Suchergebnisse

Given the importance of aerosol particles to radiative transfer via aerosol-radiation interactions, a methodology for tracking and diagnosing causes of temporal changes in regional-scale aerosol populations is illustrated. The aerosol optical properties tracked include estimates of total columnar burden (aerosol optical depth, AOD), dominant size mode (Ångström exponent, AE), and relative magnitude of radiation scattering versus absorption (single scattering albedo, SSA), along with metrics of the structure of the spatial field of these properties. Over well-defined regions of North America, there are generally negative temporal trends in mean and extreme AOD, and SSA. These are consistent with lower aerosol burdens and transition towards a relatively absorbing aerosol, driven primarily by declining sulfur dioxide emissions. Conversely, more remote regions are characterized by increasing mean and extreme AOD that is attributed to increased local wildfire emissions and long-range (transcontinental) transport. Regional and national reductions in anthropogenic emissions of aerosol precursors are leading to declining spatial autocorrelation in the aerosol fields and increased importance of local anthropogenic emissions in dictating aerosol burdens. However, synoptic types associated with high aerosol burdens are intensifying (becoming more warm and humid), and thus changes in synoptic meteorology may be offsetting aerosol burden reductions associated with emissions legislation.

The peasant retirement arrangement known in Austria as Ausgedinge, is established by the transfer of a farm holding to an heir in exchange for the lifelong provision of shelter, food and other services to the retirees. Since the retirement of the old peasant is closely linked to the marriage of the successor, this arrangement leads to a specific stem-family household in which the head-of- household position rests with the younger generation. The article compares the frequency of retirement arrangements across a wide range of Austrian villages and small towns, controlling for age distribution as well as the various structural and cultural characteristics of these units. The data used are census-type parish registers (soul books) from the early seventeenth to the late nineteenth century. Households with retirement arrangements are found to be rare; only a small pro portion of the elderly were formally retired. The increase of retirement ar rangements during the nineteenth century cannot be attributed to changes in age distribution but rather, to increasing wealth in specific agricultural areas. Moreover, the data suggest that in case of the death of a spouse, retirement was increasingly preferred over remarriage.

During the nineteenth century, the bazaar remained the center of commercial activity in Iran. However, the traditional structure of Iranian economy and society began to be deeply affected by Iran's increasing involvement in the international market, so that by the end of the century there had been nearly a twelvefold increase in the volume of Iran's foreign trade. This was accompanied by a rise in the general level of prosperity in the country, and an almost doubling of its population. The groups most directly affected by these developments were the merchants and craftsmen and it was the emergence of a small capitalist class which wanted a share in the political process that greatly contributed to the rise and success of the constitutional movement. The impact of the demands of the international market on crafts and guilds damaged some of the textile industry but stimulated the rise of new crafts, such as those associated with the production and processing of opium and carpets.

Intro -- Contents -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction / Scott A. Anderson -- Part I: A Triumph Over Torture, Told by a Survivor -- One / Tales of Terrorism and Torture: The Soft Vengeance of Justice / Albie Sachs -- Part II: Psychological Perspectives on Torture -- Two / The Many Faces of Torture: A Psychological Perspective / William Gorman and Sandra G. Zakowski -- Three / Stoic Equanimity in the Face of Torture / Nancy Sherman -- Four / Gender Performance Requirements of the US Military in the War on Islamic Terrorism / Mary Anne Case -- Part III: Torture in Historical Context -- Five / The Fragility of Evidence: Torture in Ancient Rome / Kathleen M. Coleman -- Six / US Torture of Prisoners of War in Historical Perspective: The Role of Delegitimization / Christopher J. Einolf -- Seven / Police Interrogation and Coercion in Domestic American History: Lessons for the War on Terror / Richard A. Leo and K. Alexa Koenig -- Part IV: The Ethics of Torture -- Eight / The Ticking Bomb Hypothetical / Marcia Baron -- Nine / Torture and Method in Moral Philosophy / Jeff McMahan -- Ten / Torture, Self- Defense, and Fighting Dirty / David Sussman -- Eleven / Torture as Unjust Means of War: To Squelch the Sirens' Singing / Scott A. Anderson -- Part V: Torture in US Law and Policy -- Twelve / Torture and Positive Law: Jurisprudence for the White House / Jeremy Waldron -- Thirteen / In Defense of Lawfare: The Value of Litigation in Challenging Torture / Lisa Hajjar -- Fourteen / Tortured Prosecutions: Holding Private Military Contractors Accountable / Garrett Ordower -- List of Contributors -- Index

Regarding the course of education offered at Norwich; discusses doctor of philosophy degree; mentions the act of incorporation or charter of the academy. ; Transcription by Anthony Long. Transcriptions may be subject to error.