Suchergebnisse

ÖZETBu araştırmanın ana amacı, Yunan ulusal kimliğinin oluşumu süreci ve Yunanistan'ın kuzey komşularıyla anlaşmazlıklarının temelleri üzerine, tarihsel incelemeyle görüş kazanmaktır. Kullanılan yöntembilim, disiplinler-arası; yaklaşım, karşılaştırmalı ve çözümseldir.Türkiye ve Yunanistan'ın Batı ve Doğu arasındaki "Ara Bölge"de yer aldıkları tezi incelenmiş; kadim Yunan'dan başlatılan bir Batı soykütüğünü varsayan, ancak kadim Yunan düşüncesinin kaynağının "Doğu" olduğunu gözden uzak tutan Doğu-Batı bölümlenmesinin tarihsel olduğu ileri sürülmüştür. Balkan milliyetçilikleri, Osmanlı "Millet Sistemi" sırasında korunan ulusal diller ve dini kimlikler etrafında inşa edilmiştir Milliyetçi ve marksist Balkan tarih yazıcılıkları, Osmanlı yönetiminin "ilerlemeye asli engel olduğu" nitelendirmesinde birleşmektedirler. Balkanlar'daki güncel durum, ulus-devlet merkezli Neo-Realist Model'in açıklayıcı gücünün sürdüğünü göstermektedir. Modern Yunan devleti, herhangi bir "ulusal uyanış"tan çok, ulus-tahayyülü ve ulus inşası sürecinden doğmuştur. Putperest Hellen tarihini Ortodoks Hıristiyanlık'la uyuşturmak, ulus-tahayyülünde, henüz çözülememiş en zor problem olmuştur. Yunan tarihyazıcılığının, "Yunan Ulusunun Tarihsel Devamlılığı" teorisi, bu ikilemi çözme girişimidir. Yunan ulusal kimliğinin etnikliği ulusallıkla karıştırması, Yunanistan'daki Hıristiyan ve Müslüman azınlıkların etnik kimliklerini ortaya koymalarından hoşlanmayışın ve Yunanistan'ın kuzey komşularıyla anlaşmazlıklarının nedenlerindendir. Girit özerklik hareketi incelenmiş; Samos, yerel özerkliğin Yunan yönetimi ile birlikte sona erdiği Doğu Ege Adaları için örnek olarak işlenmiştir.Araştırma, Yunan devletinin kurulduğundan bu yana "Megali Idea" tarafından kışkırtılan toprak emellerinin tam olarak gerçekleştirilmesi olanaksız olduğu için, Yunan milliyetçiliğinin tamamlanmamış ve başarısız olduğu sonucuna varmaktadır. "Megali Idea"nın "nihai sınırları"nın elde edilmesinin olanaksızlığı düşünülürse, Yunanlılar sürekli bir psikolojik hüsran duygusu içinde gözükmektedirler. Yunanistan Balkanlar'da komünizmin çökmesinden sonraki gelişmelere uyum sağlayamamış; Balkanlar'daki temelli değişikliklere yönelik Yunan tepkisi, Yunan dış politikasının psikolojik kusurlarını ortaya koymuştur.ABSTRACTThe main purpose of this research work is to garner insights through historical examination on the process of the formation of the Greek national identity and the bases of conflicts of Greece with its northern neighbors. The methodology is inter-disciplinary; and the approach is comparative and analytical.The argument that Turkey and Greece are in the "Intermediary Region" between the West and the East is examined, and it is argued that the East-West division, which presupposes a Western genealogy from ancient Greece, overlooking the fact that the source of the ancient Greek thought was "the East", is historical. Balkan Nationalisms were constructed around linguistic and religious identities which were preserved during the Ottoman "Millet System". The Balkan nationalist and Marxist historiographies converge with the Orientalist approach in labeling the Ottoman rule as the "quintessential inhibitor" to progress. The recent situation in the Balkans represents the example of the continuation of the explanatory power of the nation-state centric Neo-Realist model. The modern Greek state was born from a process of nation-imagining and nation-building rather than from any "national awakening". Reconciling the paganic Hellenic history with the Orthodox Christianity was the most difficult problem, which was not solved so far, in nation-imagining. The Greek historiography's "Historical Continuity of the Greek Nation" theory attempted to solve this dilemma. The Greek national identity's confusion of ethnicity with nationality is one of the reasons for the Greek aversion to the assertion of ethnic identities of Christian and Muslim minorities, and Greece's problems with its northern neighbors. Cretan autonomy movement is dealt with, and Samos is taken up as an example for the Eastern Aegean Islands where local autonomy was discontinued with the Greek rule.The research concludes that since the establishment of the Greek state it proved impossible to fully realize the territorial aspirations provoked by the "Megali Idea", the Greek nationalism has remained unfinished and unsuccessful. Considering the impossibility to attain the "ultimate borders" of the "Megali Idea", the Greeks appear to have a continuing sense of psychological frustration. Greece could not adapt itself to the developments unfolding after the demise of communism in the Balkans. The Greek reaction to the drastic changes in the Balkans revealed the psychological deficiencies of the Greek foreign policy.

Purpose of the article is to identify the religious factor in the teaching of transhumanism, to determine its role in the ideology of this flow of thought and to identify the possible limits of technology interference in human nature. Theoretical basis. The methodological basis of the article is the idea of transhumanism. Originality. In the foreseeable future, robots will be able to pass the Turing test, become "electronic personalities" and gain political rights, although the question of the possibility of machine consciousness and self-awareness remains open. In the face of robots, people create their assistants, evolutionary competition with which they will almost certainly lose with the initial data. For successful competition with robots, people will have to change, ceasing to be people in the classical sense. Changing the nature of man will require the emergence of a new – posthuman – anthropology. Conclusions. Against the background of scientific discoveries, technical breakthroughs and everyday improvements of the last decades, an anthropological revolution has taken shape, which made it possible to set the task of creating inhumanly intelligent creatures, as well as changing human nature, up to discussing options for artificial immortality. The history of man ends and the history of the posthuman begins. We can no longer turn off this path, however, in our power to preserve our human qualities in the posthuman future. The theme of the soul again reminded of itself, but from a different perspective – as the theme of consciousness and self-awareness. It became again relevant in connection with the development of computer and cloud technologies, artificial intelligence technologies, etc. If a machine ever becomes a "man", then can a man become a "machine"? However, even if such a hypothetical probability would turn into reality, we cannot talk about any form of individual immortality or about the continuation of existence in a different physical form. A digital copy of the soul will still remain a copy, and I see no fundamental possibility of isolating a substrate-independent mind from the human body. Immortality itself is necessary not so much for stopping someone's fears or encouraging someone's hopes, but for the final solution of a religious issue. However, the gods hold the keys to heaven hard and are unlikely to admit our modified descendants there. ; Целью статьи является идентификация религиозного фактора в учении трансгуманизма, определение его роли в идеологии этого течения мысли и выявление возможных пределов вмешательства технологий в природу человека. Теоретический базис. Методологической основой статьи являются идеи трансгуманизма. Научная новизна. Роботы смогут в обозримом будущем пройти тест Тьюринга, стать "электронными личностями" и получить политические права, хотя вопрос о возможности машинного сознания и самосознания остается открытым. В лице роботов человечество создает себе помощников, эволюционную конкуренцию с которыми при исходных данных оно почти наверняка проиграет. Для успешной конкуренции с роботами людям придется измениться, перестав быть людьми в классическом понимании. Изменение природы человека требует появления новой – постчеловеческой – антропологии. Выводы. На фоне научных открытий, технических прорывов и бытовых усовершенствований последних десятилетий наметился антропологический переворот, обусловивший возможность ставить задачи создания нечеловечески разумных существ, а также изменения человеческой природы вплоть до обсуждения вариантов искусственного бессмертия. История человека заканчивается и начинается история постчеловека. Свернуть с этого пути мы уже не можем, тем не менее, в наших силах сохранить свои человеческие качества в постчеловеческом будущем. Тема души снова о себе напомнила, но уже в ином ракурсе – как тема сознания и самосознания. Она стала вновь актуальной в связи с развитием компьютерных и облачных технологий, технологий искусственного интеллекта и т.д. Если машина когда-нибудь станет "человеком", то не может ли и человек стать "машиной"? Впрочем, даже в случае, если такая гипотетическая вероятность превратится в реальность, говорить о какой-либо форме индивидуального бессмертия или о продолжении существования в иной физической форме не приходится. Цифровая копия души все равно останется копией, и я не вижу принципиальных возможностей выделить из тела человека субстратно-независимый разум. Само же бессмертие необходимо не столько для купирования чьих-то страхов или поощрения чьих-то надежд, сколько для окончательного решения религиозного вопроса. Однако боги крепко держат ключи от небес и едва ли допустят туда наших модифицированных потомков. ; Метою статті є ідентифікація релігійного фактору у вченні трансгуманізму, визначення його ролі в ідеології цієї течії думки і виявлення можливих меж втручання технологій в природу людини. Теоретичний базис. Методологічною основою статті є ідеї трансгуманізму. Наукова новизна. Роботи зможуть в недалекому майбутньому пройти тест Тюрінга, стати "електронними особистостями" й отримати політичні права, хоча питання про можливість машинної свідомості та самосвідомості залишається відкритим. В особі роботів людство створює собі помічників, еволюційну конкуренцію з якими при вихідних даних воно майже напевно програє. Для успішної конкуренції з роботами людям доведеться змінитися, переставши бути людьми в класичному розумінні. Зміна природи людини потребує появи нової – постлюдської – антропології. Висновки. На тлі наукових відкриттів, технічних проривів і побутових удосконалень останніх десятиліть намітився антропологічний переворот, який зумовив можливість ставити завдання створення нелюдськи розумних істот, а також зміни людської природи аж до обговорення варіантів штучного безсмертя. Історія людини закінчується й починається історія постлюдини. Зійти з цього шляху ми вже не можемо, тим не менш, в наших силах зберегти свої людські якості в постлюдському майбутньому. Тема душі знову про себе нагадала, але вже в іншому ракурсі – як тема свідомості та самосвідомості. Вона стала знову актуальною в зв'язку з розвитком комп'ютерних і хмарних технологій, технологій штучного інтелекту тощо. Якщо машина коли-небудь стане "людиною", то чи не може і людина стати "машиною"? Втім, навіть у разі, якщо така гіпотетична ймовірність перетвориться в реальність, говорити про будь-яку форму індивідуального безсмертя або про продовження існування в іншій формі не доводиться. Цифрова копія душі все одно залишиться копією, і я не бачу принципових можливостей виділити з тіла людини субстратно-незалежний розум. Саме ж безсмертя необхідно не стільки для купірування чиїхось страхів або заохочення чиїхось надій, скільки для остаточного вирішення релігійного питання. Однак боги міцно тримають ключі від небес і навряд чи допустять туди наших модифікованих нащадків.

Purpose of the article is to identify the religious factor in the teaching of transhumanism, to determine its role in the ideology of this flow of thought and to identify the possible limits of technology interference in human nature. Theoretical basis. The methodological basis of the article is the idea of transhumanism. Originality. In the foreseeable future, robots will be able to pass the Turing test, become "electronic personalities" and gain political rights, although the question of the possibility of machine consciousness and self-awareness remains open. In the face of robots, people create their assistants, evolutionary competition with which they will almost certainly lose with the initial data. For successful competition with robots, people will have to change, ceasing to be people in the classical sense. Changing the nature of man will require the emergence of a new – posthuman – anthropology. Conclusions. Against the background of scientific discoveries, technical breakthroughs and everyday improvements of the last decades, an anthropological revolution has taken shape, which made it possible to set the task of creating inhumanly intelligent creatures, as well as changing human nature, up to discussing options for artificial immortality. The history of man ends and the history of the posthuman begins. We can no longer turn off this path, however, in our power to preserve our human qualities in the posthuman future. The theme of the soul again reminded of itself, but from a different perspective – as the theme of consciousness and self-awareness. It became again relevant in connection with the development of computer and cloud technologies, artificial intelligence technologies, etc. If a machine ever becomes a "man", then can a man become a "machine"? However, even if such a hypothetical probability would turn into reality, we cannot talk about any form of individual immortality or about the continuation of existence in a different physical form. A digital copy of the soul will still remain a copy, and I see no fundamental possibility of isolating a substrate-independent mind from the human body. Immortality itself is necessary not so much for stopping someone's fears or encouraging someone's hopes, but for the final solution of a religious issue. However, the gods hold the keys to heaven hard and are unlikely to admit our modified descendants there. ; Целью статьи является идентификация религиозного фактора в учении трансгуманизма, определение его роли в идеологии этого течения мысли и выявление возможных пределов вмешательства технологий в природу человека. Теоретический базис. Методологической основой статьи являются идеи трансгуманизма. Научная новизна. Роботы смогут в обозримом будущем пройти тест Тьюринга, стать "электронными личностями" и получить политические права, хотя вопрос о возможности машинного сознания и самосознания остается открытым. В лице роботов человечество создает себе помощников, эволюционную конкуренцию с которыми при исходных данных оно почти наверняка проиграет. Для успешной конкуренции с роботами людям придется измениться, перестав быть людьми в классическом понимании. Изменение природы человека требует появления новой – постчеловеческой – антропологии. Выводы. На фоне научных открытий, технических прорывов и бытовых усовершенствований последних десятилетий наметился антропологический переворот, обусловивший возможность ставить задачи создания нечеловечески разумных существ, а также изменения человеческой природы вплоть до обсуждения вариантов искусственного бессмертия. История человека заканчивается и начинается история постчеловека. Свернуть с этого пути мы уже не можем, тем не менее, в наших силах сохранить свои человеческие качества в постчеловеческом будущем. Тема души снова о себе напомнила, но уже в ином ракурсе – как тема сознания и самосознания. Она стала вновь актуальной в связи с развитием компьютерных и облачных технологий, технологий искусственного интеллекта и т.д. Если машина когда-нибудь станет "человеком", то не может ли и человек стать "машиной"? Впрочем, даже в случае, если такая гипотетическая вероятность превратится в реальность, говорить о какой-либо форме индивидуального бессмертия или о продолжении существования в иной физической форме не приходится. Цифровая копия души все равно останется копией, и я не вижу принципиальных возможностей выделить из тела человека субстратно-независимый разум. Само же бессмертие необходимо не столько для купирования чьих-то страхов или поощрения чьих-то надежд, сколько для окончательного решения религиозного вопроса. Однако боги крепко держат ключи от небес и едва ли допустят туда наших модифицированных потомков. ; Метою статті є ідентифікація релігійного фактору у вченні трансгуманізму, визначення його ролі в ідеології цієї течії думки і виявлення можливих меж втручання технологій в природу людини. Теоретичний базис. Методологічною основою статті є ідеї трансгуманізму. Наукова новизна. Роботи зможуть в недалекому майбутньому пройти тест Тюрінга, стати "електронними особистостями" й отримати політичні права, хоча питання про можливість машинної свідомості та самосвідомості залишається відкритим. В особі роботів людство створює собі помічників, еволюційну конкуренцію з якими при вихідних даних воно майже напевно програє. Для успішної конкуренції з роботами людям доведеться змінитися, переставши бути людьми в класичному розумінні. Зміна природи людини потребує появи нової – постлюдської – антропології. Висновки. На тлі наукових відкриттів, технічних проривів і побутових удосконалень останніх десятиліть намітився антропологічний переворот, який зумовив можливість ставити завдання створення нелюдськи розумних істот, а також зміни людської природи аж до обговорення варіантів штучного безсмертя. Історія людини закінчується й починається історія постлюдини. Зійти з цього шляху ми вже не можемо, тим не менш, в наших силах зберегти свої людські якості в постлюдському майбутньому. Тема душі знову про себе нагадала, але вже в іншому ракурсі – як тема свідомості та самосвідомості. Вона стала знову актуальною в зв'язку з розвитком комп'ютерних і хмарних технологій, технологій штучного інтелекту тощо. Якщо машина коли-небудь стане "людиною", то чи не може і людина стати "машиною"? Втім, навіть у разі, якщо така гіпотетична ймовірність перетвориться в реальність, говорити про будь-яку форму індивідуального безсмертя або про продовження існування в іншій формі не доводиться. Цифрова копія душі все одно залишиться копією, і я не бачу принципових можливостей виділити з тіла людини субстратно-незалежний розум. Саме ж безсмертя необхідно не стільки для купірування чиїхось страхів або заохочення чиїхось надій, скільки для остаточного вирішення релігійного питання. Однак боги міцно тримають ключі від небес і навряд чи допустять туди наших модифікованих нащадків.

Since the law prohibiting the wearing of conspicuous religious symbols in public schools (2004), a gradual development has taken place in France. From the law banning full-face covering in public space (2010) to measures concerning the parents of students (2012) and the employees of private nurseries (2014), women wearing the Islamic headscarf have step-by-step been excluded from different spheres of public life. These measures have been publicly justified by the necessity of defending the French Republic or of reinvigorating its underlying principles. Through which political including discursive processes did the public promotion of republican values come to signify the exclusion of headscarf-wearing Muslim women from public spaces?My research tackles this question by employing a conceptual and discursive approach to the study of political ideology. More specifically, by focusing on the public discourses surrounding four so-called "veil affairs," my research sheds light on the gradual transformation of French republicanism – a complex construct through which political concepts gain meaning. Examining contemporary French republicanism through the context of the "veil affairs" reveals both continuity and change. Continuity, because the age-old principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity still form its cornerstone; and change, because newer ideals have modified the meaning of its conceptual core. In Chapter 4, "The Student's Headscarf: The Success of Sexularism," I analyze the beginning of this process. By examining the public controversy surrounding the wearing of the Islamic headscarf in public schools, I show how French political elites gradually constructed the question of gender equality – which, historically, has been rather marginal in French republican thought – as a value adjacent to the principle of laïcité, thereby opening the door for further redefinitions. In Chapter 5, "The Burqa in Public Space: The Republican Social Order," my empirical analysis demonstrates that, in aiming to ban face-covering veils, French political and legal actors ended up reviving and transforming the notion of public order through the construction of a new definition of republican social order. Thus, French republicanism took an important turn towards the protection of "shared values." From a theoretical point of view, I argue that this shift implies a nascent transformation within the very core of the republican-ideological construct: the prioritization of fraternity over liberty and equality. Chapter 6, "Baby-Loup and Private Employment: From Discrimination to Social Cohesion," and Chapter 7, "'Veiled' Mothers and School Outings: Extending the Republican Social Norm," examine the consolidation and consequences of the transformed republican-ideological core: the prioritizing of the "common good" (intérêt public) over individual rights and freedoms. These chapters shed light on how political and legal actors applied the transformed republican ethos to new spheres and new groups of people. In doing so, they contributed to the emergence and entrenchment of a new discourse on social cohesion – one permeated by the requirement of individual religious neutrality and dependent on the exclusion of headscarf-wearing Muslim women from a variety of public spaces. ; Depuis la loi interdisant le port de signes religieux "ostensibles" dans les écoles publiques (2004), un changement progressif s'est opéré en France. De l'interdiction du port du foulard intégral dans l'espace public (2010) aux mesures touchant les parents d'élèves (2012) et les employées des crèches privées (2014), les femmes portant le foulard islamique ont graduellement été exclues de différents espaces publics. Ces mesures sont souvent justifiées au nom de la nécessité de défendre la République ou de revitaliser les valeurs qui la sous-tendent. À travers quels processus politiques y compris discursifs l'exclusion des femmes voilées est-elle devenue une composante de la promotion des valeurs républicaines ?Ma recherche se penche sur cette question à l'aide d'une approche conceptuelle et discursive de l'étude des idéologies politiques. Plus précisément, en ancrant mon analyse dans les discours publics entourant quatre "affaires du voile", ma recherche met en lumière la transformation graduelle du républicanisme français – une construction complexe à travers laquelle les concepts politiques acquièrent un sens. Cette analyse de l'idéologie républicaine française dans le contexte des "affaires du voile" révèle et continuité et changement. Continuité, car les anciens principes de liberté, égalité et fraternité y demeurent centraux ; et changement, car de nouveaux idéaux ont modifié la signification de son noyau conceptuel. Dans le chapitre 4, "Le foulard de l'étudiante : Le succès du sécularisme", j'analyse le début de ce processus. En examinant la controverse publique au sujet du port du foulard islamique dans les écoles publiques, je démontre comment les acteurs politiques français ont graduellement construit la question de l'égalité des sexes – qui, historiquement, a été plutôt marginale dans la pensée républicaine française – comme une valeur contiguë au principe de la laïcité, ouvrant ainsi la porte à d'autres redéfinitions. Dans le chapitre 5, "La burqa dans l'espace public : L'ordre social républicain", mon analyse démontre comment les hommes politiques et les juristes, en visant à interdire le port du voile intégral, ont revivifié et transformé la notion de l'ordre public à travers la construction d'une nouvelle définition de l'ordre social. Dès lors, le républicanisme français s'oriente vers la protection de "valeurs communes". D'un point de vue théorique, je soutiens que ce glissement implique une transformation naissante au sein même du noyau républicain : la priorisation de fraternité aux dépens de liberté et d'égalité. Le chapitre 6, "Baby-Loup et l'emploi privé : de discrimination à la cohésion sociale", et le chapitre 7, "Mères 'voilées' et sorties scolaires : une extension de la norme sociale républicaine", analysent la consolidation et les conséquences du noyau républicain transformé : la priorisation de l'intérêt public au détriment des droits et libertés individuels. Ces chapitres démontrent comment les acteurs politiques et juridiques ont appliqué ce républicanisme remanié aux nouveaux espaces et aux nouveaux groupes. Ce faisant, ils ont contribué à l'émergence et à l'enracinement d'un nouveau discours de cohésion sociale, imprégné par l'exigence de neutralité religieuse individuelle et conditionné par l'exclusion des femmes "voilées" d'une variété d'espaces publics.

Since the law prohibiting the wearing of conspicuous religious symbols in public schools (2004), a gradual development has taken place in France. From the law banning full-face covering in public space (2010) to measures concerning the parents of students (2012) and the employees of private nurseries (2014), women wearing the Islamic headscarf have step-by-step been excluded from different spheres of public life. These measures have been publicly justified by the necessity of defending the French Republic or of reinvigorating its underlying principles. Through which political including discursive processes did the public promotion of republican values come to signify the exclusion of headscarf-wearing Muslim women from public spaces?My research tackles this question by employing a conceptual and discursive approach to the study of political ideology. More specifically, by focusing on the public discourses surrounding four so-called "veil affairs," my research sheds light on the gradual transformation of French republicanism – a complex construct through which political concepts gain meaning. Examining contemporary French republicanism through the context of the "veil affairs" reveals both continuity and change. Continuity, because the age-old principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity still form its cornerstone; and change, because newer ideals have modified the meaning of its conceptual core. In Chapter 4, "The Student's Headscarf: The Success of Sexularism," I analyze the beginning of this process. By examining the public controversy surrounding the wearing of the Islamic headscarf in public schools, I show how French political elites gradually constructed the question of gender equality – which, historically, has been rather marginal in French republican thought – as a value adjacent to the principle of laïcité, thereby opening the door for further redefinitions. In Chapter 5, "The Burqa in Public Space: The Republican Social Order," my empirical analysis demonstrates that, in aiming to ban face-covering veils, French political and legal actors ended up reviving and transforming the notion of public order through the construction of a new definition of republican social order. Thus, French republicanism took an important turn towards the protection of "shared values." From a theoretical point of view, I argue that this shift implies a nascent transformation within the very core of the republican-ideological construct: the prioritization of fraternity over liberty and equality. Chapter 6, "Baby-Loup and Private Employment: From Discrimination to Social Cohesion," and Chapter 7, "'Veiled' Mothers and School Outings: Extending the Republican Social Norm," examine the consolidation and consequences of the transformed republican-ideological core: the prioritizing of the "common good" (intérêt public) over individual rights and freedoms. These chapters shed light on how political and legal actors applied the transformed republican ethos to new spheres and new groups of people. In doing so, they contributed to the emergence and entrenchment of a new discourse on social cohesion – one permeated by the requirement of individual religious neutrality and dependent on the exclusion of headscarf-wearing Muslim women from a variety of public spaces. ; Depuis la loi interdisant le port de signes religieux "ostensibles" dans les écoles publiques (2004), un changement progressif s'est opéré en France. De l'interdiction du port du foulard intégral dans l'espace public (2010) aux mesures touchant les parents d'élèves (2012) et les employées des crèches privées (2014), les femmes portant le foulard islamique ont graduellement été exclues de différents espaces publics. Ces mesures sont souvent justifiées au nom de la nécessité de défendre la République ou de revitaliser les valeurs qui la sous-tendent. À travers quels processus politiques y compris discursifs l'exclusion des femmes voilées est-elle devenue une composante de la promotion des valeurs républicaines ?Ma recherche se penche sur cette question à l'aide d'une approche conceptuelle et discursive de l'étude des idéologies politiques. Plus précisément, en ancrant mon analyse dans les discours publics entourant quatre "affaires du voile", ma recherche met en lumière la transformation graduelle du républicanisme français – une construction complexe à travers laquelle les concepts politiques acquièrent un sens. Cette analyse de l'idéologie républicaine française dans le contexte des "affaires du voile" révèle et continuité et changement. Continuité, car les anciens principes de liberté, égalité et fraternité y demeurent centraux ; et changement, car de nouveaux idéaux ont modifié la signification de son noyau conceptuel. Dans le chapitre 4, "Le foulard de l'étudiante : Le succès du sécularisme", j'analyse le début de ce processus. En examinant la controverse publique au sujet du port du foulard islamique dans les écoles publiques, je démontre comment les acteurs politiques français ont graduellement construit la question de l'égalité des sexes – qui, historiquement, a été plutôt marginale dans la pensée républicaine française – comme une valeur contiguë au principe de la laïcité, ouvrant ainsi la porte à d'autres redéfinitions. Dans le chapitre 5, "La burqa dans l'espace public : L'ordre social républicain", mon analyse démontre comment les hommes politiques et les juristes, en visant à interdire le port du voile intégral, ont revivifié et transformé la notion de l'ordre public à travers la construction d'une nouvelle définition de l'ordre social. Dès lors, le républicanisme français s'oriente vers la protection de "valeurs communes". D'un point de vue théorique, je soutiens que ce glissement implique une transformation naissante au sein même du noyau républicain : la priorisation de fraternité aux dépens de liberté et d'égalité. Le chapitre 6, "Baby-Loup et l'emploi privé : de discrimination à la cohésion sociale", et le chapitre 7, "Mères 'voilées' et sorties scolaires : une extension de la norme sociale républicaine", analysent la consolidation et les conséquences du noyau républicain transformé : la priorisation de l'intérêt public au détriment des droits et libertés individuels. Ces chapitres démontrent comment les acteurs politiques et juridiques ont appliqué ce républicanisme remanié aux nouveaux espaces et aux nouveaux groupes. Ce faisant, ils ont contribué à l'émergence et à l'enracinement d'un nouveau discours de cohésion sociale, imprégné par l'exigence de neutralité religieuse individuelle et conditionné par l'exclusion des femmes "voilées" d'une variété d'espaces publics.

Dreaming of the Avant-Garde: Georges Bataille, Nathalie Sarraute, Pierre Michon, Agnès VardabyMaia Lea Beyler-NoilyDoctor of Philosophy in FrenchDesignated Emphasis in Film StudiesUniversity of California, BerkeleyProfessor Michael Lucey and Professor Jean-François Louette, Co-ChairsThis dissertation focuses on the ways in which the avant-garde proposes new models for the community throughout the twentieth century in France, specifically in the works of writers Georges Bataille, Nathalie Sarraute and Pierre Michon, and filmmaker Agnès Varda. This research was spurred by a turn-of-the century sociology obsessed with the supposed decay of community and the necessity to revitalize it. According to sociology's forefather, Emile Durkheim, if the traditional community is rooted in religion, a secular and individualistic modernity ignores the very notion of community, leaving a dangerous vacuum too easily filled by totalitarian systems of thought. This work argues that the avant-garde is simultaneously critical of the traditional community, deemed closed and exclusive, and of modern secularism, characterized by individualism and mercantilism. Hence, rejecting both traditional community and modern society, the avant-garde attempts to imagine new, open alternatives. However, by following a party line, be it political or aesthetic, the avant-garde becomes susceptible to the same pitfalls of exclusivity and authority as the traditional community. As such, the artists upon which this dissertation focuses cannot be affiliated with any specific avant-garde movement. Rather, they remain in the avant-garde's margins, keeping their distance, i.e. their freedom, from it: Bataille in regard to surrealism, Sarraute in regard to the Nouveau Roman, Michon in regard to Tel Quel, and Varda in regard to the New Wave. Bataille's twin philosophical notions of sovereignty-servility shed light on what these marginal avant-garde artists are gesturing towards: on the one hand, they are attempting to break away from the traditional and hierarchical, that is the servile community, and on the other, they are innovating by imagining a free and equal community, i.e. one that is sovereign. However, the question asked throughout this research is whether these dreams of communities, here featured in novels, short stories and films, could, or even should, be turned into concrete realities.Chapter One focuses on the avant-garde writers' novels and their attempt to bring about a sovereign community through their criticism of traditional Judeo-Christian morals. Rejecting Christian and fascistic communities, as well modern secularism, Bataille's Julie imagines an erotic community made up of perverts and lunatics. It seems that only an erotic community could achieve sovereignty by being unredeemable, that is by stubbornly resisting all political and aesthetic re-appropriation. In Sarraute's Martereau, a new community can come about through the suspicion of all our preconceived notions of identity. Only the anxiety-ridden search for the community, never its establishment, can lead to sovereignty. Michon's La Grande Beune, an implicit tribute to Bataille, can be read in dialogue with the avant-garde. However, while paying homage to his fiercely antireligious predecessor, Michon imagines a sovereign community that might find a way to be in relation, however tentative, with Christianity.The second chapter of this work explores both the avant-garde's attacks against a visual culture deemed authoritative and dictatorial, and the communities born from these attacks. Bataille's Histoire de l'oeil strikingly illustrates the avant-garde's desire to defile and literally deface the human image. The sovereign community here imagined by Bataille is one of felons and outlaws that could never be corralled into a well-functioning society. Showcasing a face-off between a fervent collector and his snide children, Sarraute's Vous les entendez? ridicules the ways that art takes over religion in the twentieth century. Refusing to adore literal and figurative images, Sarraute imagines a community of people who never settle for answers, but keep searching for them. Michon's Maîtres et Serviteurs and Corps du roi are meditations on painting and photography, respectively. Here, Michon succeeds in conjuring a community of lovers of the visual arts that remembers the avant-garde's wariness towards them, but refuses to indict all representation once and for all.Chapter Three explores modern literature's compulsion to self-sabotage and the communities brought about by this self-destruction. Bataille's L'Abbé C. points an accusing finger at Literature as another model for authoritative, exclusive communities. Self-combusting through haphazard writing and self-plagiarism, L'Abbé C. attempts to challenge the authority of its writer and avoid any future co-optations, but, in turn, leaves its readers stranded. Sarraute's Le Mensonge similarly disowns Literature, and Literature's authoritative tendencies, by writing for the radio-waves. The radio seems to short-circuit Literature's normative bent and to give way to a sovereign community. Michon's Mythologies d'hiver similarly alludes to the avant-garde's hostility towards a narrative accused of bringing together the traditional, i.e. religious, community. While constantly throwing his enterprise into self-doubt, Michon paradoxically reintroduces both the narrative and the possibility of Christian faith as potential ways to a sovereign community. Featuring a behind-the-scenes look at a globalized economy, Varda's film, Les Glaneurs et la glaneuse, focuses on what happens to unproductive, i.e. sovereign, things and beings. Chapter Four of this dissertation looks at how Varda's marginals, who live off of the system without any political inklings, successfully dodge all political re-appropriation while, through solidarity, offering alternative models for sovereign communities.Having looked at how these four artists on the margins of the avant-garde, Bataille, Sarraute, Michon and Varda, reject the traditional, that is the religious and servile community and try to image new, sovereign ones, this work concludes by asking whether they accomplished what they set out to do. While some call their attempts to imagine new communities irrelevant, since these communities could never be put into effect without betraying themselves, this analysis argues that it is those very attempts that in fact allow the avant-garde to continue dreaming of and arguing over what could be.

The classical model of philosophy has shaped ideas about its nature and aims that were laid in ancient metaphysics, but have been substantially amended by civilizational change. Socialcultural background of philosophy became trends that began to emerge in late medieval culture has particularly flourished there during modern times. Sphere of existence is important for the development of any spiritual phenomenon. For metaphysics it is the idea of humanity, acting as a kind of cultural protest against the domination of religion. This caused criticism of the medieval way of life and thinking. The idea of human revival based on spirit of antiquity has grounded. Disclaimer theological philosophy medieval variant type is as opposed to free philosophizing, coupled with poetry and literature, University dogmatic philosophy. There were a «rediscovery» of Plato, Aristotle reinterpretation. Philosophers explored a problem of human emotions and relationships, considering the person as a whole being, which is inherent in the mind, which cannot be considered without bodily desires and emotions. Change of the values awakened activity of the human person, led its transformation settings concerning himself and the surrounding world. Thus objectively obtained expression and ideological embodiment of civilization in a need of a new type of man - to a much greater extent compared to medieval activity, initiative, freedom, rationality, responsibility. Under the influence of such attitudes changes within religion gradually took place. Through the efforts of thinkers like Luther, Calvin, Munzer there were laid ideas of the Reformation that go far beyond its borders, gaining general cultural nature. The Church was increasingly losing control over everyday human existence. Gradually standards of a free, relaxed life became conventional; requirements of the body, «earthly» spirit demands fulfilling played a huge role. Thought and Culture of the Renaissance reflects the image of real life. In these circumstances, some religious institutions in the sixteenth century tried to revive and sustain the traditional symbols humble, «pure», ascetic life. But it could not curb the rapid process of reappraisal. Rationalist tendency, based on the elements of the ancient perception of the world and man's role in it, influenced religion. Reformation caused profound changes in the spiritual and religious region, the political landscape of Europe and in the economic and social structures. Protestantism that arose in the social sphere leads to the formation of a new ethics that justifies the work in any form of business and that becomes part of the general moral values. This problem is clearly explained in the writings of W. Sombart and M. Weber. ; Класична модель філософії сформувалася під впливом тих уявлень про її сутність і завдання, що були закладені ще в античній метафізиці, але які були істотно доповнені цивілізаційними змінами. Соціокультурним тлом розвитку філософії виступили тенденції, які стали виникати в культурі вже пізнього середньовіччя і особливо розквітли в ній у період Нового часу. Важливе значення для розвитку будь-якого духовного явища має середовище, сфера існування. Для метафізики це ідеї гуманізму, які виступають як своєрідний культурний протест проти панування релігії. Результатом цього стає критика середньовічного способу життя й мислення. Обґрунтовується ідея відродження людини на основі духу античності. Відмова від теологічного варіанта філософії середньовічного типу здійснюється як протиставлення вільного філософування, поєднаного з поезією й літературою, університетській догматичній філософії. Відбувається «перевідкриття» Платона, переосмислюються ідеї Арістотеля. Філософи дослід­жують проблему людських почуттів і взаємин, розглядаючи людину як цілісну істоту, якій властивий розум, котра не може жити поза тілесними бажаннями й афектами. Зміна ціннісних акцентів розбудила активність людської особистості, обумовила перетворення її установок стосовно самої себе й оточуючого світу. Тим самим об'єктивно отримала вираження ідейно-світоглядного втілення потреба цивілізації в людині нового типу – із значно більшою, порівняно із середньовіччям, мірою активності, ініціативи, свободи, розсудливості, відповідальності. Під впливом таких настроїв поступово відбуваються зміни усередині самої релігії. Зусиллями таких мислителів, як Лютер, Кальвін, Мюнцер закладаються ідеї реформації церкви, які виходять далеко за її межі, здобуваючи загальнокультурний характер. Церква починає все більше втрачати контроль над повсякденним існуванням людей. Поступово стверджувалися і все ширше розповсюджувалися норми вільного, розкутого життя; потребам, задоволенням тіла, насолодам «земного» духу відводилася величезна роль. Думка й культура епохи Відродження відображала зміни реального способу життя людей. У цих умовах деякі релігійні інституції в XVІ столітті намагалися оживити й витримати традиційні символи скромного, «чистого», аскетичного життя. Але ці заходи не могли стримати стрімкого процесу переоцінки цінностей. ; Класична модель філософії сформувалася під впливом тих уявлень про її сутність і завдання, що були закладені ще в античній метафізиці, але які були істотно доповнені цивілізаційними змінами. Соціокультурним тлом розвитку філософії виступили тенденції, які стали виникати в культурі вже пізнього середньовіччя і особливо розквітли в ній у період Нового часу. Важливе значення для розвитку будь-якого духовного явища має середовище, сфера існування. Для метафізики це ідеї гуманізму, які виступають як своєрідний культурний протест проти панування релігії. Результатом цього стає критика середньовічного способу життя й мислення. Обґрунтовується ідея відродження людини на основі духу античності. Відмова від теологічного варіанта філософії середньовічного типу здійснюється як протиставлення вільного філософування, поєднаного з поезією й літературою, університетській догматичній філософії. Відбувається «перевідкриття» Платона, переосмислюються ідеї Арістотеля. Філософи дослід­жують проблему людських почуттів і взаємин, розглядаючи людину як цілісну істоту, якій властивий розум, котра не може жити поза тілесними бажаннями й афектами. Зміна ціннісних акцентів розбудила активність людської особистості, обумовила перетворення її установок стосовно самої себе й оточуючого світу. Тим самим об'єктивно отримала вираження ідейно-світоглядного втілення потреба цивілізації в людині нового типу – із значно більшою, порівняно із середньовіччям, мірою активності, ініціативи, свободи, розсудливості, відповідальності. Під впливом таких настроїв поступово відбуваються зміни усередині самої релігії. Зусиллями таких мислителів, як Лютер, Кальвін, Мюнцер закладаються ідеї реформації церкви, які виходять далеко за її межі, здобуваючи загальнокультурний характер. Церква починає все більше втрачати контроль над повсякденним існуванням людей. Поступово стверджувалися і все ширше розповсюджувалися норми вільного, розкутого життя; потребам, задоволенням тіла, насолодам «земного» духу відводилася величезна роль. Думка й культура епохи Відродження відображала зміни реального способу життя людей. У цих умовах деякі релігійні інституції в XVІ столітті намагалися оживити й витримати традиційні символи скромного, «чистого», аскетичного життя. Але ці заходи не могли стримати стрімкого процесу переоцінки цінностей.

Women on the missions in Kansas during 1824-1870 were daring and courageous. Many of them had to travel thousands of miles to arrive at the Kansas mission where they were unsure of how the Indians would receive them and what their new life might bring. In their new lives, these women filled many important roles such as teachers, superintendents, surrogate mothers to Indian children, and doctors when the need arose. Often the women who came to Kansas had unselfishly sacrificed personal comforts, as well as left behind family and friends, to brave the hardships of life on a mission to try to educate and to "civilize" Indians. In many cases these women would also face obstacles and dangers such as disease, and depression. The importance of women on the Indian missions in Kansas were often ignored because they frequently worked in the shadows of their husbands or other men; but regardless of the barriers that stood in their way and the lack of recognition that they received, their contributions were often more significant than that of their male counterparts. Indians often resented missionaries and their preaching of the white man's religion and education; they were seen as agents by which a tribe could lose its culture, heritage and identity. But missionaries did not always bring hostility and destruction to the Indians they served; rather, some Indians saw them as saviors who could help improve tribal conditions, provide safety from other tribes, and help develop better relations with the national government. / In 1819, Congress enacted the Civilization Fund that provided funds to help missionaries as they began their westward advance to educate and civilize Indians. The Presbyterians were the first missionaries that came to Kansas to teach the Indians. In 1824, Benton Pixley, with his wife Lucia and their two children, arrived in Neosho County, Kansas; they established Mission Neosho, the first mission, for the Osage Indians. The Neosho missionaries were rapidly beset by violence, primarily because the Osage leader, Chief Clermont, did not like them. The chief would occasionally lead raiding parties to vandalize the church or cause havoc during church services. The Neosho missionaries also faced the issue of distance; the mission was eighty-five miles from the nearest white settlement, so they were often forced to rely on wild game for sustenance until supplies could arrive. Regardless of how hard the Neosho missionaries tried to educate and civilize the Indians, they could not overcome the unreceptive attitude; Mission Neosho was forced to close in 1829 without having ever converted a single Indian. / Women during 1824-1870 figured prominently not only in Presbyterian missions but in Methodist, Quaker, Baptist, Mormon, and Catholic missions in Kansas. Every religious group had their own viewpoints on the Indians and ideas on how they should be approached with education and religion. For example, in 1830, the Methodists at the Shawnee Methodist Mission in Wyandotte County thought that the Shawnee could be equal to the white man, especially if they spoke English. In contrast, The Religious of the Sacred Heart, a Catholic organization for nuns that had members in the Kansas missionary field in 1841, felt that the Indian's tribal ways could not be ignored, so they allowed the Indians to speak their native language while learning other skills such as embroidery. / Women often served as teachers, superintendents, and role models for the Indians with whom they came in contact. Many of the women at the missionaries taught basic courses such as reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and spelling. But a few women teachers like Miriam H. Hough, Sarah T. Harvey, Hannah Wells, Thirza Ainett, and Zelinda Hobbs at the Friends Missions in Kansas, a Quaker mission, taught the Indian girls how to knit, sew, weave, and spin; this was possible because the Quaker mission was basically self-sufficient and produced most of its own food. / Missionary women had other responsibilities on Kansas Indian Missions besides working as teachers and superintendents; they took care of their own families, they became sort of surrogate "mother" for many of the Indian children, their house in some cases was used as the mission church, and they helped to nurse or take care of the sick if there was a need. Many missionary women gave birth to children while on the mission, which could be a daunting experience if there was no real medical help available. For example, at the Mormon Mills Missionary, Emily Cutler Kimball Pratt died from complications of childbirth. Many women, if they survived childbirth, could also face the loss of a child or children while on the Kansas missions regardless of the denomination. / Women on the missions had to face and overcome many hardships to build a life for themselves and their families. For examples, the Baptist women missionaries faced discrimination when Indians on the Delaware Baptist Mission did not want white women to teach their sons. Women also faced other hardships, such as sickness or disease, depression, food shortages, pressures from relatives, raids, and weather. For better or for worse, women played an important role when they came to help educate and civilize Indians; Eleanor Meeker was said to be as deeply devoted to the missions as her husband was. The contributions of missionary women in Kansas are often overlooked, but they were respected for their perseverance, commitment, and bravery. / Many of the women on the missions in Kansas encountered similar types of experiences and difficulties, but depending on the woman's denomination, their experiences could vary depending on location, Indian tribe they were working with, and the rules or guidelines of their religion. Fortunately, women of different denominations left primary documents that describe some of the differences and variations that they encountered; these personal records are also representative of the obstacles and dangers other women may have had to overcome, as well as some of the successes that they might have encountered while on the Kansas Indian missions from 1824-1870.

An antisemitic riot at Makhachkala International Airport on October 29 will have major consequences both for Russia and for the entire region. However, this riot and its location are anything but an accident. Was it a result of Putin's sloppy foreign politics, or were there other reasons for this incident?As opposed to Chechnya, Ossetia, Kabardino-Balkaria, and other republics of the North Caucasus, Dagestan has been a home for Jews for centuries. In the city of Derbent, an ancient trade city, the first Jewish traders appeared in the seventh century. When Peter the Great, during his Persian campaign, reached Derbent in 1722, he had to negotiate not only with the Islamic leader Hadji Dawud but also with the representatives of the two main minority groups in the region, the Jews and the Armenians. There is also a sub-ethnic group called Mountain Jews or Caucasus Jews. Most of them live in the village of Gyrmyzy Gasaba in Azerbaijan. It was called "Jewish Town," or Yevreyskaya Sloboda, until the early Soviet years and was then renamed "Red Town," or Krasnaya Sloboda or Gyrmyzy Gasaba. With a current population of about 3,600, the place is not large, but it is known for its prosperity. Many of the Caucasus Jews live in Dagestan too. Dagestan is still home to around 800 Jewish families, half of whom live in Derbent. Thus, the presence of Jews in this region for centuries makes Dagestan different from other republics in the Caucasus. For centuries, there were no antisemitic pogroms in Dagestan. Even though antisemitism was a powerful force in the Russian Empire and in the Soviet Union later, the antisemitic pogroms largely took place in the European and Christian parts of the country, not in Dagestan. Dagestan has always been a multinational and multiethnic region, and people were quite tolerant of different cultures and religions there, although everyday antisemitism did exist. Dagestan is the first Islamic region of Russia; it converted to Islam in the mid-seventh century, 40 or 50 years after Islam's first appearance in the region. Old Derbent was at the time a "pearl of the East,'' a vast cultural, trade, and religious center. So, Dagestan has always considered itself an essential, respected part of the Islamic world. When something important happens in the Islamic world, every part of the global ummah is expected to demonstrate solidarity, since Islam is a group religion with the concept of collective responsibility to Allah. That is why the war in Gaza, which followed Hamas's brutal attack against Israel on October 7, is of such importance in Dagestan. Economic and social issues also played a role in the events. For the North Caucasus, Dagestan is a relatively large region. At three million, its population is half of that of all the north-Caucasus republics. This region was one that suffered the most from COVID-19 in Russia. It also suffered from the September 2022 mobilization campaign: 50,000 young men were drafted, and many others joined the Russian army voluntarily. The campaign was accompanied by mass protests against it by women. Coupled with poverty; eternal problems with electricity; distrust of the current leader Sergey Melikov, who is unable to come to terms with local elites; and numerous human losses from the war in Ukraine, social tension in the region is high. The Russian government declared that the riot was organized by Russia's enemies, Ukrainian and Western agencies. People who attacked the airplane were "the victims of the Western neocolonial politics," Putin said. Some liberal media blamed Putin for what had happened, since the anti-Israel rhetoric of the Russian authorities and Hamas's visit to Moscow could be perceived as a message to people that they were allowed to attack Jews. Putin's politics in the Middle East are not easy to understand, though. He tries to play to too many partners (or potential partners) simultaneously. This is, in many cases, mission impossible and gets him in real trouble. In fact, Hamas's appearance in Moscow was more a gesture toward Iran than an anti-Israel tactic. For today's war-waging Russia, Iran is an essential partner, since it provides Russia with drones and other weapons. Syria, a majority Muslim country too, is Putin's other crucial partner. Putin's "right hand" is Ramzan Kadyrov, the governor of a majority Muslim republic, Chechnya.A conspiracy rumor that Putin has converted to Islam has been getting traction on social media lately. After all, Putin barely drinks alcohol, protects Kadyrov in every single instance of his questionable behavior, invites Hamas to Moscow during its war on Israel, and his reported civil partner, Alina Kabaeva, belongs to the Tatar culture, a legacy Muslim culture. This sort of thinking could make people decide they were free to demonstrate their antisemitic attitudes.On the one hand, Putin came from the KGB, which has always been an antisemitic organization. Generally, Jews were not allowed to serve in it and it viewed Jews as a potential fifth column. Many times, Putin made antisemitic jokes and remarks in his speeches. On the other hand, he has many Jewish friends in his inner circle. Moreover, the crucial step on Putin's way to power, since he became prime minister in 1999, was a fight for who would be Russia's chief rabbi. Two well-known people competed for the position: Berel Lazar, widely thought to be a personal friend of Putin's, and Adolf Shayevich, who was the rabbi of the Moscow Choral Synagogue since the Soviet period and was widely thought to be a protégé of Mikhail Khodorkovsky and Russian business elites. Lazar won. Israel was one of several Western countries that did not fully support the sanctions against Russia after the start of the Russia-Ukraine war. Neither did Israel close its sky to Russia; regular flights between Russia and Israel are still operated daily (though flying through Makhachkala is cheaper). Ruining relations with Israel was hardly a part of Putin's plan. However, this might be a consequence of his confusing politics and the contradictions in Russian society that are surfacing now. The opinions expressed in this article are those solely of the author and do not reflect the views of the Kennan Institute

Multiculturalism and the merging of local communities with immigrants demands glocal policies in various sectors—especially in education. In order to successfully integrate immigrants, language acquisition is oftentimes the first initiative educators and politicians regard as one of the most essential attributes for successful and prompt integration. However, language acquisition cannot be separated from the need to bridge communities and their different values, tradition, ideologies, and identities based on their cultural heritages and religious affiliations. In order to properly respond to newly-emerging glocal dynamics in, for instance, classrooms, it is crucial to understand the shifts in racisms from black versus white to East versus West. Therefore, concepts need to consider different dynamics and embrace issues related to gender, sexuality, skin color, habitus, social, financial, and cultural capital, as well as educational achievement (gaps) on an interdisciplinary level. While seeking to find appropriate adaptations of school curricula, it is necessary to not try to run before one can walk—in other words—to not try to let educators teach before they have been taught cross-cultural communication. In addition, racisms cannot be limited to conflicts between immigrants and non-immigrants; racisms also occur among a homogeneous group. The complexity of reuniting and/or integrating various immigrant, non-immigrant, (Middle) Eastern and Western identities and their (intercultural) belonging is critical because of the various circumstances and settings that need to be considered for responding to linguistic, cultural, social, psychological, educational, and financial matters individually. Although there is not one concrete theoretical framework or outcome that can be applied for integration; this dissertation thesis functions as a roadmap for becoming more aware of regional and international struggles. Despite the multifaceted approaches that need to be combined and implemented in terms of second language acquisition, updated teacher training, cross-cultural policies, access to social services and support systems, etc., the education sector remains the foundation for prospective integration: Integrative and multiculturally-aware education provides the glocal society with intercultural and interdisciplinary-applicable assets and capitals. Such abilities help create a politically, socially, financially, culturally, and educationally responsible future embracing transatlantic intermingling instead of oppressing Otherness. Local and global communities benefit from better-adjusted and well-integrated immigrant families and students. The better societies and politics educate, integrate, and value non-locals, the more societies will benefit culturally, socially, politically, and economically from the glocal population. The newly-introduced PIC SAM guidelines provide, in cooperation with key actors and community-centered programs for immigrants and non-immigrants, a roadmap for combining theory and practice in glocal contexts.:Table of Contents vi List of Figures, Tables, and Illustrations x Chapter One 1 Personal Narrative and Relevance: Education as Powerful Integration Tool 1 Rationale, Overview, and Global Integration and Education 7 Theoretical Framework and Methodological Approaches 14 Terminology 17 Steps for Globally-Adjusted Integration and Education 29 Step 1: Understanding Legal Challenges of Turkish Immigrants 29 Step 2: Understanding that Not Every Middle Easterner is a Muslim 33 Step 3: Starting Successful Integration in Kindergarten 33 Step 4: Nurturing Integration Instead of Oppressing Immigration 36 Step 5: Adapting CRT—From Colorblind to Headscarfblind 39 Step 6: Taking the Education Exit for Integration 43 Step 7: Taking the Education Exit to Integration 44 Step 8: Sprucing Up the Headscarf Image 45 Chapter Two 48 Literature Review 48 Chapter Three 103 "Other" Ideologies and Identities—Theoretical Approaches 103 (1) How to Approach Different Ideologies 103 (2) Reasons for Othering and Biased Headscarf Images 103 (3) Disempowering the Exotic Other 104 (4) The Danger of Ill-Ideologies 106 (5) Ideologies as Utopia and Fantasy 108 (6) Capitalization and Mass Economization of Identities and Ideologies 109 (7) Institutionalization of the ISA (aka the School) 110 Chapter Four 113 Individuals are Always-Already Subjects of Ideology 113 Concepts Creating the Multifaceted Constructions of Ideology 114 (1) Ideology as A-Historical 114 (2) Is Ideology "Real" or an Illusion? 115 (3) Individuals are Always-Already Subjects (of Ideology) 116 (4) Subjects within a Mass-Produced Media (Ill)Ideology 117 (5) Shift: From Dominant via Repressed Ideology to State Apparatus 119 (6) Concluding Thoughts on Ideologies 120 Chapter Five 123 Race as Product of Social, Political, and Educational Thought 123 Chapter Six 128 Shifts in Racisms: Whitewashed—From Black to (Middle) East 128 The Wende within Immigration and Globalization 134 (1) History and Its Effect on Pre- and Post-Activism 134 (2) GDR Museums—(False?) Nostalgia in Times of Globalization 141 (3) Cross-Generational Racisms and Racialized White Others 145 Chapter Seven 149 Different Social and Cultural Capitals: East vs. West (German) Habitus 149 Adapting Bourdieu's Habitus to Different Contexts 151 Comparative Examples: Disadvantaged Groups in the Education Sector 154 Getting to the Nitty-Gritty: The Case of Oscar 156 Concluding the Nitty-Gritty: Political Trust and Progressive Educators 165 Chapter Eight 170 Reverse Activisms: The Importance of Transnational Post-Activism 170 Tear Down that Church! 173 Transferring Activism from the GDR to the 21st Century 177 From "Teaching" Activism to "Doing" Activism 181 East versus West: Striving for Balanced Activisms 184 Activism, Aktivismus, and Activisme—or Negativism? 187 Chapter Nine 190 Adapting and Diversifying CRT 190 Teaching and Learning German and Intercultural Communication 195 Global and Anti-Racist Pedagogies In- and Outside of Schools 200 Roadmap for Changing (the) Dynamics in Germany's Education 203 (1) Cross-Language Policies: Bilingualism for Everyone 203 (2) Current Challenges in Germany's Education System 207 (3) Key Actors and Levels in Addressing the Integration Problem(s) 208 (4) Solution Approaches 210 Chapter Ten 212 Glocal Frameworks: Adding "Bi-Religionism" to Bilingualism & Biculturalism 212 Getting to the Nitty-Gritty: The Case of Mo 215 Educational Policy Recommendations 224 Concluding the Nitty-Gritty 230 Chapter Eleven 233 Outlook and Conclusion: Striving for Glocal Awareness and Activist Change 233 References 243 Endnotes 263

In both Argentina and Brazil, the emergence of fiction was linked to a central contradiction. At the heart of fiction in nineteenth-century Argentina and Brazil there was a resistance to fiction. Fiction's defining trait was, precisely, its displaced use: in the impossibility of autonomous existence, its presence was highlighted by its forced absence; fiction became the negative condition of possibility of the written word both in the politically charged climate of national self-assertion following post-independence Argentina and in the early years of the Brazilian First Republic. As a result of this negative or residual formation, fiction --the non-authoritative discourse par excellence-- was both able and forced to engage with other --authoritative-- disocurses, such as those of philosophy, law, science, and political theory. At the same time, owing to its non-committal to pre-established categories of thought and theoretical frameworks, fiction was able to open up a discursive space from within which a crtical examination of both the authority and the legitimizing mechanisms of such discourses became possible. In this dissertation, I focus on the Brazilian and Argentine contexts to examine two key moments of the intersection of between fiction, aesthetics, and the theoretical triad of philosophy, law, and political theory, , tracing a critical genealogy in which the rise of autonomous fiction and discourses of authority are seen as mutually determinant. I begin, in Chapter 1, by analyzing the ambiguities surrounding two founding figures in the canon of each country: Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, in Argentina, and Euclides da Cunha, in Brazil. Not the least among these ambiguities is that, from the start, the discursive canon of which they occupy the center cannot be clearly defined. It is a canon that is both literary and socio-political, tellingly oscillating between the boundaries of the fictional and the non-fictional. Sarmiento and da Cunha, I contend, are located, each in their respective contexts, at a historical crossroad that offers a privileged glimpse into the mechanisms of formation of discursive authority. Writing at a time when received models and existent criteria proved insufficient and new ones were yet to be formed, they found themselves at a transitional moment in which the urgency of judgment was all the more pressing in light of the absence of criteria by which to judge. Examined from this perspective, new light is cast on the difficulty of generic classification which has marked the reception of Sarmiento's Facundo and da Cunha's Os Sertões to this day. I bring critical theory into dialogue with aesthetic theory and law studies to suggest that the aesthetic dimension in their works lies in the fact that in both texts we see a discourse at work in which the productive moment is emphasized over its doctrinary, legislative moment. In them, form, not yet crystallized into the formulas and formalities of categories and genres, is witnessed at its moment of formation, which is also the moment in which the authority of discourse, not yet having covered the tracks of its own genesis, reveals itself at its most fragile and contingent. It is the aesthetic dimension understood in this critical and productive relationship to pre-established categories of thought that I take up in the second and final part of the dissertation, encompassing Chapter 2 and 3, where I focus on the works of João Guimarães Rosa and Jorge Luis Borges, in Brazil and Argentina, respectively. In Chapter 2, dedicated to Rosa, I offer a reading of Grande Sertão: Veredas which emphasizes the book's allegorical dimension and the connection between allegory's interplay of identity and difference, presence and absence, with fiction's own modus operandi vis-à-vis the authoritative discourses of political and legal theory. I also offer a reading of a central episode in Grande Sertão: Veredas -- the trial of Zé Bebelo at the Sempre-Verde ranch-- in which fictional representation and political representation --the problematic history of political representation in Brazil-- are played against each other. In the final chapter, I examine the work of Jorge Luis Borges to show how fiction, understood as a discourse that does not conceal its moment of artifice, plays a mediating function between the production of authority and its legislating role, and in so doing opens up the possibility of a critical examination of its own validating assumptions and epistemic frameworks. I first examine how Borges problematizes the question of tradition and national identity through a discussion of his essay "El Escritor Argentino y la Tradición". In that essay, Borges offers as an alternative to a substantive national identity an identity that is relational and adjectival. This notion of an "adjectival identity"-- an identity that defines itself contextually, by means of the interplay of similarity and difference with all other identities, will guide Borges's own aesthetic project and his own insertion within the literary tradition with which he is, from the start, always already in dialogue. I then offer a close-reading of an essay and two fictional short stories of Borges's in which the genesis of authority is thematized - namely, Una vindicación del Falso Basílides, Los Teólogos, and Tres Versiones de Judas, in which the violent consolidation of the religious canon is set against the greater plausibility of heretic alternatives. I go on to examine how Borges's fictions find their counterpart in his essayistic work so as to constitute a coherent critique of philosophical authority. It is a critique in which the non-apodictic logic of fiction, by means of a semblance that mirrors the structural plausibility of philosophical discourse yet replaces philosophy's quest for the unity of truth with the forking paths of discursive possibility, denounces the contingency that underlies the categorical postulates of philosophy. To the extent that acknowledging the contingency of its own postulates poses a threat to the authority of a philosophical system, Borges's aesthetic critique of philosophical authority seems to suggest that philosophical logic ultimately resides on a fundamental denial, one in which what is at stake is precisely its categorical distinction from fictional discourse: the denial of its own moment of artifice.

The relatively extensive analysis of political values, attitudes and political participation of youth enables us to better explain the existing trends in the relationship of youth towards politics. Especially helpful in this regard is the comparison with adults, as well as the longitudinal tracking of changes within the young population. Here, we will reflect on the important tendencies and try to understand their wider and far-reaching implications. When we look at all the obtained results, it is evident that there are differences between youth and adults, but only a smaller part of them is significantly pronounced. Thus, the results indicate that the young express a higher level of trust in the media. Furthermore, they are more tolerant towards a number of social phenomena and groups causing debates in the Croatian and the European public, they are more sensitive to ethnic inequalities, they also perceive the war as the main cause of existing difficulties more, they have considerably more faith in their own generation as the social strength which can initiate positive trends, they express a greater readiness for joining different civil activities, and trust that television and youth associations might mobilize them to actively participate in social affairs. At the same time, the young less than the adults accept the values of a democratic order, but are less inclined towards the harmonious conception of politics, they are less socially sensitive, express less trust in the institutions of power, they more rarely express socio-economic goals and preservation of tradition among the political priorities, they choose immorality and crime in privatization as the causes of today's problems less, they perceive less corruption in all areas of social life (aside from the school system), they have less faith in the positive contribution of experts and entrepreneurs in overcoming the crisis trends, they are less interested in politics and participate in political parties less, and their trust in the mobilizing role of democratic education, volunteer work, political parties and nongovernmental organizations, as well as in the contribution of the family and educational system in the stimulation of the social engagement of youth, is much lower. The enumerated differences between the youth and adults can primarily be interpreted from the discourse of the life cycle theory. This means that the witnessed differences are mostly the product of a different total social status of youth and adults, which presumes that most of the young have yet to take over their permanent social roles, and that their immediate experience is limited to some social areas. It follows that with their maturing and their full social integration, most differences from the adults will be erased. The common experience of a time in history, that is, life in a specific socio-historic period with a tendency to equalize differences, contributes to the convergence of youth and adults. The potential generational differences – which, as a rule, occur with the different reception of the same events and processes – are not very visible, and will be unambiguously detected only when today's generation of youth is in its mature age and when their attitudes are then compared with the attitudes of new young generations. Then, it will be more clear how much the existing differences between the young and the adults are a consequence of the fact that most adults gained their experience in a different social order, which, to a degree, forms their existing system of political values, which in some elements, especially related to the social dimensions, are different from the system of political values of youth. The absence of deep inter-generational divides indicates that, in spite of the radical changes taking place in the dissolution of the old and the establishment of a new social and political order, the mechanism of transferring political values from the adult generations to the young functions considerably, along with the faults that exist in the constructed political awareness of adults. Here, we must notice that the adults are more resistant to the potentially unfavorable influences from the environment, which is especially evident in their better understanding of the democratic rules. This statement also suggests that Croatia is now in a more stable period of social development, which is expected when the early phase of transition is replaced by the democratic consolidation phase. Therefore, it was demonstrated that the young in Croatia accept traditional values somewhat less than the adults, but also that in some areas they are just as more conservative compared to their European peers. Pointing to this is the greater orientation of Croatia youth towards family and the lower level of tolerance for some phenomena and groups in the modern society. Also, the social participation of Croatian youth is at a lower level, which testifies less to their lack of interest, and more to the inability of the Croatian society to meet the needs of youth for realizing its social necessities. The third comparative level includes the tracking of changes occurring within the Croatian youth between 1999 and 2004. The recapitulation of the obtained results indicates that in the observed period of time there has been an increase in the already relatively high level of acceptance of all the constitutional principles, as well as in the harmonious perception of politics and institutional trust, while the lack of work, discipline and irresponsibility are now more perceived as a social problem than before. The recent data also indicate that the young today perceive the existence of educational, gender and age related differences more, as well as the worsening political representation of all marginal groups. On the other hand, the understanding of conflicts and democratic rules (especially the role of the opposition) is weaker, the emphasis of crime in transformation of ownership and privatization as problems is smaller, the young now perceive the existence of social and religious differences less, their social activism and political participation is reduced, and the perception of joining political party youths and establishing autonomous youth parties as forms of activities that might contribute to a more active participation of youth in society decreased. The mentioned changes tend to lead to a further social, especially political, (self)passivity and marginalization of youth, and it is especially intriguing that it does not sufficiently understand political competition and its importance. If this was understandable in the first phase of transition, considering the war, stimulating homogenization, and the absence of a democratic tradition and the monopolization of power by one political party – the obtained results are no longer as understandable after spending more than 15 years in a multiparty democratic system. Therefore, we can presume that some elements of a functional political system and behavior of political protagonists is such that they convince the young that democracy, immanently inclined toward a conflict between political interests, is simply a less important form without obligating rules and procedures. This certainly points to faults in the process of political socialization of youth, which especially raises the issue of the need for an institutionalized education for democracy. In other words, if the adult generations, socialized in a different social order, still cannot optimally transfer their values in new generations, and if the functioning of political institutions is still marked by numerous " child illnesses" , than education, which can develop civil competence, is necessary. Anyway, in the countries that do not lack a democratic tradition, education for civil rights and democracy is a permanent process which takes place through appropriate school programs. The data also show that there has been a certain decrease in the social sensitivity of youth, which must be a consequence of socialization in a society aiming at market competitiveness and maximizing profit. The accompanying consequences are – especially with the lack of developed instruments of a social state, and after the poorly implemented restructuring of economy – the deepening of social inequalities and the decrease of the living standards of a large portion of the population. Thus, maturing in a society that suppresses social sensitivity, the young also become insufficiently sensitive to the issue of social justice in the (re)distribution of significantly limited resources. The young are raised in an environment in which their immediate and indirect experience tells that personal success is important, and the responsibility for achieving or not achieving it, is also personal. The emphasized orientation on competition and individualization of achievements weakens the social sensitivity and solidarity with the losers of social transformation. However, during the past several years the acceptance of the Constitutionally outlined basic political values has increased. This is a very important finding because such a high, and increased validation of liberal-democratic principles, leads us to assume that the Croatian society is overcoming the anomy it was in since the transitional period began. Leaving aside many events from the social and political practice that are witnesses to the recurrent violation, disregard or reduction of the interpretation of constitutional principles, we are left with an extremely high convergence of the political value systems of youth (as well as adults) and the officially proclaimed political values. This, of course, is no guarantee of a harmonized and appropriate behavior of those in power and of citizens, but it certainly represents the necessary level of consensus about the principles a pluralistic society and a democratic political order should be built on. The continuity of the tendencies established in the previous research is confirmed by the findings that youth is not a monolithic group, regarding the acceptance of political values, expression of political attitudes and level of political participation. The systemized data indicate, however, that the young tend to be homogenous in their acceptance of constitutional values and democratic attitudes, the common perception of social and socio-cultural inequalities, the extreme perception of their political status as marginal, and their average readiness to join different civil actions. At the same time, the greatest level of differentiation occurs regarding the not especially present tolerance toward most of the observed social phenomena and groups, the perception of unemployment as the most important social problem and the cause of existing difficulties, the average perception of the existence of political inequalities, and the expression of a weak interest in politics as well as the perception of the role of the " Diaspora" in Croatian political life. Looking at these results generally, it turns out that the young are mostly different regarding the level of achieved education and socio-professional status. The education level usually has the position of the attribute that affects the participants' attitudes the most in every social research, and it is interesting here because this is true even in the young population, many of which are still in the process of obtaining an education. Certainly, the basic division occurs between those with the lowest and highest qualifications, where a part of youth with high school education tends to get the same results as the academically educated youth. These are primarily students, and the fact is that education is very linked to the socio-professional position of youth, which has the same scope of influence on their differentiation. The results have manifested that students are usually on the one side, and pupils and the unemployed youth on the other in most situations. While with pupils we can assume that there will be a change with their maturing, the issue of the unemployed participants remains, because they seem to be a subgroup of youth that is placed more permanently on the social and political margins. A significant influence on the differentiation of youth is played by party affiliation, gender, age, regional status and the father's level of education. This group of attributes points to the influence of different types of socialization, along with a degree of (im)maturity of youth. In other words, being raised in families with different social statuses and in regions with different levels of development and cultural traditions, results in the formation of different attitudes of youth. It is also obvious that in the area of relationships towards politics, the differentiated models of socialization of women and men are still at work, contributing to the survival of the commonly known gender differences. As is logical when the political sphere is involved, party affiliation is an important element of polarization because it consists both of different ideological orientations, and of differences in the social profile of party supporters. The least influential attributes are the residential status, provenience and religiousness. These trends indicate a certain weakening of the influence of rural-urban differences, which is to be expected in a modern society, where the media override the transportation, infrastructural, cultural and other differences. The poor influence of religiousness indirectly testifies to the weakening of the correlation between the adoption of religious beliefs and the manifestation of religious affiliation, resulting in the loss of certain differences between the religious and the non-religious youth. However, the share of religious believers is such that their attitudes predominantly determine the main direction of youth orientations, which then points to a strengthening of the influence of religious on a general level. It is therefore questionable if the weakest influence of religion on political attitudes of youth may be seen as an indicator of a weakening correlation between politics and religion, traditionally present in this area. All the mentioned differentiation of youth can be summarized by sketching out two large, relatively polarized groups. One group consists of youth with higher education and social origin (an above averagely educated father, urban environment, and developed regions), students, averagely older, mostly non-religious and supporters of HNS and SDP – that is, the socially more competent youth, inclined to the left center ideological-political options. The other group consists of averagely younger participants, especially pupils and the unemployed with a lower education and social background (a father with lower qualifications, rural milieu, less developed regions), declared believers and sympathizers of HDZ, as well as HSP and HSS. In this case, we are profiling a socially more inferior youth inclined toward parties positioned at the right-wing pole of the ideological-political spectrum. The socially more competent youth is more liberal, critical toward social reality and political protagonists, and it manifests a greater consideration for democratic procedures and institutions, which is an indicator of the importance of more favorable circumstances in the process of political socialization. Since some of these circumstances are impossible to change by focused actions and campaigns, education is again the most appropriate channel of adopting knowledge and information that can contribute to the making of aware citizens, who are more difficult to manipulate and objectify for certain dubious particular political goals. The changes in the polarization of youth indicate that the territorial-cultural and ideological-cultural cleavages deepened in the past several years, and there are indications that the socio-economic cleavage will grow stronger as well. The unequal access to existing social resources of today's youth will generate an unequal status in their mature age, that is, the advantages achieved at the start (youth), are a guarantee of achieving better social positions in the future. Therefore, we can expect a widening and deepening of the process of social differentiation, which, if it is not corrected through mechanisms aimed at ensuring equal access, at least in the process of enabling youth to take over the permanent social roles, in the approach to social resources (primarily education), can be disastrous for the optimal development of a relatively undeveloped nation with a small population. What we mean is that human capital is what such countries, including Croatia, need to treat with a lot of thought and responsibility and invest in maximally. Among other things, by stimulating as many citizens as possible, especially the young, to actively participate in the social processes and institutions. Finally, the results obtained in this research may be summarized into tendencies and statements of a wider nature. Firstly, the political culture of youth testifies in a number of aspects that we are approaching democratic standards – especially regarding the acceptance of basic liberal-democratic values and the principle readiness for social engagement – but also that its social power and social capital are low. Secondly, the young are aware of their social and political marginalization, and recognize an entire spectrum of measures which might contribute to them achieving a certain amount of power and become active citizens, which is desirable in a democratic society, but they insufficiently use the channels of social and political promotion at their disposal. And thirdly, the young are not that different from the adults to enable us to mention a generational gap, let alone a conflict. However, the young did turn out to be somewhat more liberal, flexible and tolerant, which is certainly an argument in favor of them gaining and/or winning adequate social space for expressing their attitudes and desires. Their similarity to the adults might appease those social structures which fear that youth activation might end up in the radicalization of political life, which is difficult to control. This same inter-generational resemblance could be disappointing to those social structures that have high hopes regarding the innovative potential of youth and its ability to carry out the necessary changes. Independent of the potential fears and desires of the adults, one should assume that there is enough latent potential in the young population, which, in a more favorable social environment, might be more pronounced. The establishment of such an environment might be helped by the knowledge that the Croatian society, on its way to the European Union, needs the activity of all social resources, as well as the potential of youth, as the most vital segment of the society, which is most open to changes.

AbstractCatholic-Nationalism is one of the defining, and also exclusive, characteristics of the Military Junta that ruled Argentina between 1976 and 1983. Such patriotic messianic ideology strongly influenced the armed forces' weltanschauung and justified, according to them, their actions. But this messianic ideology has its origins at the beginning of the 20th century and the coming of the first military regime in 1930. In order to properly describe the catholic-nationalist aspect of the Junta's dictatorship it is imperative to explore its origins; evaluate the Junta's discourse and its ideology in power; examine the role of the Argentinean Catholic Church and finally to see how the crusade transformed into actual divine violence among the repressive methods chosen by the military. Introduction Religious fundamentalism is maybe one of the last qualities that would characterize the military dictatorship that governed Argentina between 1976 and 1983. Nevertheless, it is the catholic-nationalist ideology that gave the Junta its most distinctive feature. The armed forces were convinced that they had the holy mission to fight a crusade against the enemies of the catholic foundations of the nation. Argentina, for them, was founded with "the sword and the cross" and together both of them protected the national identity from alien ideas. In the case of the military Junta, the foreign ideology that threatened the country's traditions was communism. The latter was particularly dangerous because it was an atheist creed. God was an integral part of the history of Argentina; attacking him meant attacking the foundations of the country: the Church and the military. To understand how the messianic trope played a pivotal role in the Junta's regime it is essential to: first, explore the historical origins of the catholic-nationalist ideology in Argentina and how they defined the nation and its internal enemies; second, to describe how the Junta incorporated that ideology into its politics and how it perceived that it was fighting a holy crusade against communism; third, to portray the legitimizing role of the Argentinean Catholic Church of the Junta and its repressive methods, particularly noting how the clerics identified themselves with the armed forces' holy mission and how they saw them as the natural protector of the national religion; and fourth, to depict how the repressive mechanisms chosen by the Junta to suppress foreign ideologies and reorganize society around Christian values contained certain elements an symbols that would categorize them as forms of divine violence. The OriginsThe idea of Argentina being governed by a political regime based on "the sword and the cross" was not created on March the 24th 1976. Catholic and authoritarian Argentina was conceived in the late 1920s early 1930s; although it could also be trailed into the 1890s (1). The catholic-nationalist movement that sprung between those years was the combination of two different political currents: the clerical and the nationalistic. The former was born from the catholic struggle against liberalism and laicism. The clericals were against several State policies, which they regarded as anti-Catholic, like the establishment of a public, mandatory and secular education and the creation of civil marriage among others. Juan Manuel Estrada was one of the intellectual architects behind clericalism and the figure that would lead a catholic insurrection against the liberal government of Juarez Celman in July 1890 (2). The clericals viewed liberalism and the secular State in Argentina as a negation of the natural- ergo, Christian -order and opposing to the historical messianic mission of the Republic that dated since colonial times. Interestingly, the catholic movement opposed the nationalist and fascist factions of the 1920s because both did not, yet, recognize Argentina's Christian identity.The nationalists, on the other hand, were a product of the backlash against immigration; particularly against non-white immigrants and Europeans of anarchist, socialist and communist ideologies. Massive immigration and its social repercussions was, according to the nationalists, threatening to radically change Argentina's national identity. The latter was defined, by the nationalist intellectual Ricardo Rojas, by taking into account Argentina's anti-European colonial legacy. Argentina was conceived as a Republic, but not as a democratic one. Democracy was an alien –European- element being introduced by immigrants, just like Judaism and Communism also were. The nationalists blamed the liberal governments for the open migratory policy that was undermining the traditions and identity of the country. If nationalists were anti-liberal, antidemocratic, anticommunist and anti-Semite they still did not recognize Catholicism as the pivotal ingredient of being Argentine. It took the work of an ex-anarchist and ex-socialist to make that fusion possible.Leopoldo Lugones was Argentina's main intellectual between the 1910s and the 1920s. He was also responsible of defining argentine nationalism in fascist, dictatorial, militarist, and finally, catholic terms. Lugones considered that the fatherland (la patria) had been created by the sword (la espada). The military were the true fathers of the nation. Therefore, he viewed the armed forces as a sacred cast superior to the people. The military was in charge of assuring the order of the Republic. Such order had been challenged by democracy and, consequently, socialism. Both ideologies were not part of the national tradition and their supporters were regarded as foreign internal enemies. The armed forces, then, had the sacred duty to violently reinstall the traditional republican order. This violence -the effective use of the sword– was not only legitimate and necessary, but more importantly, it was sacred (3). This sacrosanct mission to defend the fatherland was thought to be a continuation from the Spanish imperial rule. Accordingly, the Argentine military had also the holy mission to defend the foundational Christian identity of the nation. Violence was more than sacred; it was holy.The further development of Catholic-nationalism would have to wait until the end of the first military authoritarian regime. Uriburu's dictatorship inaugurated a long term period of modern military dictatorships, with more or less democratic regimes in-between, which would last until 1983. General Uriburu was a strong nationalist that sympathized with Lugones and that had participated in the Catholic insurrection of 1890 (4). He believed in Argentina's republican origins but he regarded democracy as an alien ideology that was undermining the foundations of the nation. Torture, political prisoners and executions were the rule during the two years dictatorship (1930-32). The picana was used for the first time in those years, but it did not have the same divine symbolism that would have in the last Argentinean military regime. Uriburu's despise for democracy prompted him to fundamentally restructure the State's institutions by trying to establish a pseudo-fascist corporative regime. This nationalist revolution did not succeed and Uriburu had to eventually let civic authorities take control of the government (5).Uriburu's dictatorship embodied the prototype of a nationalist authoritarian regime with close ties to the catholic tradition (6). Nationalist clerics, like Gustavo Franceshi and Julio Meinvielle, were the main thinkers behind the maturity of the catholic-nationalist ideology, during the 1930s, by describing the pivotal role that the Argentinean Catholic Church should have in legitimizing the armed forces' divine mission to protect the religious-national foundations of the country. The nationalist clerics saw themselves as God's political representatives and it was their mission to sanctify the crusade against the liberal, and democratic, regime. From then on, Argentina, for the catholic-nationalists, was conceived to be founded in the cross (the Catholic Church) and the sword (the Armed Forces).The nationalist movement of the 1930s in Argentina has to be regarded in a broad international context and cannot be detached from Europe's experience with fascism and other extreme nationalisms of the time (7). Argentine nationalists were deeply influenced by Italian fascism and would actually see themselves as fascists but with a religious twist. The political leader of the movement was not an earthly figure. It was Christ himself. Only he could have a truly totalitarianweltanschauung. The military and the clergy were his vicars in Argentina. The Nazis had their volksgemeinschaft; the Italian fascists their civiltá; and the argentine nationalist their cristiandad. According to each case, those were their respective nation's pillars. In the two first cases, the content is sacred, but pagan. In the last one, the content is holy and religious. Finally, the Spanish Civil War played a pivotal role in the Argentina nationalists' imaginarium. They witnessed how the most Catholic nation of all, the one that for centuries had defended the cross with the sword and that had even brought Christianity to Argentina's shores, was now battling an internal crusade against an atheist, and therefore foreign, ideology. The experience of the Spanish Republic and the subsequent Civil War would last in the Argentinean nationalist military's and clergy's memories.Even if the catholic-nationalist movement was popular, from the late 30s on, among the armed forces, the clergy and some middle class and elite sectors, it would not have the expected influence in the following military regimes from 1943 until 1966 included. Everything changed with the coup of 1976. (1) See Rock, David; La Argentina autoritaria. Los nacionalistas, su historia y su influencia en la vida pública; Ariel; Buenos Aires; 1993; pp. 45-71. (2) See Ibid; pp. 52(3) See Finchelstein, Federico; La Argentina fascista. Los orígenes ideológicos de la dictadura; Sudamericana; Buenos Aires; 2010; pp. 33; and Finchelstein, Federico; Transatlantic Fascism. Ideology, Violence, and the Sacred in Argentina and Italy, 1919-1945; Duke University Press; 2010; pp.62-78.(4) See Rock, David; La Argentina autoritaria. Los nacionalistas, su historia y su influencia en la vida pública; Ariel; Buenos Aires; 1993; pp. 104.(5) Uriburu was not able to change the State's structure; however he sponsored the creation of fascist paramilitary groups like la Legión Cívica. See Finchelstein, Federico; La Argentina fascista. Los orígenes ideológicos de la dictadura; Sudamericana; Buenos Aires; 2010; pp. 41; Rock, David; La Argentina autoritaria. Los nacionalistas, su historia y su influencia en la vida pública; Ariel; Buenos Aires; 1993; pp. 109-115.(6) Uriburu's farewell speech clearly shows the catholic-nationalist ideology to which his regime belonged to. See Rock, David; La Argentina autoritaria. Los nacionalistas, su historia y su influencia en la vida pública; Ariel; Buenos Aires; 1993; pp. 109.(7) See Finchelstein, Federico; Transatlantic Fascism. Ideology, Violence, and the Sacred in Argentina and Italy, 1919-1945; Duke University Press; 2010. *Estudiante de Doctorado, New School for Social Research, New YorkMaestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos AiresÁrea de Especialización: Procesos de formación del Estado moderno, sociología de la guerra, terrorismo, genocidio, conflictos étnicos, nacionalismos y minorías.E-mail: guere469@newschool.edu

Беневич Г. И. Логос Мелхиседека. Экзегеза и парадигма обожения у прп. Максима Исповедника В этой статье рассматривается один из сложнейших вопросов библейской экзегетики образ Мелхиседека и его связь с образом Христа. На материале ряда сочинений прп. Максима Исповедника показывается значение этого вопроса для восточного богословия VII в. Ключевые слова: Максим Исповедник, Мелхиседек, Христос, экзегетика. Benevich G. I. Logos of Melchizedek. The Учупуышы and Paradigm of Deification in the Works of Maximus the Confessor In the article, there is regarded one of the most complex matters of the Bible exegesis, i. e. image of Melchizedek and its relation to the image of Christ. The meaning of the matter for Eastern Theology of the VII century is shown through a set of writings of St. Maximus the Confessor. Key words: Maximus the Confessor, Melchizedek, Christ, exegesis. Бирюков Д. С. Николай Мефонский и его полемика с учением Прокла в контексте византийского проклренессанса Статья посвящена особенностям полемики византийского церковного писателя XII в. Николая Мефонского с учением Прокла. Указано на платонизирующих византийских авторов современной Николаю эпохи, с которыми он мог неявно полемизировать. На примере преломления Николаем платонического учения об иерархии причин сущего и учения об универсалиях показано, что Николай склонялся к номинализму и расходился в этом как с неортодоксальными, так и с некоторыми ортодоксальными авторами, а также с распространенной в Византии позицией, характерной для Александрийской школы Аммония, предполагающей троякий способ существования универсалий. Ключевые слова: византийская философия, проблема универсалий, платонизм, Александрийская школа философии, византийский проклренессанс. Birjukov D. S Nicholas of Methone and His Polemics Against Proclus in the Context of the Byzantine Proclosrenaissance The article is concerned on the features in polemics of the Byzantine Church author Nicholas of Methone with the authorities who kept the doctrine of Proclus in XII century. We have suggested the names of the authors in Nicholas' epoch, with whom he could maintain his latent dialogue in his writings. On the example of interpreting the Platonian notion concerning the hierarchy of causes of Being and the notion of Universals we show that Nicholas whose more inclined to Nominalism, fallen into divergence both with Non-orthodox and same Orthodox authors on that point. So that the analysis of his writings reveals the difference with the widespread position in Byzantium, characteristic to the Alexandrian school of Ammonius, which supported the Doctrine of Universals' existing in three modes. Key words: Byzantine philosophy, the problem of universals, Platonism, Alexandrian school, Proklosrenaissance. Бурановская Н. А. Сакрализация камня в культуре Средневековой Индии Сакрализация камня как наиболее долговечного материала, способного запечатлеть ценностные доминанты и духовные смыслы культуры, характерна для большинства цивилизаций Востока. В данной статье рассматривается космологическая символика индуистских храмов, являвшихся в своей исторической эволюции развитием идеи жертвенного алтаря. Ключевые слова: Индия, индуизм, каменное храмовое зодчество, сакрализация камня. Buranovsky N. A. Stone Sacralization in Culture of Medieval India The stone sacralization as the most durable material, capable to embody valuable dominants and spiritual senses of culture, is characteristic for the majority of civilisations of the East. In given article the cosmological symbolism of Hindu temples which were development of idea of a sacrificial altar in the historical evolution. Key words: India, Hindu, stone temple architecture, a stone sacralization. Бурмистров С. Л. Эстетика неоведантизма и принцип dhvani В статье на примере философии искусства С. Дасгупты рассматриваются некоторые особенности неоведантистской эстетики и ее связи с эстетическими представлениям древней Индии и с западной эстетической мыслью (Г. В. Ф. Гегель). Анализируется роль понятия dhvani (намек, скрытый смысл) в индийской эстетике и особенности восприятия неоведантистами гегелевского учения об искусстве как образном воплощении идеи. Ключевые слова: эстетика, прекрасное, неоведантизм, Гегель, dhvani. Burmistrov S. L. Esthetics of Neo-Vedantism and the Dhvani Principle In the paper specific features of neo-vedāntist aesthetics (S. Dasgupta's philosophy of art) are considered and its relations with aesthetic theories of ancient India and with Western aesthetic thought (G. W. F. Hegel) are examined. The main topic of the paper are the role of the concept dhvani (hint) in Indian aesthetics and specific features of neo-vedāntist reception of Hegel's theory of art as an embodiment of an idea. Keywords: Aesthetics, beauty, neo-vedāntism, Hegel, dhvani. Гольцев Д. В. Образ Храма в истории и современной культуре евреев Единство языка, традиций, культуры, которые еврейский народ сохраняет на протяжении более четырех тысяч лет покоятся на религиозном фундаменте иудаизма. Желание иудеев жить в чистом и святом мире, который был утерян прародителями после грехопадения, воплотилось в Храме. Идея Храма укоренена в самих истоках истории еврейского народа. И вся история евреев по сей день неразрывно связана с Храмом. Ключевые слова: культура, религиозное сознание, Храм, синагога. Goltsev D. V. Image of the Temple in the History and Contemporary Culrure of Jews The unity of language, traditions, and culture preserving by the Jewish people throughout more than four thousands years base on the religious foundation of Judaism. The desire of Jews to live in the clear and holy world lost by progenitors after the Fall had been embodied in Temple. The idea of the Temple is grounded in the very origins of Jewish history. And the whole history of Jews is intimately connected with the Temple to the present time. Key words: culture, religious consciousness, the Temple, synagogue. Воробьева-Десятовская М. И. Мечников Л. И. и русская цивилизация XIX в. Статья посвящена страницам биографии Л. И. Мечникова. Автор анализирует его жизненный путь, чтобы выяснить, когда ученый задался вопросом о причинах зарождения цивилизаций. Он считал ошибочным усматривать причину зарождения древних цивилизаций в благоприятных климатических условиях, поскольку климатические условия, в которых зарождались цивилизации, не были идентичны. Л. И. Мечников первым в русской науке сделал шаг к выявлению роли географического фактора в историко-цивилизационном процессе. Ключевые слова: первобытная культура, географический фактор, изменения климатических условий Vorob'yova-Desyatovskaya M. I. L. I. Mechnikov and the Russian Civilization of the XIX Century. This article is devoted to crucial points of L. I. Mechnikov's biography. The author analyzed his life story in order to explain how he conceived the idea of civilizations' origin. Mechnikov rejected auspicious climatic conditions as the main cause of the ancient civilizations' arising. He proved the exceptional role of geographical factor of historical-civilizational process. Mechnikov was the first Russian scientist who represented this mode of thinking. Key words: primitive culture, the geographical factor, changes of environmental conditions. Джибраев А. Ю. Судан-2011: грядущая религиозно-иделогическая реструктуризация До референдума 2011 г. о разделении Судана на южное и северное государства осталось менее года. В контексте столкновения западного, американского образца, и исламского проектов глобализации актуальным представляется и обсуждение, и прогнозирование геополитических последствий референдума. Cтатья посвящена анализу суданского узла пересечения интересов Запада и стран исламского мира: социально-политической и экономической ангажированность Судана, внутрисуданских политических противоречий, позиций Евросоюза и США в разделении Республики Судан. Ключевые слова: геополитика, суданский референдум, исламистские национальные движения Dzhibraev A. Y. Sudan-2011: Сoming Religious & Ideological Restructurization Less than one year has been left prior to the Referendum-2011, targeted to divide Sudan on the South and North states. In the context of clash of the Western, American and Islamic Globalization Projects, to discuss and forecast the geopolitical implication of the Referendum seem to be actual. This article is designated for analyzing the Sudanese intersection node of the Western and Islamic countries' interests and meaning the social & political involvement and commitment of Sudan, internal Sudanese political contradictions, and the EU & EC positions on division matters of the Republic of Sudan. The attention is focused to discussing the forthcoming reaction to the Referendum results in the conditions of a potential local East Africa's conflict transplantation into the ideological fields of challenge for various Globalization Projects and with the view of preventing the negative consequences for the neighboring regions regarding formation of two independent states. Key words: geopolitics, Sudanese Referendum, islamist national movements. Ермакова Т. В. Вклад монголоведа А. М. Позднеева в исследование буддийской культуры Статья посвящена анализу вклада монголоведа А. М. Позднеева в исследование буддийской культуры. Проанализированы результаты двух его поездок в Монголию (1876, 1892): описание буддийских монастырей в аспекте управления, религиозных практик, архитектуры и повседневной жизни, восстановлена его концепция историко-культурной уникальности центральноазиатской региональной формы буддийской культуры. Ключевые слова: буддизм, Монголия, российские экспедиции. Ermakova T. V. Personal contribution of mongolist A. M. Pozdneev into Buddhist culture research This article is devoted to the evaluation of the personal contribution of the Russian mongolist A. M. Pozdneev into Buddhist culture research. Notable results of his two expeditions into Mongolian region were analyzed: complex description of the Mongol Buddhist monasteries in various aspects: management, religious practices, architecture and everyday life. Pozdneev's conceptualization of Mongol regional form of Buddhist culture was analyzed. Key words: Buddhism, Mongolia, the Russian expeditions. Касаткина З. А. Дирижерско-хоровая педагогика и образование в России на современном этапе Статья посвящена проблемам теории хорового дирижирования, методике преподавания дирижирования, а также вопросам полифункциональности данной профессии. Рассматривается проблема качественной подготовки и воспитания хорового дирижера высокой квалификации, выявление специфических дирижерских способностей, раскрытие понятия дирижерско-хоровая школа, определение основных методологических и теоретических аспектов основ системы хорового образования и исполнительства. Ключевые слова: теория хорового дирижирования, дирижерско-хоровое образование, педагог, музыкант, дирижерско-хоровая школа. Kasatkina Z. A. Choir Conducting Pedagogy and Education in Russia at Present Days The article is dedicated to theoretical questions of choir conducting, choir conducting teaching methodology as well as to questions related to multifunction of this profession. The author contemplates such issues as: education of highly qualified choir conductor, revelation of specific conductor skills, academic detailing of meaning for choir conducting school, determination of basic methodological and theoretical aspects of choir and performance educational system and its basis. Key words: theory of choir conducting, choir conducting education, pedagogue, musician, choir conducting school. Климов В. Ю. Светские власти, Рэннё, восьмой иерарх буддийской школы истинной веры Чистой Земли, и ее адепты в средневековой Японии В XVI в. крупные феодалы сэнгоку-даймё законодательными мерами стремились запретить деятельность адептов буддийской школы дзёдо синсю. Школа была основана Святым Синраном (1173-1263). Рэннё (1415-1499) в XV в. сумел создать мощную религиозную организацию. Он отстаивал основные положения Учения школы, борясь с искажениями и ересями. Ключевые слова: религиозное движение икко-икки, буддистская школа дзёдо синсю, Синран, Рэннё, буддистский храм Хонгандзи. Klimov V. J. In the XVI-th century feudal lords sengoku daimyo tried to prohibit the activities of religious followers of Buddhist school jodo shinshu by law The Buddhist school was founded by Saint Shinran (1173-1263). In the XV-th century Rennyo (1415-1499) managed to create a powerful religious organization. He was supporting main statements of the religious doctrine, and was fighting against its misinterpretations and heresies. Key words: Religious movement ikko-ikki, Buddhist school jodo shinshu, Shinran, Rennyo, Buddhist temple Honganji. Ларионова Д. Г. Лингвокультурные предпосылки формирования концепта родина Статья посвящена формированию концепта родина на фоне американской лингвокультуры. Анализируются типологические особенности русской и американской культур, обусловившие различия в значимости концепта для языкового сознания русских и американцев. Исследуются лингвокультурные предпосылки формирования концепта родина как базового концепта русской культуры. Сопоставляются переводные соответствия концепта в русском языке и американском варианте английского языка. Ключевые слова: родина, концепт, русская культура, американская культура, лингвокультура, Larionov D. G. Lingual-Cultural Premises of Formation of the Motherland Concept The article is dedicated to the formation of the motherland concept against the background of the American lingual culture. The typological features of the Russian and American cultures that cause different meaning of the concept in the lingual consciousness of the Russian and American people are analyzed. The lingual cultural premises of formation of the motherland concept as a basic concept of the Russian culture are considered. The translated equivalents of the concept in the Russian and American English are compared. Key words: motherland, concept, Russian culture, American culture, lingual culture. Марахонова С. И. Выдающийся исследователь японской художественной культуры Сергей Елисеев и его петроградское окружение Статья посвящена деятельности С. Елисеева в области искусств, которое было его центральным интересом, что дает повод историкам считать его, прежде всего, специалистом в области дальневосточной культуры и искусств. Елисеев начал свои исследовательские изыскания, обучаясь в Японии. Позже, в 1915-1920 в Петрограде он подготовил лекции по дальневосточному искусству для Государственного университета и других институтов. Елисеев прожил первое десятилетие в эмиграции в Париже, где он работал как хранитель японской коллекции в музее Гиме. Парижский период был самым плодотворным для научной деятельности. С 1934 по 1958 С. Елисеев профессор Гарвардского университета США и директор Института Гарварда. Ключевые слова: востоковедение, Сергей Елисеев, дальневосточное искусство, культура Японии и Китая. Marakhonova S. I. The Outstanding Far Easten Fine Arts'scholar Serge Elisseeff and His Petrograd Environment The article deals with Serge Elisseeff 's activities in the field of fine arts. This was one of his most great interests and he is considered by some people the history of Far Eastern culture and fine arts scholar first of all. Elisseeff began his fine arts studies when a student in Japan. Later in 1915-1920 in Petrograd he prepared a lot of lectures on Far Eastern fine arts at the state university and some other institutes. Elisseeff spent the first decade of his emigration from Russia in Paris where he worked as the Japanese collection keeper in the Guimet museum. The Paris period was the most productive for Elisseeff 's scientific publications most part of which belonged to fine arts' problems. From 1934 to 1958 Serge Elisseeff spent in the USA as the Harvard University professor and director of the Harvard-Yenching Institute. Key words: Oriental studies, Sergey Yeliseyev, Far East arts, culture of Japan and China. Матюшкина Е. Н. Тип героя в исторических романах Б. Окуджавы В статье делается попытка создания типологии героя в исторической прозе Б. Окуджавы. Для этого рассмотрены произведения Бедный Авросимов, Похождения Шипова или Старинный водевиль, Свидание с Бонапартом, Путешествие дилетантов. В романах Окуджавы происходит трансформация героя середины XX века, наблюдается своеобразная модификация образов маленького человека (Авросимов, Шипов, Опочинин), лишнего человека (Мятлев). Ключевые слова: историческая проза, типология героя, маленький человек, лишний человек. Matyshkina E. N. Type the Hero in Historical Novels B. Okudzhava The seeks to make a typology of the hero in historical prose B. Okudzhava. To do this, consider the product Poor Avrosimov, The Adventures Shipova or old vaudeville, Rendezvous with Bonaparte, Journey dilettantes. In the novels there is a transformation of the hero Okudzhava mid XX century, there has been a kind of modification of images of the little man (Avrosimov, Shipov, Opochinin), superfluous man (Myatlev). Key words: historical prose, the typology of the hero, little man, superfluous man. Махлина С. Т. Значение Эдварда Саида в современной культуре и культурологи Доминантным аспектом современной культуры является глобализация. Конечно, это явление имеет черты двойственности. Основные особенности глобализации очень ярко воплотились в судьбе и творчестве Эдварда Вади Саида (1 ноября 1935 г. 25 сентября 2003 г.). И жизнь, и творчество, и политическая, и общественная деятельность его настолько двойственны, что отражают все противоречия глобализации. Фигура Эдварда Саида весьма 320 показательна для современной эпохи и, несомненно, значима для современной культуры и культурологии. Ключевые слова: глобализация, культура, культурология, Запад, Восток, ислам. Mahlina S. T. Edward Said's Value in Modern Culture and Cultural Science Globalisation is a dominant aspect of modern culture. This phenomenon is surely of dual nature. Main features of globalization are embodied in the art and life of Edward Wadie Said (1.11.1935-25.09.2003). His art and life, his political and social activity, are so ambiguous that reflect all controversies of globalization. Edward Said is a representative figure of the modern times and is definitely significant for the modern culture and culture studies. Key words: globalization, culture, culture studies, West, East, Islam. Микитюк Ю. М. Категории органической теории в идеологии почвенников В статье рассматриваются основные положения органической теории, раскрывается ее место в идеологии почвенничества. Анализ таких понятий, как народность, нация позволяет раскрыть решение почвенниками проблемы соотношения национального и общечеловеческого. Ключевые слова: органическая теория, нация, народ, почва, Григорьев, Страхов, Достоевский. Mikityuk Y. M. The Organic Theory in Ideology of Pochvenniks This article discusses the basic statements of the ''organic theory', it also reveals its place in the ideology of Pochvennichestvo. The analysis of such concepts as nation, nationality, nation may allow to solve the problem of the relationship between national and universal by representatives of this ideology. Key words: the organic theory, nation, people, national, soil, Grigoriev, Strahov, Dostoevsky. Михайлова М. В. Классический текст как личное бытие Классический текст рассматривается с позиций онтологической эстетики как один из видов личного бытия. Метафизическая потребность, лежащая в основе искусства, особенным образом реализуется в литературе. Благодаря совершенному тексту, гармонично соединяющему стратегии значения и присутствия, становится возможным эстетическое событие встречи автора, читателя и языка, имеющее важнейшим своим следствием перенастройку личности в согласии человека и мира. Ключевые слова: классика, текст, бытие, язык, автор, читатель. Mikhailova M. V. Classical Text as a Personal Being The article deals with the problem of classical text considered from the point of view of ontological esthetics as a kind of personal existence. The metaphysical requirement underlying art, is realized in literature in a special way. Thanks to the perfect text harmoniously connecting meaning and presence strategies, an esthetic event of a meeting of the author, the reader and the language become possible. Key words: classics, text, being, language, author, reader. Муравьев К. В. Два модуса триадологии А. Ф. Лосева В статье рассматривается триадология известного русского философа Алексея Федоровича Лосева, которая соединяет в себе диалектические начала античной философии и христианское православное богословие. Ключевые слова: триадология, ипостась, онтология, неоплатонизм, диалектика. Muravyev K. V. Two Modi of A. F. Losew's Triadology In the article triadology of noted Russian philosopher Alexey Losew which unites the dialectic principles of an ancient philosophy and Christian orthodox divinity is considered. Key words: triadology, hipostasis, ontology, Neo-platonism, dialectics. Островская Е. А. Теория традиционных религиозных идеологий: методологические возможности и горизонты применимости Статья посвящена презентации принципиально нового подхода к социологическому исследованию процессов институционализации религиозных систем. Методологическое ядро разработанного автором подхода составляет теория традиционных религиозных идеологий, содержащая в себе концептуальный инструментарий для изучения религиозных идеологий Запада и Востока. Авторское рассмотрение сфокусировано на теоретико-методологическом разъяснении таких ключевых концепций этой теории, как традиционные религии, религиозная модель общества, аналитическая схема институционализации религиозных систем. Особый интерес представляет предложенная в статье демонстрация методологических возможностей теории в аспекте преодоления эпистемологической ограниченности постхристианских академических моделей изучения религий. Ключевые слова: религиозные идеологии, социология религии, эпистемологические основания научного изучения религий Ostrowskaya E. A. Theory of Traditional Religious Ideologies: Methodological Capabilities and Horizons of Applicability The article presents a new approach to sociological study of religious systems institutionalization processes. In the core of this approach there is a theory of traditional religious ideologies, as providing a methodological tool for analysis of religious ideologies in the context of Western and Asian societies. The focus is brought to the theoretical and methodological clarifications to three key concepts of the theory that are traditional religions, religious model of society and analytical scheme of religious systems institutionalization. The demonstration of their methodological applicability is of great importance for comprehending epistemological limits of post-Christian scientific models for studies of religion. Key words: religious ideologies, sociology of religion, epistemology of scientific studies of religion. Островский А. Б. Категория замирщение в нормативных документах беспоповцев XIX начала XX в. Термин замирщение, употребленный впервые в конце XVII в. федосеевцами, в течение двух столетий прошел эволюцию: первоначально он выражал противостояние христиане (федосеевцы) / (отлученные, новожены, мирские), а во второй половине XIX в. уже служил мерой для оценки степени утраты благочестия конкретным членом беспоповской общины ввиду недозволенных контактов с иноверными в трапезе, совместной помывке в бане и др. ситуациях общения. Ключевые слова: старообрядцы, межконфессиональные отношения, федосеевцы, поморцы, замирщение. Ostrovsky A. B. The Category of Zamirshenie in Bespopovtsian (a Priestless Sect of Russian Old Believers) Regulations of the 19thand Early 20th Century The evolution of the term zamirshenie first used by the Fedoseetsy in the late 17th century: originally representing the opposition between Christians (Fedoseevtsy) and excommunicates, Novojeny (unionists recognizing marriage), and laity, and in the second part of the 19th century censuring imperfect piousness of individual members of priestless community found guilty of inadmissible contacts with adherents of different creed at meals, in a bathhouse or in other communicative situations. Key words: old believers, inter-confessional relations, fedoseevtsy, pomortsy, zamirshenie. Плебанек О. В. Цивилизационная матрица как категория геополитики Современные направления научных исследований глобалистика, геополитика потребовали и нового категориального аппарата. Традиционные понятия, такие как цивилизация, наполняются новым смыслом, на их базе возникают новые категории, такие как геоцивилизация, цивилизационная матрица, алгоритмы цивилизационной динамики и др. Использование новых и относительно новых понятий в новом контексте требует научного обоснования. Нестрогое, многозначное понимание научных категорий снижает их методологическое значение. Ключевые слова: глобалистика, геополитика, цивилизация, геоцивилизация, цивилизационная матрица, алгоритмы цивилизационной динамики. Plebanek O. V. Civilizational Matrix as the category of geopolitics Modern directions of scientific researches global studies, geopolitics have demanded also new categorial the language. Traditional concepts, such as a civilization, are filled with new sense, on their base there are new categories, such as a geocivilization, civilizational a matrix, algorithms civilizational dynamics, etc. Use new and concerning new concepts of a new context demands a scientific substantiation. Not strict, multiple-valued understanding of scientific categories reduces their methodological value. Key words: global studies, geopolitics, a civilisation, a geocivilization, civilization a matrix, algorithms civilizational dynamics. Прокуденкова О. В. Роль географического фактора в культурологической концепции Л. И. Мечникова В статье рассматривается культурологическая концепция выдающегося русского ученого Л. И. Мечникова. Отмечается особое внимание к проблеме географического детерминизма и роли природных условий в генезисе и развитии цивилизаций. Показано, что Мечников обосновывал своеобразие историко-культурного развития географическим фактором, главным из которых была гидросфера водное пространство, ставшее общим объединяющим признаком классификации мировых цивилизаций: речные, морские и океанические. Ключевые слова: географический фактор, гидросфера, цивилизация, географический детерминизм, культурогенез. Prokudenkova O. V. Role of Geographical Factor in the L. I. Mechnikov's Culturological Concept In the article, the culturological concept of outstanding Russian scientist L. I. Mechnikov is considered. Special attention to the problem of geographical determinism and role of environment in genesis and development of civilizations is paid. It is shown that Mechnikov saw the reason of originality of historical and cultural development in geographical factor, mainly, in hydrosphere, as water space is general uniting sign of classification of world civilizations: those of river, sea, and ocean. Key words: geographical factor, hydrosphere, civilization, geographical determinism, genesis of culture. Регинская Н. В. Александр Невский как символ национальной идентичности в современном искусстве Повышенное внимание, уделяемое Александру Невскому сегодня, связано как с незаурядной личностью Благоверного князя, так и с потребностью восстановления национальных символов новой России. Святому Александру Невскому принадлежит роль выдающегося русского героя. Закономерно обращение современного искусства к героике Благоверного князя Александра Невского, изображение которого своеобразно своей двойственностью: сакральноиконографичным содержанием и экспериментально-светской манерой исполнения. Ключевые слова: иконография, традиция, экспериментальное искусство, духовноиконологическое течение, иконная драматургия Reginsky N. V. Alexander Nevsky as a Symbol of National Identity in the Modern Art An increased attention is paid nowadays to Alexander Nevsky owing to the remarkable individuality of the Blessed Knyazh as well as to the need of renewal of New Russia's national symbols. Saint Alexander Nevsky has a role of an outstanding Russian hero. Modern Art logically addresses the heroic stories of the Blessed Knyazh Alexander Nevsky, whose image is peculiar due to its ambivalence: its sacral-iconographic content and experimentally secular manner of fulfillment. Key words: Iconography, Tradition, Experimental Art, Spiritually-Iconological Trend, Iconic Drama. Рысаков А. С. Основные тенденции в конфуцианстве эпохи Цин Статья посвящена аналитическому рассмотрению истории конфуцианского учения в XVII-XIX вв. Рассматриваются различные аспекты трансформации конфуцианства каноноведение, психотехника, доктрина, ритуальные практики. Восстанавливается политический контекст функционирования конфуцианских школ и направлений. Исследуются доктринальные позиции наиболее значимых конфуцианских ученых цинского времени. Ключевые слова: китайская философия, история конфуцианства, история Китая Нового времени. Rysakov A. S. Major Trends in the Qing Dynasty Confucianism The article is devoted to analytical consideration of the history of Confucian teachings in XVII-XIX centuries. Various aspects of the transformation of Confucianism: canon studies, psychotechnique, doctrine, ritual practice are considered. The political context of functioning of Confucian schools and directions is analyzed, as well as the doctrinal position of the most important Qing time Confucian scholars. Key words: Chinese philosophy, the history of Confucianism, Chinese History. 324 Рысакова П. И. Социокультурная специфика женского образования в традиционном китайском обществе Настоящая статья посвящена выявлению социокультурной специфики женского образования в традиционном китайском обществе. Основное внимание уделено анализу конфуцианских доктринальных предписаний, в соответствии с которыми выстраивались ценностно-нормативные представления о социальном статусе и роли женщины в китайском обществе. Рассматривается педагогический идеал традиционного женского образования. Ключевые слова: конфуцианство, женское образование, четыре женские добродетели, талант. Rysakova P. I. Socio-Cultural Specifics of Women Education in Traditional Chinese Society The article deals with the problem of specific features of female education in Chinese traditional society. It primarily focuses on analysis of the doctrine of Confucianism which regulated the normative expectations of women's social status and role in Chinese society. The aim of women's traditional education is considered. Key words: Confucianism, female education, four women's virtues, talent. Свиридова Л. О. Олицетворение ада в Чине погребению священническому В статье изложены результаты наблюдений над постканоническими восточнохристианскими гимнографическими памятниками на церковно-славянском языке. В центре рассмотрения отличительная черта гимнографической образности: олицетворение не только ада, но и рая, космологических уровней, природных объектов и стихий. В образной системе гимнографического текста выявляются космологический и антропоморфический семиотические коды. Ключевые слова: гимнография, книги церковного обихода кирилловской печати, Потребник, семиотические коды, космологические представления. Sviridova L. O. Embodiment of Hell in theOrder of Priestly Burial The results of observation of Eastern Christian post-canonical hymnographic memorials in the Old Church Slavonic language are given in the article. The central idea of the research is the main feature of the hymnographic imagery the embodiment not only of Hell, but of Heaven, cosmological levels, natural objects and elements. In the system of hymnographic texts cosmological and antropomorphic semiotic codes are presented. Key words: hymnography, church books of Cyril print, Potrebnik, semiotic codes, cosmological views. Селивановский В. В. Сциентистские элементы вероучения Движения Веры Сциентизм в теистической религии парадоксален. Этот феномен вероучения неопятидесятнического Движения Веры побуждает обратиться к анализу его генеалогических корней, теологии и эпистемологии. Крайний фидеизм и далёкое от научной рациональности отрицание чувственного опыта позволяет говорить не о сциентистской ориентации сознания, а о квазинаучном флёре, прикрывающем магический характер практики. Ключевые слова: сциентизм, Движение Веры, метафизическое движение, Новое Мышление, закон веры. Selivanovskiy V. V. Scientistic elements of the Word-Faith Movement's doctrine A claim for scientism in theistic religion is paradoxical. This doctrinal phenomenon of the neo-Pentecostal Word-Faith Movement encourages analysis of its genealogical beginnings, theology and epistemology. Extreme forms of fideism and rejection of the sentient experience, which is foreign to the scientific rationality, do not reveal a scientistic orientation of consciousness but rather a quasi-scientific fleur, employed to disguise the magical nature of the movement's practices. Key words: scientism, Word-Faith Movement, metaphysical movement, New Thought, law of faith. Скоморох Олег А., протоиерей. История тюремного служения христианской церкви в связи с пенитенциарными реформами XVIII-XIX вв. Статья касается вопросов, относящихся к истории тюремного служения христианской Церкви в период пенитенциарных реформ США, Великобритании и России XVIII-XIX веков, когда определялась позиция государств и общества, направленная на христианизацию и гуманизацию тюремного заключения вообще и нравственного исправления заключенных, в частности. Цель статьи ознакомить миссионеров Христианской Церкви, совершающих тюремное служение, с развитием и становлением тюремной миссии, как части государственных систем исполнения наказания. Ключевые слова: тюремное служение, миссия, пенитенциарные реформы, капелланство, Церковь и общество. Skomorokh Oleg A. History of Prison Service of Christian Church in Connection with Penitential Reforms during XVIII-XIX Cent. The article touches upon some questions concerning the history of prison ministry of the Christian Church during penitential reforms in the USA, the Great Britain and Russia in the course of XVIII-XIX centuries, when humanizing and Christianizing position towards the Penal Executive System in general and moral correcting of prisoners in details was taking its shape in those states and societies. The objective of the article is to acquaint the Christian Church's missionaries, carrying out prison ministry, with the progress and development of prison mission, as parts of state Penal Executive Systems. Key words: prison ministry, mission, penitential reforms, chaplaincy, Church and society. Фадеева Т. Ф. Повседневные элементы духовной средневековой культуры. Искусство квадрвиума: Музыка В статье предполагается предварительный обзор культурологических аспектов средневековой системы образования. Автор рассматривает некоторые аспекты формирования хоральной культуры как многоступенчатой духовно-музыкальной системы. Ключевые слова: Средние века, образование, музыка, церковная культура, искусство. Fadeeva T. F. The Everyday Elements of the Spiritual Medieval Culture. Art of Quadrivium: Music The article assumes a tentative review of the culturological aspects of the medieval educational system. The author distinguishes some aspects of forming of choral culture as many-staged spiritual-music system. Key words: Middle Ages, education, music, church culture, art. Федорова М. В. Семиотика свадебных украшений бурят В статье рассматриваются украшения бурят как предметный код свадебного ритуала, на широком этнографическом материале анализируется синкретичная структура их семиотических функций. Свадебные украшения несли в себе продуцирующую, апотропейную символику, были связаны с представлениями о жизненной силе, являлись маркерами обретения невестой нового социально-возрастного статуса. В качестве основных источников использованы вещевые коллекции Российского этнографического музея, Музея антропологии и этнографии им. Петра Великого РАН, научные публикации. Ключевые слова: украшения, свадебный наряд, семиотический, символ. Fedorova M. V. Semiotics of Buryats'wedding jewelry The subject of the report is the jewelry as an objective code of the wedding ritual. The author analyses the syncretic structure of their semiotic functions on a broad ethnographic material. The wedding jewelry have productive, protective symbolism, were associated with notions of vitality, and were the markers of a bride new-age social status. As the main sources, the author used the collections of objects of the Russian Museum of Ethnography, the Peter the Great's Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (Kunstkamera), and scientific publications. Key words: jewelry, wedding dress, semiotic, symbol. Филиппова Ю. В. Мифологические аспекты в понятии сознания В статье рассматриваются мифологические аспекты сознания, их влияние на возникновение новой формы познания философии, онтологические предпосылки структур времени и памяти, а также сновидение как компонент мофопоэтического сознания и постепенный переход к рефлексии. Ключевые слова: сознание, миф, рефлексия, время, память, реальность, сновидение. Philippova J. V. Mythological Aspects of the Notion of Consciousness The article deals with mythological aspects of consciousness, their influence on genesis of a new form of cognition philosophy, also ontological suppositions of temporal and memorable structures, and dreaming as an element of mythopoetical consciousness and gradual conversion to reflection. Key words: consciousness, myth, reflection, time, memory reality, dream. Чистякова Э. Э. Скандинавское влияние в русской художественной культуре XIX-XX веков Переломная эпоха XIX-XX веков изменила представление о взаимодействии русского и западноевропейского искусства. Для преодоления изоляции русской культуры было необходимо познакомить русских художников и общество с состоянием искусства за рубежом. Выставки скандинавских художников, организованные в конце XIX века, открыли национально-романтическое искусство северных соседей России и дали пример вступления на общеевропейский путь развития без утраты национальных особенностей. Скандинавское влияние оставило заметный след на русской архитектуре рубежа веков, особенно в северной столице. Знакомство с достижениями скандинавского искусства расширило творческие возможности и позволило русским художникам оказаться причастными к наиболее значительным событиям художественной жизни рубежа веков. Ключевые слова: скандинавское влияние, русские художники, северный модерн, С. П. Дягилев, А. Галлен-Каллела, А. Эдельфельт, Мир искусства. Chistjakova E. E. Scandinavian Influence in the Russian Artistic Culture of XIX-XX Centuries The turning age of the XIX-XX centuries changed the idea about Russian and West European Art interaction. To bridge the Russian culture isolation it was necessary to introduce the status of the foreign culture to Russian artists and the society. The exhibitions of Scandinavian painters arranged at the end of the XIX century showed National Romanticism of Nordic neighbours to Russia and gave an example of entering European way of development with no national peculiarities losses. Scandinavian Influence had a visible affect on Russian architecture at the turn of the century especially in the North Capital of Russia. Making the acquaintance with Scandinavian Art achievements enhanced creative opportunities and made Russian artists participate in more significant artistic life events of the turn of the century. Key words: Scandinavian influence, Russian artists, Nordic Art Nouveau, Sergey P. Diaghilev, Akseli Gallen-Kallela, Albert G. Edelfelt, The Art World. Шомахмадов С. Х. Космография Южной Азии в письменных памятниках вишнуитской и буддийской традиций В статье дан сравнительный анализ вишнуитской и буддийской космологических систем. Отмечается, что радиально-кольцевая морфология земной поверхности характерна как для буддийской, так и для вишнуитской традиции. Числовая семантика материков, представленная в космографии Южной Азии, демонстрирует, что ойкумена осмыслялась как совершенная, идеологически отражающая непрерывность двух традиций. Общим для обеих традиций является признание человеческой формы рождения как единственно благой, дающей возможность достижения окончательного освобождения (мокша, нирвана). Ключевые слова: космография, буддизм, индуизм, Индия, сакральные центры Shomakhmadov S. H. The South Asia's Cosmography in the Texts of Vaishnavist and Buddhist Traditions The comparative analysis of the Vaishnavist and Buddhist cosmological systems is given in this article. It is noticed that the radially-ring morphology of a terrestrial surface is characteristic both for Buddhist, and for Vaishnavist traditions. The numerical semantics of continents presented in the Southern Asia's cosmography shows that ecumena was comprehended as the perfect, ideologically reflecting continuity of two traditions. The general for both traditions is the acceptance of the human birth form as a unique good, giving the chance for achievements of definitive clearing (moksha, nirvana). Key words: cosmography, Buddhism, Hinduism, India, sacral centers.

Studying Confucian classics is commonly known as core activity in Chinese imperial education – at least for young men who sought a career as government official. When this learning technique reappeared in classrooms of privately-run so-called contemporary "academies" and "study halls", heated debates on the value of traditional education for contemporary Chinese society ensued in academia and society. Children who study the classics in a full-time approach receive education outside of China's system of compulsory education. Given that study halls and academies are usually not registered as schools, they can neither offer an officially recognized diploma nor an official school registration which is, for example, needed for participation in the secondary school and the university entrance examinations. The legal situation of reading the classics today as alternative to public education remains subject of negotiations between headmasters of the newly emerged facilities and local government officials. Nevertheless, parents take the risk to send their children to these facilities to receive education. In addition, parents are taking on a huge financial burden as study fees in these facilities are quite high. Despite all obstacles, many parents decide that their child(ren) should learn from China's ancient masters rather than from today's schoolbooks. In the continued trend of Confucian revival in China since the 1980s and 1990s, classics reading education appears as a project of retraditionalization on the level of the people (minjian). Originally developed by educator and Confucian scholar Wang Caigui, the educational approach of reading the classics has been translated into different forms of practice in individual educational facilities. Even though classics reading activities and initiatives are very diverse and far from forming a coherent movement, educational activists follow the common goal to make Chinese society more moral, civilized, and more Chinese again. Confucian idealism is projected into visions of a better future which highly influence activists in the classics reading movement (dujing yundong). Motivated (or repelled) by perceived lacks and deficiencies in Chinese society today, classics reading activists develop rich imaginaries of a better future; this utopian thought is attempted to be implemented into everyday routines and learners' lives in study halls and academies. Ideals and specific localized practice play key roles in classics reading education: ideals are implemented into daily practice, and daily practice takes place in a carefully designed environment which responds to these abstract ideals with corresponding ideal structures. The embodiment of abstract ideals and visions in locations and people's identities, behaviors and actions is a major concern in grounded utopian movements. The theory of grounded utopian movements is taken over as tool to make results of the study of the classics reading movement better understandable and to take them to another level of abstraction and comparability. Emerging in the research on nativistic movements in North and South America among native groups, grounded utopian movement theory explained what fell out of the grid of established social movement and new social movement theory – movements that could not respond well to the society-state relation assumed in Northern America and Europe in relation to their nation state building processes. Crucial for the introduction of this new theoretical framework is a history of foreign occupation and cultural oppression which influenced nation building processes in these countries. Considering China's turbulent conditions at the beginning of the 20th century, similarities in historical fates appear, especially in China's intellectual world and educational landscape which were both dominated by foreign thought and system for a long time. Different "lacks" in China's current society (inadequate public education, moral decline of society, shifting family values and lack of knowledge in child raising on parent's side) are linked to China's multiple disconnection with its own cultural tradition in the past (from Qing dynasty onwards but at the latest starting with the anti-traditional May Fourth Movement in 1919). Confucian activists take the responsibility for filling or counterbalancing these lacks with a rich cultural and moral education under the patronage of the sages of China's more distant and more glorious past. Interview and participant observation data from ethnographic field research carried out between October 2015 and July 2016 are the basis for this study. In 2015, information on the phenomenon of classics reading education which was taken directly from practice was scarce and largely related to studies which were not mainly concerned with education but, for example, with Confucian revival in general or the religious/ spiritual side of popular Confucian projects. In-depth interviews drew a vivid image of the classics reading world as imagined and lived by classics reading educators and parents. Field observation during the visits in class and naturally occurring talks with involved people revealed how difficult it is to drag such rich ideals into reality. The highest ideal to become a morally upright gentleman (junzi; the term is used gender-neutral and encompasses girls and women) who would influence and improve Chinese society requires time consuming daily recitation of Confucian (and "Western") classics over many years – a practice which is always the same and carried out in the same daily rhythms. Exceedingly few (parents of) children commit to the whole package of 20 years of classics reading education – and considering that the movement only picked up speed at the beginning of the 2000s, there can hardly be students who already went all the way. An assessment of possible outcomes of the movement can only have a preliminary character, but there are activists who critically examine their own actions and routines and see the price paid for sticking to ideals too strictly. In many cases, students' further development in higher education and/ or professional life remains a question mark. Utopia in practice looks less ideal than in theory. Nevertheless, the utopian movement of reading the classics teaches a lot about coping with caesuras in the past, changes in the present, and conceptualizations of the future. Active engagement in realizing these future concepts drives people to explore new paths – even in legally unclarified grey areas – and secure their own participation in (social) matters which are of concern for them. Even though the classics reading movement might be small and operating in the margins, the Chinese government has started to respond to people's own initiatives in their (educational) policies.