Conflict environments exacerbate an incentive dilemma between employers and private military and security companies (PMSCs). PMSCs seek to maximize profits, but employers seek to minimize expenses and maximize services. We argue that PMSCs are influenced by two complementary economic factors: contract structure and intra-sector competition. Contract structures are set by employers and establish compensation constraints and intra-sector competition identifies potential replacements. Both impact service delivery. We find that PMSCs with contract structures that lack performance incentives, even in the presence of competition, increase the likelihood of violence in Iraq. PMSCs that lacked intra-sector competition had a similar but smaller effect.
В статье обращается внимание на необходимость поиска эффективных моделей взаимодействия высшего образования, бизнеса и государства с целью инновационного экономического развития. Предлагается обратить внимание на возможность создания образовательными организациями высшего образования коммерческих организаций совместно с бизнессообществом, но без ущерба основной цели деятельности образовательных организаций. ; In this arcticle attention is drawn to necessity of searching effective models of higher education, business and government cooperation in order to innovative economic development. There's offered to pay attention to opportunity of creation commercial organizations by institutions of higher education in cooperation with business community, still without losses to the main objectives of the educational organizations.
У статті проаналізовано вплив діяльності малих підприємств на економічне зростання в країні. Доведено, що вони є рушійною силою економіки, визначено перешкоди, які існують перед малим бізнесом. Зроблено порівняння функціонування малих підприємств в Україні і закордоном. Запропонований комплекс заходів по вирішенню проблеми ефективного функціонування малого бізнесу. ; This article analyzes the impact of small businesses on economic growth in the country. Proved that they are the driving force of the economy, detected barriers which interfere the activities of small businesses. The functioning of small enterprises in Ukraine and abroad was compared. A set of measures on solving the problem of efficient operation of small businesses was suggested.
We provide a long-term perspective on the individual retirement behaviour and on the future of retirement. In a Markovian political economic theoretical framework, in which incentives to retire early are embedded, we derive a political equilibrium with positive social security contribution rates and early retirement. Aging has two opposite effects: it leads to lower taxes and fewer (early) retirees, while a poorer median voter will push for higher contributions. The model highlights the existence of crucial income effects: a decrease of the income of young people will induce them to postpone retirement and to vote for less social security.
"Deliberative Governance for Sustainable Development argues that governance has become the core problem of sustainable development and identifies deliberative democracy and governance as a path forward for Western societies. In this book, the author puts forward three messages. Firstly, while sustainable development theoretically is a common good of all people, it is in practice constantly associated with a multitude of smaller and larger conflicts. These conflicts arise repeatedly because, in practice, the benefits, costs and risks of sustainable development are unequally distributed and therefore form a massive barrier to sustainable development. As a result, sustainable development depends on the ability of the social and political institutions of societies to accommodate these conflicts. Second, within the framework of their established institutional structures, Western societies do not have the sufficient tools for conflict resolution that are adequate to the conditions of modern diversified societies and the complex challenges of sustainable development. They need to implement institutional reforms that switch institutional structures towards deliberation. Third, by switching to deliberation, Western societies can reach the high level of governance that enables them to achieve environmentally sustainable development that will bring them significant economic and social benefits and, as a result, may reach far beyond their borders. This volume offers a novel, transdisciplinary approach to sustainable development and governance in Western societies. It will be of great interest to students and scholars of sociology, economics, politics, environmental studies and philosophy, as well professionals and policy-makers working in the area of sustainable development"--
"This book focuses on empirical experiences related to market development, and specifically new markets with structurally different characteristics than mainstream markets. Europe, Brazil, China and the rather robust and complex African experiences are covered to provide a rich multidisciplinary and multi-level analysis of the dynamics of newly emerging markets. Rural Development and the Construction of New Markets analyses newly constructed markets as nested markets. Although they are specific market segments that are nested in the wider commodity markets for food, they have a different nature, different dynamics, a different redistribution of value added, different prices and different relations between producers and consumers. Nested markets embody distinction viz-a-viz the general markets in which they are embedded. A key aspect of nested markets is that these are constructed in and through social struggles, which in turn positions this book in relation to classic and new institutional economic analyses of markets. These markets emerge as steadily growing parts of the farmer populations are dedicating their time, energy and resources to the design and production of new goods and services that differ from conventional agricultural outputs. The speed and intensity with which this is taking place, and the products and services involved, vary considerably across the world. In large parts of the South, notably Africa, farmers are 'structurally' combining farming with other activities. By contrast, in Europe and large parts of Latin America farmers have taken steps to generate new products and services which exist alongside ongoing agricultural production"--
В статье представлен краткий историографический обзор советских, современных, в том числе региональных, исследований по истории Советской России 1920-х гг. периода новой экономической политики. Автор выделяет основные проблемы изучения нэпа в 1920-е 1980-е гг., в частности причины введения нэпа, его сущностные черты, доколхозная деревня и переход крестьянства к нэпу, роль рабочего класса в восстановлении народного хозяйства, формы и методы культпросветработы, которые рассматривались ещё современниками нэпа партийными и государственными деятелями (В.И. Лениным, Н.И. Бухариным, Л.Д. Троцким, И.В. Сталиным), учёными-экономистами (Ю. Лариным (Лурье), Е.А. Преображенским, Н.Д. Кондратьевым, А.В. Чаяновым), эмигрантами (Н. Устряловым, П. Струве и др.). Особое внимание уделяется исследованиям 1950-х 1970-х гг.: Э.Б. Генкиной, А.П. Молчановой, С.Г. Струмилина, Т.А. Ремизовой, Ю.А. Полякова, В.П. Данилова, внёсших свой вклад, несмотря на все идеологические препоны советского времени. Представляют интерес и труды современных авторов 1990-х 2000-х гг. (В.П. Дмитриенко, Н.С. Симонов, Н.Б. Лебина, А.К. Соколов, А.М. Балашов, С.Л. Данильченко, В.П. Булдаков и др.), благодаря которым расширилась «традиционная» нэповская проблематика, обновились подходы в изучении. В обзоре перечисляются наиболее актуальные темы: рыночный компонент нэпа и его противоречия, деформации советской политической системы, демографическая история, повседневность, трудовые конфликты, забастовки, альтернативы, уроки, региональное измерение нэпа. Автор характеризует и региональные исследования, некоторые учебные пособия для студентов вузов по истории нэпа, подготовленные в том числе на местных материалах. ; The article provides a brief historiographical overview of the Soviet, modern, including regional ones, studies on the history of Soviet Russia of the 1920s, the period of the so-called New Economic Policy. The author identifies the main problems in the study of the NEP in 1920s-1980s, in particular, the reasons for the introduction of the NEP, its essential features, the village before mass implementation of collective farming, peasants' transition to the NEP, the role of the working class in the recovery of Russian economy, the forms and methods of cultural enlightening work, which were considered even by contemporaries of the NEP Communist Party and Russian state leaders Lenin, Nikolai Bukharin, Trotsky, Stalin; scientists-economists Yuri Larin (Luria), Yevgeni Preobrazhensky, Nikolai Kondratiev, Alexander Chayanov; emigrants Nikolay Ustryalov, Peter Struve and others. Particular attention is paid to research of 1950s-1970s. (Esfir' Genkina, Aleksandra Molchanova, Stanislav Strumilin, Tat'yana Remizova, Yuriy Polyakov, Viktor Danilov, who really contributed, despite all ideological barriers of the Soviet era. Of interest are also the works of contemporary authors of the 1990s-2000s. (Vladimir Dmitrenko, Nikolay Simonov, Natal'ya Lebina, Andrey Sokolov, Aleksey Balashov, Sergey Danil''chenko, Vladimir Buldakov and others), through which "traditional" NEP issues expanded, approaches to the study were updated. The survey lists the most relevant topics: market component of the NEP and its contradictions, the deformation of the Soviet politic system, demographic history, everyday life, labour disputes, strikes, alternative, lessons, the regional dimension of the NEP. The author describes and regional studies, some tutorials for students on the history of the NEP, including those prepared on regional materials.
RESUMEN En Venezuela, los interrogantes cruciales que discuten los especialistas en el tema del alojamiento se pueden reducir a dos: ¿Por qué el 50% o más, de la población urbana venezolana vive en "zonas de barrios"? y, ¿Si se cree contar con una batería de explicaciones y políticas bien sustentadas, porque la situación no mejora, sino que parece empeorar? Es probable que si nos detenemos a analizar la situación más allá de la reducida perspectiva sectorial especifica de la vivienda y el desarrollo urbano, aparecerían nuevas determinantes, y quizá no sería cierta la premisa de la segunda pregunta. Podría ser que no existen explicaciones bien sustentadas y que las políticas de acción tengan deficiencias. Las políticas, programas y actuaciones en vivienda y desarrollo urbanístico de organismos como el Banco Obrero, Instituto Nacional de Vivienda, Consejo Nacional de la Vivienda y otros con miras a resolver los problemas de los "ranchos", son testimonios concretos que deberían dar pie a nuevas reflexiones, para confirmar o desechar las hipótesis elaboradas hasta el momento, para evaluar la pertinencia y viabilidad de las políticas de viviendas aplicadas en el pasado y en el presente, y determinar cuáles fallas son imputables directamente a una determinada política de vivienda y cuales hay que buscarlas fuera del ámbito sectorial especifico del hábitat. Es esta reflexión se avanzan algunas ideas acerca de cuál política entre las muchas aplicadas y otras solo esbozadas, sería la adecuada en materia de vivienda y el desarrollo urbano, en un contexto actual de dificultades económicas. ABSTRACT In Venezuela, the crucial queries in the housing topic that specialists discuss are condensed in this two: ¿Why 50% or more, of the Venezuelan urban population live in "neighborhood áreas"? And, if one believes to have a battery of policies and well sustained explanations, ¿why doesn't the situation improve, but rather it seems to worsen? It is probable that if we stop to analyze the situation beyond the reduced specific sectorial perspective of the housing and urban development, new determinants would appear, and maybe the premise of the second question would not be certain. It could be that well sustained explanations don't exist and that the action policies have deficiencies. The policies, programs and performances in housing and urbanistic development of organisms such as Banco Obrero, Instituto Nacional de la Vivienda, Consejo Nacional de la Vivienda and others, trying to solve the problem of the "huts", are concrete testimonies that should give cause to new reflections, to confirmo r to discard the hypotheses elaborated, to evaluate the relevancy and viability of the housing policies applied in the past and present, and to determine which flaws are attributable directly to a certain housing policy and, which do we have to look for outside the specific sectorial environment of the hábitat. In the present reflection we consider some ideas about which policies regarding housing and the urban development- among the many sketched and/ or applied – would be, in the current context of economic diffculties, the appropriate one.
When discussing the Netherlands' international human rights policies, the first aspects to come to mind are usually those related to how it addresses and reacts to concrete human rights violations by other countries. In fact, there sometimes appears to be a tendency for public opinion to identify a government's human rights policy with its attempts to pursue human rights issues in its relations with other states. An important element of the Netherlands' human rights policy that does not generally generate widespread public attention concerns the further development of regional and global human rights systems. The present study thoroughly investigates the Netherlands' policies towards the creation of international human rights norms and accompanying supervisory procedures from the late 1970s to 2006. It analyses the Dutch position in negotiations on a number of instruments that deal with the freedom from torture, economic and social rights, children's rights and minority rights. For each theme, a number of smaller case studies and a detailed, in-depth case study are presented. The study examines whether the Netherlands was in favour of the creation of further human rights standards and more intrusive supervisory mechanisms, and what arguments and interests determined its position. It is concluded that the Netherlands was usually cautious to accept new norms, but after a while, it normally adjusted its opinion concerning the desirability of a standard-setting initiative to coincide with that of the proponents. In respect to the creation of supervisory mechanisms, Dutch policies were more consistent: the Netherlands favoured effective and independent procedures. Nonetheless, it must be noted that complaints procedures were not always supported. Apart from human rights considerations, security interests, sovereignty interests, and considerations of reputation co-determined the Netherlands' policies. The interests at stake were represented and defended by different actors. Sometimes, NGOs or transnational human rights networks exerted considerable influence on the Dutch position, although in other instances, they were not involved. Usually parliament did not directly influence the Netherlands' policies until the ratification process started. Finally, the question of which ministry or department was in charge of formulating the Dutch position in the negotiations proved to be an important determinant for the Netherlands' policies. On the basis of the case studies and an appraisal of the influence of different interests and actors, the study makes a general evaluation of the Netherlands' policies. Generally speaking, the Netherlands has a favourable international reputation in the field of human rights, and for a long time domestically, the idea has existed that the Netherlands had a special role to fulfil in the world. This study demonstrates that the Netherlands did indeed take human rights seriously, but it also shows that the idea that it acted as a 'guiding' human rights country, as many seem to presume, needs to be put into perspective. The overall impression is not one of a 'guiding' human rights country with a clear and long-term policy vision on the development of international human rights instruments, but rather that of country continuously adapting to domestic as well as international circumstances.
Lima, die Hauptstadt Perus, ist eine typische Megastadt, in der die Ursachen der Wasserkrise zugleich in den natürlichen (klimatischen und demographischen) Gegebenheiten und den politisch-institutionellen Rahmenbedingungen liegen. Zuwanderung und Wirtschaftswachstum fallen mit einer nicht-nachhaltigen Nutzung von Wasser zusammen. Knapper werdende Wasserressourcen und häufiger auftretende Dürren als Folgen des Klimawandels verschärfen die Lage. Szenarien, die Klima-Projektionen mit verschiedenen gesellschaftlichen und technischen Annahmen über mögliche Wasserzukünfte kombinieren, zeigen auf, dass die zukünftige Wasserversorgung Limas stärker als vom Klimawandel selbst von Faktoren aus den Bereichen Governance, Management und Planung abhängig ist. Um die Wasserversorgung von Lima langfristig zu sichern, sind integrierte Maßnahmen-Mixe notwendig. Diese Maßnahmen müssen technische, gesellschaftliche und ökologische Aspekte gemeinsam betrachten. Ihre Umsetzung bedarf nicht nur Investitionen, sondern auch starker Leitbilder und Institutionen sowie der Kooperation aller Akteure des Wassersektors. Water scarcity in megacities – the example of Lima: Lima, the capital of Peru, is a typical megacity, in which a (potential) water crisis is caused at the same time by natural (climatic and demographic) as well as by political-institutional conditions. Migration and economic growth coincide with non-sustainable water use patterns. Climate change impacts, as increasing scarcity of water resources and more frequent droughts, exacerbate the situation. Scenarios combining climate projections with alternative societal and technical assumptions on possible water futures show that the future water supply of Lima depends more directly from factors regarding governance, management and planning – than from climate change itself. To assure the long term water supply of Lima, integrated policy-mixes are required. These policy-mixes need to jointly consider technical, societal and ecological aspects. Their realization requires not only investments, but also strong visions and institutions as well as the cooperation of all actors of the water sector.
The decade of 1930 was marked by the economic depression that affected with particular virulence the Pampas agricultural. In this context, the conservatives that intervened the government developed the National Agricultural Census in 1937. This work is an exploration of the productive structure of Entre Ríos and its forms of commercialization based on the use of the census as the main source. To this end, the sizes of the productive units of each of the departments, the majority of the productions and their distance to the rail ports and exit roads will be studied in depth. Finally, this information will be crossed with the commercial dynamics of the ports of Entre Ríos. In sum, this work will seek to obtain a detailed image of agricultural production with the aim of problematizing about the consequences of the 1930 crisis in this territory. ; La depresión económica de los años treinta afectó con particular virulencia el agro de la pampa argentina. Para esa época el gobierno realizó el Censo Agropecuario Nacional en 1937. Este trabajo es una exploración de la estructura productiva de la provincia de Entre Ríos y sus formas de comercialización a partir del censo como fuente principal. Con ese fin se profundizará en los tamaños de las unidades productivas de cada uno de los departamentos, la mayoría de las producciones y la distancia a los puertos ferrovías y caminos de salida. Finalmente se cruzará esa información con la dinámica comercial de los puertos entrerrianos.
Тема «американский президент и война» уже давно стала чрезвычайно популярной среди историков и политических публицистов. В список президентов военного времени они почти неизменно всегда включают Авраама Линкольна, Вудро Вильсона и, конечно, Франклина Делано Рузвельта. Рузвельт, который занял свой пост в 1933 г. и боролся с наиболее ужасной экономической катастрофой в американской истории, возглавил свою страну в наиболее опасной войне в человеческой истории. Определенно это была война на выживание. Автор статьи доказывает, что Рузвельт был выдающимся военным лидером. В США это достижение было, возможно, оценено по достоинству только тогда, когда заметили, насколько президенты Гарри Труман в 1950-1951 гг., Линдон Джонсон между 1965-1968 гг., Ричард Никсон в период между 1970 и 1974 гг. и Джордж Буш после 9 сентября 2011 г. уступали Рузвельту по своим характеристикам. ; The topic itself "the American President and the War" had become long since a very popular one among historians and political columnists. Almost invariably they add to the list of the wartime presidents Abraham Lincoln, Woodrow Wilson, and certainly Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Roosevelt, who had taken office in 1933 and dealt with the most terrible economic disaster in American history, led his country in the most dangerous war in human history. It was clearly a war for survival. The author of the article argues that Roosevelt was a great war leader, an accomplishment perhaps only properly appreciated in the USA after noting how Presidents Harry Truman in 1950-1951, Lyndon Johnson between 1965 and 1968, Richard Nixon during 1970 to 1974, and George W. Bush after 9/11 fell far short of FDR's performance.
This study assessed the likely economic, distributional, and fisheries resource impacts of a potential free trade agreement (FTA) between the Philippines and European Union (EU) on the fisheries sector of the former. The study used secondary data from institutional sources and results and findings of past studies. Among others, the study found that a) the elimination of tariffs will likely increase fisheries outputs and exports as well as help reduce poverty in the fisheries sector and the general population; b) the elimination of tariffs will likely diversify the currently limited country destinations and number of exported fisheries products of the Philippines to the EU; c) other than tariffs, there are nontariff measures (NTMs) that significantly impede freer flow of fisheries products from the Philippines to the EU that need to be considered; d) some participants in the Philippine fisheries sector will gain from an FTA while others will lose but the net benefits to the sector and economy is not known; and e) increase in fisheries exports due to the FTA will likely worsen fisheries resource overexploitation although the inflow of cheaper imported fish will tend to reduce the overexploitation.The study concludes, among others, that if a Philippines-EU FTA materializes it should not only reduce or eliminate tariffs in fisheries products but also the NTMs. It also argued that the government should provide safety nets for the fisheries participants who are going to be disadvantaged by the FTA and implement the needed resource and environmental management that will allow sustainable exploitation of fisheries resources even with increased trade.
