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Background: Smoking is still highly prevalent in Europe. According to the WHO, tobacco control policies vary substantially across countries. The Tobacco Control Scale (TCS) was developed to quantify the implementation of tobacco control policies at country level in Europe. The objective was to assess the impact of tobacco control policies (quantified by TCS scores) on smoking prevalence and quit ratios and their relative changes from 2006-2014 in 27 European Union (EU27) countries. Methods: We conducted an ecological study at the country level. We used TCS scores in EU27 in 2007, and the prevalence of tobacco and quit ratios (No. ex-smokers/ No. ever smokers) data from the Eurobarometer surveys (2006 and 2014 waves). We analysed the relationship between the TCS scores and smoking prevalence and quit ratios and their relative changes by means of scatter plots, Spearman rank-correlation coefficients (rsp), and a multiple linear regression model adjusted for all TCS components. Results: In EU27, the smoking prevalence decreased by 14% (95%CI:7.3%-20.6%) (2006-2014) and varied from a relative decrease of 48.9% in Sweden to 0.4% in Bulgaria. The increase in the quit ratio in EU27 was 19.2% (95%CI:5.4%-33.1%) (2006-2014) and ranged from 125.8% in Sweden to 4.3% in Bulgaria. The correlation between TCS scores and smoking prevalence was negative (rsp=-0.444;p=0.02). A positive correlation was observed between TCS scores and quit ratios in 2014 (rsp=0.373;p=0.06) and in the relative changes in smoking prevalence (rsp=0.415;p=0.03). The percentage of smoking prevalence in 2014 explained by all TCS components in the regression model was 28.9% Conclusions: European countries with higher TCS scores, which indicates higher tobacco control efforts, have lower prevalence of smokers, higher quit ratios, and higher relative decreases in their smoking prevalence over the last decade. Funding: EC Horizon2020 HCO-6-2015 (EUREST-PLUS No. 681109); Government of Spain & European Regional Development Fund (RTICC RD12/0036/0053); Government of Catalonia (2014SGR999).

The aim of the paper is to study the cultural differentiation in the European Union countries and compare it with the differentiation in their consumption spending. The question is whether similar countries in terms of culture have similar final consumption expenditures and consumption structures. Culture in this research is characterised by six Hofstede dimensions – power distance, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity vs. femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long term orientation and indulgence vs. restraint. The consumption structure is characterised by share of durable goods, semi‑durable goods, non‑durable goods and services in households' final consumption. In the analysis, the influence of culture on the share of non‑durable goods and services in final consumption expenditures is considered. Countries' similarities in these two aspects are evaluated with the use of the cluster analysis approach – the k‑means algorithm and the Ward clustering method. The dependence between the structure of final consumption expenditures and culture is investigated using spatial autoregressive (SAR) and spatial error (SE) panel data models. ; Celem artykułu jest zbadanie zróżnicowania kulturowego w krajach Unii Europejskiej oraz jego porównanie ze zróżnicowaniem wydatków konsumpcyjnych tych krajów. Pytanie badawcze dotyczy tego, czy podobieństwo kulturowe krajów jest równoznaczne z podobieństwem w ramach struktury konsumpcji. W badaniu kulturę opisano z wykorzystaniem sześciu wymiarów zaproponowanych przez G. Hofstedego – dystansu do władzy, indywidualizmu a kolektywizmu, męskości a kobiecości, unikania niepewności, orientacji długoterminowej, odpustu a powściągliwości. Struktura konsumpcji została opisana przez udział w wydatkach konsumpcyjnych gospodarstw domowych wydatków na następujące grupy dóbr: dobra trwałego użytku, dobra półtrwałego użytku, dobra nietrwałego użytku oraz usługi. W badaniu zweryfikowano wpływ kultury na udział wydatków na dobra nietrwałego użytkowania oraz usługi w finalnych wydatkach konsumpcyjnych. Podobieństwo kulturowe oraz konsumpcyjne krajów Unii Europejskiej zostało zweryfikowane z wykorzystaniem analizy skupień – algorytmu k‑średnich oraz metody Warda, a zależność między rozważanymi aspektami badania z wykorzystaniem przestrzennego modelu autoregresyjnego oraz modelu błędu przestrzennego.

The aim of the paper is to study the cultural differentiation in the European Union countries and compare it with the differentiation in their consumption spending. The question is whether similar countries in terms of culture have similar final consumption expenditures and consumption structures. Culture in this research is characterised by six Hofstede dimensions – power distance, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity vs. femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long term orientation and indulgence vs. restraint. The consumption structure is characterised by share of durable goods, semi‑durable goods, non‑durable goods and services in households' final consumption. In the analysis, the influence of culture on the share of non‑durable goods and services in final consumption expenditures is considered. Countries' similarities in these two aspects are evaluated with the use of the cluster analysis approach – the k‑means algorithm and the Ward clustering method. The dependence between the structure of final consumption expenditures and culture is investigated using spatial autoregressive (SAR) and spatial error (SE) panel data models. ; Celem artykułu jest zbadanie zróżnicowania kulturowego w krajach Unii Europejskiej oraz jego porównanie ze zróżnicowaniem wydatków konsumpcyjnych tych krajów. Pytanie badawcze dotyczy tego, czy podobieństwo kulturowe krajów jest równoznaczne z podobieństwem w ramach struktury konsumpcji. W badaniu kulturę opisano z wykorzystaniem sześciu wymiarów zaproponowanych przez G. Hofstedego – dystansu do władzy, indywidualizmu a kolektywizmu, męskości a kobiecości, unikania niepewności, orientacji długoterminowej, odpustu a powściągliwości. Struktura konsumpcji została opisana przez udział w wydatkach konsumpcyjnych gospodarstw domowych wydatków na następujące grupy dóbr: dobra trwałego użytku, dobra półtrwałego użytku, dobra nietrwałego użytku oraz usługi. W badaniu zweryfikowano wpływ kultury na udział wydatków na dobra nietrwałego użytkowania oraz usługi w finalnych wydatkach konsumpcyjnych. Podobieństwo kulturowe oraz konsumpcyjne krajów Unii Europejskiej zostało zweryfikowane z wykorzystaniem analizy skupień – algorytmu k‑średnich oraz metody Warda, a zależność między rozważanymi aspektami badania z wykorzystaniem przestrzennego modelu autoregresyjnego oraz modelu błędu przestrzennego.

Governments across the European Union (EU) have been striving to get more people into work while at the same time acknowledging that more needs to be done to 'make work pay'. Yet this drive comes at a time when structural economic shifts are putting pressure on wages, especially of less skilled workers. This article focuses on trends in minimum wages, income taxes and work-related benefits within a selection of 15 EU countries, for the period 2001–2012, with three US states included as reference cases. We find evidence for eroding relative minimum wages in various EU countries, yet combined with catch-up growth in the new member states. We also find that governments counteracted eroding minimum wages through direct income support measures, especially for lone parents. Most prevalent among these were substantial declines in income tax liabilities.

One of the key challenges for climate policies is the identification of strategies that will effectively support the implementation of environmental goals. Environmental policies are connected with other development policies carried out by governments. In order to comprehensively shape environmental policy, it is important to understand the interactions between sustainable development goals (SDGs) as well as their impact on environmental goals. Employing econometric modeling based on the least absolute shrinkage and selection operator (Lasso) method and full-factorial analysis, the authors identify a number of statistically significant relationships between the implementation of sustainable development goals and the environmental variable represented by greenhouse gas emissions. Analysis reveals that implementation of particular sustainable development goals, namely SDG4 (Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities) and SDG17 (Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development), explicitly facilitate the achievement of environmental policies. In addition, other SDGs exert an indirect influence on environmental goals through their reinforcing interactions with SDG4 and SDG17 variables. These are: SDG1 (End poverty), SDG3 (Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being), SDG8 (Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, and productive employment) and SDG15 (Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests and halt biodiversity loss). These findings have important implications for proper identification of effective government policy instruments which indirectly support the achievement of environmental goals. ; 8 ; 1-22 ; 14

This research consists of a descriptive and comparative study of the educational legislation in music education, in primary education and in the academic training of teachers of the area. The study considers evaluations carried out by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), UNESCO, International Programs for Student Evaluation (PISA), and sectoral organizations, such as teachers' unions. For this purpose, a study in which a systematic bibliographic review of the current educational situation was conducted. The resulting information showed that both, the teaching of students and the academic training of specialist teachers have been treated unequally in the different European countries studied, despite the main and general guidelines given by the European Commission on Education and training. ; El presente estudio comprende un estudio descriptivo y comparativo de la legislación educativa en las enseñanzas de la música, tanto en Educación Primaria, como en la formación de los profesores de dicha enseñanza. Se considera las valoraciones realizadas a nivel europeo por la Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económicos (OCDE), la UNESCO, los Programas Internacionales para la Evaluación de Estudiantes (PISA), y organizaciones sectoriales, como los sindicatos de enseñanza. Para dicho objetivo, se realizó un estudio en el que se hizo una revisión sistemática bibliográfica de la situación educativa actual. Se encontró información que puso de manifiesto que tanto la enseñanza a los alumnos, como la formación del profesorado especialista, han sido tratadas de forma desigual en los diferentes países europeos estudiados, a pesar de las líneas maestras y generales dadas por la Comisión Europea en Educación y Formación.

The aim of the article is to indicate the main factors influencing the diversification of farm income in the European Union countries. The analysis involved the production potential, production costs, and the impact of subsidies on income under the Common Agricultural Policy. The research covered farms keeping agricultural accounting in the EU-28 countries. The analysis used data for 2015-2017 and 2018, collected and processed under the FADN EU system. The analyses show that farms in the EU differed significantly in terms of the agricultural land area, the value of assets, technical equipment of work, and production intensity. It was estimated that the intensity was related to the production direction and land productivity. The income situation of farms was also significantly influenced by production efficiency. On average, from 2015-2017, the cost of EUR 1 production ranged between EUR 0.64 and 1.32, and in 2018 it was between EUR 0.64 and1.28. As a consequence, in many countries farm income depended solely on subsidies to operating activities. The research shows that subsidies eliminate the differences between countries at the level of income from production (without subsidies), which suggests a further need to continue to equalize the level of subsidies among the EU countries. ; Celem artykułu było wskazanie głównych czynników wpływających na zróżnicowanie dochodów gospodarstw rolnych w krajach Unii Europejskiej (UE). Analiza dotyczyła potencjału produkcyjnego, kosztów produkcji oraz oddziaływania dopłat na dochody w ramach wspólnej polityki rolnej. Badaniami objęto gospodarstwa prowadzące rachunkowość rolną w 28 krajach UE. Do analizy wykorzystano dane za lata 2015-2017 oraz z 2018 roku, zebrane i przetworzone w ramach systemu FADN EU. Z analiz wynika, że gospodarstwa rolne w UE szczególnie silnie różniły się pod względem powierzchni użytków rolnych, wartości aktywów, technicznego uzbrojenia pracy oraz intensywności produkcji. Ocenia się, że intensywność miała związek z kierunkiem produkcji oraz z produktywnością ziemi. Na sytuację dochodową gospodarstw w znaczącym stopniu wpływała efektywność produkcji. Średnio w latach 2015-2017 koszt wytworzenia 1 EUR produkcji zawierał się w przedziale 0,64-1,32 EUR, a w 2018 roku – 0,64-1,28 EUR. W konsekwencji, w wielu krajach dochód z gospodarstwa stanowiły wyłącznie dopłaty do działalności operacyjnej. Wyniki badań wskazują, że dopłaty niwelują różnice między krajami w poziomie dochodu uzyskanego z produkcji (bez dopłat), co sugeruje dalszą potrzebę kontynuacji wyrównywania wielkości dopłat między krajami w UE.

Background and objectives Adolescent sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) are of particular relevance given their potential short-term or long-term health consequences. This study evaluates recommendations and policies regarding access to care in this area in 31 European countries (European Union (EU) plus Iceland, Norway and Switzerland). Methods As part of the EU funded Models of Child Health Appraised project, data were gathered using a 43-item questionnaire sent to experts responsible for collecting information in each country. Results Ten countries have not developed any formal policy or recommendation that guarantee the respect of confidentiality and the possibility of consulting a physician without parents knowing. Nearly half of the countries do not have centres specialised in adolescent healthcare, tackling comprehensive health issues or focusing specifically on SRH. Access to emergency contraception and information regarding pregnancy, including testing, is easy in most countries. However, oral contraception is delivered free of charge in only 10 countries. Twenty-three countries do not meet current standards in terms of providing policy-based pregnancy care, and only 13 have set up special programmes for pregnant adolescents. In only seven countries can adolescents definitely have their pregnancy terminated without their parents knowing (and in another seven countries in selected situations). Conclusion The provision and availability of adolescent-friendly SRHR care are far from optimal in around half of the surveyed countries. These results call for the review and implementation of policies, specialised healthcare centres and training initiatives for primary care providers.

Background and objectives: Adolescent sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) are of particular relevance given their potential short-term or long-term health consequences. This study evaluates recommendations and policies regarding access to care in this area in 31 European countries (European Union (EU) plus Iceland, Norway and Switzerland). Methods: As part of the EU funded Models of Child Health Appraised project, data were gathered using a 43-item questionnaire sent to experts responsible for collecting information in each country. Results: Ten countries have not developed any formal policy or recommendation that guarantee the respect of confidentiality and the possibility of consulting a physician without parents knowing. Nearly half of the countries do not have centres specialised in adolescent healthcare, tackling comprehensive health issues or focusing specifically on SRH. Access to emergency contraception and information regarding pregnancy, including testing, is easy in most countries. However, oral contraception is delivered free of charge in only 10 countries. Twenty-three countries do not meet current standards in terms of providing policy-based pregnancy care, and only 13 have set up special programmes for pregnant adolescents. In only seven countries can adolescents definitely have their pregnancy terminated without their parents knowing (and in another seven countries in selected situations). Conclusion: The provision and availability of adolescent-friendly SRHR care are far from optimal in around half of the surveyed countries. These results call for the review and implementation of policies, specialised healthcare centres and training initiatives for primary care providers.

Background and objectives Adolescent sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) are of particular relevance given their potential short-term or long-term health consequences. This study evaluates recommendations and policies regarding access to care in this area in 31 European countries (European Union (EU) plus Iceland, Norway and Switzerland). Methods As part of the EU funded Models of Child Health Appraised project, data were gathered using a 43-item questionnaire sent to experts responsible for collecting information in each country. Results Ten countries have not developed any formal policy or recommendation that guarantee the respect of confidentiality and the possibility of consulting a physician without parents knowing. Nearly half of the countries do not have centres specialised in adolescent healthcare, tackling comprehensive health issues or focusing specifically on SRH. Access to emergency contraception and information regarding pregnancy, including testing, is easy in most countries. However, oral contraception is delivered free of charge in only 10 countries. Twenty-three countries do not meet current standards in terms of providing policy-based pregnancy care, and only 13 have set up special programmes for pregnant adolescents. In only seven countries can adolescents definitely have their pregnancy terminated without their parents knowing (and in another seven countries in selected situations). Conclusion The provision and availability of adolescent-friendly SRHR care are far from optimal in around half of the surveyed countries. These results call for the review and implementation of policies, specialised healthcare centres and training initiatives for primary care providers.

This publication aims at analyzing of the dominant of the humanism principle in today's in economies in the European Union (EU) Member States, with special emphasis on the Baltic States by gross domestic product (GDP) by method expenditure approach, and to compare them on the Europe and welt level. This section is focused on critical analysis of the components of GDP, according to the method expenditure approach of the final consumption expenditure of households and non-profit institutions serving households and of general government. The analysis shows that the growth all components of GDP is not beneficial to people and countries on the basis of the principles of humanism.

Motivation: The study of poverty is extremely important because of the negative impact it can have on the economy. Improving the situation of people at risk of poverty or social exclusion is one of the most important objectives of the social policy both in Poland and in the European Union. The aim is consistent with such official Polish documents as: Strategy for the Development of Human Capital 2020 National Development Strategy 2020.Aim: The aim of the article is to assess the risk of poverty and social exclusion in Poland in the period 2006–2015, and to compare the degree of risk of poverty in Poland and other European Union countries.Results: The study shows that the risk of poverty in Poland decreased in the analyzed period. In comparison to the EU countries, Poland made the greatest progress in reducing the risk of poverty. Dynamics of changes in reducing the risk of poverty in Poland was the highest among the EU countries. The scale of the risk of poverty in Poland in 2006 was one of the highest (with a higher risk noted only in Latvia). The situation in Poland in 2015 indicated that in 2015 the degree of risk of poverty was lower in Poland than in many EU countries: Portugal, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Cyprus, Italy, Spain, Greece, Ireland, Estonia. In addition, the world economic crisis of 2008–2010 did not affect the risk of poverty in Poland. In most EU countries during the crisis the risk of poverty increased, however in Poland it declined. This undoubtedly allowed for improving the situation in Poland to a higher extent than in other EU countries.

Motivation: The study of poverty is extremely important because of the negative impact it can have on the economy. Improving the situation of people at risk of poverty or social exclusion is one of the most important objectives of the social policy both in Poland and in the European Union. The aim is consistent with such official Polish documents as: Strategy for the Development of Human Capital 2020 National Development Strategy 2020.Aim: The aim of the article is to assess the risk of poverty and social exclusion in Poland in the period 2006–2015, and to compare the degree of risk of poverty in Poland and other European Union countries.Results: The study shows that the risk of poverty in Poland decreased in the analyzed period. In comparison to the EU countries, Poland made the greatest progress in reducing the risk of poverty. Dynamics of changes in reducing the risk of poverty in Poland was the highest among the EU countries. The scale of the risk of poverty in Poland in 2006 was one of the highest (with a higher risk noted only in Latvia). The situation in Poland in 2015 indicated that in 2015 the degree of risk of poverty was lower in Poland than in many EU countries: Portugal, Hungary, Lithuania, Latvia, Cyprus, Italy, Spain, Greece, Ireland, Estonia. In addition, the world economic crisis of 2008–2010 did not affect the risk of poverty in Poland. In most EU countries during the crisis the risk of poverty increased, however in Poland it declined. This undoubtedly allowed for improving the situation in Poland to a higher extent than in other EU countries.