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The paper deals with the social phenomenon «organizational trust». The importance of organizational trust as a mechanism for the stable functioning of a modern organization in conditions of the sociocultural and socio-economic environment being under risk is substantiated. The feasibility of a sociologi-cal analysis of trust in an organization with the purpose of enhancing its efficiency and productivity is demonstrated. The essence of «organizational trust» is defined as a phenomenon of positive expectations due to which the principal is ready to ascribe good intentions to the trustees and be confident about their words and actions. Benevolence and competence of trustees are demonstrated to be necessary conditions for the formation of a high level of trust in an organization. Based on the analysis of materials from for-eign sociological studies, the types of organizational trust are differentiated: generalized, vertical and hor-izontal, and their specific characteristics are identified. Generalized trust is found to be based on past ex-perience of interactions, this is the expectation of future gains. It is emphasized that vertical and horizon-tal organizational types of trust have the property of functionality, i.e. they are limited by the professional roles of employees. The evidence base indicates that employee relationships based on trust are one of the conditions for effective labor activity in a modern organization. It has been found that the trust of em-ployees increases their commitment to the organization and job satisfaction, contributes to strengthening the cooperation and teamwork. The expediency of empirical verification of theoretical propositions is substantiated, in particular of the idea that organizational trust has a positive effect on the efficiency and productivity of the modern organization`s development: the higher the trust in the organization, the higher its ability to achieve its strategic, tactical, operational goals, ensure labor productivity, produce innova-tions, maintain high staff motivation and a favorable socio-psychological climate.

The article discusses the process of the European Parliament's empowerment and strengthening its role in the system of the European institutions. Introducing of direct universal suffrage to the European Parliament gave the strongest impetus to this process, guaranteeing its transformation into real democratic institution. The key role in the process of the Parliament's strengthening played its member – Altiero Spinelli who drafted the Treaty establishing the European Union in 1984.

The article is dedicated to the work of the forgotten writers of the second half of the 19th century Praskovya Alexandrovna (1829-1892) and Anna Alexandrovna (1833–1914) Lachinovs, who published under the collective pseudonym of P. Letnev. Many works of the Lachinovs, including the story Unbearable (1891), address the problems of marriage and family. The main focus of the article is on the depiction in the story of the psychology of family relationships, in particular, the dynamics of the psychological confrontation of the main character Vera Pavlovna, defending her human rights, her husband, who strives to suppress his wife as a person and make her obey his will, is analyzed. P. Letnev focuses on the emotional and psychological experiences of the heroine, her refusal to play the role of a victim, the process of moral and everyday struggle with male tyranny. A noteworthy detail is the similarity of the name of the protagonist with the name of the heroine of N. G. Chernyshevsky's novel; however, the novel by P. Letnev shows the image of a woman not of the future, but of the present, who finds it 'unbearable' to confront the established way. The compositional structure of the work gives reason to say that the work combines the "external" and "internal" points of view (B. A. Uspensky) on the character and actions of Vera Pavlovna. The constructed ego-document - the diary of the main character – expresses her position, destroying the idea of the correctness and inviolability of the foundations of the patriarchal way of life, which allows us to show the traumatic family experience of the protagonist. Special attention in the article is paid to the techniques by which the individual "I" of Vera Pavlovna is created, destroying the authoritarian patriarchate discourse.

The article considers results of social survey on the problems of the image of the future in the views of young people, conducted in 2021 in the Saratov region. Based on the analysis of the materials obtained, the importance of the value and ideological factor in the formation of various representations of the desired image of the political, social, and economic development of the country is revealed. The author concludes that, despite the dominance of oppositional sentiments towards the current political regime, the overwhelming majority of regional representatives of Russian youth have demonstrated their propensity for evolutionary transformation of the political, social and economic structure of the country and for legitimate methods of practical implementation of their ideas about Russia's future.

Economic threat figures prominently in recent explanations of lethal social control directed against blacks after the Civil War. As the position of whites and blacks became more similar, racial antagonisms intensified and found expression in efforts to suppress and intimidate blacks through lynchings and executions. This paper applies the economic threat hypothesis to the exercise of nonlethal social control in Georgia between 1874 and 1936. Time series analysis indicates that declines in racial inequality slightly increased racial disparities in incarceration. More noticeably, they decreased the black male incarceration rate and increased its white counterpart. The paper concludes with a discussion of the theoretical and empirical implications of the results.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5007/2175-7984.2014v13n28p199Contentious politics helps individuals and groups with limited political voice to place their ideas and interests on the political agenda. Contentious politics were long thought to occur when politically marginalized group had no other means to advance their political agenda. The June 2013 social mobilization in Brazil caught most political observers by surprise, especially given the creation of a large, wide-spread participatory architecture (national conferences, councils, participatory budgeting). The innovative institutions emerging in Brazil created a policy environment in which millions of citizens have regular access to state policymaking bodies. How does the institutionalization of a broader network of participatory institutions make it easier for citizens to engage in contentious politics? In what ways does this institutionalization make it more difficult for some citizens to engage in contentious politics? In what ways has the vast network of participatory institutions been largely irrelevant to how citizens use contentious politics? This article explore how the institutionalization of an extensive participatory democracy system in Brazil alters the incentive structures that encourage citizens to engage in contentious collective action.

In this article the problem of a reality of scientific knowledge, its validity and objectivity within of discussion realism/antirealism is described. In particular principal points of scientific realism are allocated and analyzed.

In article results of research of an image of the future of learning youth in aspect of their social self-determination are stated. Results of empirical research of a parity of an image of representations and social identity are submitted to of the person.

The article describes the main stages of the creative path of the professor of St. Petersburg State University Valery Viktorovich Kovalev (1948–2020), who made a significant contribution to the revival in the 1990s of the Russian school of balance sheet science and financial analysis, considering the balance sheet as the most optimal financial model of a company. The features of the traditional Soviet school of analysis of the economic activity of enterprises, formed by the beginning of perestroika in the USSR and, to a certain extent, unable to satisfy the information needs of interested persons in the new economic conditions, are characterized. Demonstrates and reveals the range of methodological tasks posed to accountants — theorists by new conditions of management during the formation and further development of the post-Soviet economy in Russia. The content of the basis proposed by V. V. Kovalev methods of analysis of accounting (financial) statements of a legally independent business entity in modern conditions of a market economy as a synthesis of the developments of domestic balance sheets of the early 20th century and the conceptual foundations of the Anglo-American school of corporate finance at the end of the 20th century. The article characterizes the connection between the content of Professor Kovalev's works and the provisions of the works of the famous Russian theorist in the field of accounting A. P. Rudanovsky (1863–1931). The development of the works of V. V. Kovalev from a set of indicators for the dynamic analysis of accounting (financial) statements to a new national school of financial management, which for the first time combined the concepts of continental European and Anglo-American accounting traditions and practices. The educational activities of V. V. Kovalev in the 1990s, the content of his works in the field of the history of financial science in Russia, including those created at the St. Petersburg State University, is revealed.

Along with the concepts of "state" and "territory," sovereignty is one of the central themes both in the study and practice of international relations.The sovereignty issue is all-important for Georgia as a post-Soviet "transition state" still working on its statehood. State sovereignty and state independence are inextricably related to the nation-state as the main actor in the contemporary international system. (There is no doubt that Georgia is one such state.) Independence within a nation-state can be rationally substantiated as a political tool used to achieve and realize the highest values, as well as specific positive aims and tasks pursued by the population of any sovereign state taking due account of its economic, scientific, cultural, spiritual, etc. development, which cannot be affected by outside factors. Aristotle regarded state sovereignty as a tool in the context of his "happy state" conception; a sovereign state helped realize the highest values and achieve the ultimate aims of its population. On the other hand, Aristotle pointed out: "For a state is not a mere aggregate of persons, but a union of them sufficing for the purposes of life." This is not a purely instrumental and axiological idea of statehood and sovereignty-the philosopher supplied their final axiological interpretation. Normally nation-states regard sovereignty as their highest value and ultimate aim. State and national independence develop into the ultimate value with no fair equivalent, even if overpriced. This is particularly typical of peoples with a mythologized national identity; they regard themselves as a living organism with a creative force and spiritual identity. For most so-called de-mythologized peoples that mostly regard themselves as a "society" rather than a "nation," sovereignty is an indisputable value. The point has been amply demonstrated by international experience. Inevitably, there are exceptions: for example, the Scots, a nation with a highly developed national self-identity, voluntarily abandoned their sovereignty and independence, while the Canadians, Australians, and some other peoples formally delegated their sovereignty to the English crown. There is another type of collective self-identification that abandons national and state sovereignty in favor of other, much larger entities. It is rooted in a shared culture, faith, language, etc. I have in mind pan-Slavism, pan-Turkism, pan-Islamism, and other similar phenomena, the success of which is always short-lived or even virtual. The above is part of my discussion, within the limits of the present article, of whether sovereignty as an ultimate aim is self-sufficient and valuable for Georgia at the level of the political elites and society as a whole; how important is sovereignty as a tool for realizing other important values and aims, i.e. what does the political class and society mean by sovereignty, and what specific features can be observed in this connection; how does the present idea of sovereignty in Georgia affect political practice (particularly the country's foreign policy orientation and implementation of the republic's strategic objectives).

Ethnic conflict in South Ossetia still remains as one of the acute problems for Georgia. Despite numeral attempts of the conflictresolution August War of 2008 was not avoided. A big number of Georgian and foreign researchers work on the ways of conflictresolution with no significant success. In the article below will be analyzed one of the historical periods of the beginning of the 20thcentury when the first ethnic clashes between Georgians and ethnic Ossetians took place. The important factor of this period is thatthe soviet power was taking all efforts to conceal these facts as it was against its interest to have ethnic conflicts on its multiethnicand multicultural territory. After the collapse of the USSR Russia again helped to provoke the conflict as weakening of newly independentGeorgiawas in its interests.