Suchergebnisse

ÖzetAvrupa Birliği Konseyi, Aralık 1997'de Lüksemburg'da gerçekleştirdiği Zirvede, Türkiye'nin üyelik için adaylığını ilan etmemiştir. Aralık 1997 ile Aralık 1999 arası dönem Birlik ile Türk hükümeti arasındaki ilişkiler gerilmiş, Türk hükümeti, Lüksemburg Zirvesinin hemen ardından AB ile siyasi düzeyde ilişkileri kesmiştir. Birlik, ABD'nin telkinleri ve AB ülkelerinde iktidara gelen Sosyal Demokrat Partilerin, Hıristiyan Demokrat Partilere göre daha evrensel kavramlarla Birliğin geleceğini tanımlama kaygıları gibi etmenlerle, Türkiye hakkındaki kararını değiştirmiş, Aralık 1999'daki Helsinki Zirvesinde Türkiye'nin adaylığını ilan etmiştir.1963 Ankara Anlaşması ile başlayan, 1970'li yıllarda işçi ve işveren kuruluşlarının fikri sorulmadan imzalanan Katma Protokol Anlaşması ile ikinci aşamasına geçilen, Türkiye AET ortaklık ve yakınlaşma süreci, Özal hükümetinin 1987'de AB'ye tam üyelik başvurusu yapması ve 1995 yılında DYP-SHP koalisyon hükümetinin 1/95 sayılı Ortaklık Konseyi kararıyla gümrük birliğine gitmesi ile, 1970'li yılarda olduğu gibi yeniden siyasal gündemin ön sıralarına taşınmıştır. Aralık 1997'de AB Konseyinin Türkiye'yi aday ilan etmemesi üzerine, gümrük birliği ile yeni fırsatlar yakalamış olan ve AB'nin neo-korporatist yapısı sayesinde AB içerisindeki muadil kuruluşlara üye olmuş bulunan TÜSİAD, İKV gibi işveren örgütleri ve DİSK, Hak-İş gibi sendikalar konuyla daha fazla ilgilenmeye başlamış ve gerek Türk hükümeti gerekse AB üyesi ülkeler nezdinde girişimlerde bulunmuşlardır. Hükümetler ve bürokrasi Soğuk Savaş döneminde, toplumsal gurupların dışlanma eğiliminde olduğu dış politika süreçlerini, AB'nin neo-korporatist yapılanması ve Sivil Toplumun gösterdiği gelişimin de etkisiyle, bu yeni dönemde STK'lara açmıştır.Bu çalışmanın hipotezi, işveren ve işçi örgütlerinin 1970'li yıllardan başlayarak Türkiye'nin AB politikaları üzerinde etkili olmaya başladığı ve bu etkinliğin özellikle inceleme dönemi olan Aralık 1997-Aralık 1999 arasında ivme kazandığıdır. İnceleme dönemine dair yapılan daha çok birincil kaynaklara dayalı detaylı araştırma bu yönde doğrulayıcı bulgular üretmiştir. SummaryThe main purpose of this study is to understand the main dynamics of Turkish domestic politics regarding the EU in between EU Council's Luxembourg and Helsinki Summits by examining some selected governmental and non-governmental actors, excluding press and the public opinion and produce a first hand information about this period which is rarely examined as a whole.The EU-Turkey, relations has been a relationship under the control of executive elite and a small group of intellectuals. After the Additional Protocol was put into force in 1971, domestic economic actors have also been interested in the subject and involved in the policy process, regarding the EEC.Within the last decade of 20th century, one of the most important issues of Turkey-EU relations became the realization of customs union in 1995. The December 1997 Luxembourg European Council Summit, is another important diversion point in Turkey-EU relations. Mesut Yılmaz government reacted very strictly to the Council decision, which was not giving canditature status for Turkey, and as a response, decided not to negotiate the political issues with the EU institutions. After the Luxembourg Summit, Economic Development Foundation (İKV), Turkish Businessmen and Industrialists Association (TÜSİAD), Progressive Labor Unions Confederation (DİSK) and Hak-İş were heavily involved in the EU affairs. These non-governmental organizations, through their connections with the EU countries tried to create an impact on the EU governments to change their policies towards Turkey. These groups also tried to persuade the Turkish government to revive the relations and get closer to the EU. After all these intensive efforts, by the help of government changes in some EU countries and undeniable support of the USA president Bill Clinton, Turkey's candidature status has been regarded and announced by the EU Council in Helsinki.Turkey-EU relations transformed from an intergovernmental relationship to a complicated one in which non-governmental actors have been heavily involved. And this study, by its focus on the period 1997-1999, and by primarily examining first hand resources, produces supportive data which shows that the role of non-governmental actors on the foreign policy process of Turkey regarding the EU is, increasing.

Mención Internacional en el título de doctor ; Renewable energies are the leading alternative to fossil fuels, facing the constant threat of climate change. The development of these new resources has grown in the latest years, especially in the field of solar and wind energy. These renewable power sources have gathered a series of research challenges that, to this date, are still to be solved, with many contributions to this end in the last decade. The role of estimation and forecasting of solar energy is key to the development of the solar energy market, because it cheapens instrumentation costs and improve the efficiency of solar energy market participation in the power grid. The forecast of solar energy is fundamental to estimate costs and operational regulations of a solar plant, although the intermittence of solar energy makes this a difficult task. On the other hand, the estimation of solar irradiance can replace expensive measuring devices such as pyranometers or pyrheliometers; or the need of expert supervision on meteorological stations for cloud type classification. In order to improve estimation, two proposals are studied. The first approach to estimation is the automatic classification of clouds by including ceilometer information. This is a device capable of measuring height and thickness of a cloud, information that has never been applied to cloud classification. The next proposal is the estimation of irradiance by directly analyzing images with Convolutional Networks and multiple perspectives, a never before used technique for solar energy estimation. To improve forecasting the integration of prediction models is proposed. This technique compares and combines existing predictive models to obtain a final, more accurate, prediction. Although this is not a new approach, it has never been applied to various prediction models specialized in different horizons, or for short-term forecasting. Given that clouds produce the greatest interference between extraterrestial and surface irradiance, whole-sky cloud images are a valuable source of data for radiation estimation. To study the cloud type classification problem a Random Forest algorithm is employed. The algorithm is trained using information from cloud height and thickness, which is combined with camera im- 3 age features. Including cloud height and width proves to noticeably improve accuracy even when difficult to classify cloud types are included. Results for 10-class cloud classification, including multiple clouds in a single image, show 71.12%, an improvement over the 50.6% achieved without ceilometer information. This study shows the positive impact of ceilometer information in the cloud classification problem. Irradiance estimation can also be estimated directly from camera images. To face this problem various models have been created using convolutional neural networks, a Machine Learning technique fit for image recognition. Two approaches are proposed, a model with information from a single camera and a model with multiple sky perspectives. In addition to the common RGB colour channels used in image processing, two new channels are included: the distance from a pixel to the sun and the cloudy pixels of an image. Multiple perspectives improve noticeably all alternatives proposed, proving the contribution of the multi-view convolutional network proposed. There are many predictive models that predict with diverse capabilities at different predictive horizons. In this thesis, this process is called forecast integration (or blending). An integration model is proposed to blend four physical models from four meteorological stations at the south of the Iberian peninsula. Using support vector regression these are combined in a linear and non-linear way using the four predictors as inputs to machine learning. Two approaches are presented: a horizon approach that builds a model for each predictive horizon, and a general approach that builds a single prediction model for all horizons. In addition, a regional model is proposed, capable of of making predictions at a regional level instead of a station level. Results from integration are very positive compared with the baseline models for global and direct irradiance. Some absolute improvements reach 15% when comparing integration models to any predictor model when rRMSE and rMAE are evaluated on global and direct irradiance. At a regional level, there are also improvements, at an absolute 5% on global radiation over the predictor models and 10% for direct irradiance. The general approach is specially remarkable because, using a single model, it can obtain the best results on rMAE and match the results of other integration models on rRMSE. ; Las energías renovables son una importante alternativa a los combustibles fósiles ante el constante avance del cambio climático. El desarrollo de estos nuevos recursos se ha acelerado en los últimos años, especialmente en el campo de energía eólica y solar. Estas fuentes energéticas han atraído una serie de desafíos de investigación que siguen en progreso de ser resueltos, con numerosas contribuciones en la última década. La labor de estimación y predicción de energía solar es integral para el desarrollo del mercado energético, ya que permite abaratar costes instrumentales y mejorar la eficiencia de la penetración de la energía solar en la mezcla energética. La predicción de energía es fundamental en el mercado energético para estimar costes y regulaciones operativas de plantas solares, aunque la intermitencia de la energía solar hace que sea una tarea difícil. Por otro lado, la estimación de radiación solar permite reemplazar herramientas de alto coste como piranómetros y pirheliómetros; o la necesidad de expertos para detectar tipos de nube. Para la mejora de estimación se estudian dos propuestas diferentes. En primer lugar se trata de abordar el problema de clasificación de nubes, incluyendo información de ceilómetro. Esta es una herramienta que mide altura y anchura de una nube, cuyo uso nunca ha sido aplicado en la clasificación de nubes. La siguiente propuesta es la estimación de radiación directa a partir de imágenes, usando Redes Convolucionales y múltiples perspectivas, una técnica que nunca ha sido empleada para la estimación de energía solar. Para la mejora de la predicción de energía solar se propone la integración de modelos predictivos. Esta técnica consiste en la combinación de modelos predictivos existentes para obtener una predicción final mucho más precisa que las iniciales. Aunque esta no es una aproximación nueva, su exploración ha sido insuficiente para varios modelos especializados en distintos horizontes, o para predicción a corto plazo. Dado que las nubes producen el mayor impacto entre la radiación extraterrestre y la radiación que alcanza la superficie, las imágenes de nubes son una fuente de datos valiosa para la estimación de radiación. Para estudiar la clasificación del tipo de nube se emplea un algoritmo Random Forest entrenado con información sobre la altura y ancho de la nube, que se combina con estadísticos obtenidos a partir de imágenes. La información del ceilómetro permite mejorar notablemente los resultados incluso cuando se incluyen ejemplos de nube difíciles para expertos. Se logra predecir 10 tipos de nube con un 71.1% de precisión frente al 50.6% obtenido sin ceilómetro. Este estudio prueba que la inclusión de información del ceilómetro tiene un impacto muy positivo en los resultados. La estimación de radiación también se puede afrontar directamente a partir de las imágenes. Para tratar este problema se han creado varios modelos usando redes convolucionales apropiadas para el análisis de imágenes. Se proponen modelos que utilizan información proveniente de una sola cámara y otro modelo con múltiples perspectivas del cielo. Además de los canales habituales utilizados en el proceso de imágenes con redes convolucionales (RGB) se incluyen varios canales adicionales: la lejanía de los píxeles al sol y los píxeles que representan nubes. Las múltiples perspectivas y canales de información adicionales mejoran notablemente las alternativas propuestas, demostrando el aporte de la red convolucional multi-perspectiva propuesta. Existen multitud de modelos predictivos que ofrecen predicciones con capacidades diversas a distintos horizontes de predicción. En esta tesis, se propone un modelo integrador de cuatro modelos predictivos. Usando Maquinas de Vectores de Soporte para regresión se combinan de manera lineal y nolineal los cuatro predictores, utilizando como entradas al modelo las predicciones de los cuatro predictores. Se proponen dos aproximaciones, una por horizontes, construyendo un modelo para cada horizonte de predicción, y otra general, construyendo un modelo único para todos los horizontes. Los modelos han sido evaluados con datos procedentes de cuatro localizaciones al sur de la península ibérica. También se propone un modelo integrador regional, capaz de aportar predicciones a nivel regional en lugar de a nivel de estación. Los resultados de integración son muy positivos tanto para radiación global como directa, mostrando mejoras absolutas hasta del 15% frente a cualquier predictor tanto en rRMSE como en rMAE. A nivel regional también se obtienen mejoras del 5% para radiación global y del 10% para radiación directa. La aproximación general es especialmente destacable, haciendo uso de un único modelo, es capaz de obtener los mejores resultados en rMAE e igualar al resto de modelos de integración en rRMSE. ; This dissertation has been developed under the project PROSOL ENE2014-56126-C2 (Towards an integrated model for solar energy forecasting) in collaboration with the research group MATRAS (University of Jaen) and funded by the Ministry of Science and Innovation (Spanish Government). All the data shown in this text has been provided by MATRAS and has been used with their permission. ; Programa de Doctorado en Ciencia y Tecnología Informática por la Universidad Carlos III de Madrid ; Presidente: Pedro Isasi Viñuela.- Secretario: Esteban García Cuesta.- Vocal: Ricardo Simón Carbajo

Tämän tutkimuksen keskiössä ovat aluetason hallitusten kansainväliset yhteistyöorganisaatiot. Tutkimuksella valotetaan niiden toimijaroolia Itämeren makroalueen monitasoisessa hallintojärjestelmässä ja sen jatkokehittämiseksi. Tutkimuksen kohteena olevat organisaatiot edustavat aluetason poliittisia päätöksentekoelimiä analysoiden kaksi maaesimerkkiä: vaaleilla suoraan valittuja päätöksentekoelimiä federalistisen Saksan osavaltioissa, ja vaalien perusteella nimitettyjä poliittisia päätöksentekoelimiä unitaristisen Suomen maakuntien liitoissa. Tämä Q-tutkimus selvittää aluetason hallitusten kansainvälisten yhteistyöorganisaatioiden sihteeristöjen sekä saksalaisten ja suomalaisten jäsenalueiden edustajien subjektiivisia näkemyksiä näiden yhteistyöorganisaatioiden roolista alueellisella, kansallisella ja Euroopan unionin tasoilla. Arvioin työssäni monitasoista hallintojärjestelmää erilaisten teoreettisten lähestymistapojen valossa. Samalla peilaan keskustelua monitasoisen hallintojärjestelmän määritelmästä ja sisällöistä suhteessa niistä kirjallisuudessa esitettyihin erilaisiin tulkintoihin ja soveltamistapoihin. Kriittisen tarkastelun kohteena on kolme keskeistä politiikan välinettä, joita käytetään Itämeren makroalueen monitasoisessa hallintojärjestelmässä: kumppanuusperiaate, Euroopan unionin Itämeri-strategia ja Euroopan aluekehittämisen seurantaverkoston (ESPON) käsikirja alueellista hallintajärjestelmää varten. Nämä politiikan välineet luovat sitä empiiristä kontekstia, joka mahdollistaa aluetason hallitusten kansainvälisten yhteistyöorganisaatioiden nykyroolin analysoinnin Itämeren makroalueen monitasoisen hallintojärjestelmän kontekstissa. Samalla yllä mainitut politiikan välineet muodostavat arvokkaan lähdemateriaalin tutkimuksen metodologian tueksi. Aluetason hallitusten kansainvälisten yhteistyöorganisaatioiden sekä niiden suomalaisten ja saksalaisten jäsenalueiden edustajien subjektiivisten näkemysten tutkimiseen käytän Q-metodologiaa. Metodologisen analyysin tulosten perusteella löytyi neljä faktoria (i) "Monitasoisen hallintajärjestelmän rakentajat EU:n Itämeri-strategian avulla", (ii) "Strategisten hankkeiden edistäjät", (iii) "Aluekehittämistavoitteiden edunvalvojat" ja (iv) "Jäsenalueiden älykkään erikoistumisen edistäjät". Faktorit ilmentävät yhteistyöorganisaatioiden tehtäviä, koordinaatio-ongelmia monitasoisessa hallintojärjestelmässä sekä työskentelytapojen muutostarpeita Itämeren makroalueen muuttuvassa operationaalisessa viitekehyksessä. Faktoreille yhteiset konsensusväittämäklusterit toivat esiin lukuisia näiden yhteistyöorganisaatioiden toimintaan liittyviä ongelmia: näkyvyydessä ja sitoutumisessa horisontaaliseen ja vertikaaliseen viestintään; makroalueellisessa koordinaatiossa ja yhteistyössä kansallisen tason hallitustenvälisten yhteistyöorganisaatioiden kanssa; Euroopan unionin rahoitusvälineiden hyödyntämisessä; maantieteellisessä edustavuudessa ja poliittisen legimiteetin puolustamisessa sekä voimavarojen tehokkaammassa käytössä. Tämä tutkimus osoittaa, että aluetason hallitusten kansainväliset yhteistyöorganisaatiot kohtaavat useita ongelmia, ja etteivät ne ole vielä täysin sopeutuneet Itämeren makroalueen muuttuvaan operationaaliseen viitekehykseen, eivätkä Euroopan unionin nykyisiin politiikan välineisiin ja prosesseihin. Tulokset osoittavat myös, että nykyistä Itämeren makroalueen monitasoista hallintojärjestelmää voi luonnehtia melko valtiokeskeiseksi ja ylhäältä alaspäin ohjatuksi. Monitasoinen hallintajärjestelmä ei ole optimaalisesti toimiva aluetason hallitusten kansainvälisten yhteistyöorganisaatioiden eikä niiden jäsenalueiden näkökulmasta. Dikotomia hallitustenvälisyyden ja monitasoisen hallintojärjestelmän teoreettisten lähestymistapojen välillä ilmentää jännitteitä eri politiikan osa-alueilla, eri politiikkojen laadinnassa ja käytäntöön soveltamisessa. Poliittinen ja perustuslaillinen viitekehys vaikuttaa myös selkeästi yhteistyöorganisaatioiden jäsenalueiden valtuuksiin ja vastuisiin omissa maissaan, ja siihen, kuinka ne voivat toimia niissä, sekä siihen millaisen aseman jäsenalueet mahdollistavat näille yhteistyöorganisaatioille monitasoisessa hallintojärjestelmässä. Käynnissä oleva Suomen sosiaali-, terveyspalvelu- ja maakuntauudistus tarjoaa mielenkiintoisen esimerkin siitä, kuinka muutos poliittisessa ja perustuslaillisessa viitekehyksessä voisi vahvistaa maakuntien toimintamahdollisuuksia aluetason hallitusten kansainvälisten yhteistyöorganisaatioiden kautta Itämeren makroalueen monitasoisessa hallintojärjestelmässä. Tutkimuksen tuloksiin pohjautuen esitän lopuksi seitsemän yleisesti sovellettavaa politiikkasuositusta aluetason toimijoille. Suositukset perustuvat tämän Q-tutkimuksen osallistujien subjektiivisiin näkemyksiin, teoreettiseen keskusteluun ja aiempiin tutkimuksiin kansallisen tason hallitusten välisistä yhteistyöorganisaatioista. Politiikkasuositusten tarkoituksena on esittää aloitteita aluetason hallitusten kansainvälisten yhteistyöorganisaatioiden työn jatkokehittämiseen, sekä niiden prioriteettien ja yhteistyömuotojen uudelleen arviointiin monitasoisen hallintojärjestelmän rakenteissa. ; This study has international cooperation organizations of regional governments (ICORGs) in focus and examines their role in the present multi-level governance (MLG) system of the Baltic Sea macro-region while also seeking to develop MLG system further. The study focuses on ICORGs representing regional governments, analysing two specific country-cases: elected political bodies of Länder in the Federal Republic of Germany, and nominated political bodies of Regional Councils in the unitary Republic of Finland. In particular, the study examines the subjective views of representatives of the ICORG secretariats, Finnish regions, and German Länder in relation to the regional, national, and EU levels of MLG. In this work, I evaluate MLG through different theoretical approaches, reflecting the ongoing debate over the definition and contents of MLG arising from different interpretations and applications of the concept in the literature. I critically assess and examine the partnership principle, the EU Strategy for the Baltic Sea Region (EUSBSR), and the European Observation Network for Territorial Development and Cohesion (i.e., European Spatial Planning Observation Network/ESPON) Handbook for Territorial Governance. These policy instruments serve as the empirical context of the study, and hence documents concerning their activities form part of the primary material enabling the methodological analysis of the current role of the ICORGs in the Baltic Sea macro-regional MLG context. I use a Q methodological approach to study the subjective views of representatives of the ICORGs studied and of their Finnish and German member regions. Based on the results of the methodological analysis and the factor interpretation, four factors were extracted: (i) "Builders of the MLG through the EUSBSR," (ii) "Facilitators of Strategic Projects," (iii) "Lobbyists for Regional Development Objectives," and (iv) "Promoters for Smart Specialization in their Member Regions." The factors reveal ICORGs´ tasks, respond to their coordination problems, and meet the need for them to change their working methods within the changing operational context in the Baltic Sea macro-region. The clusters of the "consensus-like-items" shared by all factors opened up for the ICORGs challenges in visibility and commitment to horizontal and vertical communication; in macro-regional coordination and cooperation with intergovernmental organizations (IGOs); in commitment to the EU financing instruments; in geographical representativeness and the political legitimacy; and in efficient use of resources. This study shows that the ICORGs currently suffer from several problems and have not yet fully adapted to the current EU policy instruments and processes or to the changing operational environment in the Baltic Sea macro-region. The findings also make obvious that the current MLG system of the Baltic Sea macro-region can be defined as rather state-centric and top-down driven, and does not function properly from the ICORGs´ and their member regions´ points of view. The tensions indicated by the theoretical dichotomy between intergovernmental and MLG approaches to EU policymaking prevail also in policy practice. Political and constitutional contexts clearly influence the mandates and responsibilities of the ICORG member regions in their respective countries, how they act in the ICORGs, and what kind of position they allow the ICORGs to have in the MLG system. The current reform of health, social services, and regional government in Finland provides an interesting example of how changes in political and constitutional contexts could increase the chances of the regions working through the ICORGs within the MLG system of the Baltic Sea macro-region. Finally, the academic results concerning the subjective views of the respondents, uncovered by means of Q methodology, are discussed on the more practical level to propose seven policy recommendations for regional actors. Earlier research on the IGOs, and the theoretical discussion in the study, also inform this more practical application of the results. These recommendations are made to provide an impetus for the future development of the ICORGs´ work and possibly to inspire them to reconsider their priorities and cooperation schemes within the MLG structure.

In the context of climate change, the destruction and degradation of ecosystems, and many environmental problems and disasters in all parts of the world, environmental discourses such as growth limits, ecological modernization and sustainable development have proliferated (Dryzek 2013). Many governments, as well as international organizations have responded to the growing environmental concerns by adapting and tightening their environmental legislation. In some cases, it has been possible to implement concrete measures on-site and to solve existing problems. However, overall, environmental discourses have had limited impact in achieving tangible action. This is particularly evident in the progressive expansion of industrial- and commodity-based land uses with substantial negative social and ecological impacts, especially those countries in the tropics and subtropics with emerging economies. Why do environmental discourses sometimes translate into policies and sometimes not, and when, and under what conditions, are some then put into practice? This study deals with the problem of "turning words into action" and examines the case study of the Bolivian government under Evo Morales, which explicitly refers to the environmental discourse Buen Vivir ("good living"). The aim is to better understand the challenge of translating words into action to potentially foster the practical relevance of environmental discourses in order to positively influence the social and ecological dimensions of rural development. A discourse is a set of ideas, categorizations and concepts that reflect a particular interpretation of the world. Environmental discourses are discursive constructs that define how we perceive nature, how environmental claims are shaped, and how we deal with environmental problems (Hajer 1995). Dominant environmental discourses are those that translate into normative frameworks after their discursive elements are naturalized, and they ascribe some consensus of meaning. This study focuses on the dominant environmental discourse of Buen Vivir in Bolivia. Buen Vivir has become dominant in Bolivia as an 'alternative to development', and translated into national normative frameworks. Buen Vivir (or 'good living'), is the Spanish reference of the Quechua and Aymara words Sumac Kawsay and Suma Qamaña, respectively (Merino Acuña, 2016a). It promotes a harmonious relationship between humans and nature, in which the well-being of people and the survival of animals, plants, and ecosystems are ensured (Gudynas, 2013). In Bolivia, this discourse gained political attention during the late 1990s and early 2000s, and was adopted in its Constitution in 2009. The study follows three research goals. The first is to determine what makes an environmental discourse dominant. To this end, the study develops a four-dimensional analytical approach: content, actors, strategic practices and context. Using this approach, the study reconstructs the discursive process that led to the dominance of Buen Vivir. The second is to assess the practical relevance of Buen Vivir. This is achieved by determining if and to what extent relevant agricultural policies and socio-environmental manifestations, developing during the Morales administration, are compatible with the principles of Buen Vivir. The third is to explore what influences the practical relevance of dominant environmental discourses by exploring which factors influence the consideration of dominant environmental discourses in decisions of policymakers and land users. This is undertaken by examining subjective perceptions of the two actor groups on the role of a set of factors within three conceptual categories (political hegemony, operational capacity and personal priorities) in influencing policy and land use decisions. Finally, the plausibility of the results of the subjective perceptions is checked by looking at the socio-environmental manifestations and further land use and sectoral policy trends. The analysis showed that all four dimensions examined (content, actors, strategic practices and context) contributed to the dominance of the Buen Vivir discourse. It became clear that dominance resulted from a complex, interactive process that addresses a structural problem of society as a whole (indigenousness) and is part of broader socio-political struggles (decolonization). Concerning the relevance of Buen Vivir for the formulation of sector policies, the analysis showed very different results. For example, Buen Vivir is highly relevant for irrigation and food security policies, of moderate relevance for agricultural reform and agricultural development policies, and has no relevance for energy policies. In this respect, it must be stated that, especially, environmental policy areas were hardly influenced by Buen Vivir. Accordingly, the analyzed indicators of socio-environmental manifestations, such as deforestation and environmental degradation, hardly reflect the principles of Buen Vivir on land-use dynamics. Social aspects, such as smallholders' access to land and resources, staple vs commodity crops, as well as poverty and inequality, on the other hand, partly show greater compatibility with Buen Vivir. Nevertheless, the overall practical relevance of Buen Vivir is rather low. A greater practical relevance of Buen Vivir is necessarily subordinated to influencing factors from the category of political hegemony. In particular, the interests and preferences of the dominant political forces that limit the consideration of the principles of Buen Vivir limit in political decision-making processes. The lack of operational capacity by government agencies also has a negative impact on the implementation of Buen Vivir. In addition, personal preferences of politicians and land users influence the practical relevance of Buen Vivir. The results show that the practical relevance of environmental discourses depends on a complex network of various mutually influencing factors. It is difficult to influence the underlying processes and actors in a targeted manner in order to increase the practical relevance of eligible discourses. Nevertheless, it appears possible to identify opportunities for time and actor-suitable stimuli based on precise observation and analysis of socio-political processes and their actors. Moreover, the strengthening of advocacy coalitions is particularly effective in order to achieve political leverage. Relevant social groups, organizations and authorities can also be strengthened, for example through improved access to knowledge, resources and networks, as well as support in communication and the opportunities for political participation. Such supportive measures are particularly promising if a structuring problem for society as a whole exists or can be found that affects all four dimensions of the discourse. ; Im Kontext von Klimawandel, der Zerstörung und Degradierung von Ökosystem, und vieler Umweltproblem und -katastrophen in allen Teilen der Welt, haben sich kritische Umweltdiskurse zu Wachstumsgrenzen, ökologischer Modernisierung und nachhaltiger Entwicklung weiter etabliert (Dryzek 2013). Viele Regierungen und auch die internationale Gemeinschaft haben reagiert und damit begonnen, ihre Umweltgesetzgebungen anzupassen und zu verschärfen. In manchen Fällen ist es gelungen, konkrete Maßnahmen vor Ort umzusetzen, und Probleme zumindest punktuell zu lösen. Jedoch sind insgesamt den Umweltdiskursen nur unzureichend Taten gefolgt. Dies zeigt sich insbesondere auch in einer weitestgehend ungebremst voranschreitenden Landnutzungsdynamik mit ihren massiven negativen sozialen und ökologischen vor allem in den wirtschaftlich weniger entwickelten Ländern der Tropen und Subtropen. Warum aber werden Umweltdiskurse manchmal in Politiken umgesetzt, und manchmal nicht, und wann und unter welchen Bedingungen werden diese dann auch in die Praxis umgesetzt? Diese Studie beschäftigt sich mit diesem Problem des "Umsetzens von Worten in Taten" und untersucht dazu das Fallbeispiel der bolivianischen Regierung unter Evo Morales, die sich explizit auf den Umweltdiskurs Buen Vivir bezieht. Dadurch sollen die Herausforderung Worte in Taten umzusetzen besser verstanden werden, um letztendlich abschätzen, ob und wie es möglich sein könnte, die praktische Relevanz von Umweltdiskursen zu fördern, um die soziale und ökologische Dimension von ländlicher Entwicklung positive zu beeinflussen. Diskurse bestehen aus einer Folge von Ideen, Kategorisierungen und Konzepten, die eine bestimmte Interpretation der Welt widerspiegeln. Umweltdiskurse sind diskursive Konstrukte, die definieren, wie wir die Natur wahrnehmen, wie Umweltansprüche geformt werden und wie wir mit Umweltproblemen umgehen (Hajer 1995). Dominante Diskurse sind diejenigen, die sich nach der Naturalisation ihrer diskursiven Elemente in normative Rahmenbedingungen übersetzen lassen und eine Art Bedeutungskonsens zuschreiben. Diese Studie beschäftigt sich mit dem dominanten Umweltdiskurs des Buen Vivir im Kontext Boliviens. Buen Vivir (frei übersetzt "gutes Leben") stellt einen Diskurs zu einem alternativen Entwicklungsmodell dar und findet sich in Bolivien in wichtigen nationale Rahmengesetzen wieder. Buen Vivir ist die spanische Referenz der Quechua- und Aymara-Wörter Sumac Kawsay und Suma Qamaña (Merino Acuña 2016b). Buen Vivir zielt auf eine harmonische Beziehung zwischen Mensch und Natur ab, in der das Wohlergehen der Menschen und das Überleben von Tieren, Pflanzen und Ökosystemen gewährleistet ist (Gudynas 2013). In Bolivien erlangte dieser Diskurs in den späten 1990er politische Aufmerksamkeit und wurde 2009 in die Verfassung aufgenommen. Die Studie folgt drei Forschungszielen: Das erste Ziel besteht darin, herauszufinden, was Umweltdiskurse dominant macht. Die Studie entwickelt dazu einen analytischen Ansatz mit den vier Dimension: Inhalt, Akteur, strategische Praktiken und Kontexte, und rekonstruiert auf dieser Grundlage den diskursiven Prozess, der zur Dominanz von Buen Vivir geführt hat. In einem zweiten Schritt wird die praktische Relevanz von Buen Vivir bewertet, in dem festgestellt wird, inwieweit relevante Agrarpolitiken und sozio-ökologische Dynamiken während der Präsidentschaft von Evo Morales mit den Prinzipien von Buen Vivir kompatible sind. Schließlich wird untersucht, welche Faktoren Politiker und Landnutzer beeinflussen, dominante Umweltdiskurse in ihren Entscheidungen zu berücksichtigen. Dazu werden Repräsentanten relevanter Akteursgruppen befragt, um ihre subjektiven Wahrnehmung zur Bedeutung von Einflussfaktoren aus drei konzeptionellen Kategorien, politische Hegemonie, operative Kapazität, und persönliche Prioritäten) abzuschätzen. Abschließend wird die Plausibilität der erzielten Ergebnisse geprüft, in dem sie mit den tatsächlichen Dynamiken in Politik und Landnutzung konfrontiert werden. Die Analyse zeigte, dass alle vier untersuchten Dimensionen (Inhalt, Akteure, strategische Praktiken und Kontext) zur politischen Relevanz von Buen Vivir beigetragen haben. Es wurde deutlich, dass dieser Relevanz ein hochkomplexer, interaktiver Prozess zu Grunde lag, der auf ein strukturierendes gesamtgesellschaftliches Problem (Indigenität) thematisiert, und Teil umfassenderer gesellschaftspolitischer Kämpfe (Entkolonialisierung) ist. In Bezug auf die Relevanz von Buen Vivir für die Formulierung von Sektorpolitiken zeigte die Analyse sehr unterschiedliche Ergebnisse. So hat Buen Vivir für Bewässerungs- und Ernährungssicherheitspolitiken eine hohe Relevanz, für Politiken der Agrarreform und der landwirtschaftlichen Entwicklung nur eine mäßige, und für Energiepolitiken überhaupt keine Relevanz. Insofern muss festgestellt werden, dass gerade umweltrelevante Politikfelder kaum von Buen Vivir beeinflusst wurden. Entsprechend spiegeln auch die analysierten Umweltindikatoren, wie zum Beispiel Entwaldung und Umweltdegradierung, zur Landnutzungsdynamik die Prinzipien von Buen Vivir kaum wieder. Soziale Aspekte, wie der Zugang von Kleinbauern zu Land und Ressourcen, Grundnahrungsmitteln und Rohstoffen sowie Armut und Ungleichheit, dagegen zeigen zum Teil eine höhere Kompatibilität mit Buen Vivir. Dennoch ist die praktische Relevanz von Buen Vivir insgesamt eher gering. Eine höhere praktische Relevanz von Buen Vivir stehen vor allem Einflussfaktoren aus der Kategorie der politischen Hegemonie entgegen. Insbesondere beschränken Interessen und Präferenzen der dominierenden politischen Kräfte die den Prinzipien von Buen Vivir entgegenstehen, dessen stärkere Berücksichtigung in politischen Entscheidungsprozessen. Auch fehlende operationale Kapazitäten von Regierungsstellen wirken sich negativ auf die Umsetzung von Buen Vivir aus. Schließlich beeinflussen persönliche Präferenzen von Politikern und Landnutzern die praktische Relevanz von Buen Vivir. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die praktische Relevanz von Umweltdiskursen von einem komplexen Geflecht verschiedenster sich gegenseitig beeinflussender Faktoren abhängt. Es ist schwierig die dahinterstehenden Prozesse und Akteure gezielt zu beeinflussen, um die praktische Relevanz förderungswürdiger Diskurse zu erhöhen. Es erscheint dennoch möglich, auf der Grundlage einer genauen Beobachtung und Analyse der gesellschaftspolitischen Prozesse und deren Akteure, Möglichkeiten für zeit- und akteursoptimierte Stimuli zu identifizieren. Besonders effektiv ist dabei die Stärkung von Interessenvertretungskoalitionen, um politische Hebelwirkung zu erzielen. Auch können relevante soziale Gruppen, Organisationen und Behörden gestärkt werden, etwa durch verbesserten Zugang zu Wissen, Ressourcen und Netzwerken, sowie die Unterstützung bei Kommunikation und den Möglichkeiten politischer Partizipation. Vielversprechend sind solche unterstützenden Maßnahmen vor allen dann, wenn ein strukturierendes gesamtgesellschaftliches Problem existiert bzw. gefunden werden kann, dass in alle vier Dimension des Diskurses wirkt.

El presente trabajo de graduación tiene como objetivo general, indagar sobre las razones por las cuales no se han apropiado las Tecnologías para la Información y la Comunicación en la práctica pedagógica de una institución educativa oficial de Colombia, problema que es general en este sector, a pesar de la disponibilidad de recursos tecnológicos, de las políticas educativas públicas que promueven la inclusión de las Tecnologías para la Información y la Comunicación. Lo que evidencia que la actividad docente está sustentada en un currículo que no es pertinente, no inclusivo y descontextualizado. Se seleccionó el área de Humanidades pues tiene como objetivo desarrollar las competencias comunicativas, ya que en la actualidad los estudiantes deben manejar adecuadamente los códigos tecnológicos, sin desconocer que las competencias comunicativas son transversales e interdisciplinares y no pueden ser de compromiso exclusivo de una sola área. Para ello se planteó una investigación de corte cualitativo en la cual un grupo de docentes y estudiantes, además de participar en el estudio, formulan una estrategia para comenzar a dar solución al problema, con acciones que involucran a los directivos de la institución, a los docentes y a los estudiantes. Los datos se recogen a través de entrevistas, planeación y observación de clases, inventario de recursos tecnológicos y revisión del currículo. Igualmente el análisis de los resultados se hace en forma participativa como un paso importante para sensibilizar a directivos y docentes sobre la urgencia de implementar estas tecnologías en la práctica educativa. Para validar los resultados se diseñó y aplicó una encuesta online dirigida a 24 docentes de tres de instituciones educativas también oficiales, la cual arrojó resultados similares a los de este estudio en el cual se encontró que la razón principal por la cual los docentes no están utilizando estas tecnologías es por falta de alfabetización digital, la cual es también necesidad de los estudiantes. Otro hallazgo importante tiene que ver con el concepto de los docentes ya que no las consideran necesarias, que promueven el sedentarismo y no fomentan la creatividad, otros por su parte por el hecho de no ser competentes para manejarlas, se sienten inseguros. Con lo anterior se pone de manifiesto la urgencia de procesos de alfabetización digital y el desarrollo de la competencia mediática tanto en docentes como estudiantes, los cuales no pueden ser de responsabilidad exclusiva de los gobiernos sino también de las directivas de las instituciones y de los docentes mismos, como una manera de ofrecer una educación acorde con las necesidades del medio y transformadora de la realidad. ; Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey ITESM ; 1. Capítulo 1. Planteamiento del problema………………………………. 1 1.1 Antecedentes……………………………………………………….…… 1 1.2 Pregunta de Investigación………………………………………….…… 5 1.2.1 Problemas que se desprenden………….……………………… … 5 1.3 Objetivos…………………………………….………………………. 5 1.3.1 Objetivo general………………………………………………… 6 1.3.2 Objetivos específicos……………………………………………… 6 1.4 Justificación…………………………………………………….….……. 7 1.5 Viabilidad……………………………………………………….………. 11 2. Capítulo 2. Marco Teórico……………………………………….……… 13 2.1 Tecnologías Digitales………………………………………….………… 13 2.2 Ventajas y desventajas de las tecnologías digitales…………….……… 16 2.2.1 Ventajas…………………………………………………………… 21 2.2.2 Desventajas………………………………………………………… 17 2.3 Tecnologías digitales, recursos Tecnológicos en y para la educación…. 19 2.3.1 Algunos posibles usos de las computadoras en la escuela…………. 21 2.4 El proceso de enseñanza – aprendizaje…………………………………. 25 2.4.1 Cómo organizar el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje……………… 27 2.5 La actitud del docente frente a las Tics………………………………… 31 2.6 La actitud del estudiante frente a las TICs……………………………… 32 2.7 Formación de docentes en el uso y aplicación de las TICs……………… 35 2.8 Planes de estudio 38 2.9 Didáctica………….…………………………………………………… 41 2.10 Competencias básicas de Lengua Castellana e Inglés 44 2.11 Planes, programas y proyectos en Colombia para fortalecer el uso de las TICs en educación 50 3. Capítulo 3. Metodología 54 3.1 Enfoque Metodológico seleccionado 54 3.2 Método de recolección de datos 55 3.3 Definición del Universo y la Muestra………………………………… 56 3.3.1 Población y muestra 56 3.4 Método de recolección de datos 57 3.4.1 Observación cualitativa 57 3.4.2 Entrevista semiestructurada 59 3.4.3 Revisión de documentos, registros, materiales y artefactos 60 3.5 Procedimiento a utilizar para el análisis de la información 61 3.5.1 Codificación 65 3.5.2 Organización de los datos según categorías y criterios 65 3.5.3 Organización de resultados y análisis de la información…………. 65 4. Capítulo 4. Análisis de Resultados 67 4.1 Recursos Tecnológicos disponibles en la institución 67 4.2. Actitud de los docentes ante las TICs 69. 4.3. Actitud de los estudiantes ante las TICs 79 4.4 Nivel y procesos de capacitación de los docentes para el uso de las TICs… 83 4.5. Políticas, planes y programas departamentales y locales para la promoción del uso de TICs 87 4.6 4.6 Propuestas de solución planteadas y en ejecutadas a partir del proceso de Investigación realizado ……………………………………………… 90 5. Conclusiones 97 5.1 Recomendaciones y sugerencias 100 Apéndices 104 Apéndice A Guía de Observación de actividades de clase 105 Apéndice B Guía de Observación, reunión de docentes 106 Apéndice C Guía de Entrevista para aplicar a docentes 107 Apéndice D Guía de entrevista para aplicar a estudiantes 108 Apéndice E Lista de Chequeo, recursos tecnológicos 109 Apéndice F Formato de Bitácora de Investigación 110 Apéndice G Lista de verificación para revisión documental 111 Apéndice H. Matriz de Organización de datos recolectados 112 Apéndice I. Carta de autorización de la institución educativa 113 Apéndice J. Fotografías que evidencian el problema 114 Apéndice K. Fotografías del trabajo de campo 115 Listado de Referencias……………………………………………………. 116 Currículum Vitae 123 ; Maestría ; The general objective of this graduation work is to investigate the reasons why Information and Communication Technologies have not been appropriate in the pedagogical practice of an official educational institution in Colombia, a problem that is general in this sector, to Despite the availability of technological resources, public educational policies that promote the inclusion of Information and Communication Technologies. This shows that the teaching activity is supported by a curriculum that is not relevant, not inclusive and decontextualized. The Humanities area was selected because its objective is to develop communicative competences, since currently students must adequately handle technological codes, without ignoring that communicative competences are transversal and interdisciplinary and cannot be exclusively committed to a single area. . For this, a qualitative research was proposed in which a group of teachers and students, in addition to participating in the study, formulate a strategy to begin to solve the problem, with actions that involve the directors of the institution, the teachers and students. Data is collected through interviews, class planning and observation, inventory of technology resources, and review of the curriculum. Likewise, the analysis of the results is done in a participatory way as an important step to sensitize managers and teachers about the urgency of implementing these technologies in educational practice. To validate the results, an online survey was designed and applied to 24 teachers from three also official educational institutions, which yielded results similar to those of this study in which it was found that the main reason why teachers are not using These technologies are due to the lack of digital literacy, which is also a need for students. Another important finding has to do with the concept of teachers since they do not consider them necessary, they promote sedentary lifestyle and do not promote creativity, others for their part, due to the fact of not being competent to handle them, feel insecure. This highlights the urgency of digital literacy processes and the development of media competence in both teachers and students, which cannot be the exclusive responsibility of governments but also of the directives of institutions and teachers. themselves, as a way of offering an education in accordance with the needs of the environment and transforming reality.

Article in the Arkansas Baptist about Hays' Congressional wartime visit to England and France ; A Visit to the Battle Fronts (CONTINUED FROM PAGE FIVE) "We Saw a Lot of American Soldiers in London" [photograph caption] workers, clerks, truck-drivers, nurses, and in every conveivable [sic] kind of auxiliary work. We were at Dover, observing the tunnels which had been carved out of the chalk cliffs, when we witnessed one of the last of the buzz bomb attacks. When the alarm sounded, Dr. Judd insisted that we stay above ground. We saw bright flashes across the channel, and a moment later-78 seconds, the guard said-the bombs went above us and landed a few hundred yards away. For four years now, the people of Dover have lived below ground. Army Hospitals Modern Another short trip to the coast included Southampton where we visited a Naval Hospital. I wish every mother and father of our wounded could see what we observed in these institutions. It is a beautiful site-overlooking the channel and as peaceful a spot as one could wish for. The equipment is the most complete and modern that can be procured. A doctor from America with us that day said, "I wish I could get equipment like this!" There were X-ray machines and operating tables and laboratory devices of the very latest type and every possible aid for reducing pain and discomfort, as well as hastening recovery. For entertainment there was a large library and several recreation rooms provided by the Red Cross. A splendid staff of workers has followed our men overseas and are rendering a highly important service in the war. We visited several other hospitals and in all of them there was highest praise for the work of the Red Cross. Many Churches Destroyed In Winchester, South of London, we sacrificed a tour of the gift shops to see England's oldest cathedral, the famous one which was completed in 170 A. D., and it is larger and more inspiring than any church structure I have seen in our country, though the National Cathedral at Washington, when completed, will exceed it in size. Charles Wesley was the organist at this place for 13 years, and composed some of his great hymns there. The story of England's cathedrals and church buildings is a very interesting one, especially since the blitz has damaged so many of the prominent ones. The government is prepared to bear the expense of rebuilding all wrecked church buildings, both the established and the free churches, but this aid will not extend to furnishings. When I asked some of the church leaders if help of American churches would be requested, it was indicated that aid along other lines would be lore urgently needed but that the rehabilitation of Christian churches on the continent should have priority. A gift of $15,000 which American Baptists had just sent to the denomination in Britain will be used to aid individuals who have suffered most severely from the bomb damages. Reflections at Normandy The great thrill of the trip came when General John C. H. Lee, who has distinguished himself as head of the Communications Division, sent word that General Eisenhower had said "yes' to our request to visit the Normandy battlefields and Paris, and invited us to have luncheon with the General at Allied Headquarters in France. We used air transportation and spent the busiest three days of our trip on the soil of France. The experience to be longest remembered was the view of the narrow beaches where our men held on for the first terrible hours of the invasion. After seeing that landscape and hearing eye witness accounts from the officers who guided us, I will never be lacking in appreciation of what our men accomplished on D-Day and in the bitter fighting for Normandy. Except for the precision bombing of our air forces, it would have been impossible to pierce the German defense. The Germans had held tremendous advantages in their position on hills overlooking the narrow beaches. As I surveyed that wreckage and contemplated the cost in American lives, I remembered that we in America had almost lightheartedly, though proudly, received the news of the battle last June. Now here we were-a dozen congressmen- silently looking at the place where our men had heroically begun the destruction of Fortress Europa. In clear view was the cemetery near Colleville, where thousands of those lads were buried and our own flag floated from a high pole in the center. It was hallowed soil, and everyone of us felt very reverent and we said nothing because the sentiment was so deep it defied expression. No Distincions [sic] in Rank Later in the day we visited another cemetery, at LeCande, on the road to Chebourg. Four thousand of our men were buried there, and we went inside and looked at the seemingly endless rows of white crosses, with here and there a Star of David. All of them Americans. No distinction was made as to rank. We paused a moment beside Lieutenant General McNair's grave which was marked like the others. There were flowers lying on some of the carefully tended graves and the guard told us that almost every day unknown French women walked into the cemetery and dropped the fresh bouquets. In Normandy we also visited a field hospital where we saw our doctors and nurses giving marvelous services to the wounded men under extreme conditions. We were surprised to find in the tents practically the same modern operating and laboratory equipment that we found in the base hospitals, and the staff carried on just as if they were in normal conditions. We found civilians there too-some of the French had been wounded in the fighting and they were receiving the same care and attention. Our group was greatly impressed by General Eisenhower's easy manner and obvious grasp of his tremendous responsibilities. It was an inspiring session for all of us and we reluctantly pulled ourselves away so he could go back to his work. Paris is almost gay-still displaying its joy over liberation. We saw little damage- only the leveling by the RAF of the Renault Plant, a German war factory, and slight damage to buildings where the last clashes of liberation took place. French morale is good and I have no doubt they will be able to establish a stable and democratic system. My previous fears of French deterioration proved groundless. Inflation has made the franc, once worth 25 cents, to be pegged at two cents. One of the high points of our return trip through Scotland was an evening with Sir Harry Lauder, who at 74 is in excellent health and has preserved his famed ability of entertaining with songs and stories from the last war. When Sir Harry saw me looking interestedly at a stained glass window at the stair landing inscribed "This House is God's Gift," he said, "I put it that way because it was built with the money I made from singing and acting, and you see those talents were given to me." The Trip Home We came home on the Queen Mary, which even under conditions of war travel is an indescribably beautiful and impressive vessel. Several thousand soldiers returned at the same time, and they were a happy lot. I went through the ship hospital one day- there were perhaps a thousand wounded- and one of our men who had lost an eye and still carried facial wounds said to the Colonel in charge, "Colonel, do you know why this is a good ship?" "No," said the Colonel. "Because it's taking me home," and that was speaking for all of us. The slow journey up New York harbor was interesting chiefly because of the antics of the soldiers. They made no attempt to disguise their pleasure. The band on the wharf was almost drowned out by their shouts. (Next week, Mr. Hays will tell of his visit with Baptists in England and how he was able to reestablish contact with the French Baptists who, had been stranded from others of the denomination since the fall of France.)

The debate about Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) to stakeholders is a fairly lengthy debate in the repertoire of the development of company law. At least there are two fundamentally different views to interpret the corporate social responsibility.The views, Firstly, cling to the belief that the concept of corporate social responsibility is counterproductive in the business world. According to Milton Friedman, a corporation are naturally only have a goal to generate economic objectives for shareholders. A prominent liberal economics is very pessimistic and tend to oppose any attempt to make the company as a social purpose. Furthermore, in Capitalism and Freedom (1962) Milton Friedman clearly states that in a free society there is one and only one social responsibility of businesses that utilize the company's resources and engage in activities that aim to maximize profits. If this goal is achieved by the company, it actually functions, and corporate social goals have been achieved, namely to improve the welfare of society.The doctrine of the social responsibility in business, damage the free market economic system.Acknowledging social responsibility that will lead to an economic system leads to the direction of the economic plans of the Communist Countries. In the writings, published in the New York Times Magazine on September 13th, 1970, with the title: "The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase Its Profits". This reasoning is supported by Joel Bakan, which teaches that if the company gives some of its profits to the community, the company has violated his nature. Business sustainability can take place in the long term if the company is able to provide an answer to the needs of stakeholders and give them what they need.Second views, with the increasing importance of the role and position of all stakeholders in the Good Governance management of the company, and surely, the second thought, extremely gave rise to the contradicts of the first view. The second view was expressly acknowledged the existence of corporate social responsibility towards stakeholders. R. Edward Freeman in, "A Stakeholder Theory of the Modern Corporation", offers an alternative to the theory of Friedman. On the view Freeman, Friedman wrong to assume that the main task is the company's executive moral fiduciary issue to their shareholders and that in fulfilling this obligation they act socially responsible. Freeman takes issue with dissention of opinion and the opinion: 1 "That the company's managers have a duty to all groups and individuals who own shares (a stake) in or claim on the company (Freeman refer to groups and individuals as 'stakeholders'); 2 That there was no stakeholder groups should be given primacy over the other when the company mediate the competition claims of stakeholders; and 3 That company law should be changed to require executives to manage their enterprise in accordance with the principles of the theory of stakeholders, namely, Freeman stated that the executive should be notified (legal / official) to manage their company in the interests of their stakeholders ". Regardless of whether the stakeholder management leads to improved financial performance, managers must manage the business for the benefit of all of stakeholders. It looked at the company rather than as a mechanism to improve the financial returns of stockholders,but as a vehicle for coordinating of stakeholders interests and view management as having a fiduciary relationship not only for shareholders, but for all of stakeholders. According to the normative of stakeholders theory, management must give equal consideration to the interests of all stakeholders, while a conflict of interest, to manage the business so as to achieve the optimum balance between them. This, of course, implies that there will be a time while management is obliged to at least partially sacrificing the interests of the stockholders to those of other stakeholders.In line with this thinking, John Hasnas,stated that "management's fundamental obligation is not to maximize the firm's financial success, but to Ensure its survival by balancing the conflicting claims of multiple stakeholders." John Elkington in Cannibal with Forks: The Triple Bottom Line Twentieth Century Business (1997) says that if a company wants to remain sustained, then he needs to consider not only the interests of the shareholders (profit), but also must pay attention to the welfare of the people which were in it and around (peoples) and environmental sustainability (planet). Stakeholder theory states that the basic duty of management is not to maximize the financial success of the company, but to ensure its survival by balancing the conflicting demands of various stakeholders. The Company shall be managed for the benefit of stakeholders, customers, suppliers, owners, employees, and local communities.The rights of these groups must be ensured and, further, the group must participate, in some sense, in decisions that substantially affect their welfare. Apart from the conceptual debate about the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). CSR in Indonesia has been acknowledged.Article 88, Law No. 19 of 2003 on State-Owned Enterprises (SOE Act), firmly establish the SOEs can set aside part of its profits for the purposes of development small businesses, cooperatives and community development around the SOE. Then, Act No. 40 Year 2007 on Limited Liability Companies, Article 74, confirms the existence of Corporate Social Responsibility in Limited Liability company in Indonesia. In fact, Article 74 is more advanced conceptually by putting social and environmental liability in limited liability company as a social mandatory, not just a moral and ethical responsibility. Article 74 has a power that can be enforced against a limited liability company to implement social and environmental liability. Shifting the paradigm of the management company which is intended only to the interests of shareholders (profit) in the direction of the management of the company, to consider the interests of all stakeholders, and environmental interests, assessed constitutional by theConstitutional Court on legal considerations in the Constitutional Court Decision 53 / PUU-VI / 2008, is explained, That the Indonesian economy system as set forth in Article 33 of the 1945 Constitution: The economy shall be organized as a common endeavour based upon the principles of the family system. Sectors of production which are important for the country and affect the life of the people shall be controlled by the state. The land, the waters and the natural riches contained therein shall be controlled by the State and exploited to the greatest benefit of the people. That understanding individualistic and liberalism in the economy was not fit, even contrary to economic democracy embraced by the nation of Indonesia. Earth, water and natural resources contained in it not only for the prosperity of the few entrepreneurs who have capital, but rather for the prosperity of the people. The economy as a joint venture, not only between employers and the state, but also collaboration between employers and the community, especially the surrounding community. Genuine concern of employers on their social environment will provide a secure business environment for the surrounding community feel cared by the employer, so it will strengthen the fabric of the relationship between employers and society. Based on the Decision of the Constitutional Court concluded that the Good Governance management company solely devoted to the interests of shareholders, are not in accordance with democratic principles adopted by the State Indonesian economy. Good Governance Management companies must instead be directed to the welfare of the people of Indonesia. Therefore, companies must be managed with due regard to the interests of all stakeholders, no exception labor / employees of the company. Thus, the management of the company to consider the interests of all stakeholders not only a moral responsibility of the company, but it is mandate in the company law. Oriented company management efforts to improve the welfare of all stakeholders, including workers / employees of the company is the embodiment of company's contribution to the mutual obligations between the government and the business community to improve the welfare of the community. Implementation of the Good Governance management company, for the benefit of stakeholders, did not specifically aimed at corporate responsibility efforts to improve the welfare of employees. Article 74 of the Limited Liability Company Law does not specifically direct the implementation of corporate social responsibility to the interests of employees. However, it does not mean that the discussion of social regulation of corporate governance efforts directed at improving the welfare of the employees concerned becomes unimportant. The ambiguity of Article 74 of the Limited Liability Company Law actually cause the position of employees as part of an internal stakeholders or primary stakeholders of the limited liability company grow weary and still received less attention.On 4th April 2012, the Government enacted Government Regulation No. 47 of 2012 on Social and Environmental Responsibility Company Limited. As the implementation of Article 74 of the Limited Liability Company Law, Government Regulation 47 of 2012 is focused on regulating the use of a limited liability company expense budget has been earmarked as the cost of social and environmental responsibility.However, this rule did not set out clear, the allocation of the budget, the amount of the budget and the subject use of the budget. Thus, it would be difficult to expect the implementation of this government regulation to improve the lives and welfare of labor as the company's internal stakeholders. Therefore, regulation of corporate governance is to realize the efforts to improve the standard of living and welfare of labor is still very necessary.The discussionabout the need forlegislationthatdirects the corporate governance management toimprove the lives and welfare of labor is still relevant and very important thing to do. At least there are some very basic reason the importance of the discussion of the need for legislation that directs thecorporate governance management to improve the welfare of labor in Indonesia, namely: First, Corporate Governance (CG) management that gives attention to efforts to improve the lives and welfare of employees / workers / labor is not a concern in the legislation governing the company in Indonesia. Legislation current regulating corporate governance is still dominated by the interests of employers in optimizing capital or capital to develop other businesses in order to generate profits and shareholder value. Although social and environmental responsibility has been used as a mandatory under Article 74 of the Limited Liability Company Law, but its application in the narrow scope led to the implementation of social and environmental responsibility under Article 74 of the Limited Liability Company Law is not very significant in efforts to improve the lives and well-being of the company workforce. Law governing companies, such as Act No. 40 of 2007 on Limited Liability Companies Act No. 19 of 2003 on State Owned Enterprises, Act No. 25 Year 2007 on Investment and Act No. 8 of 1995 on the Capital Market is more focused on efforts to the creation of a conducive business climate as a requirement that the business community in Indonesia can compete to face an increasingly competitive global competition. In other words, the main interest underlying the legislation was the interests of shareholders.Public welfare, including welfare of the workers, do not become a major priority of the legislation. Where noted, Article 43 paragraph (3) Limited Liability Company Law paves the way for efforts to improve the status and welfare of employees through the issuance of new shares that are specifically intended for employees. Through Article 43 paragraph (3) that, it is possible to elevate the position of the employees become shareholders through the Employee Stock Ownership Plan (ESOP). However Thus, the implementation of Article 43 paragraph (3) is highly dependent on the generosity of its shareholders through the Annual General Meeting(AGM), because after all if General Meeting of Shareholders does not decide that the issuance of new shares is specifically intended for the benefit of employees, the new shares shall first be offered to existing shareholders, or better known as the pre-emptive right. Basically some aspects of corporate governance related to efforts to improve the welfare of the employees as one of the stakeholders can be the rationale, for example: Protection of interests of employees, in various corporate action such as a merger, consolidation, acquisition, and spin-off companies, bankruptcy and liquidation of the company; efforts to increase the value and dignity of employees through improving the status of workers / employees become owners / shareholders as ESOP (Employee Stock Ownership Plan, Profit Sharing etc), is an effort to increase that bipartite collaboration are mutually beneficial. Secondly, the setting of corporate social responsibility as stipulated in Article 74 of the Limited Liability Company Law, did not provide a strong emphasis on the use and size of the CSR fundfor efforts to improve the lives and welfare of employees as internal stakeholders. Article 74 of the Limited Liability Company Law and its implementing regulations as stipulated in Government Regulation No. 47 of 2012 on Social and Environmental Responsibility Company Limited is only intended to regulate the use of budget CSR General Meeting of Shareholders approved the Work Plan and Budget (CBP).Article 74 and its implementing regulations have not sufficiently regulate the practices of companies devoted to the interests of stakeholders, including workers / employees that are outside the company's CSR program budgeted. Article 74 and its implementing regulations are focused on the use of budget CSR for the benefit of local communities and the environment. The fate of the workers / employees still beyond the reach of Article 74 of the Limited Liability Company Law Jo. Government Regulation no. 47 in 2012. Thirdly, the accommodation is not enough on Principles of ISO 26000 as the standardization of CSR in the Limited Liability Company Law. For example, about 7 Principles of ISO 26000: ISO 26000 principles namely: 1. Community development; 2. Consumers; 3. Practice Institution healthy activities; 4. Environment; 5. Employment; 6. The Human Rights; 7.Organization Governance (Government Organization) Fourth, the welfare conditions of laborers / workers / employees which still a concern in Indonesia. Labor / Workers / Employees or more popular as workers have extremely significant contribution in supporting the Indonesian economy. Besides as a driver of economic state, workers also became one of the major strengths in building civilization. Labours or workers who drive the economic sectors under which incidentally has a tremendous contribution to the State's economy and to balance the savior even balance the State's economic growth. Ironically a very major role and importance is not getting an adequate appreciation of the government and the business world. Wages received by workers / employees are not comparable / insufficient to meet real needs. When compared with the speed of the increase in the cost of "running" while wages "going nowhere" no increase or even just suffered a setback.Of the Central Bureau of Statistics as overview in 2006 for simple decent life in Jakarta, someone has to spend between Rp 1.5 million to Rp 2 million per month for the purposes of daily life. Compared then to the local minimum wage in Jakarta which only Rp 950.000, - It is clear that it is impossible worker / laborer can live decently. Other data illustrate the inequities of life of workers / laborers are presented in the research of AKATIGA. Government efforts to create a conducive investment climate and invite as many foreign and domestic investors to encourage government to implement two basic strategies namely run low wage policy and apply the principles of liberalization, flexible and decentralized in matters of employment.The low wages of workers / labor, used as an attraction to invite investors.Investment Coordinating Board (BKPM) includes wage / cheap labor in Indonesia, the minimum limit of the highest labor costs in Java (Rp. 1.3344 million, - per month - USD 147 per month) is still lower than the wages of workers in Thailand (USD 240 per month), even if the wages in Java are raised 50%.Labor wages is used as a negotiating tool in the management of the automotive component industry in Indonesia with Trade Unions is the main attraction of Indonesia to invite investors. Further explained that political cheap labor has proven to create life difficult labor because the average value of the minimum wage in Indonesia Rp 892.160, - only afford about 62.4% of real expenditures of workers / laborers. Fifth, handed efforts to improve the welfare of employees through legislation in the field of employment was inadequate. During this time, the problem is always delivered on labor welfare legislation in the field of employment. As described above, that the cheap labor led to the welfare of workers / laborers which not feasible. It is proved that the issue of lifting the standard of living and welfare of the workers / laborers can not be left solely to the legislation in the field of employment.Efforts to improve the standard of living and welfare of the workers / laborers need to be supported by the corporate governance management system which can support the improvement of the standard of living and welfare of workers / employees, either in the form of optimal utilization of corporate social responsibility and stewardship corporate governance rules, which can support the improvement of the standard life and welfare of the workers / employees. Sixth, the limited liability company law can be used as an instrument for efforts to improve the welfare of employees through corporate governance management arrangements that can improve the lives and well-being of employees. Thus, despite the existence of legislation in the field of employment, legislation governing its managed stylist, for example the Limited Liability Company Law, the Law on Enterprises, Investment Law, Capital Market Law and its implementing regulations can be used as an instrument to direct more attention to the behavior of the company interests of stakeholders, including workers / employees.IiIn such a context, the role of the State through the Government as law makers is necessary, so that the problems of workers welfare / employees are not solely left to the market mechanism with the argument of economic liberalization and globalization. In addition to the government party, the Company is a good alternative receptacle to resolve the problem, because the company provides a receptacle mutual benefit to work, learn, gain experience fitting, both in levels: Employee, Self-employed, Employer, and Investor (ESEI). Under conditions of the wise, the state described as a referee in a football game. He had no right to strike or hold the ball. That needs to be done is for the football game is running smoothly and there is no cheating. Is this value has been realized? And how it is with the role of the entrepreneur as the manager of the largest natural resource? The reality is that entrepreneurs can not immediately meet the standards of stakeholders, so that what is referred to as welfare is commensurate discourse. From the first, issues workers / employees being widely reported, but from the beginning anyway this issues is not resolved, resulting in gaps. To note in common, is that one of the drivers in the business in the last decade of this century in addition to the profitability of an investment in the form of people.

The article highlights the approach to the positive legal responsibility of the individual and the state, analyzes the essence of their dialectical relationship. The problem of defining the concept and characteristics of positive legal responsibility in the modern doctrine of law is considered. It is emphasized that the lack of a unanimous scientific and legal division of legal responsibility as a legal category into positive and negative creates the preconditions for constant discussions of lawyers on this issue. Modern theoretical jurisprudence with its main tasks is the knowledge of state and legal reality through the use of techniques and tools of theory of state and law, philosophy of law, sociology of law, political science, legal statistics, and anthropology of law and other interdisciplinary areas of legal research. Emphasis is placed on the fact that in the literature, legal liability in the classical sense is considered as a negative (retrospective) liability in its various interpretations: the need for the offender to suffer adverse consequences; the legal influence of the state (its special bodies) on the offender, which is due to the fact of committing offenses, and is an additional obligation of the offender to suffer the corresponding negative consequences; application of penalties to the offender, etc. As for the positive legal responsibility, which is considered as an independent, honest, active performance of duties, voluntary compliance with the provisions of the law, it is ambiguous. In a positive sense, legal responsibility – the subject's awareness of the right to its debt (special responsibilities) to society, team, social groups. Such responsibility the subject assumes for future results of the lawful behavior. It is concluded that the relationship between the state and society is revealed through the recognition of civil society by the state. Normative acts issued by the state establish rules of conduct for both society and the state. The relationship between the state and law is expressed in the supremacy of regulatory acts. Models of government action are built by law, which are fair and non-discriminatory. Civil society and the rule of law in the process of their interaction form a complex and organic social system that complements each other. ; У статті висвітлено підхід до позитивної юридичної відповідальності особи та держави, проаналізовано сутність їх діалектичного зв'язку. Розглянуто проблематику визначення поняття та характерних ознак позитивної юридичної відповідальності в сучасній доктрині права. Наголошено на тому, що відсутність одностайного науково-юридичного поділу юридичної відповідальності як правової категорії на позитивну та негативну створює передумови для постійних дискусій правників щодо цього. Сучасна теоретична юриспруденція своїми основними завданнями ставить пізнання державно-правової дійсності шляхом застосування прийомів та засобів теорії держави та права, філософії права, соціології права, політології права, правової статистики, антропології права та інших міждисциплінарних напрямів юридичних досліджень. Акцентується увага на тому, що у літературі юридична відповідальність у класичному розумінні розглядається як негативна (ретроспективна) відповідальність у різних її трактуваннях, таких як необхідність правопорушника зазнавати несприятливі наслідки; правовий вплив держави (його спеціальних органів) на правопорушника, що обумовлений фактом вчинення правопорушень і полягає у додатковому обов'язку правопорушника зазнавати відповідних негативних наслідків; застосування до правопорушника штрафних (каральних) санкцій норм права. Щодо позитивної юридичної відповідальності, яка розглядається як самостійне, сумлінне, активне виконання обов'язків, добровільне слідування приписам норм права, то до неї проявляється неоднозначне ставлення. В позитивному сенсі юридична відповідальність – це усвідомлення суб'єктом права свого боргу (особливих обов'язків) перед суспільством, колективом, соціальними групами. Таку відповідальність суб'єкт покладає на себе за майбутні результати своєї правомірної поведінки. Робиться висновок, що відносини між державою та суспільством розкриваються через визнання державою суспільства громадянським. Нормативні акти, видані державою, встановлюють правила поведінки як для суспільства, так і для держави. Взаємозв'язок держави й права виражається у верховенстві прийнятих регуляторних актів. Моделі урядових дій будуються за допомогою закону, які є справедливими та недискримінаційними. Громадянське суспільство та правова держава в процесі їх взаємодії утворюють складну та органічну соціальну систему, що доповнює одна одну.

Today we have many alternative medicines, not a few of which connect back to aboriginal cultures. Some of these alternative medicines were born under the influence of European imperialism, as they were not "alternative" until modern empires and modern medicine came to these distant regions. The present study begins with a broad question: how did conceptions of the relationship between modern Western medicine and traditional local non-Western medicine come to be? To explore the historical origins of these two conceptions, I focus herein on Japanese colonial Taiwan (18951945), where modern medicine became dominant while traditional medicine also flourished. My research finds that the historical realities of colonial Taiwan were not reflected in the progressive narrative of medicine. According to this narrative, modern medicine became dominant around the world while traditional medicines were swept into the ash heap of history because only modern medicine was the true, effective science of preventing, diagnosing, and treating physical ailments. The history of colonial Taiwan teaches us a much different lesson: practitioners of traditional medicine there were a significant part of the public health system during the colonial period. For example, they rallied against the plague in the late 19th century, diagnosing and treating patients when antibiotics had yet to be developed. Even so, the island witnessed an institutional medical shift, in which licensed practitioners of modern medicine deified modern medicine and denigrated traditional medicine, labeling the latter "primitive" and "non-medicine." In response, practitioners of traditional medicine produced new narratives aiming to challenge this colonial boundary between medicine and non-medicine. These practitioners' fundamental argument was that traditional medicine, though epistemologically different from modern medicine, was still legitimate medicine. From this effort, we now have the widely held belief today that both modern medicine and traditional medicine are legitimate, but distinct, medicines. This historical outcome of colonial resistance occurred worldwide. In my study, I identify the social, political, and colonial contexts of medical resistance in Japanese Taiwan, revealing their roots in issues related to inequality, distrust, economic affordability, and conceptions of body and health care. ; Doctor of Philosophy ; In this study, I explore conceptions of modern and traditional medicine through a historical lens, and break down two related myths: the first myth is the progressive narrative of modern medicine, which holds that modern medicine became dominant because of its medical superiority; and the second myth is the narrative held by extremist supporters of traditional medicine, who insist that only millennia-old traditional medicine can resolve human ailments without giving rise to untoward side effects and exorbitant costs. I show that, in the case of Japanese colonial Taiwan (18951945), both modern and traditional medicine flourished. The history of colonial Taiwan shows us that modern medicine on the island became dominant for two main reasons: first, the public health system successfully dealt with epidemics, which were the most significant threat to life at that time; and second, the colonial government recognized only modern medicine and labeled traditional medicine a non-medicine despite relying on its practitioners in the pre-antibiotic age. The history of colonial Taiwan also shows us that traditional medicine is not "old wisdom" unchanged for thousands of years. Beginning in the 19th century, practitioners of Taiwanese traditional medicine re-constituted it for colonial consumption, arguing that traditional medicine was also true medicine, though epistemologically distinct from modern medicine. This conception of traditional medicine has since informed many current views of traditional medicine. In 2018, the World Health Organization (WHO) published the eleventh revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11), which, for the first time, featured a chapter on traditional Chinese medicine covering such topics as diagnostic techniques for Qi, blood, and fluid disorders. This inclusion of traditional medicine into the ICD-11 is a major step forward in this process of medical integration and may help resolve the historical confrontation between modern and traditional medicine. However, the WHO decision limits recognition of traditional medicine to Chinese medicine, excluding all other kinds of traditional medicine. Thus, the historical question of whether or not traditional medicine is a true medicine remains ultimately unanswered.

The article emphasizes that Hegel left an extremely large legacy not only in philosophy but also in law, politics, religion, pedagogy, aesthetics. His works have not lost their social value and relevance in our time. The main emphasis is on the life and work of the thinker, which took place in intense intellectual work, understanding of existing socio­political, legal, ethical and religious problems of society and their philosophical assessment. The huge influence of the Christian religion, the moral factors of society and the state on Hegel's philosophical system, which is based on the philosophy of idealism, is proved. According to this concept, the primary source of development and existence of the surrounding world, life and activities of society is the world spirit. In analyzing the existence and development of society, the thinker gave the central place to the state, public administration and prominent personalities. These and other of his ideas became an important impetus and a significant factor for criticism. In the first place in Hegel's philosophy is the state, man is practically deprived of rights and freedoms and is defenseless against the government. In this regard, some critics have called him a theorist of totalitarianism and an anti-liberal philosopher. It should be emphasized that the dialectic of the relationship between the state and law, civil society, as well as the role and place of the individual in the historical process have been most criticized. We also point out that the most objective description of Hegel's heritage can be traced in the works of famous scientists: V. Asmus, A. Guliga, B. Kedrov, V. Lazarev, V. Nersesyants, A. Piontkovsky and others. Hegel's philosophical legacy, both during his lifetime and after his death, provokes numerous discussions and criticism, and despite this, his contribution to the history of world science and culture is difficult to overestimate. Thus, the philosophical and political, legal concepts of the great German thinker have not lost their relevance, a particularly important factor they are in the sense of understanding the current complex problems in ensuring the rights and freedoms of citizens, independence and sovereignty. ; У статті акцентовано увагу на тому, що Гегель залишив надзвичайно велику спадщину не тільки у філософії, але й у праві політиці, релігії, педагогіці, естетиці. Його твори і у наш час не втратили своєї соціальної цінності та актуальності. Основний акцент робиться на житті та творчості мислителя, яке проходило в напруженій інте­лектуальній праці, осмисленні існуючих соціально-політичних, правових, етико-релігійних проблем суспільства та їх філософській оцінці. Доведено величезний вплив християнської релігії, моральних чинників суспільства і держави на філософську систему Гегеля, яка побудована на філософії ідеалізму. Згідно з цією концепцією пер­шоджерелом розвитку та існування оточуючого світу, життя та діяльності суспільства виступає світовий дух. Під час аналізу існування та розвитку суспільства центральне місце мислитель відводив державі, державно­му управлінню та видатним особистостям. Ці та інші його ідеї стали важливим поштовхом та суттєвим чинни­ком для критики. Перше місце у філософії Гегеля посідає держава, людина практично позбавлена прав та свобод та є беззахисною перед владою. У зв'язку з цим деякі критики оголосили його теоретиком тоталітаризму та анти- ліберальним філософом. Слід підкреслити, що найбільшій критиці піддавалася діалектика взаємозв'язку держави і права, громадян­ського суспільства, а також роль та місце особистості в історичному процесі. Варто зазначити також, що найбільш об'єктивна характеристика гегелівської спадщини прослідковується в працях таких відомих вчених, як В. Асмус, А. Гулига, Б. Кедров, В. Лазарєв, В. Нерсесянц, А. Піонтковський та інші. Філософська спадщина Гегеля як за життя, так і після смерті викликає чисельні дискусії та критику. Попри це, його внесок в історію світової науки та культури важко переоцінити. Таким чином, філософсько-політичні, правові концепції великого німецького мислителя не втратили своєї актуальності, особливо важливим чинником вони виступають в сенсі осмислення сучасних складних проблем в забезпеченні прав і свобод громадян, незалеж­ності та суверенітету.

This article exposes the various international influences that –between 1960-1970- operated in order to stimulate peasant migration towards the Ecuadorian Amazonian frontier. During that period poor farmer organizations in several Latin American countries were demanding access to land held by traditional latifundia. In order to defuse the revolutionary potential of these claims, the Organization of American States (OAS) came up with a plan that would have the peasants migrate as colonists towards jungle areas, such as Amazonia. A central topic of the present text is the study of the several international connections between this organization and United States diplomacy in their efforts to boost colonization policies in the Ecuadorian Amazonian frontier. In a first stage, Ecuador received loans from foreign financial organizations, which were targeted for the construction of roads that would facilitate access to the rainforest areas. This was a major component of early efforts to promote the occupation of the tropical woodlands. Additionally, strong pressure by US diplomacy forced Ecuador to pass legislation facilitating colonization, while, at the same time, the Inter American Institute of Agrarian Sciences (IICA), trained government officials in the skills necessary to implement and enforce these policies. The article uses diplomatic, legal and bureaucratic reports in order to disclose the administrative transnational strategies that were active in promoting the migration of landless peasants towards the Amazonian wilderness, as part of an effort to neutralize the risk of communist political revolutions. ; En este artículo, se muestran las distintas conexiones internacionales que estimularon, entre 1960 y 1970, la migración campesina hacia las fronteras amazónicas ecuatorianas. Durante el mencionado periodo, en varios países latinoamericanos las organizaciones campesinas reclamaban el acceso a la tierra de latifundios. Para evitar que estos reclamos desencadenasen en revoluciones radicales, la Organización de Estados Americanos propuso que los campesinos migraran hacia tierras de áreas selváticas como la Amazonía. Las distintas conexiones internacionales entre este organismo y la diplomacia estadounidense con la política de colonización de la frontera amazónica de Ecuador constituyen el tema central del presente texto. En la etapa de estudio, Ecuador participó de una política internacional de colonización y recibió créditos de entidades financieras para construir carreteras en zonas selváticas. Además, la presión diplomática logró que se aprobara la legislación sobre colonización, al tiempo que el Instituto Interamericano de Ciencias Agrícolas capacitó a funcionarios estatales para hacer efectivas las políticas agrarias. A partir de fuentes diplomáticas, jurídicas e informes burocráticos, en este artículo se muestran las estrategias transnacionales de gobierno que promovieron la migración campesina a la selva amazónica para desactivar el riesgo de revoluciones políticas comunistas. ; Neste artigo, são mostradas as diferentes conexões internacionais que estimularam, entre 1960 e 1970, a migração do campo para as fronteiras amazônicas equatorianas. Durante o período mencionado, em vários países da América Latina as organizações do campo exigiram acesso às terras das grandes propriedades. Para evitar que essas reivindicações desencadeiem revoluções radicais, a Organização dos Estados Americanos propôs que os camponeses migrassem para terras em áreas de selva, como a Amazônia. As diferentes conexões internacionais desta organização com a diplomacia dos Estados Unidos com a política de colonização da fronteira amazônica com o Equador constituem o tema central deste texto. Na etapa de estudo, o Equador participou de uma política internacional de colonização e recebeu empréstimos de entidades financeiras para construir estradas em áreas de selva. Além disso, a pressão diplomática conseguiu que a legislação sobre a colonização fosse aprovada, enquanto o Instituto Interamericano de Ciências Agrárias treinava funcionários do Estado para implementar políticas agrárias. Com base em fontes diplomáticas e jurídicas e relatórios burocráticos, este artigo mostra as estratégias de governo transnacional que promoveram a migração de camponeses para a selva amazônica para neutralizar o risco de revoluções políticas comunistas.

2020年新型冠狀病毒肺炎橫行全球形成大流行,導致許多國家成為疫情下的受難者。然而,令人頗感意外的是,以往被評價為公衛治理能力優異的已開發工業先進國家(或所謂的北方國家),在這波疫情襲擊下有不少國內疫情十分嚴重,不僅確診總人數極高,甚至在執行封城措施或施打疫苗後,仍陸續出現第二、第三波之疫情。學界目前雖已有若干文獻對此現象做出分析,指出:(1)民主政體欠缺效率;(2)全球化使得邊境防疫困難;(3)個體自由主義意識過強等因素,係導致防疫效果不佳的原因,但這些解釋較少從公衛治理的本身切入。有鑑於此,本研究從國家醫療制度的面向切入,比較歐美及東亞已開發工業先進國家間的差異,發現嚴謹的「分級醫療」制度是導致歐美已開發工業先進國家境內疫情擴散的關鍵原因。相較之下,在東亞地區的已開發工業先進國家因為「分級醫療」的嚴謹程度明顯較低,加上政府施行單一給付醫療費用的財政模式,使其在防疫上呈現較優之結果。 ; In 2020, novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV or COVID-19) was rampant around the world, causing the first global pandemic and leading many countries to become victims. However, it is quite surprising that developed and industrialized countries (the so-called Northern countries) which have been identified as enjoying the good public health governance, severely suffered from epidemics-not only the total number of domestic confirmed cases is extremely high, but also the second and third waves of epidemics continue to occur even after the lockdown policies and/or nationwide COVID-19 vaccination campaigns. A number of studies in the field of political science have analyzed this phenomenon, suggesting that: (1) democracy is to some extent inefficient; (2) globalization makes the task of border control more difficult; and (3) people in democracies usually have a strong individualistic orientation and awareness. However, the existing literature rarely focuses on public health per se. To address this problem, we begin by analyzing national healthcare system (NHS), then comparing the differences between advanced industrial countries in Europe, America and East Asia. We find that the more rigorous a system of 'graded medical treatment' is in one country, the more severe spread of epidemics could be in that country. On the contrary, some advanced industrial countries in East Asia have not adopted a rigorous system of 'graded medical treatment', whereas their governments have implemented a single-payer mechanism by which healthcare is paid for by a single public authority, not a private authority, nor a mix of both. Precisely because of the differences mentioned above, some advanced industrial countries in East Asia show a better performance in epidemic response to COVID-19.

Modern sports have made many claims, one of which is to give surety of equality within sporting codes. They also specifically focus on providing equal rights to allow individuals to compete in sports. The political history of South Africa is particularly important as it is essentially linked to the capacity to participate in sport in South Africa. Therefore, it is safe to say that politics and sports are intrinsically entwined in the country. Sport played a vibrant role in the struggle against the system of apartheid and has a vigorous role to play in the transformation and nation-building of South Africa. Islam has been open to growth and development, adaptation, and even change. Since its revelation, Islam has been filtered through a succession of cultural growth, reflecting the complex ways in which religious beliefs and social reality accommodate one another. Islam possesses a unifying framework which is provided by the Quran (Islam's primary source regarded by Muslims as God's revealed word) as the quintessential source along with the Hadith (the statements and deeds of Prophet Muhammad [Peace be unto him]) and language of the religion of Islam. This unity is accompanied by a multitude of diversities that must be considered in any discussion regarding Islam and its practice by Muslims. The Muslim women presented in this thesis were specifically from the Malabar area in Port Elizabeth, where different interpretations or perspectives of Islam exist. Malabar was created in 1961 under the Group Areas Act of 1950 in terms of which the Apartheid government forced people of different race categories to live separately. In a variety of societies and communities where legislation, customs, and traditions are affected or inspired by interpretations of the Quran and Sunnah, they combine to define the roles and status of men and women. Within a specific Muslim society, however, these may vary from one class or generation to another. Muslim women's lives and the choices they face are influenced as much by patriarchal social arrangements as they are by religious ideology. The research is centred around the interpretations of Islam and what these interpretations mean for Muslim women and their participation in sports, while also considering the interconnectedness of personal choice and the rules and regulations of Islam. The objective of this study was to critically analyse the effect that the different interpretations of Islam have on Muslim women's participation in sporting activities, as iii well as the barriers that Muslim women face during their involvement in sports. The research adopted a qualitative research method in which 20 Muslim women were interviewed, with the use of semi-structured interview schedules, as well as participant observation to collect the necessary data. A case study method was used to share the data collected from interviews. Furthermore, an auto-ethnographic method is also utilized for self-reflection and to explore personal experience relevant to this research. This thesis also draws on the Marxist feminist theoretical approach, focusing on investigating and explaining how women are oppressed through systems of capitalism and private property. Marxism and feminism are theories of power, which is distributed unequally in society. In researching gender, religion, and sport, I found that the relationship between Muslim women and sport is understood in different ways because of different interpretations of Islam and its teachings, often between one generation to the next and amongst various Muslim communities. Thus, individuals who are passionate about their sport will go the extra mile to ensure participation. In some cases, this would be regardless of the rules and regulations of Islam. Muslim women across the world have made many strides and overcome many barriers in sport. Over the years, although not favourably portrayed in the media, participation by women has increased drastically over time. This thesis explores gender, religion, and sport as well as the 'lived body' experiences of veiled Muslim women in sport and physical activity. I attempt to explain the relationship between religious requirements and participation in sport and physical activity. ; Thesis (MA) -- Faculty of Humanities, School of Governmental and Social Sciences, 2020

The open data paradigm is changing the research approach in many fields such as remote sensing and the social sciences. This is supported by governmental decisions and policies that are boosting the open data wave, and in this context archaeology is also affected by this new trend. In many countries, archaeological data are still protected or only limited access is allowed. However, the strong political and economic support for the publication of government data as open data will change the accessibility and disciplinary expertise in the archaeological field too. In order to maximize the impact of data, their technical openness is of primary importance. Indeed, since a spreadsheet is more usable than a PDF of a table, the availability of digital archaeological data, which is structured using standardised approaches, is of primary importance for the real usability of published data. In this context, the main aim of this paper is to present a workflow for archaeological data sharing as open data with a large level of technical usability and interoperability. Primary data is mainly acquired through the use of digital techniques (e.g. digital cameras and terrestrial laser scanning). The processing of this raw data is performed with commercial software for scan registration and image processing, allowing for a simple and semi-automated workflow. Outputs obtained from this step are then processed in modelling and drawing environments to generate digital models, both 2D and 3D. These crude geometrical data are then enriched with further information to generate a Geographic Information System (GIS) which is finally published as open data using Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) standards to maximise interoperability.Highlights:Open data will change the accessibility and disciplinary expertise in the archaeological field.The main aim of this paper is to present a workflow for archaeological data sharing as open data with a large level of interoperability.Digital acquisition techniques are used to document archaeological excavations and a Geographic Information System (GIS) is generated that is published as open data. ; El paradigma de los datos abiertos está cambiando el enfoque de investigación en muchos campos de estudio como son la teledetección y las ciencias sociales. Está respaldado por decisiones gubernamentales y políticas que están impulsando la ola de los datos abiertos y en este contexto también la arqueología se ve afectada por esta nueva tendencia. En muchos países, los datos arqueológicos todavía están protegidos o se permite un acceso limitado. Sin embargo, el fuerte apoyo político y económico hacia la publicación de datos gubernamentales como datos abiertos también cambiará el panorama en el campo arqueológico. Para maximizar el efecto de los datos, su apertura técnica es de primordial importancia. De hecho, dado que una hoja de cálculo es más útil que la digitalización PDF de una tabla, de manera similar, la disponibilidad de los datos arqueológicos digitales y su estructuración mediante enfoques estandarizados es de importancia primordial para una utilización real de los datos publicados. En este contexto, el objetivo principal de este documento es presentar un flujo de trabajo para compartir datos arqueológicos como datos abiertos con un gran nivel de usabilidad técnica e interoperabilidad. La adquisición de datos primarios se realiza principalmente mediante el uso de técnicas de adquisición digital (por ejemplo, cámaras digitales y escaneado láser terrestre). El procesamiento de los datos crudos se realiza con software comercial para el registro de los escaneados y el procesamiento de imágenes que permite un procesamiento simple y semiautomático. Los resultados del área arqueológica obtenidos de este paso se procesan en modelos y entornos de dibujo que permiten generar modelos digitales, 2D y 3D. Esos datos geométricos crudos se enriquecen luego con información adicional para generar un Sistema de Información Geográfica (SIG) que finalmente se publica con datos abiertos usando los estándares del Consorcio Geoespacial Abierto (OGC) que maximizan la interoperabilidad.

The article is devoted to the research of post-war repressions against the peasantry of Ukraine. The author ascertained the political, economic and spiritual aspects of tragic events that had absolute influence on further development of the Ukrainian village on the basis of previously published sources and archived materials. Ways of repressive politics forming, participating of public authorities, police, party and soviet institutions in it were shown. It was proven that repression touched all the layers of society in the post-war years, including peasants. The amount of the arrested peasants in post-war years is considerably greate than workers according to the annual statistical reports of NKDB. The author defined that the main forms of post-war repressions were eviction, criminal responsibility, sending to the camps. After war many peasants, taken out to Germany, found oneself on the rights of repatriates and were sent to camps as «traitors of motherland». Peasants were forced to work 10–11 hours a day. They were made to buy government bonds of loans that devastated their incomes. Being a member of a collective farm or state farm, absence of the right to live and deportation returned peasants to serfdoms times. In the article the analysis of realization of the second wave of dekulakization is given. It reminded the dekulakization in 1930 – expropriation of grain, appeasement of hunger, increase of state reservs and export of bread, deportation of rebellious to remote areas. The collectivization of agriculture in Western Ukraine in post-war years was conducted by violent methods.Wealthy peasants were made to choose between joining the collective farm or sending to Siberia. Families of dekulakizated people were evicted to the east districts of USSR. According to the research it became clear that one of the main methods in the process of collectivizations was tax system. Moreover the sum of taxes for an individual peasant is 100 % higher than for a collective farmer. In a country an active fight against collective farmers who didn't work the necessary amount of workdays is conducted. People who did not produce such minimum were sentenced, evicted from collective farms with confiscation of private households. A such crime was characterized as a «parasitic way of life». The repressions related to realization of violent grain purchases were affected peasants especially heavily. It is stated that Stalin's repressive party-state politics of grain purchases was one of the main reasons of the third soviet hunger. Strengthening of grain purchases resistance in the period of hunger 1946–1947 caused the repressions in relation to the leaders of households. An active fight against the increase of quantity of thefts was conducted without regard to hungry people who were forced on crime commitment. The author of the article concludes that in a post-war period repressions against peasants were actively proceeded. These peasants were the considerable amount of all prisoners. The repressions were less common than in 1930th, however the totalitarian system disfigured the fates of hundreds and brought thousands of people to death. The research of post-war repressions gives an opportunity to enrich the historical science with new original and actual material, to expose the criminal activity of I. Stalin, his surroundings and repressive-punitive machine created by him. ; Статья посвящена исследованию темы послевоенных репрессий против крестьянства Украины. На осно-вании раннее опубликованных источников и архивных материалов автор высветил политические, экономи-ческие и духовные аспекты трагических событий, что имели безусловное влияние не дальнейшее развитие украинского села. Показаны пути формирования репрессивной политики, участь в ней государственных орга-нов власти, партийных, советских и правоохранительных органов. ; Статтю присвячено дослідженню теми повоєнних репресій проти селянства Ук-раїни. На основі раніше опублікованих джерел та архівних матеріалів автор висвітлив політичні, економічні та духовні аспекти трагічних подій, що мали безумовний вплив на подальший розвиток українського села. Показано шляхи формування репресивної політики, участь у ній державних органів влади, партійних, радянських та правоохоронних органів.