -- Martr -- v. 466. Marts -- Masc -- v. 467. Masd -- Massachusetts I -- v. 468. Massachusetts J -- Mathematics K -- v. 469. Mathematics L -- Matthews D -- v. 470. Matthews E -- Max -- v. 471. May -- Meb -- v. 472. Mec -- Medic -- v. 473. Medid -- Mej -- v. 474. Mek -- Memory R -- v. 475. Memory S -- Meq -- v. 476. Mer -- Merv -- v. 477. Merw -- Meteorology C -- v. 478. Meteorology D -- Metropolitan M -- v. 479. Metropolitan N -- Mexico G -- v. 480. Mexico H -- Meyk -- v. 481. Meyl -- Mich -- v. 482. Mici -- Mikn -- v. 483. Mikó -- Military L -- v. 484. Military M -- Milla -- v. 485. Millb -- Milton L -- v. 486. Milton M -- Mines and Mining G -- v. 487. Mines and Mining H -- Mirac -- v. 488. Mirad -- Missions, Foreign E -- v. 489. Missions, Foreign F -- Mitb -- v. 490. Mitc -- Modn -- v. 491. Modo -- Moll -- v. 492. Molm -- Money F -- v. 493. Money G -- Monof -- v. 494. Monog -- Monteiro L -- v. 495. Monteiro M -- Mónu -- v. 496. Monv -- Mord -- v. 497. More -- Morl -- v. 498. Morm -- Morse E -- v. 499. Morse F -- Motd -- v. 500. Mote -- Mountaineering M -- v. 501. Mountaineering N -- Moving Pictures R -- v. 502. Moving Pictures S -- Mufs -- v. 503. Muft -- Municipal C -- v. 504. Municipal D -- Murk -- v. 505. Murl -- Music B -- v. 506. Music C -- Music T -- v. 507. Music U -- Mutt -- v. 508. Mutu -- Mz. ; v. 414. L -- Labor G -- v. 415. Labor H -- Labour Party, Gt. Br. D -- v. 416. Labour Party, Gt. Br. E -- Lagd -- v. 417. Lage -- Lamm -- v. 418. Lamn -- Land, Public-U.S.N -- v. 419. Land, Public-U.S.O -- Lang O -- v. 420. Lang P -- Lapk -- v. 421. Lapl -- Latg -- v. 422. Lath -- Latth -- v. 423. Latti -- Law S -- v. 424. Law T -- Law, Maritime A -- v. 425. Law, Maritime B -- Leadh -- v. 426. Leadi -- Lebn -- v. 427. Lebo -- Lefk -- v. 428. Lefl -- Lehm -- v. 429. Lehn -- Lenc -- v. 430. Lend -- Leroy E -- v. 431. Leroy F -- Letters E -- v. 432. Letters F -- Levn -- v. 433. Levo -- Liberalism K -- v. 434. Liberalism L -- Libraries (Place) N -- v. 435. Libraries (Place) O -- Lich -- v. 436. Lici -- Lighthouses H -- v. 437. Lighthouses I -- Lincoln A -- v. 438. Lincoln B -- Lior -- v. 439. Lios -- Literature P -- v. 440. Literature Q -- Living Expenses G -- v. 441. Living Expenses H -- Locomotives A -- v. 442. Locomotives B -- Loll -- v. 443. Lolm -- London U -- v. 444. London V -- Lord R -- v. 445. Lord S -- Louis XVI -- v. 446. Louis XVII -- Lowe S -- v. 447. Lowe T -- Ludwig O -- v. 448. Ludwig P -- Lutg -- v. 449. Luth -- Lz. ; v. 363. I -- Idn -- v. 364. Ido -- Illumination of Books and Manuscripts S -- v. 365. Illumination of Books and Manuscripts T -- Impos -- v. 366. Impot -- Independence D -- v. 367. Independence E -- India, History E -- v. 368. India, History F -- Indians, Central America, Tribes L -- v. 369. Indians, Central America, Tribes M -- Indians, North America S -- v. 370. Indians, North America T -- Indib -- v. 371. Indić -- Industrial Arts (Place) E -- v. 372. Industrial Arts (Place) F -- Industries (Place) U -- v. 373. Industries (Place) V -- Inl -- v. 374. Inm -- Institut M -- v. 375. Institut N -- Insurance I -- v. 376. Insurance J -- Intellectuals (Place) F -- v. 377. Intellectuals (Place) G -- International Ch -- v. 378. International Ci -- International LaC -- v. 379. International Lad -- Internationalism B -- v. 380. Internationalism C -- Iowa R -- v. 381. Iowa S -- Irish L -- v. 382. Irish M -- Isa -- v. 383. Isb -- Italian Language H -- v. 384. Italian Language I -- Italy, History to 1815 -- v. 385. Italy, History-After 1815 -- Iz -- v. 386. J -- Jagem -- v. 387. Jagen -- Jansen T -- v. 388. Jansen U -- Jard -- v. 389. Jaré -- Jels -- v. 390. Jelt -- Jesuits and Jesuitism U -- v. 391. Jesuits and Jesuitism V -- Jews, Anti-Semitic Writings M -- v. 392. Jews, Anti-Semitic Writings N -- Jews So -- v. 393. Jews Sp -- Johnm -- v. 394. Johnn -- Jolk -- v. 395. Joll -- Jorg -- v. 396. Jorh -- Journey B -- v. 397. Journey C -- Juk -- v. 398. Jul -- Juvenile Literature, Drama, American C -- v. 399. Juvenile Literature, Drama, American D -- Jz -- v. 400. K -- Kampe -- v. 401. Kampf -- Karo -- v. 402. Karp -- Keem -- v. 403. Keen -- Kennedy J -- v. 404. Kennedy K -- Kets -- v. 405. Kett -- Kinf -- v. 406. King -- Kirr -- v. 407. Kirs -- Kloo -- v. 408. Klop -- Kobd -- v. 409. Kobe -- Kolor -- v. 410. Kolos -- Kor -- v. 411. Kos -- Kreus -- v. 412. Kreut -- Kuer -- v. 413. Kues -- Kz. ; v. 330. H -- Hahm -- v. 331. Hahn -- Hall J -- v. 332. Hall K -- Hamilton J -- v. 333. Hamilton K -- Handwriting R -- v. 334. Handwriting S -- Harbors M -- v. 335. Harbors N -- Harper V -- v. 336. Harper W -- Hartmann K -- v. 337. Hartmann L -- Hathaway E -- v. 338. Hathaway F -- Hawkins L -- v. 339. Hawkins M -- Heart's T -- v. 340. Hearts U -- Hegel H -- v. 341. Hegel I -- Heller J -- v. 342. Heller K -- Henry of K -- v. 343. Henry of L -- Heredity R -- v. 344. Heredity S -- Hertling O -- v. 345. Hertling P -- Hibben S -- v. 346. Hibben T -- Hiller F -- v. 347. Hiller G -- Historia A -- v. 348. Historia B -- History, General-18th Century Works B -- v. 349. History, General-18th Century Works C -- Hodge B -- v. 350. Hodge C -- Hog -- v. 351. Hoh -- Holr -- v. 352. Hols -- Hond -- v. 353. Hone -- Horn L -- v. 354. Horn M -- Hot R -- v. 355. Hot S -- Housing-Working Class H -- v. 356. Housing-Working Class I -- Howl -- v. 357. Howm -- Hughes F -- v. 358. Hughes G -- Humo -- v. 359. Hump -- Hunting N -- v. 360. Hunting O -- Hut -- v. 361. Huu -- Hygiene, Public L -- v. 362. Hygiene, Public M -- Hyz. ; v. 291. G -- Gall L -- v. 292. Gall M -- Gandía E -- v. 293. Gandía F -- Gardiner G -- v. 294. Gardiner H -- Gases A -- v. 295. Gases B -- Gazs -- v. 296. Gazt -- General E -- v. 297. General F -- Geography As -- v. 298. Geography At -- Geology O -- v. 299. Geology P -- Geometry S -- v. 300. Geometry T -- Gerk -- v. 301. Gerl -- German Literature S -- v. 302. German Literature T -- Germany C -- v. 303. Germany D -- Germany-History 1847 -- v. 304. German-History 1848 -- Gerom -- v. 305. Geron -- Giac -- v. 306. Giad -- Gilds G -- v. 307. Gilds H -- Girk -- v. 308. Girl -- Glay -- v. 309. Glaz -- Godf -- v. 310. Godg -- Gold Mines and Mining-Al -- v. 311. Gold Mines and Mining-Am -- Gol [i.e. Golz] -- v. 312. Gom -- Gook -- v. 313. Gool -- Goula -- v. 314. Goulb -- Grad -- v. 315. Grae -- Grang -- v. 316. Granh -- Great Britain I -- v. 317. Great Britain J -- Great Britain-Description and Travel,1800-1850 -- v. 318. Great Britain-Description and Travel, 1850-1900 -- Great Britain-Govt. B -- v. 319. Great Britain-Govt. C -- Great Britain-Hist., 19th cent. F -- v. 320. Great Britain-Hist.,19th cent. G -- Great Britain-Politics, 1660-1714 R -- v. 321. Great Britain-Politics, 1660-1714 S -- Great Britain-Trade, Board of U -- v. 322. Great Britain-Trade, Board of V -- Greece (Modern)-History, 1830 M -- v. 323. Greece (Modern)-History, 1830 N -- Greene H -- v. 324. Greene I -- Grey N -- v. 325. Grey O -- Grog -- v. 326. Groh -- Grunds -- v. 327. Grundt S -- Gueu -- v. 328. Guev -- Gumo -- v. 329. Gump -- Gzow. ; v. 249. F -- Fairs F -- v. 250. Fairs G -- Fans -- v. 251. Fant -- Fascism-Germany B -- v. 252. Fascism-Germany C -- Fearh -- v. 253. Feari -- Felln -- v. 254. Fello -- Ferrari -- v. 255. Ferrarj -- Fev -- v. 256. Few -- Fiction, American Ham -- v. 257. Fiction, American Han -- Fiction, American Will -- v. 258. Fiction, American Wilm -- Fiction, Dutch A -- v. 259. Fiction, Dutch B -- Fiction, English Kim -- v. 260. Fiction, English Kin -- Fiction, Flemish L -- v. 261. Fiction, Flemish M -- Fiction, German A -- v. 262. Fiction, German B -- Fiction, Lettish J -- v. 263. Fiction, Lettish K -- Fiction, Swiss-German B -- v. 264. Fiction, Swiss-German C -- Filmr -- v. 265. Films -- Finance, U.S., 1813 -- v. 266. Finance, U.S., 1814 -- Finland R -- v. 267. Finland S -- Fischa -- v. 268. Fischb -- Fishing A -- v. 269. Fishing B -- Flanders G -- v. 270. Flanders H -- Flora F -- v. 271. Flora G -- Flya -- v. 272. Flyb -- Folklore N -- v. 273. Folklore O -- Fond -- v. 274. Fone -- Før N -- v. 275. For O -- Forestry-Germany S -- v. 276. Forestry-Germany T -- Forter -- v. 277. Fortes -- Fourm -- v. 278. Fourn -- France Ar -- v. 279. France As -- France-Foreign Relations R -- v. 280. France-Foreign Relations S -- France-History-Revolution O -- v. 281. France-History-Revolution P -- France-Statistics M -- v. 282. France-Statistics N -- Frank E -- v. 283. Frank F -- Frederick I, King of Prussia -- v. 284. Frederick II, King of Prussia -- Freemasons P -- v. 285. Freemasons Q -- French Language-Dictionaries D -- v. 286. French Language-Dictionaries E -- Fresco Paintings B -- v. 287. Fresco Paintings C -- Friends, Society of. L -- v. 288. Friends, Society of. M -- Früh [i.e. Fruh] -- v. 289. Frui -- Funck J -- v. 290. Funck K -- Fyz. ; v. 214. E -- Eastern Col -- v. 215. Eastern Com -- Ecole B -- v. 216. Ecole C -- Economic History-Chile F -- v. 217. Economic History-Chile G -- Economic History I -- v. 218. Economic History J -- Economic History-U.S.F -- v. 219. Economic History-U.S.G -- Economics, 1848-1889 E -- v. 220. Economics, 1848-1889 F -- Edel -- v. 221. Edem -- Education E -- v. 222. Education F -- Education O -- v. 223. Education P -- Education-U.S.-N.J.T -- v. 224. Education-U.S.-N.J.U -- Egypt C -- v. 225. Egypt D -- Eisenstein I -- v. 226. Eisenstein J -- Electric M -- v. 227. Electric N -- Electrons B -- v. 228. Electrons C -- Ellis S -- v. 229. Ellis T -- Emigration, Canada N -- v. 230. Emigration, Canada O -- Enchanted R -- v. 231. Enchanted S -- Engineering Ch -- v. 232. Engineering Ci -- English Language-Dictionaries G -- v. 233. English Language-Dictionaries H -- English Literature S -- v. 234. English Literature T -- Epitaphs T -- v. 235. Epitaphs U -- Ero -- v. 236. Erp -- Espl -- v. 237. Espm -- Essays P -- v. 238. Essays R -- Ethics G -- v. 239. Ethics H -- Etr -- v. 240. Ets -- Europe-History H -- v. 241. Europe-History I -- European War, Aerial Operations M -- v. 242. European War, Aerial Operations N -- European War, Economic Aspects Germany K -- v. 243. European War, Economic Aspects Germany L -- European War, Neutrality R -- v. 244. European War, Neutrality S -- European War, Regimental History F -- v. 245. European War, Regimental History G -- European War, Great Britain G -- v. 246. European War, Great Britain H -- Evero -- v. 247. Everp -- Exhibitions C -- v. 248. Exhibitions D -- Ez. ; v. 177. D -- Dale C -- v. 178. Dale D -- Dancing F -- v. 179. Dancing G -- Danzig G -- v. 180. Danzig H -- Dauw -- v. 181. Daux -- Dawn -- v. 182. Dawo -- Debray -- v. 183. Debraz -- Defei -- v. 184. Defel -- Delaware C -- v. 185. Delaware D -- Democracy-U.S.B -- v. 186. Democracy-U.S.C -- Denton, Name [i.e. Denton (Name)] -- v. 187. Denton, County [i.e. Denton County] -- Desmares -- v. 188. Desmaret -- Deutsche J -- v. 189. Deutsche K -- Dewar M -- v. 190. Dewar N -- Dickens, Charles F -- v. 191. Dickens, Charles G -- Dikes H -- v. 192. Dikes I -- Disaster Relief B -- v. 193. Disaster Relief C -- Divo -- v. 194. Divr -- Dog L -- v. 195. Dog M -- Donato L -- v. 196. Donato M -- Douglas P -- v. 197. Douglas R -- Drama, American A -- v. 198. Drama, American B -- Drama, American Mi -- v. 199. Drama, American Mo -- Drama C -- v. 200. Drama D -- Drama, English Hol -- v. 201. Drama, English Hom -- Drama, English Translations From . R -- v. 202. Drama, English Translations From . S -- Drama, French J -- v. 203. Drama, French K -- Drama, German Bas -- v. 204. Drama, German Bat -- Drama, German, Low German D -- v. 205. Drama, German, Low German E -- Drama, L -- v. 206. Drama, M -- Drama, Spanish Ger -- v. 207. Drama, Spanish Ges -- Drama, Walloon W -- v. 208. Drama, Walloon X -- Dreu -- v. 209. Drev -- Dublin U -- v. 210. Dublin V -- Duke O -- v. 211. Duke P -- Duper -- v. 212. Dupes -- Dutch Language D -- v. 213. Dutch Language E -- Dz. ; v. 107. C -- Cah -- v. 108. Cai -- Cale -- v. 109. Calf -- California V -- v. 110. California W -- Cameron, I -- v. 111. Cameron, J -- Canada B -- v. 112. Canada C -- Canada Statistics Bureau M -- v. 113. Canada Statistics Bureau N -- Canaq -- v. 114. Canar -- Capeh -- v. 115. Capei -- Cardif -- v. 116. Cardig -- Carm -- v. 117. Carn -- Carrik -- v. 118. Carril -- Case A -- v. 119. Case B -- Castles R -- v. 120. Castles S -- Cathedrals S -- v. 121. Cathedrals T -- Catholic Church Roman L -- v. 122. Catholic Church Roman M -- Cauch -- v. 123. Cauci -- Cement and Concrete M -- v. 124. Cement and Concrete P -- Ceo -- v. 125. Cep -- Chah -- v. 126. Chai -- Chand -- v. 127. Chane -- Charities I -- v. 128. Charities J -- Charz -- v. 129. Chas -- Chemical Industries I -- v. 130. Chemical Industries J -- Chemm -- v. 131. Chemn -- Chicago B -- v. 132. Chicago C -- Children AC -- v. 133. Children AD -- Chile T -- v. 134. Chile U -- Chinese A -- v. 135. Chinese B -- Christ L -- v. 136. Christ M -- Christianity E -- v. 137. Christianity F -- Church Al -- v. 138. Church Am -- Church I -- v. 139. Church J -- Chyz -- v. 140. Ci -- Cities-Plans-D -- v. 141. Cities-Plans-E -- Civil R -- v. 142. Civil S -- Claq -- v. 143. Clar -- Classification K -- v. 144. Classification L -- Clergy F -- v. 145. Clergy G -- Club T -- v. 146. Club U -- Cobb -- v. 147. Cobd -- Coi -- v. 148. Coj -- Collection K -- v. 149. Collection L -- Collim -- v. 150. Collin -- Colonies and Colonization A -- v. 151. Colonies and Colonization B -- Columbia University Q -- v. 152. Columbia University R -- Coml -- v. 153. Comm -- Commerce Am -- v. 154. Commerce An -- Commerce-New York -- v. 155. Commerce-New Zealand -- Commis -- v. 156. Commit -- Competition-Unfair F -- v. 157. Competition-Unfair G -- Cone -- v. 158. Conf -- Congres H -- v. 159. Congres I -- Conr -- v. 160. Cons -- Continuation L -- v. 161. Continuation M -- Cookery B -- v. 162. Cookery C -- Cooperation S -- v. 163. Cooperation T -- Copyright M -- v. 164. Copyright N -- Coronations G -- v. 165. Coronations H -- Cortazar C -- v. 166. Cortazar D -- Cotner T -- v. 167. Cotner U -- Country Life-United States -- v. 168. Country Life-Uruguay -- Cowper W -- v. 169. Cowper Family -- Creation-Biblical Account-H -- v. 170. Creation-Biblical Account-I -- Criminal H -- v. 171. Criminal I -- Crip -- v. 172. Criq -- Crosby G -- v. 173. Crosby H -- Cua -- v. 174. Cub -- Cunningham A -- v. 175. Cunningham B -- Cux -- v. 176. Cuy -- Cz. ; v. 52. B -- Bader -- v. 53. Bades -- Baker, I -- v. 54. Baker, J -- Ballads, E -- v. 55. Ballads, F -- Banco P -- v. 56. Banco R -- Banks and Banking-Gt. Br. S -- v. 57. Banks and Banking-Gt. Br. T -- Baptists-U -- v. 58. Baptists-V -- Barlac -- v. 59. Barlad -- Barry, I -- v. 60. Barry, J -- Basr -- v. 61. Bass -- Baud -- v. 62. Baue -- Beac -- v. 63. Bead -- Beck -- v. 64. Becl -- Beh -- v. 65. Bei -- Belk -- v. 66. Bell -- Bend -- v. 67. Bene -- Benz -- v. 68. Beo -- Berlin F -- v. 69. Berlin G -- Berr -- v. 70. Bers -- Bet -- v. 71. Beu -- Bible. Zulu -- v. 72. Bible. Selections -- Bible. N.T.: Crit -- v. 73. Bible. N.T.-D -- Bible. O.T. Pr -- v. 74. Bible. O.T. Ps -- Bibliography-O -- v. 75. Bibliography-P -- Bibliotheca O -- v. 76. Bibliotheca P -- Bik -- v. 77. Bil -- Bio -- v. 78. Bip -- Bisl -- v. 79. Bism -- Blai -- v. 80. Blaj -- Blis -- v. 81. Blit -- Bob -- v. 82. Boc -- Bog -- v. 83. Boh -- Bolr -- v. 84. Bols -- Bolz -- v. 85. Bom -- Bon -- v. 86. Boo -- Bool -- v. 87. Boom -- Bor -- v. 88. Bos -- Botany-R -- v. 89. Botany-S -- Bouq -- v. 90. Bour -- Boyd -- v. 91. Boye -- Bram -- v. 92. Bran -- Brazil D -- v. 93. Brazil E -- Brer -- v. 94. Bres -- Brid -- v. 95. Brie -- British E -- v. 96. British F -- Brom -- v. 97. Bron -- Brov -- v. 98. Brow -- Brt -- v. 99. Bru -- Bryc -- v. 100. Bryd -- Budget-E -- v. 101. Budget F -- Building C -- v. 102. Building D -- Bulle -- v. 103. Bullf -- Burgf -- v. 104. Burgg -- Burrow, M -- v. 105. Burrow, N -- Buss -- v. 106. Bust -- Bz. ; v. 1. A -- Aben -- v. 2. Abeo -- Académie de F -- v. 3. Académie du G -- Achm -- v. 4. Achn -- Adams, D -- v. 5. Adams, E -- Ador -- v. 6. Adós -- Aeronautics-Ac -- v. 7. Aeronautics-Ad -- Aesoph -- v. 8. Aesopi -- Africa, So -- v. 9. Africa, Sp -- Agar -- v. 10. Agas -- Agriculture-Economics-F -- v. 11. Agriculture-Economics-G -- Agriculture-C [i.e. Agriculture (Place) C] -- v. 12. Agriculture-D [i.e. Agriculture (Place) D] -- Air-E -- v. 13. Air-F -- Alabam -- v. 14. Alaban -- Alcaraz, Em -- v. 15. Alcaraz, En -- Alexan, F -- v. 16. Alexan, G -- Aliens-H -- v. 17. Aliens-I -- Allied J -- v. 18. Allied K -- Alphabet, S -- v. 19. Alphabet, T -- Alz -- v. 20. Am -- America M -- v. 21. America-N -- American Fab -- v. 22. American Fac -- American Languages-Q -- v. 23. American Languages-R -- American Pio -- v. 24. American Pip -- Americans in L -- v. 25. Americans in M -- Amy -- v. 26. Amz -- Anderson, S -- v. 27. Anderson T -- Angle S -- v. 28. Angle T -- Annal -- v. 29. Annam -- Anthon -- v. 30. Anthoo -- Apar -- v. 31. Apas -- Aqueb -- v. 32. Aquec -- Arauco, C -- v. 33. Arauco D -- Architectural D -- v. 34. Architectural E -- Architecture, Ecclesiastical-F -- v. 35. Architecture, Ecclesiastical-G -- Arens -- v. 36. Arent -- Aristoc -- v. 37. Aristod -- Armitage, R -- v. 38. Armitage, S -- Army, R -- v. 39. Army, S -- Arres -- v. 40. Arret -- Art-Essays and Misc. G -- v. 41. Art-Essays and Misc. H -- Art Per [i.e. Art Pers]-- v. 42. Art, Peru -- Arz -- v. 43. As -- Assat -- v. 44. Assau -- Assz -- v. 45. Ast -- Athenaeum I -- v. 46. Athenaeum L -- Attention M -- v. 47. Attention N -- Auq -- v. 48. Aurauco D -- Austria B -- v. 49. Austria-C -- Authorship T -- v. 50. Authorship U -- Auy -- v. 51. Auz -- Az. ; Mode of access: Internet.
학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :사범대학 협동과정 글로벌교육협력전공,2020. 2. 유성상. ; 본 연구는 1966년부터 1991년까지 세계교회협의회(World Council of Churches, WCC) 개발국(Commission on the Churches' Participation in Development, CCPD 교회개발참여위원회)의 개발교육 사례를 조사하여 조직의 가치, 개발관, 개발교육 접근방식이 어떻게 형성되고 협상되었는지 보여준다. 그리고 개발교육에 관여하는 종교기반단체(faith-based organization, FBO)로서의 세계교회협의회의 관점을 연구하여 개발교육 분야와 개발교육에 관여하는 종교기반단체에 시사점을 준다. 연구 질문은 다음과 같다: 1966년과 1991년 사이에 세계교회협의회와 개발국은 어떻게 개발 및 개발교육을 개념화하였는가? 하위 질문은 다음과 같다. 세계교회협의회에서 비판적개발교육의 출현에 기여한 내외적 요인은 무엇인가? 어떤 요인이 개발 및 개발교육에 대한 관점의 시기적 변화를 초래했는가? 연구 분석의 개념적 틀을 구축하기 위해 비정부기구(NGO)와 종교기반단체 연구를 참고하였고 개발교육의 역사와 아놀드(1988)와 크라우스(2010의 분류 틀을 분석하여 세계교회협의회와 개발국의 사례에 적용할 개념적 틀을 형성하였다. 개발협력에 대한 관점은 자선(charity), 상호의존성(interdependence), 해방(liberation)으로 확립하였고, 개발교육에 대한 접근방식은 홍보 및 기금조성(promotion and fundraising), 인식 제고(awareness raising), 실천 동원(mobilization), 임파워먼트(empowerment)로 하였다. 이 분석틀을 기반으로 자금, 프로젝트, 정치적 입장, 파트너십, 교육에 관한 다섯 가지 핵심 질문을 도출하였다. 연구 방법으로는 세계교회협의회의 아카이브와 도서관에서 1차 및 2차 문헌 자료를 수집하여 분석하였다. 1966년부터 1970년까지의 1단계에서 세계교회협의회는 경제 성장이라는 개발협력 분야의 주류를 따랐다. 구조적 변화가 필요한 반면 선진국과 개발도상국간의 상호의존과 조화를 전제하였다. 세계교회협의회는 교회와 국가들에게 개발원조를 늘리고 예산의 일부를 기부할 것을 장려했다. 개발교육 사무국은 1968년 세계교회협의회에 결성되어 개발 이슈에 대한 인식을 높이고, 선진국 시민들을 정치적 캠페인에 참여시키고, 국제개발협력에 금전적 기여를 장려하였다. 1970년부터 1975년까지의 2단계에서는 개발도상국의 교회들이 사회정의, 자립, 경제성장의 원칙에 기초하여 선진국의 교회와 보다 동등한 파트너십을 요구하였고 세계교회협의회의 개발국이 결성되었다. 새롭게 회자되었던 종속 이론, 해방 신학, 그리고 파울로 프레이리의 비판적 페다고지의 영향을 받은 개발국은 곧 해방, 민중 운동, 의식화 원리를 바탕으로 네트워킹, 분권화, 실험 전략을 채택했다. 개발교육은 조화로운 상호의존성보다는 갈등이 불가피한 해방적 관점에 바탕을 두었다. 개발교육활동으로는 선진국의 교회 관련 개발협력단체의 개발교육분과 또는 정치 행동 집단과 협력하여 워크샵, 또는 캠페인을 개최하였고 이런 협력 단체에 개발교육 기금을 지원하였다. 1975년부터 1981년까지 3단계에서는 세계교회협의회와 개발국에서 개발 협력에 대한 신학 연구와 회원 교회와의 제휴에 초점을 맞추었다. 세계교회협의회는 "정의롭고, 참여가 보장되며, 지속가능한 사회"(Just, Participatory, and Sustainable Society, JPSS)의 비전을 세우고 냉전시기 비동맹국가들의 신국제경제질서를 지원하였다. 1970년대 후반 개발국의 "가난한 자들의 교회"연구는 교회의 발전 참여의 신학적 토대를 만들었다. 그러나 협의회의 교회들은 개발국과 협의회의 정치적 행동을 강조하는 개발협력과 개발교육에 반대했다. 또한 개발국은 선진국 시민들이 개발 이슈의 인식에서 개발을 위한 행동을 취하도록 장려하고, 글로벌 이슈와 지역적 관심사를 연결하며, 자선의식에 호소하지 않고 자금을 조달해야 하는 문제와도 씨름했다. 이러한 문제들은 개발국과 개발교육 협력단체들이 개발교육의 교육 과정을 성찰하여 기존 유형을 식별하고, 에큐메니컬 교육의 모델을 고안하도록 동기를 부여했다. 에큐메니컬 교육은 해방과 의식화의 비판적 모델과 문화 간 이해와 글로벌 인식의 유연한 모델을 통합했다. 그 시기에 예산 삭감, 조직적 중복, 그리고 개발교육을 기독교교육과 교차시키는 요구를 감안하여 1981년에 개발교육은 개발국과 교육국의 공동 사업으로 재정립되었다. 1981년부터 1991년 사이의 4단계에서는 세계적 흐름에 반응하여 개발교육이 새롭게 "정의, 평화, 창조세계의 보전(Justice, Peace, and Integrity of Creation, JPIC)를 위한 교육"으로 불렸다. 정의, 평화, 창조세계의 보전이라는 세계교회협의회의 중점 아젠다는 지역교회와 시민운동의 다양한 문화와 요구에 답하는 새로운 사회윤리적 비전이었다. 이 시기 개발국은 계속해서 활동가적 특성을 유지했지만 이 전 시기보다는 제도적인 교회를 통해 더 많은 일을 했다. 해방과 상호의존이라는 개념을 바탕으로 한 에큐메니컬 교육에 편입된 개발교육은 정의, 평화, 창조세계의 보전 지역 워크숍에서 대화를 통해 "억압하는 자"와 "억압받는 자"를 화해시키는 노력을 하였다. 개발교육을 통한 자금조달과 인지도를 높이는 노력과 비판적 분석을 통한 임파워먼트(empowerment)도 계속되었다. 세계교회협의회와 개발국의 사례는 기독교 에큐메니컬 단체가 어떻게 국제개발협력을 구상하고 개발교육을 촉진했는지 보여준다. 그 과정에서 개발과 개발교육의 원리를 타협하지 않으며 기금을 모으려 애썼다. 그리고 일시적인 봉사 프로젝트를 제공하기 보다는 개발도상국가 협력단체들과 네트워킹을 통해 교육과 시민 변호를 위한 역할을 맡았다. 또한 사회 정의와 구조적 변화를 위한 정치 교육과 행동을 장려했지만, 해방신학과 비판적 페다고지를 마르크스주의와 동일시하는 교회들의 저항에 부딪혔다. 개발국은 개발교육을 주로 추진했던 선진국 단체들과의 관계보다 개발도상국의 단체들의 입장에서 노력했다. 마지막으로 개발국이 강조했던 사회적행동은 점차 신학과 교육에 대한 성찰로 보완되었다. 개발교육은 결국 세계교회협의회의 다른 교육 분과와 결합하여 에큐메니컬 교육에 통합되었다. 이것은 교육학적인 성찰로서 개발교육의 진전이었지만 정치적 행동 요소와는 분리되는 결과를 낳았다. 에큐메니컬 교육에서 강조하는 화해는 가난하고 억압받는 자들의 고충을 충분히 듣고 해결하여 평화와 일치에 이르는 것이었으나 1980년대와 1990년대 전지구적 보수주의와 신자유주의가 대두되면서 에큐메니컬 교육은 갈등을 드러내는 비판적 모델 보다는 조화를 위한 교육이 되었다. 세계교회협의회와 개발국의 개발교육 경험은 몇 가지 함의를 가지고 있다. 오늘날 기금 모금은 계속해서 개발교육의 도구로 사용되고 있다. 개발교육의 도구로써 기금 모금은 투명하고 비판적으로 논의되어야 한다. 또한 개발교육은 비정부기구의 하나의 개발협력프로그램 뿐만 아니라 연대·상호학습의 파트너십을 규정하는 모드로써 단체의 중심적 요소가 되어야 한다. 비판적 개발교육은 또한 정치적 행동 차원을 포함해야 하며, 특히 비정부기구와 종교기반단체를 통한 비정규 교육 분야에서는 더욱 정치행동 차원을 강조해야 한다. 특히 기독교 종교기반단체에게 있어 행동과 성찰의 일치를 갖춘 비판적 개발교육은 이러한 사회 정치적 변혁을 위한 개발협력의 토대가 되며 교회의 개혁을 촉진한다. ; This study examines the case of development education by the World Council of Churches (WCC) primarily through the Commission on the Churches' Participation in Development (CCPD) between 1966 and 1991 to show how the organization's values, development perspectives, and development education approaches were shaped and negotiated through different phases. The WCC's place as an international faith-based development organization (FBO) involved in development education will be examined to find potential implications for both the development education sector and the faith-based organizations approaching development education. The main research question is formulated as follows: between 1966 and 1991, how did the WCC and its subunit CCPD conceptualize development and development education? Sub-questions include: What were some internal and external factors that contributed to the emergence of critical pedagogical development education in the WCC? What factors led to shifts in perspectives on development and development education through different phases? The research questions are answered by examining the history of the WCC and the CCPD and analyzing based on conceptual frameworks drawn from literature review on development education by non-government organizations (NGOs). Categorizations of practices in development education by Arnold (1988) and Krause (2010) were examined to form a conceptual framework with which to examine the WCC's development education. The perspectives on development cooperation were identified as charity, interdependence, and liberation, and the approaches to development education were identified as public relations and fundraising, awareness raising, mobilization, and empowerment. With the framework five key questions were also formulated to analyze the findings on issues of funding, service projects, political stance, partnership with the North and the South, and education as process and outcome. Archival documentary materials were gathered as primary and secondary sources to examine the organization's values based on theology and ecumenical social thought, along with its development perspectives and development education approaches in four different phases. The phases are contextualized through reviews of literature on development education by NGOs in those time periods. Internal and external factors that contributed to shifts in perspectives and approaches were considered. In the first phase from 1966 to 1970, the WCC followed the mainstream perception of development as economic growth. While structural change was necessary, it assumed a harmony of interests between the North and the South. The WCC called for churches and nations to increase development assistance and contribute a share of their budget. The development education secretariat was formed in the WCC in 1968 to raise awareness of development issues, and motivate Northern constituents to participate in political campaigns and encourage monetary contribution. In the second phase from 1970 to 1975, the CCPD was formed based on the requests by the churches in the South for a more equal development partnership with the churches in the North, based on the principles of social justice, self-reliance, and economic growth. Influenced by the emerging dependency theory, liberation theology, and critical pedagogy by Paulo Freire, the CCPD soon incorporated principles of liberation, people's movement, and conscientization, and adopted the strategy of networking, decentralization, and experimentation. Development education was based on a conflict perspective of liberation rather than harmonious interdependence, and was practiced by coordinating visitations, workshops, and consultations for development education partners and political action groups, primarily in the North. Fundraising in the North was to also serve as an instrument for development education. From 1975 to 1981 in the third phase, the WCC and the CCPD supplemented their actions with theological studies, and more specifically focused on partnering with member churches. Development education became even more essential to the CCPD's strategy to support the churches' own reflections. With a new formulation of an ideal society as just, participatory, and sustainable, the WCC sought to support the non-aligned nations in the Cold War global structure with their proposal for a new international economic order. Based on the perspective on development as liberation, the CCPD sought to assume a catalytic role within the WCC to challenge the Council and the churches to question the status quo. The CCPD study on "The Church of the Poor" became the foundational theological articulation on the churches' participation in development. But development education, along with the CCPD and the rest of the Council, encountered resistance from the member churches reluctant to take political action. It was also difficult to move the North's constituents from awareness to action, to connect global issues with their local concerns, and to raise funding without appealing to a sense of charity. These issues motivated the CCPD and its development education partners to reflect on the pedagogical process of development education and identify several existing models, and come up with a model of ecumenical education. Ecumenical education incorporated both the conflict model of liberation and conscientization, and the softer model of global awareness for intercultural understanding. Partly given budget cuts, organizational overlap, and the demands to cross-fertilize development education with Christian education, the desk was realigned as a joint venture between the CCPD and the Subunit on Education in 1981. The global context in the fourth phase between 1981 and 1991 changed the character of development education which was now called education for justice, peace, and integrity of creation. The WCC's priority was to facilitate the conciliar process of justice, peace, and the integrity of creation (JPIC) by responding to various contexts and cultures of the local and regional movements and church groups. The CCPD continued to be activist in character, but became less politically vocal and worked more through the institutional church channels than in the past decade. Development education that was incorporated into ecumenical education based on both the concept of liberation and interdependence was intended to reconcile the oppressor and the oppressed through dialogues in regional JPIC workshops. The fundraising and awareness raising components continued in the CCPD, along with empowerment through critical analysis, though the action component was less highlighted. The WCC and the CCPD's experience show how an international ecumenical organization conceived of international development cooperation and promoted critical development education. The Committee tried with difficulty to hold education and fundraising together without compromising on its values. And rather than providing temporary service projects, the Committee embraced its role in education and advocacy through networking with the partners in the South. It also promoted political education and action for social justice and systemic change, but encountered resistance from those reluctant to commit to political action or side with what they equated with Marxism. The CCPD also tried to prioritize participation and input from the marginalized South, but its relationship with various Northern partners with whom the Commission promoted development education was less clear. The CCPD's emphasis on action was also supplemented by its reflections on theology and pedagogy. Development education was eventually combined with other aspects of education in the WCC and was incorporated into ecumenical education. This advanced pedagogical reflections on development education but resulted in downplaying the critical political action component and separating education from development cooperation in the WCC. The final emphasis on reconciliation in ecumenical education tried to work toward peace and unity while giving due attention to tensions and grievances, but in the general global climate of conservatism and neoliberalism in the 1980s and the 1990s, and the churches' reluctance to address tensions, the WCC returned to the softer forms of development education. The WCC and the CCPD's experience with development education holds several implications. Today fundraising continues to be an instrument of development education. Ways to transparently and critically link both elements must be devised. Specifically, critical development education should also be an essential element in development cooperation and NGOs as not just a program thrust but as a mode that defines partnerships of solidarity and mutual learning. Critical development education should also include a political dimension, especially in the non-formal sectors through NGOs and FBOs. Especially for Christian FBOs, critical development education with its unity of action and reflection should be a foundation for its political activism. Such development education facilitates a way toward the churches and the ecumenical movement's own renewal. ; CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background and rationale 1 1.2 Purpose and research question 13 1.3 Research design and data collection 14 1.4 Overview of chapters 23 CHAPTER 2. DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION BY NGOS 25 2.1 Development education in NGOs and FBOs 26 2.2 NGO pedagogical issues 41 2.3 Types of development education 46 2.4 Conclusion 58 CHAPTER 3. ECUMENICAL SOCIAL THOUGHT IN WCC 60 3.1 Structure and social thought in the WCC 60 3.2 Organizational context of WCC 72 3.3 Conclusion 77 CHAPTER 4. DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION IN WCC AND CCPD 79 4.1 Phase one 1966-1970: Seeking a new kind of development 80 4.1.1 World Conference on Church and Society in Geneva, 1966 80 4.1.2 Cooperation with the Roman Catholic Church 84 4.1.3 WCC Assembly at Uppsala, 1968 88 4.1.4 Development education consultation in 1969 95 4.1.5 From charity to interdependence, with signs of liberation 96 4.2 Phase two 1970-1975: Beginning of CCPD and concretization of strategies 99 4.2.1 Development projects consultation in Montreux, 1970 100 4.2.2 Global situations and WCC affairs in the early 1970s 103 4.2.3 CCPD's development mandate and strategies 107 4.2.4 Development education strategies and programs 117 4.2.5 From interdependence to liberation 130 4.3 Phase three 1975-1981: Evaluation and realignment 134 4.3.1 WCC Assembly in Nairobi and JPSS in Unit II 134 4.3.2 Toward a church in solidarity with the poor 139 4.3.3 Tempering expectations by 1979 145 4.3.4 Reviewing a decade of development education 151 4.3.5 Toward critical reflections 160 4.4 Phase four 1981-1991: Development education joins ecumenical education 163 4.4.1 From Vancouver 1983 to Canberra 1991 163 4.4.2 CCPD in the 1980s 167 4.4.3 Development education as learning for JPIC 171 4.4.4 Back to interdependence 177 4.5 Shifts through phases 180 4.6 Conclusion 189 CHAPTER 5. ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION 192 5.1 Conviction to hold together education and fundraising 193 5.2 Education as essential to CCPD 197 5.3 Commitment to political action 200 5.4 Emergence of Southern initiative 205 5.5 Transition from education for action to education as process 209 5.6 Conclusion 214 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSION 217 6.1 Summary 217 6.2 A way forward 222 6.3 Limitations and suggestions for further studies 227 6.4 Conclusion 229 BIBLIOGRAPHY 231 APPENDIX 245 국문초록 269 ; Doctor
학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :공과대학 산업공학과,2020. 2. 박용태. ; 치열한 글로벌 경쟁속에서 지속적 성장을 위한 혁신의 중요성으로 인해, 수많은 국가, 산업, 기술 수준의 혁신 연구들은 다양한 관점에서 혁신의 영향요인과 메커니즘에 대해 깊게 탐구해 왔다. 그러나 연구범위의 특수성, 소규모의 실증연구, 혁신연구 자료에 따른 대용 지표의 특성에 의해 제한된 전통적인 통계적 방법론과 결부된 복잡한 혁신 환경은 혁신에 대한 다양한 논쟁을 일으키며, 혁신에 대한 총체적인 합의를 어렵게 해왔다. 본 학위 논문은 다양한 측도로 측정되는 혁신 연구자료의 대용지표적 특성과 이에 의해 제한된 전통적 통계 방법론의 적용의 취약점을 넘어서서, 16,230개의 대규모 표본 실증 자료와 이를 통합적으로 반영할 수 있는 의사결정나무분석을 활용한 하나의 통계적 프레임워크에 기반하여 국가적, 산업적, 지역적 수준에서 제조업과 서비스업에 대한 횡단적, 종단적 비교분석을 통해 두 업종을 아우르는 혁신에 대한 총체적인 지식의 부족함을 경감함으로써 혁신 연구의 지평을 넓히고 풍성하게 하는 것을 목표로 한다. 본 학위 논문은 체계적 프레임워크를 개발함으로써, 한국의 제조업과 서비스 산업의 모든 세부 산업을 전국적으로 반영할 수 있도록, 이론적으로 표준화되고 실무적으로 세계적으로 활용되는 오슬로 매뉴얼에 기반한 한국혁신조사 자료를 활용하여, 최근의 연속된 두 기간 동안, 선행연구에서 제시된 혁신과 연관된 외생적, 내생적 변수를 모두 고려하여, 다양한 관점의 다양한 수준에서 산업, 세부산업, 지역 간의 종단적이고 횡단적인 비교분석을 통해 종합적인 혁신의 영향 요인과 혁신의 유형적 거동을 탐색하고자 한다. 본 학위 논문은 두개의 주제로 구성되어 있다. 첫번째 주제는 선행연구들이 선험적으로 가정하였지만, 통계적으로 검증되지 않은, 산업, 세부산업, 지역, 지역산업 수준에서 제조업과 서비스 산업의 혁신의 성공과 실패에 대한 통계적 차이를 확인한다. 8가지 가설에 따른 28개 모델에 대한 교차표 분석과 카이제곱 검정을 통해 지지된 가설검증 결과를 바탕으로, 본 학위논문은 혁신에 대한 영향요인과 유형별 거동을 탐구한다. 두번째 주제는 CHAID 알고리즘과 10-fold 교자검증을 활용한, 안정적이고 타당한 예측적 의사결정 나무분석을 통해 혁신에 대한 영향요인과 유형별 거동을 탐구한다. 두번째 주제는 세가지 세부 모듈로 구성된다. 첫번째 모듈은, 52개 모델에 기반하여 전국적, 지역적 수준에서 제조업과 서비스 산업의 혁신 성공과 실패에 대해 비교 분석을 통해 혁신 영향요인과 유형별 거동을 파악한다. 두번째 모듈은 30개 모델에 기반하여, 제조업과 서비스 산업내 성공기업의 전반적인 혁신활동에 대해 다양한 관점에서 비교분석을 통해 혁신 영향요인과 유형별 거동을 파악한다. 세번째 모듈은 제조업과 서비스 산업내 가장 혁신적인 세부산업, 지역, 지역산업에 대해 36개 모델을 통해 혁신 영향요인과 유형별 거동을 파악한다. 이를 통하여, 본 학위 논문은 제조업과 서비스업 내의 중요 영향요인과 이들의 변화를 종단적, 횡단적으로 파악하고 유형적 혁신 거동을 밝힌다. 118개의 의사결정나무분석을 통한 혁신의 영향요인과 유형적 거동에 대한 종합적 이해를 바탕으로, 전국적, 지역적, 산업적, 기업적 관점에서의 종합적인 시사점을 제시한다. 제조업과 서비스산업 전반에 걸쳐, 내부 연구개발과 역량은 혁신 성공에 중요한 것으로 확인되었다. 제조업에서는 기업 규모가 클수록, 기업 연령이 높을수록, 혁신 성공가능성이 높은 것으로 확인되었다. 제조업내 저 기술 분야의 기업은 R&D 활동보다 비R&D 활동을 선호하였으며, 서비스산업에서는 기존 연구와는 다르게, 혁신 성공에 대한 세부 산업간 차별적 특성뿐 아니라, 기업 규모와 연령효과가 확인되었다. 특히 경제 호황기에서 기업 규모의 효과가 두드러지게 나타났다. 지역 측면에서는 수도권과 광역권내에서의 혁신 성공과 실패에 있어 기업의 혁신 역량과 세부산업간 차이가 확인되었다. 산업측면에서는 제조업과 서비스산업내의 R&D의 역할에 대한 차이가 나타났다. 제조기업은 비R&D 활동 보다 R&D 활동에 더욱 집중하는 반면, 서비스 기업은 전반적으로 R&D보다 비R&D 활동을 수행하는 것으로 확인되었다. 지식활용 측면에서는 서비스 기업이 민간 고객 정보에 집중하는 반면, 제조기업은 동일 분야내 경쟁정보를 더욱 중요시하였다. 성공기업의 혁신의 재무적 기여측면에서는, 혁신은 수년에 걸쳐 두 산업 모두에서 재무적으로 기여하였다. 제조기업의 혁신이 서비스기업의 혁신보다 더 많은 재무적 기여를 하는 것으로 확인되었으며, R&D 혁신활동을 수행하는 제조기업이 더 높은 재무적 기여를 달성했다. 서비스 산업내에서는 내부역량과 지식활용의 자유도가 높은 서비스 기업이 높은 재무적 기여를 거두었다. 전반적인 성공기업의 혁신활동의 영향요인과 거동 측면에서는 제조업과 서비스산업 전반에서 혁신성공기업들은 저비용의 R&D 활동을 선호하였으나, 저 기술군 산업은 비R&D 활동을 선호했다. 제조업에서는 기업으로 하여금 시장 니즈 탐색 활동을 유도하는 목표시장 성격에 따라 제조기업의 전반적인 혁신활동과 외부 지식 활용 활동에 영향을 미쳤다. 대부분의 연구소를 보유하고 있는 기업은 자사의 지식을 활용함으로써 내부연구개발에 집중하였다. 협력R&D는 부족한 내부역량을 채우기 위해 수행되었으나, 이를 보완하기 위한 흡수역량이 요구되었다. 서비스 산업에서는 기업들은 기술활용측면의 세부산업의 차별적 특성에 따라 내부 역량에 따라 R&D를 수행하거나 하지 않았다. 서비스 기업의 혁신 거동은 고객과 경쟁자로부터의 지식 활용 측면과 밀접하게 연관되어 있는 것이 확인되었으며, 특히 경제 활황기에는 고객 및 외부 R&D 기관으로부터의 지식활용에 적극적이었다. 혁신 성공을 제고하기 위한 정책적 시사점으로는, 제조업에 있어서 자금 지원을 통한 내부 R&D와 협력 R&D 역량 모두를 높일 수 있는 체계와 기술과 시장에 대한 정보제공 수준을 높이는 측면에서 국가혁신체계를 강화하는 것이 중요하다. 서비스 산업에 있어서는, 협력 네트워킹 활동을 강화하는 것보다 내부 R&D 뿐만 아니라 비R&D 활동을 위한 역량을 강화하는 것에 초점을 맞추는 것이 중요하다. 또한, 세부산업의 차별적 특성에 맞춘 시장정보 제공의 촉진이 요구된다. 전체적으로, 본 학위 논문은 빅데이터 수준의 혁신 연구 자료의 다양한 지표 형태를 포괄할 수 있는 단일 통계적 프레임워크로써 의사결정나무분석 방법론을 제시하고, 기업 혁신 활동의 다양한 관점과 전국적, 산업적, 지역적 수준에서 서로 다른 산업적 특성을 가진 제조업과 서비스산업 전반의 종단적, 횡단적 비교 분석 연구를 통해 주요한 영향요인과 유형적 혁신 거동에 관한 발견과 시사점을 제시하였으며, 이는 총체적인 혁신 이해에 대한 지식 축적에 기여한다. 제안된 종합적인 분석 체계를 기반으로 실증적으로 다양한 맥락을 관통하는 혁신 측정의 일관성을 가진 대규모의 혁신 연구 자료를 활용함으로써, 다양한 관점과 소규모의 실증적 혁신 환경에 따른 혁신 연구 자료와 비일관적인 대용 지표에 기인한 주요 혁신요인과 메커니즘에 대한 다양한 논쟁을 해소하고, 동시대의 새로운 혁신 연구의 지평을 밝힌 점에서 의의를 가진다. ; Numerous innovation studies at the national, industrial, and corporate levels from the various perspectives on diverse innovation taxonomy have fathomed influencing factors and in-depth mechanism on innovation due to the crucial role of innovation for ensuring growth under a fiercely competitive business environment in globalized economy. However, the complex context of innovation has led to controversies on innovation and made it difficult to address a comprehensive prescription of innovation involving specific research scopes, small pieces of empirical cases, and traditional statistical methodologies tied down by natures of proxy measures in innovation study data. This doctoral thesis aims to broaden and enrich the landscape of innovation study by mitigating the shortness of comprehensive knowledge on innovation encompassing manufacturing and service industries based on the big data scale of 16,230 empirical cases from cross-sectional and longitudinal comparative perspective between two industries at the national, sectoral, and regional levels through a single statistical framework by employing decision-making tree analysis, beyond the weakness of proxy measures in innovation study data regarding type and scale, and classical statistical methodologies tied down by the data. This thesis develops a systemic framework to identify overall influencing factors and typological behaviors by considering all factors together entailing contextual and intrinsic factors, which are determined in previous empirical studies in different contexts from the diverse microscopic foci, at various level from diverse perspectives based on the cross-sectional and longitudinal comparative analysis between industries, sectors, and regions on manufacturing and service industries to reflect all sectors nationwide over the years in Korea empirically, by using data from recent two consecutive Korea Innovation Survey (KIS), which is based on the Oslo manual that is standardized theoretically and practically applied worldwide. This thesis consists of two themes. Theme#1 aims to verify statistical differences in innovation success and failure between manufacturing and service industries at the industrial, sectoral, regional, and across sectoral and regional levels nationwide, which is preliminary assumed in previous studies that there is significant difference between sectors statistically, but not tested. Based on the supported eight hypotheses on 28 models by cross-tabulation analysis and chi-square test, this thesis explores forward significant influencing factors and typological behavior on innovation. Theme#2 explores to identify influencing factors and typological behaviors on innovation comparatively between manufacturing and service industries nationwide based on decision-making tree analysis employing CHAID algorithm and 10-fold cross-validation, which are stable, rational and predictive. This theme#2 consists of three modules. The first module identifies influencing factors and typological behaviors on innovation success and failure comparatively between manufacturing and service industries at the national and regional level based on 52 models. The second module identifies influencing factors and typological behaviors on firms that succeeded in innovation comparatively between manufacturing and service industries at overall innovation activity levels from various perspectives based on 30 models. The third module identifies influencing factors and typological behaviors on the most innovative domains having highest success rate comparatively between manufacturing and service industries at the sectoral, regional, and across the industrial and regional levels with higher resolution particularly based on 36 models of three sub-modules. From these models, this thesis identifies pivotal and varying influencing factors across industries over the years, and determines typological behavior of firms in manufacturing and service industries. Based on comprehensive findings on significant influencing factors and typological behaviors on innovation in each result of overall 118 decision-making tree analysis models in three modules in theme#2, overall implications on each typological variation at the national, regional, industrial, and corporate level are drawn. At the national level, the role of internal R&D and its capability are crucial for innovation success across manufacturing and service industries. In manufacturing industry, the larger the firm size and the older the firm, the higher the success will be achieved. Firms in low-technology sectors prefer non-R&D innovation activities rather than R&D. In service industry, effects of firm size and age with sectoral differences are identified. The size effects are prominent under the booming economy circumstances. At the regional level, significant influencing factors are consistent with the arguments on innovation capacity and sectoral difference on both capital and metropolitan area. At the industrial level, the significant role of R&D is witnessed between manufacturing and service industries, such that manufacturers concentrate more in R&D activities than non-R&D activities, and that service firms generally implemented non-R&D innovation activities than R&D. Regarding utilizing information, service firms focus on information from private customer, whereas manufacturers emphasis information from competitor in same sector. At the firm level on innovation contribution, innovation have contributed to the sales on both industries over the years. Comparatively there was a tendency that innovation in manufacturing industry contributes more than service industry. In manufacturing industry, firms performing R&D related innovation activities earn higher contribution to sales from innovation. In service industry, the higher internal capability and freedom in utilizing knowledge, the higher financial contribution will be achieved. Concerning an innovator's behavior, in manufacturing industry, target market characteristics that drive a firm to explore market needs affects innovation behavior and the utilization of external knowledge. Firms prefer implementing low-cost R&D activities across sectors, but firms in low-technology sectors prefer non-R&D activities. Most firms having R&D institutes focus on performing internal R&D with using their own knowledge. Cooperative R&D is conducted for closing capability gaps, but absorptive capacity is necessary to complement cooperative R&D. In service industry, firms primarily decide on whether to engage in R&D based on sectoral differentiations in technology facilitation with internal R&D capability. Their behavior is closely related to the knowledge utilization from customer or competitor. Firms perfervidly engage in utilizing knowledge from customers and external R&D institutes under the booming economy. For managerial or political implications in manufacturing industry, it is crucial to enhance the national innovation system, such that strengthening a support program to increase the capacity of both in-house R&D and cooperative R&D through funding, and to enliven the information environment on technology and market. For service industry, it should focus on enhancing the capacity for non-R&D innovation activities as well as for the internal R&D rather than promoting cooperative networking activities. Also, it should strengthen the national innovation system for to facilitate provision of market information according to the sectoral differentiation. In whole, the findings and implications presented in this thesis contribute to the comprehensive knowledge on influencing factors and typological behaviors on innovation across manufacturing and service industries nationwide from cross-sectional and longitudinal comparative analysis by employing DT methodology to encompass various types of proxy measures in innovation study data together in a single statistical framework on the big-data scale, thereby shedding light on landscape of innovation study and resolving controversies involving various empirical contexts and diverse proxy measures, which are tied down by the innovation study data. ; Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background and motivation 1 1.2 Purpose 5 1.3 Scope and framework 7 1.4 Thesis outline 10 Chapter 2 Background 13 2.1 Theoretical background 13 2.1.1 Definition and measurement of innovation 13 2.1.2 Antecedents of innovation 17 2.1.2.1 Extrinsic determinants of innovation 17 2.1.2.2 Intrinsic determinants of innovation 21 2.1.3 Innovation studies at the sectoral and regional levels 27 2.2 Methodological background 30 2.2.1 Decision-making tree analysis 30 2.2.2 Validation and accuracy 33 2.3 Data and variables 34 2.4 Research framework and flow 44 Chapter 3 An analysis of industrial and regional differences in the success of innovation between Manufacturing and service industries 50 3.1 Structure and hypotheses of difference in innovation success between manufacturing and service industries at the industrial, sectoral, and regional levels 50 3.2 Differences in innovation success between manufacturing and service industries at the industrial, sectoral, and regional levels 54 3.3 Conclusion 84 Chapter 4 Identifying influencing factors and typological behaviors in innovation between manufacturing and service industries by using decision-making tree analysis 88 4.1 Identifying contextual factors and typological behavior in innovation success and failure between manufacturing and service industries at the national and regional levels 89 4.1.1 Analysis structure on innovation success and failure at the national and regional levels 89 4.1.2 Factors and behaviors in innovation success and failure between manufacturing and service industries at the national and regional levels 92 4.1.2.1 Overall influencing factors and typological behaviors on innovation success and failure at the national level 97 4.1.2.2 Overall influencing factors and typological behaviors on innovation success and failure at the regional level 111 4.2 Identifying intrinsic and contextual factors and typological behaviors in successful innovation firms between manufacturing and service industries at the various activity levels 116 4.2.1 Analysis structure on intrinsic and contextual factors and typological behaviors in successful innovation at the various activity levels 116 4.2.2 Intrinsic and contextual factors and typological behaviors in successful innovation at the various activity levels 119 4.2.2.1 Industrial difference in successful innovation 119 4.2.2.2 Contribution to sales from innovation 124 4.2.2.3 Overall innovation activities 133 4.2.2.4 Overall R&D activities 141 4.2.2.5 Cooperative activities 151 4.2.2.6 Best cooperative partner 156 4.2.2.7 Sources of innovation budget 161 4.3 Identifying factors and behaviors in innovative domains between manufacturing and service industries at the sectoral, regional, and across the industrial and regional levels 166 4.3.1 Analysis structure on innovative domains 166 4.3.2 Overall influencing factors and behaviors in innovative domains at the sectoral, regional, and across the industrial and regional levels 173 4.3.2.1 Innovative sectors 173 4.3.2.2 Innovative regions 182 4.3.2.3 Innovative regional sectors 188 4.4 Conclusion 194 Chapter 5 Conclusion 205 5.1 Summary and contribution 205 5.2 Limitation and further research 212 Bibliography 214 Appendix 249 국문초록 347 ; Doctor
ÖZET: Hayvancılık, Çad'ın gelişmekte olan bir ülke olarak önemli bir ekonomik bileşenidir. Petrol sektöründen sonra genel olarak ülkenin GSYİH'sini paylaşmaktadır. Önemine rağmen, bu sektör bir takım kısıtlamalarla karşı karşıya. Bu kısıtlamaları araştırmak için, bu çalışma hayvancılık politikasını etkileyen faktörler araştırıldı. Çad'daki hayvancılık sektöründeki iyileşmenin, Hükümet tarafından halihazırda ele alınan politika kısıtlamalarından etkilendiği varsayılmaktadır. Bu çalışmanın belirli bir araştırma amacı Çad'da hayvancılık politikasının uygulamadaki zayıf yönlerini ve güçlü yönlerini analiz etmektir; hayvancılık politikası uygulamasını incelemenin yanı sıra. Bu araştırmada kullanılan yöntem hem niteliksel hem de nicelikseldir ve birincil ve ikincil olmak üzere iki veri kaynağına dayanır. Hayvancılık politikasının uygulanmasına ilişkin temel veriler, hayvancılık politikasının uygulanmasını etkileyen parametreleri belirlemek için hayvancılık ve paydaşlık bakanlığında çalışan kamu görevlilerine yönelik anketler kullanılarak bir anket kullanılarak toplanmıştır. Anket sonuçları, hem nicel hem de nitel analiz yöntemleri kullanılarak analiz edilmiştir. Çalışma, nicel betimsel analizin sonucuna dayandı. İstatistikler, Sosyal Bilimler için İstatistik Paketi (SPSS) programı ile yürütülen analiz sonrası demografik özelliklerin ve çalışma faktörlerinin bir özetini ve açıklamasını verir. Açık uçlu soruların sonucu nitel analizde tartışılmış ve cevaplayıcılardan her birinin en önemli üçünü seçmelerini istemek için ek sorular eklenmiştir. nitel analiz. Analizlerin sonuçları, araştırmanın nitel kısmından gelen yanıtlar, ilgili çalışmaların sonuçları ve araştırma bulgularına genel bir bakış açısı sağlamak için Çad Hayvancılık Dairesi'nden gelen hayvancılık istatistik verileriyle daha da doğrulanmıştır. Ortalama ve frekans dağılımı gibi tanımlayıcı istatistikler de kullanılmıştır. Bu araştırmanın ana bulguları, hayvancılık geliştirme politikasının dört faktörden etkilendiğini göstermiştir: hayvancılık verimlilik sistemleri; ekonomik çevre; kamu yönetimi ve yönetişim; ve insan kaynakları geliştirme politikasının yönetimi. Çalışmanın sonuçları, hayvancılık üretim sistemindeki faktörler arasında, hayvancılık politikasına etkileri bakımından, geniş üreme sistemleri bulunduğunu; hayvan sağlığı sorunları; ve veteriner eczanesi. Ekonomik ortamda, faktörler mezbaha modernizasyonunun eksikliğidir; hayvan pazarı sistemlerinin modernizasyonunun eksikliği; hayvan ticareti pazarlama sistemlerinin eksikliği; ve önceliklendirme hayvancılık bütçesi eksikliği. Kamu yönetiminde ve yönetişimde tanımlanan faktörler, önceliklendirme yapan hayvancılık politikasının eksikliğidir; uygunsuz proje yönetimi; stratejik yönetim kapasitesi eksikliği; ve kapasite geliştirme yönetiminin eksikliği. İnsan kaynaklarının geliştirilmesi ve politikasının yönetiminde, etkileyici faktörler, esas sistem ilkelerinin uygulanmasının eksikliğidir; yöneticilerin değerlendirilmemesi; ve eğitim ve uzatma eksikliği. Öneriler, proje yönetimini geliştirmek için politika oluşturma ve uygulamada yer alan kurumlar arasındaki işbirliğini güçlendirmek amacıyla dört faktör etrafında sunulmuştur; Hayvancılık politikasını, ekonomik perspektifi içeren kapsamlı bir yaklaşım gerektiren karmaşık bir sorun olarak ele almak; Gelişen bir sistem olarak hayvancılık politikası vizyonunu modernize etmek. Bu tavsiyeler, hayvancılık politikasının daha fazla uygulanmasını ilgilendirmekte ve merkezi hükümetin ülke genelinde izlenmesi mümkün olan hayvancılık politikasındaki stratejisine atıfta bulunmaktadır. Ancak, bu önerilerin hepsi çok önemlidir, ancak bazıları kısa, orta ve uzun vadede yapılmalıdır. İÇİNDEKİLER Sayfa numarası. TABLO LİSTESİ X ŞEKİL LİSTESİ XI KISALTMA LİSTESİ XII 1. ÇALIŞMA ARKA PLANI 1 1.1 Giriş 1 1.2 Araştırma Sorunu Beyanı 4 1.3 Çalışmanın Amacı 6 1.4 Araştırma Amaçı 7 1.5 Araştırma Soruları 7 1.6 Araştırma Hipotezi 8 1.7 Araştırma Tasarımı ve Metodolojisi 8 1.8 Çalışmanın Önemi 9 1.9 Tez Bölümlerinin Anahatları 9 2. LITERATÜR TARAMASI, POLİTİKA UYGULAMASI VE KAVRAMSAL ÇERÇEVE 11 2.1 Giriş 11 2.2 Politika Tanımları 12 2.3 POLİTİKA UYGULAMASI 14 2.3.1 Açıklayıcı Modeller 16 2.3.2 Açıklayıcı Modellerin Uygulanması 16 2.3.3 Reçeteli Modeller 17 2.3.3.1 Reçete Modellerinin Uygulanması 18 2.3.4 Rasyonel Yaklaşım 22 2.3.5 Politik yaklaşım 24 2.3.6 Uygulama teorisi: Sistem Modeli 25 2.3.7 AŞAĞIDAN YUKARIYA VE YUKARIDAN AŞAĞIYA YAKLAŞIMLAR 27 2.3.7.1 Yukarıdan Aşağıya Yaklaşım 28 2.3.7.2 Aşağıdan Yukarıya Yaklaşım 28 2.3.7.3 Aşağıdan Yukarıya ve Yukarıdan Aşağıya Yaklaşımların Sentezi 29 2.3.8 BAŞARILI VE BAŞARISIZ UYGULAMA NEDİR? 34 2.4 KAVRAMSAL ÇERÇEVE: HAYVANCILIK UYGULAMASININ POLİTİKASI 36 2.4.1 POLİTİKA UYGULAMASINDAN ETKİLEYEN FAKTÖRLER 36 2.5 HAYVANCILIK POLİTİKASININ UYGULAMASINI ETKİLEYEN FAKTÖRLER 42 2.5.1 Hayvancılık Verimlilik Sistemleri 42 2.5.1.1 Geniş Kapsamlı Islah Sistemi 42 2.5.1.2 Hayvan Sağlığı Sorunları 43 2.5.1.3 Veteriner Eczacılığı 43 2.5.2 Ekonomik Çevre 44 2.5.2.1 Hayvancılık Pazarlama Sistemleri 44 2.5.2.2 Hayvancılık Pazar Sistemleri 44 2.5.2.3 Olumlu Tedbir Eksikliği 45 2.5.3 Kamu Yönetimi ve Yönetişim 45 2.5.3.1 Politika Yönetimi 45 2.5.3.2 Kamu Yönetimi 47 2.5.4 İnsan Kaynakları Geliştirme Yönetimi 48 2.5.4.1 Eğitim ve yazışmalı 49 2.5.4.2 Araştırma Hizmetleri 49 2.5.5 Hayvancılık Gelişme Planlarının Uygulanması 50 2.5.6 Stratejik Planlama için Devlet Koordinasyonu 52 2.5.7 Uygulayıcıların Politikaya Yönelik Tutumları 54 2.5.8 Hayvancılık Planlama ve Bilgi Hizmetleri Livestock 56 2.5.8.1 Hayvancılık Teknolojisinin Sağlanması 57 2.6 KAVRAMSAL ÇERÇEVE 57 2.6.1 KAVRAMSAL ÇERÇEVE ELEMANLARI 58 2.6.1.1 Politika İçeriği 58 2.6.1.2 Uygulama İçeriği 59 2.6.1.3 Uygulayıcıların Politikaya Taahhüdü 60 2.6.1.4 Politika Uygulama Kapasitesi 61 2.6.1.5 Uygulama İçin Müşterilere ve Koalisyonlara Destek 62 2.6.2 Kavramsal Çerçeve 65 2.7 ÖZET VE SONUÇ 66 3. ÇAD'IN SOSYO EKONOMİK ORTAMINA GENEL BAKIŞ VE LIVESTOCK POLİTİKA SİSTEMİ 68 3.1 Giriş 68 3.2 Ülke Profili 68 3.2.1 Kolonizasyon ve Bağımsız 69 3.2.2 Yönetim Seviyesi 70 3.2.3 Devlet ve Ssiyasi Durum 71 3.2.4 Doğal Kısıtlamalar 71 3.3.1 Sosyo-demografik ve Ekonomik Özellikle 72 3.3.2 Sosyoekonomik Kısıtlamalara Genel Bakış 73 3.3.3 Siyasi Kısıtlamalar 77 3.3.4 Çad'da Hayvancılık Sektörü Arka Planı 79 3.5 PASTORAL KALKINMA BAKANLIĞI ORGANİZASYONU ÇAD VE HAYVAN ÜRETİMİ 81 3.5.1 Hayvancılıkta Kurumsal Politika Çerçevesi 82 3.5.2. Hayvancılık Kurumsal Bağlantıları ve Ortaklığı 83 3.5.3 Hayvancılık Kuruluş Kuruluşları 83 3.5.4 Özel Sektör Kuruluşları 84 3.5.5 Sivil Toplum Kuruluşları 85 3.6 ENDÜSTRİYELLEŞME VE ÜRÜNÜN SINIRLARI İŞLEME 85 3.6.1 Mezbahaneler ve Kesim Alanları 86 3.6.2 İşlenmiş Ürün Faaliyetleri 86 3.6.3 Süt İşleme Üniteleri 88 3.6.4 Dönüşüm Birimleri 88 3.6.5 İşlenmiş Ürün Çeşitleri 88 3.7 ÖZET VE SONUÇ 89 4. METODOLOJİ METHODOLOGY 90 4.1 Giriş 90 4.2 Çalışmanın amacı 90 4.3 ARAŞTIRMA TASARIMI VE ANALİTİK MODELİ 91 4.3.1 Araştırma Tasarımı ve Metodoloji 91 4.4 Nüfus 94 4.5 Örnek 94 4.6 Anket Aracı 95 4.7 Veri Toplama 96 4.7.1 Pilot Testi 96 4.7.2 Gerçek Anket/Veri Toplama 97 4.8 Analiz 97 4.9 ÖZET VE SONUÇ 98 5. ÇALIŞMA VERİLERİNİN TOPLANMASI ANALİZİ 99 5.1 Giriş 99 5.2 Numunenin Demografik Profili 99 5.3 Çalışma Faktörleri 100 5.3.1 Hayvancılık Verimlilik Sistemi Faktörleri 101 5.3.2 Ekonomik Çevre Faktörleri 102 5.3.3 Kamu Yönetimi ve Yönetişim 103 5.3.4 İnsan Kaynakları Geliştirme ve Politika Yönetimi 104 5.3.5 En Önemli Güçlü Noktalar ve Zayıf Noktalar 106 5.3.5.1 Hayvancılık Gelişme Planlarının Uygulanmasının Güçlü ve Zayıf Noktaları 106 5.3.5.2 Hayvancılık Stratejik Planlaması için Devlet Koordinasyonunda Güçlü Noktalar ve Zayıf Noktalar 107 5.3.5.3 Uygulayıcıların Hayvancılık Politikasına Karşı Tutumlarında Güçlü Noktalar ve Zayıf Noktalar 108 5.4 ÖZET VE SONUÇ 109 6. BULGULARIN TARTIŞMASI, ÇALIŞMA ÖZETİ, SONUÇ VE ÖNERİLER 110 6.1 Giriş 110 6.2 Bulguların Özeti 110 6.2.1 Hayvancılık Verimlilik Sistemi Faktörü 110 6.2.2 Ekonomik Çevre Faktörü 111 6.2.3 Kamu Yönetimi ve Yönetişim Faktörü 111 6.2.4 İnsan Kaynakları Geliştirme ve Politika Faktörü Yönetimi 111 6.2.5 En Önemli Güçlü Noktalar ve Zayıf Noktalar 112 6.3 Bulguların Tartışılması 114 6.3.1 Hayvancılık verimlilik sistemi faktörleri ile ilişkileri ve geliştirilmiş uygulama hizmetlerinin üç bileşeni 114 6.3.2 Ekonomik çevre faktörleri ile geliştirilmiş uygulama hizmetlerinin üç bileşeni arasındaki ilişki 115 6.3.3 Kamu yönetimi ve yönetişim ve gelişmiş uygulama hizmetlerinin üç bileşeni arasındaki ilişki 118 6.3.4 İnsan kaynakları geliştirme politikasının yönetimi ile iyileştirilmiş uygulama hizmetlerinin üç bileşeni arasındaki ilişki 120 6.3.5 Araştırma Sorusuna Cevap 122 6.4 Öğütleme 143 6.5 Sonuç 161 Kaynakça 162 Ekler 173 Anket 190 --- ABSTRACT: Livestock is an important economic component of Chad as a developing country. It shares in overall country's GDP after the oil sector. In spite of its importance, this sector is facing a number of constraints. In order to explore those constraints, this study was investigated the factors that impact the livestock policy. It is hypothesized that the improvement of the livestock sector in Chad is affected by the policy constraints, already being addressed by the Government. A specified research objective of this study is to analyse the weaknesses and the strengths of livestock policy implementation in Chad; as well as to examine livestock policy implementation. The method used in this research both qualitative and quantitative and is based on two sources of data, primary and secondary. The primary data on the implementation of livestock policy were collected by using a survey through the questionnaires addressed to the public officers working at the Ministry of livestock and stakeholders to identify the parameters influencing the implementation of livestock policy. The survey results were analysed by using both quantitative and qualitative methods of analyses. The study relied on the result of the quantitative descriptive analysis. The statistics give a summary and description of the demographic aspects and the study factors after analysis run with the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) programme. The result of open-ended questions was discussed in qualitative analysis and additional questions were added to ask the respondents to select the most significant top three in each part of the three statement-questions each has five strong points and five weak points also were discussed in qualitative analysis. The results of the analyses were further substantiated by the responses from the qualitative part of the survey, by the results of related studies, and by livestock statistical data from the Department of the livestock of Chad to provide a general perspective on the research findings. Descriptive statistics such as mean and frequency distribution were also utilized. The main findings of this research showed that livestock development policy is influenced by four factors: livestock productivity systems; economic environment; public administration and Governance; and management of human resources development policy. The results of the study revealed that among the livestock production system factors in terms of their impact on livestock policy, there are extensive breeding systems; animal health issues; and veterinary pharmacy. In the economic environment, factors are lack of modernization of slaughterhouse; lack of modernization of livestock market systems; lack of livestock trade marketing systems; and lack of livestock budget prioritizing. In public administration and governance identified factors are lack of livestock policy prioritizing; inappropriate project management; lack of strategic management capacity; and lack of administration of the capacity building. And in management of human resources development and policy, the influencing factors are lack of application of the merit system principles; lack of evaluation of administrators; and lack of training and extension. The recommendations are presented around four factors, to improve project management strengthen the collaboration among the agencies involved in policy making and implementation; to address livestock policy as a complex problem which needs a comprehensive approach embracing economic perspective; to modernize vision of livestock policy as an evolving system. These recommendations concern the further implementation of livestock policy and refer to the strategy of the central government in livestock policy that could be pursued across the country. However, all of these recommendations are so important but some of them to be done in short, medium and long term. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. LIST OF TABLES X LIST OF FIGURES XI LIST OF ABBREVIATION XII 1. STUDY BACKGROUND 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Statement of Research Problem 4 1.3 Purpose of the Study 6 1.4 Research Objective 7 1.5 Research Questions 7 1.6 Research Hypothesis 8 1.7 Research Design and Methodology 8 1.8 Significance of the Study 9 1.9 Outline of Thesis Chapters 9 2. LITERATURE REVIEW, POLICY IMPLEMENTATION AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Policy Definitions 12 2.3 POLICY IMPLEMENTATION 14 2.3.1 Descriptive Models 16 2.3.2 Implication of Descriptive Models 16 2.3.3 Prescriptive Models 17 2.3.3.1 Implication of Prescriptive Models 18 2.3.4 Rational Approach 22 2.3.5 Political approach 24 2.3.6 Implementation theory: System Model 25 2.3.7 TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP APPROACHES 27 2.3.7.1 Top Down Approach 28 2.3.7.2 Bottom Up Approach 28 2.3.7.3 Synthesis of Bottom-up and Top-down Approaches 29 2.3.8 WHAT IS SUCCESSFUL AND FAILED IMPLEMENTATION? 34 2.4 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: POLICY IMPLEMENTATION OF LIVESTOCK POLICY 36 2.4.1 FACTORS THAT AFFECT POLICY IMPLEMENTATION 36 2.5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE IMPLEMENTATION OF LIVESTOCK POLICY 42 2.5.1 Livestock Productivity Systems 42 2.5.1.1 Extensive Breedıng System 42 2.5.1.2 Animal Health Issues 43 2.5.1.3 Veterinary Pharmacy 43 2.5.2 Economic Environment 44 2.5.2.1 Livestock Marketing Systems 44 2.5.2.2 Livestock Market Systems 44 2.5.2.3 Lack of Positive Measures 45 2.5.3 Public Administration and Governance 45 2.5.3.1 Policy Administration 45 2.5.3.2 Public Governance 47 2.5.4 Management of Human Resources Development 48 2.5.4.1 Training and Extension 49 2.5.4.2 Research Services 49 2.5.5 Implementation of Livestock Development Plans 50 2.5.6 Government Coordination for Strategic Planning 52 2.5.7 Attitudes of Implementers Towards the Policy 54 2.5.8 Livestock Planning and Information Services 56 2.5.8.1 Provision of Livestock Technology 57 2.6 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 57 2.6.1 ELEMENTS OF CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 58 2.6.1.1 Policy Content 58 2.6.1.2 Context of Implementation 59 2.6.1.3 Commitment of Implementers to the Policy 60 2.6.1.4 Capacity to Implement Policy 61 2.6.1.5 Support of Clients and Coalitions for Implementation 62 2.6.2 Conceptual Framework 65 2.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 66 3. OVERVIEW OF SOCIOECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT OF CHAD AND LIVESTOCK POLICY SYSTEM 68 3.1 Introduction 68 3.2 Country Profile 68 3.2.1 Colonization and Independent 69 3.2.2 Administration level 70 3.2.3 Government and political situation 71 3.2.4 Natural Constraints 71 3.3.1 Socio-demographic and Economic Characteristics 72 3.3.2 Overview of Socioeconomic Constraints 73 3.3.3 Political Constraints 77 3.3.4 Livestock Sector Background in Chad 79 3.5 ORGANISATION OF MINISTRY OF PASTORAL DEVELOPMENT AND ANIMAL PRODUCTION OF CHAD 81 3.5.1 Institutional Policy Framework of Livestock 82 3.5.2. Livestock Institutional Linkages and Partnership 83 3.5.3 Livestock Associative Institutions 83 3.5.4 Private Sector Institutions 84 3.5.5 Non-Governmental Organisations 85 3.6 CONSTRAINTS OF INDUSTRIALISATION AND PRODUCT PROCESSING 85 3.6.1 Slaughterhouses and Slaughter Areas 86 3.6.2 Processed Product Activities 86 3.6.3 Milk Processing Units 88 3.6.4 Transformation Units 88 3.6.5 Processed Product Varieties 88 3.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 89 4. METHODOLOGY 90 4.1 Introduction 90 4.2 Purpose of the study 90 4.3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND ANALYTICAL MODEL 91 4.3.1 Research Design and Methodology 91 4.4 Population 94 4.5 Sample 94 4.6 Survey Instrument 95 4.7 Data Collection 96 4.7.1 Pilot Test 96 4.7.2 Actual Survey/Data Collection 97 4.8 Analysis 97 4.9 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 98 5. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA COLLECTION OF THE STUDY 99 5.1 Introduction 99 5.2 The Demographic Profile of Sample 99 5.3 Study Factors 100 5.3.1 Livestock Productivity System Factors 101 5.3.2 Economic Environment Factors 102 5.3.3 Public Administration and Governance 103 5.3.4 Management of Human Resources Development and Policy 104 5.3.5 The Most Significant Strong Points and Weak Points 106 5.3.5.1 Strong and weak points of Implementation of Livestock Development Plans 106 5.3.5.2 Strong Points and Weak point in Government Coordination for Livestock Strategic Planning 107 5.3.5.3 Strong Points and Weak point in Attitudes of implementers toward the Livestock policy 108 5.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 109 6. DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS, SUMMARY OF THE STUDY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 110 6.1 Introduction 110 6.2 Summary of Findings 110 6.2.1 Livestock Productivity System Factor 110 6.2.2 Economic Environment Factor 111 6.2.3 Public Administration and Governance Factor 111 6.2.4 Management of Human Resources Development and Policy Factor 111 6.2.5 The Most Significant Strong Points and Weak Points 112 6.3 Discussion of Findings 114 6.3.1 Relationship between livestock productivity system factors and the three components of improved implementation services 114 6.3.2 Relationship between economic environment factors and the three components of improved implementation services 115 6.3.3 Relationship between public administration and governance and the three components of improved implementation services 118 6.3.4 Relationship between management of human resources development policy and the three components of improved implementation services 120 6.3.5 Answer to Research Question 122 6.4 Recommendation 143 6.5 Conclusion 161 Bibliography 162 Appendices 173 Questionnaires 190
O presente trabalho busca identificar as dimensões políticas no discurso da presidente Dilma Rousseff na 66ª Assembleia Geral da Organização das Nações Unidas. Pela perspectiva da investigação em representações sociais, os resultados apontam três eixos prioritários no discurso de Dilma Rousseff, por meio das identificações de expressões de registro e da construção de um mapa representacional (a consolidação de uma imagem positiva sobre o Brasil, a valorização da mulher e o combate à crise econômica), em sete dimensões discursivas, entre referências diretas e de ancoragem. A abordagem desta pesquisa foi centrada principalmente nos pressupostos de Moscovici (2003), Arruda (2005) e Guareschi e Maya (2000).
