Suchergebnisse

Introduction: The German PID-NET registry was founded in 2009, serving as the first national registry of patients with primary immunodeficiencies (PID) in Germany. It is part of the European Society for Immunodeficiencies (ESID) registry. The primary purpose of the registry is to gather data on the epidemiology, diagnostic delay, diagnosis, and treatment of PIDs. Methods: Clinical and laboratory data was collected from 2,453 patients from 36 German PID centres in an online registry. Data was analysed with the software Stata((R)) and Excel. Results: The minimum prevalence of PID in Germany is 2.72 per 100,000 inhabitants. Among patients aged 1-25, there was a clear predominance of males. The median age of living patients ranged between 7 and 40 years, depending on the respective PID. Predominantly antibody disorders were the most prevalent group with 57% of all 2,453 PID patients (including 728 CVID patients). A gene defect was identified in 36% of patients. Familial cases were observed in 21% of patients. The age of onset for presenting symptoms ranged from birth to late adulthood (range 0-88 years). Presenting symptoms comprised infections (74%) and immune dysregulation (22%). Ninety-three patients were diagnosed without prior clinical symptoms. Regarding the general and clinical diagnostic delay, no PID had undergone a slight decrease within the last decade. However, both, SCID and hyper IgE-syndrome showed a substantial improvement in shortening the time between onset of symptoms and genetic diagnosis. Regarding treatment, 49% of all patients received immunoglobulin G (IgG) substitution (70%-subcutaneous; 29%-intravenous; 1%-unknown). Three-hundred patients underwent at least one hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Five patients had gene therapy. Conclusion: The German PID-NET registry is a precious tool for physicians, researchers, the pharmaceutical industry, politicians, and ultimately the patients, for whom the outcomes will eventually lead to a more timely diagnosis and better treatment.

"From the law of nature then which may also be called the law of nations, it is evident that all kinds of war are not to be condemned" Hugo Grocio Desde la caída de las torres gemelas, de la invasión de Afganistán y de la subsiguiente guerra de Irak, el tema de la guerra ha vuelto a irrumpir en el escenario internacional. Mucho se discute sobre la legalidad o no de esas guerras y sobre su conveniencia o no desde una óptica más política. Pero la pertinencia o no de una determinada guerra no sólo se puede juzgar desde el punto de vista legal o político. También puede hacérselo desde una perspectiva ética. Eso es, muy apretadamente, lo que propone la teoría de la guerra justa al intentar dilucidar cuándo una guerra es moralmente justificable y cuándo no. No obstante, y si bien esta teoría se mueve primordialmente en el campo ético, vale decir que ha tenido, desde siempre, una clarísima vocación jurídica y política: más drásticamente, dicha aspiración es la razón misma de su militancia. Breve historia de la teoría Si bien existen ciertos rudimentos de la teoría de la guerra justa en la Antigüedad (concretamente en la obra de Aristóteles) podemos decir que la misma surge muy tempranamente en la Edad Media, como producto de la síntesis entre la tradición romana y la cultura cristiana. El que hace esa operación, en el siglo IV, es San Agustín quien negando el rotundo pacifismo que profesaba el cristianismo primitivo, señaló que la guerra era permisible si era justa. Sería Santo Tomás de Aquino quien se haría del legado de la teoría agustiniana de la guerra justa. Este teólogo aclaró ciertos puntos de la misma y la actualizó, convirtiéndose así en el precursor de lo que sería posteriormente la teoría de la guerra justa moderna. En efecto, la Modernidad habría de re-trabajar los principios heredados de la filosofía escolástica de los siglos XV y XVI y, a través del método racional, presentaría una nueva doctrina para el siglo XVII, esta vez, con ropaje secular. Las piezas claves en esa transición fueron Hugo Grocio, Samuel Puffendorf y Christian Wolff. Sin embargo, la doctrina sufriría un contundente impasse para el siglo XIX como producto del auge de las teorías belicistas. La Primera Guerra Mundial le daría a la teoría de la guerra justa una nueva oportunidad para reflorecer; y así fue. No obstante, esa reaparición fue bastante breve y luego de la Segunda Guerra la bellum justum quedaría otra vez eclipsada, esta vez, no por teorías belicistas sino por doctrinas pacifistas. Recién en las últimas décadas, la guerra justa ha experimentado un nuevo renacer, propiciado tanto por la aparición de una nueva "camada" de autores que abogan por ella (los casos de John Rawls y de Michael Walzer son los más importantes) como por las recientes conflagraciones bélicas, ya mencionadas. Algunos de los principios que se presentarán a continuación provienen de esa teorización contemporánea. ¿Qué es la guerra justa? En un primer acercamiento, y retomando lo que decíamos en la entrega pasada, la teoría de la guerra justa es una especie de "limbo" que equidista de la idealidad del pacifismo más utópico como de la crudeza del realismo más maquiavélico. Como reza al inicio de este artículo el párrafo de Hugo Grocio, para esta concepción no todas las guerras deben ser condenadas de antemano, digamos, a priori. En principio, la guerra no es muy distinta de cualquier otro acto humano pasible de juicio moral. Por ello, hay que tener en cuenta tanto el contexto y las situaciones en las que se enmarca una guerra así como también los fines, las motivaciones y los deseos que le dan impulso. En realidad, el esfuerzo de esta escuela, y es allí donde radica la originalidad y donde se muestra la personalidad particular de cada autor, está dirigido a establecer ciertos criterios abstractos y simples que permitan distinguir fácilmente a una guerra justa de una injusta. Pero, ¿cuáles son esos criterios? Los criterios se pueden dividir en tres subgrupos que, aunque experimentan variaciones dependiendo del autor, constituyen el núcleo duro de la teoría. Por un lado tenemos el ius ad bellum, es decir, los criterios que regulan el derecho a recurrir a la guerra. Por otro está el ius in bello, que regula el desarrollo de la guerra. Y, por último, el ius post bellum, que regula todo lo que tiene que ver con el final de la guerra. Para que una guerra sea completamente justa debe cumplir con esos tres grupos de criterios. Aún cuando una guerra cumpla perfectamente con el ius ad bellum, puede suceder que ésta sea injusta sino respeta las demás disposiciones del ius in bello y el ius post bellum. El ius ad bellum nos señala que el Estado puede apelar a la guerra sólo cuando tiene ciertas razones para hacerlo; esto es, cuando cuenta con causa justas (iusta causa). Entre las más importantes iustae causae se encuentran la legítima defensa externa, la defensa de otros que están siendo agredidos, el castigo por algún agravio (sea cometido a un Estado en particular o la Comunidad Internacional toda), la protección de inocentes de regímenes infames, etc. Además, la causa justa debe ser siempre complementada con una apropiada intención. Es decir, el deseo de expansión territorial, de venganza, etc. no deben ser los que enciendan la guerra, aún cuando se tenga una causa justa para comenzarla. Por otro lado, esta teoría sostiene que la guerra debe ser declarada por una autoridad legítima y dada a conocer públicamente. Además, la guerra no sólo será el último recurso a utilizar (es decir que se debieron haber agotado antes todas las demás vías pacíficas) sino que también debe tener una amplía posibilidad de éxito: ¿para qué comenzar una guerra que se sabe que fracasará? ¿Cuál es el sentido de aumentar las pérdidas cuando seguro se perderá? En este punto, como en el de proporcionalidad (que postula que la guerra debe corresponder con un acto igualmente importante), se nota claramente que el acento de esta teoría está puesto en alcanzar, efectivamente, la justicia. Si se tiene la certeza de que no se logrará, entonces, la guerra es un recurso fútil: es mejor dejar las cosas como están. En ese sentido, la bellum justum puede ser concebida (y en la medida en que esta teoría se vuelve imperativo jurídico) como una suerte de mecanismo legal que permite la realización del Derecho, esto es, la restauración de la justicia en el ámbito internacional: el Derecho es el fin, la guerra el medio. La injusticia es la enfermedad, la guerra justa es el amargo remedio que le pone fin. De ese modo, la guerra es equiparable, como dice Bobbio, con un procedimiento judicial que, en ausencia de una entidad supranacional reguladora, el Estado está habilitado a poner en marcha siempre que cumpla con las normas de ius ad bellum y esté dispuesto a respetar el ius in bello y el ius post bellum. Así, el Derecho Internacional no es sólo un Derecho de paz (jure pacis) sino también un Derecho de guerra (jure belli). Éste convive con la institución de la guerra: no se trata, pues, de prohibirla cuanto de regularla, de circunscribirla a un puñado de casos. Como señaláramos, la teoría de la guerra justa también prescribe ciertas normas para asegurar que el desarrollo de la guerra sea justo, el ius in bello. Muy someramente, se puede decir que éstos son la no utilización de armamento prohibido (armas nucleares, biológicas, etc.), el respeto por la población civil, la prohibición de efectuar represalias, etc. Resta por ver, entonces, el ius post bellum. Por un lado, éste exige que los tratados de paz que concluyen la guerra sean razonables a fin de evitar que pueda germinar cualquier sentimiento de venganza. Por otro lado, el acuerdo debe satisfacer reparar a la parte que fue transgredida y que disparó la guerra. ¿Paz o Justicia? Como se dijo al inicio de este artículo, la teoría de la guerra justa tiene un claro soporte ético. Éste se deja traslucir cuando advertimos que, en el fondo de la cuestión, lo que se discute es una elección entre dos valores distintos: la justicia o la paz. Es claro que la teoría que se presentó prefiere la justicia antes que la paz o, dicho de otra manera, opta siempre por una guerra justa que por una paz injusta. Esa aporía ética, que significa tener que decidir entre justicia o paz, era tal vez mucho más fácil de resolver en los tiempos de Grocio (y de ahí la relativa predominancia de la teoría en los siglos XVII Y XVIII), cuando los enfrentamientos bélicos no lograban amenazar con tragarse a la civilización entera. De allí que se eligiera la justicia en lugar de la paz. Pero a medida que la técnica moderna permitía el avance cada vez más acelerado de los armamentos y conforme el uso de la razón se volvía cada vez más instrumental, poniéndose así al servicio de la estrategia militar, la elección entre justicia o paz se hacía muchos menos evidente. La Primera Guerra Mundial significó el punto cúspide de esa difícil cuestión. Sin embargo, fue recién la Segunda Guerra Mundial la que finalmente decantó del lado de la paz: y cómo no hacerlo luego de Hiroshima y Nagasaki. En efecto, con el estallido de las bombas atómicas, se movieron los cimientos mismos de la teoría de la guerra justa: ¿es posible hacer justicia con un arma tan destructora? ¿En qué quedan la reparación y la proporcionalidad cuando la devastación absoluta es la consigna de este nuevo artefacto? Más aún, ¿no se pone en entredicho los mismísimos fundamentos de la guerra con semejante artilugio? Si la esencia de la guerra es la derrota del enemigo: ¿Quién gana y quién pierde en una guerra nuclear cuando el resultado final es la destrucción mutua? La única que pierde parece ser la humanidad toda. La cuestión ya no era más paz o justicia, ahora era mucho más simple: ¿paz o muerte? En esa nueva dicotomía justamente se moverá el pacifismo jurídico de la segunda mitad del siglo XX. Puesto que el problema de la destrucción total sigue vigente, sólo es explicable la restauración contemporánea de la teoría de la guerra justa en el marco de una redefinición. De hecho, la idea de que una guerra sería injusta en sí misma si en ella se utilizarán armas biológicas o atómicas, es parte de esa reelaboración que la teoría debió realizar para lograr mantenerse vigente en este siglo XXI. Pero antes deberíamos preguntarnos cómo fue que se llegó, para el siglo XX, a una situación tal en la que todo parecía debatirse entre la paz o la muerte. El siglo XIX es el que guarda la respuesta. Las guerras napoleónicas, la reedición del maquiavelismo, la relativización o, peor aún, la reivindicación explícita de la guerra, a veces como una fuerza "divina" a veces como prueba de vitalidad de una nación, culminaron en una visión que estremecería al mundo con dos guerras mundiales: la guerra como acto de reafirmación soberana. La era de la guerra total se abría paso. De esta visión, nos ocuparemos en el siguiente artículo.* Estudiante de la Licenciatura en Estudios Internacionales. Depto de Estudios Internacionales. FACS - ORT Uruguay.

Introduction: The German PID-NET registry was founded in 2009, serving as the first national registry of patients with primary immunodeficiencies (PID) in Germany. It is part of the European Society for Immunodeficiencies (ESID) registry. The primary purpose of the registry is to gather data on the epidemiology, diagnostic delay, diagnosis, and treatment of PIDs. Methods: Clinical and laboratory data was collected from 2,453 patients from 36 German PID centres in an online registry. Data was analysed with the software Stata® and Excel. Results: The minimum prevalence of PID in Germany is 2.72 per 100,000 inhabitants. Among patients aged 1-25, there was a clear predominance of males. The median age of living patients ranged between 7 and 40 years, depending on the respective PID. Predominantly antibody disorders were the most prevalent group with 57% of all 2,453 PID patients (including 728 CVID patients). A gene defect was identified in 36% of patients. Familial cases were observed in 21% of patients. The age of onset for presenting symptoms ranged from birth to late adulthood (range 0-88 years). Presenting symptoms comprised infections (74%) and immune dysregulation (22%). Ninety-three patients were diagnosed without prior clinical symptoms. Regarding the general and clinical diagnostic delay, no PID had undergone a slight decrease within the last decade. However, both, SCID and hyper IgE- syndrome showed a substantial improvement in shortening the time between onset of symptoms and genetic diagnosis. Regarding treatment, 49% of all patients received immunoglobulin G (IgG) substitution (70%-subcutaneous; 29%-intravenous; 1%-unknown). Three-hundred patients underwent at least one hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Five patients had gene therapy. Conclusion: The German PID-NET registry is a precious tool for physicians, researchers, the pharmaceutical industry, politicians, and ultimately the patients, for whom the outcomes will eventually lead to a more timely diagnosis and better treatment. ; peerReviewed

ÜBER LAND UND MEER : DEUTSCHE ILLUSTRIERTE ZEITUNG 2. BAND 1902 Über Land und Meer (-) Über Land und Meer : deutsche illustrierte Zeitung 2. Band 1902 (44. Jahrgang / 2. Band / 1902) ( - ) Einband ( - ) Titelseite ([I]) Inhalts-Verzeichnis. II. Band. 1902. Heft 6 - 9. ([III]) [Abb.]: Erste Studien. Nach dem Gemälde von E. Henseler. ( - ) Die Wacht am Rhein. ([1]) [Abb.]: Bocciaspieler. Nach dem Gemälde von Eugen Klimsch. ([4 - 5]) [Abb.] Auf der Lauer. Originalzeichnung von Wilhelm Kuhnert ( - ) Das Mechitaristenkloster auf der Insel San Lazzaro bei Venedig. (Nach phot. Aufnahmen von T. Filippi in Venedig.) ([25]) [Abb.]: Teil des Kreuzgangs. ([25]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Der Abt (Erzbischof) im Pontifikatgewande. (2)Mechitaristischer Archidiakon. (3)Die Byron-Oliven. (26) [Abb.]: Inneres der Kirche. (27) [3 Abb.]: (1)Äußere Ansicht des Klosters. (2)Grabdenkmal des ConstantinZuccola. (3)Klosterfriedhof. (28 - 29) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mechitar, Gründer des Ordens. (2)Ministranten bei Zelebration eines Hochamts. (30) [Gedicht]: Der Gedanke. (30) Der Amateur-Chauffeur. ([31]) Johann Nestroy. Zu seinem hundertsten Geburtstage. ([33]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Nestroy als Knieriem in Lumpacivagabundus. ("Aufs Jahr kommt der neue Komet, da geht die Welt z'Grund."). (2)Nestroy als norddeutscher Student. ("Des fordert Geblüt!") ([33]) [Abb.]: Wenzel Scholz. Karl Treumann Johann Nestroy. ([35]) Karpfenfischerei in Reinfeld (Holstein). (36 - 37) [5 Abb.]: Karpfenfischerei in Reinfeld (Holstein). (36 - 37) Das deutsche Erzieherinnenheim in Wien. (38) Wintervergnügen im Ampezzothal. (Hiezu die Bilder Seite 52 und 53) (39) [Abb.]: (39) Die Hochzeit. Von Georg Freiherrn von Ompteda ([40]) [Abb.]: Ismene. Nach dem Gemälde von C. von Bodenhausen. ( - ) [5 Abb.]: Wintervergnügen im Ampezzo-Thal ([52 - 53]) Die tausendjährigen Eichen des Haßbrook und die Klosterruine Hude im Oldenburgischen. Von Dr. W. Wittich. (55) [2 Abb.]: (1)Klosterruine Hude (2)Rieseneiche, vom Blitz zersplittert. (56) [3 Abb.]: (1)Amalieneiche. (2)Friederikeneiche. (3)Grosse Eiche. (57) [2 Abb.]: (1)Liedertafeleiche. (2)Hainbuche. (58) Karl Freiherr von Drais, der Erfinder des Fahrrades. Zu seinem fünfzigsten Todestage. ([59]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Karl Freiherr von Drais. (2)Die erste Fahrmaschine des Freiherrn Karl von Drais. ([59]) [Abb]: Karikatur auf die Fahrmaschine, 1820. (60) Aus der Sternenwelt. (60) [Abb.] Großer Sternhaufen im Sternbild des Centauren. Nach einer photographischen Aufnahme. (61) Feuer. Erzählung von Johanna Diemann. ([62]) [Abb.]: Frohe Botschaft. Nach dem Gemälde von Arthur L. Vernon. ( - ) [Abb.] Der erste Geburtstag. Nach dem Gemälde von G. Sheridan Knowles. ([68 - 69]) Für das Heidelberger Schloß! Von Adolf Rosenberg. (Nach photogr. Aufnahmen von Edm. von König.) ([73]) [Abb|: [Heidelberger Schloß] ([73]) [2 Abb.] (1)Der Friedrichsbau vor der Restauration. (2)Der Friedrichsbau nach der Restauration. ([75]) [Abb.] Der Otto Heinrichsbau. (77) Christian Dietrich Grabbe. Ein Gedenkblatt zum 11. Dezember 1901. (77) [Abb.]: Christian Dietrich Grabbe. (78) Pariser Wintermoden. (Mit 7 Abbildungen nach Aufnahmen von Reutlinger in Paris.) (80) [Abb.] Toilette aus schwarzem Sammet. (80) [3 Abb.]: (1) Strassentoilette aus silbergraumen Tuch mit Cape und Capuchon. (2)Kleid für den Automobilsport, auch als Strassenkleid verwendbar. (3)Kostüm der Maison Laferrière aus dunkel-taubengrauem Tuch.) (81) [3 Abb.]: (1)Empfangskleid mit Bolerojäckchen. (2)Tüllkleid mit Abendmantel. (3)Abendmangtel. Robe aus seegrüner Liberty-Seide. (82) Modeblumen des Winters. Von Max Hesdörffer. ([83]) [Abb.]: ([83]) Im Zeichen der Gans. (86) [Abb.]: Die Weihnachtsgans. (86) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Schlächterei. (2)Das Rupfen der Gänse. (87) [Abb.]: Hauptgebäude der Gänsemästerei in Gross-Barnitz (Holstein). (88) Die kunstgewerbliche Krankheit. (88) [Abb.]: Das Absengen, im Hintergrund die Wäscherei. (88) [Abb.]: Zu dem Artikel: Im Zeichen der Gans": Die Mästerei. ([89]) [Abb.]: Zum Artikel: "Im Zeichen der Gans"; Das verpacken (90) Litteratur. ([92]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Alphubel. Aus L. Purtscheller, "Ueber Fels und Firn". (2)Aus L. Purtscheller, "Ueber Fels und Firn". Hochkalter, vom Wimbachthal aus (93) Aus aller Welt ([94]) [Abb.]: Der mit dem ersten Preise gekrönte Entwurf für das Richard Wagner-Denkmal in Berlin. Von Gustav Eberlein. ([94]) Tagesgeschichte. (95) [2 Abb.]: (1)Otto Lohse. (2)Graf Paul Wolff-Metternich. (95) Tonkunst (95) [Abb.]: Das neue Reichsbankgebäude in München. (95) Bildende Kunst. (95) [Abb.]: Prof. Dr. Karl von Liebermeister †. (95) [Abb.]: Das Schifferhaus in Lübeck. (96) Jubiläen. (96) [Abb.]: Aus dem Schifferhause in Lübeck. (96) Denkmäler (97) [3 Abb.]: (1)Das Heinrich Heine-Denkmal auf dem Montmartrefriedhof in Paris. (2)Die Badenia vor dem Rathause in Karlsruhe. (3)Die Fidelitas vor dem Rathause in Karlsruhe. (97) Erziehung und Unterricht. (97) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Zöglinge des Waisenheims Borromäum in Graz. (2)Prof. Dr. Gustav Vogt †. (98) Stiftungen. (98) [Abb.]: Das Christian Dewet-Denkmal in Schierstein. (98) Kultur und Wissenschaft. (99) [Abb.]: Das Kaiser Wilhelm-Denkmal in Heidelberg, enthüllt am 5. Dezember 1901. Von Adolf Donndorf. (99) [Abb.]: Selbstbildnis von Leonardo da Vinci. Nach einer Zeichnung. (100) Totenschau. (100) [Abb.]: Leonardo da Vinci. Marmorbüste von Harro Magnussen. (100) Handschriften-Beurteilung. ([101]) Für müssige Stunden. ([102]) Briefmappe. (104) Werbung (104) [Abb.]: Schwerer Anfang. Nach dem Gemälde von Fedor Poppe. ( - ) Die Wacht am Rhein. Roman von C. Viebig. ([105]) [Abb.]: Ein Germanenweiß verkündet dem Drusus das Ziel seiner Eroberungen. (Nach dem Gemälde von Hugo Vogel. (Text Seite 134.) ([108 - 109]) [Abb.]: Die siegreiche Germania. Nach dem Gemälde von Hugo Vogel (Text Seite 134.) ([116 - 117]) [Abb.]: In der Pfarrkirche zu Innsbruck. Nach dem Gemälde von Karl Seifer. ( - ) [Gedicht]: Ein Totentanz. (128) Bilder aus Kanada. ([129]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Fraser River bei Lytton (Britisch-Columbia). (2)Bow Valley, Partie im kanadischen Nationalpark, Provinz Alberta. ([129]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Château Fontenac, Hotel in Quebec. (2)Hafen von Montreal. (130) Funkentelegraphie zwischen Cuxhaven und Helgoland. (131) [Abb.]: Funkentelegraphenstation auf Helgoland. (131) [Abb.] Die Funkentelegraphenstation im Lotsenhause zu Cuxhaven. Dr. Köpfel. Prof. Dr. Braun. ([132]) Aus dem Reich der Sterne. (133) Hugo Vogel und seine Wandgemälde in Werseburg. (Hierzu die Bilder Seite 108/9 und 116/17.) (134) [Abb.]: Hugo Vogel. (134) [Abb.]: Studienkopf. Von Hugo Vogel. (135) Wald und Klima. (136) [Abb.]: Der Piqueur. Nach dem Gemälde von G. Koch. ( - ) [Abb.]: Die Burgruine Hohen-Neussen bei Urach (Württemberg). Zeichnung von W. Strich-Chapell. ([138]) Der Karlsruher Rheinhafen. ([139]) [5 Abb.]: (1)Die Werfthalle. (2)Ankunft eines Kohlenschiffes. (3)Partie vom südlichen Becken mit Schleppdampfer. (4)Elektrischer Kran, Kohlen ausladend. (5)Ries-Elevator. ([140 - 141]) Feuer. Erzählung von Johanna Niemann. (142) [Abb.]: Eine Ode. Nach dem Gemälde von F. Andreotti. ([148 - 149]) [Abb.] In den Krieg. Nach dem Gemälde von Plá y Rubio. ( - ) [5 Abb.] (1)Zieharmonikaspieler. Von de Matteis. (2)Der Glockenspieler. Von de Matteis. (3)Der Tambourinschläger. (4)Guitarrespieler. Von de Matteis. (5)Der Schulmeister. Von G. B. Amendola. (158) Humor in der italienischen Bildhauerkunst. (159) [3 Abb.] (1)Der kleine Sänger. Von Merculiano. (2)Die Weinlese. Von G. B. Amendola. (3)Der Orchesterdirigent. Von de Mattels. (159) Münchener Lebensbilder. ([160]) Römische Grabsteine aus Köln. (Aufnahmen von Frau E. de Voß in Köln.) (162) [Abb.]: Relief eines Reiter-Grabsteins. (162) [2 Abb]: (1)Römisches Relief aus Köln. (2)Römische Grabsteine aus Köln. (163) Das Yih-king. Chinesische Novellette von M. von Ekensteen. ([164]) Skizzen aus Paraguay. Mit 8 Abbildungen nach Originalzeichnungen von Karl Oenike. (167) [Abb.]: Vor der Markthalle in Asuncion. (167) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ochsenkarrete. (2)Landschaft am Paraguay. (168) [Abb.]: An der Laguna Ipataray, Kolonie San Bernardino in Paraguay. ( - ) [Abb.]: Palmenwald. (169) [2Abb.]: (1)Kirche in Altos. (2)Estancia Isla Paú. (170) [Abb.]: Kancho. (171) [Gedicht]: Am Grabe meiner Mutter. Von Wilhelm Hertz. (172) Wilhelm Hertz. ([173]) [Abb.] Wilhelm Hertz. ([173]) Ein Geschenk der ehemaligen Angehörigen der kaiserlichen Marine. (174) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Kaiser Wilhelm-Turm auf dem "Hallo" in der Bürgermeisterei Stoppenberg. (2)Die Gedächtnishalle. (174) [Abb.]: Die Erztafel im Kaiser Wilhelm-Turm. (175) Fastnacht in den Alpen. Eine Skizze aus dem Volksleben. Von Hans Kerschbaum. (175) Elektrizität im Haushalt. (177) [6 Abb.]: (1)Sceleton-Fahrer. (2) Schweizerschlittler. (3)Am Start vor einem Bobrennen. (3)Bobsleigh auf gerader Strecke. (4)Bobsleigh, eine Kurve nehmend. (4)Schweizerschlittler, das Ziel passierend. ([180 - 181]) Schlitteln. (zu den Abbildungen Seite 180 und 181) (182) Die Berliner Unterpflasterbahn. (Aufnahmen von Gordan & Delius in Berlin.) (183) [Abb.]: Ein Zug auf der Unterpflasterbahn. (183) [Abb.]: Bahnhof Wittenbergplatz. (184) [2 Abb.]: (1)Beginn der Unterpflasterbahn am Nollendorfplatz. (2)Kurve unter der Kaiser Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche. ([185]) Psychologische Studien. Humoreske von Albert Roderich. ([186]) Litteratur. ([189]) Aus aller Welt ([192]) [Abb.]: ([192]) Zeitgeschichte. ([192]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Prinz Emanuel zu Salm-Salm. Phot. O. Krüger, Berlin. (2)Erzherzogin Maria Christina von Oesterreich. Phot. Adèle, Wien. (3)Prinzessin Jolanda Margherita von Italien, Tochter des italienischen Königspaares. Nach einer phot. Aufnahme der Königin Helena. ([192]) [Abb.]: Vorderansicht. Das neue evangelische Diakonissenkrankenhaus in Wien. (193) Die Preisgekrönten der Nobel-Stiftung. (193) [Abb.]: Dr. Heinrich Düntzer. (193) Bühne. (193) [Abb.]: Gartenansicht. Das neue evangelische Diakonissenkrankenhaus in Wien. (193) Wohltätigkeit. (194) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Casino der Villa Borghese in Rom. (2)Skulpturensaal im Casino der Villa Borghese. (In der Mitte die Statue der Fürstin Borghese von Canova.) (194) Bildende Künste. (195) [7 Abb.]: (1)Die himmlische und die irdische Liebe. Von Citian. (2)Frédéric Passy. E. Pirou, Paris. (3)Prof. Wilhelm Röntgen. Aufn. von Prof. Hanfstaengl, Hofphot, Frankfurt a. M. (4)Prof. Jacobus van t'Hoff. Aufn. von W. Höffert, Hofphot., Berlin. (5)Henri Dunant. Phot. E. Pirou, Paris. (6)Prof. Emil Behring. Phot. W. Kürper, Marburg. (7)René Sully-Prudhomme. Phot. E. Pirou, Paris. (195) [3 Abb.]: (1)Schmuckgegenstände. (2)Ausgrabungsfeld in Bettaro bei Pompeji. (3)Schädel, Schwert und Ring des angeblichen Plinius. (196 - 197) Denkmäler. (196 - 197) [2 Abb.]: (1)Dr. Tuisko von Lorey. Aufn. von Hofphot. Hornung, Tübingen. (2)Das Eisenbahnunglück bei Altenbeken am 20. Dezember 1901. Aufn. von B. Begger in Paderborn. (196 - 197) [2 Abb.]: (1)Claudius von Schraudolph †. (2)Das Moltke-Denkmal in Düsseldorf. Phot. Carl Heise, Düsseldorf. (198) Ausgrabungen. (198) [Abb.]: Luise von Eisenhart-Kobell †. Phot. Helios, München. (198) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Malberg im Westerwald vor dem Einsturz. Phot. Carl Schüßler Rheinbrohl. (2) Der Malberg nach dem Einsturz am 17. Dezember. ([199]) [Abb.] Die Goethe-Plakette des Wiener Goethe-Vereins. (200) Kunstgewerbe. (200) [Abb.]: Bemalte Thonbüste eines lachenden Kindes. Von Konrad Meit. (200) Gedenktage. (200) [Abb.]: Dr. Franz Xaver Kraus †. Aufn. von E. Kempfe, Hofphot., Freiburg i.B. (200) [Abb.]: Der mit dem ersten Preis ausgezeichnete Entwurf für das Bismarck-Denkmal in Hamburg. ([201]) Plastik. (202) [Abb.]: Max Adamo †. Phot. Friedr. Müller, München. (202) Totenschau. (202) [Abb.]: Das neue Museum der Profinz Hannover. Phot. Karl F. Wunder, Hannover. (202) [2 Abb.]: (1)Tafelaufsatz für den Lüneburger Bürgermeister Keferstein. (2)Tafelaufsatz für Geheimrat Heimann in Breslau. (203) [6 Abb]: (1)Coquelin der Aeltere in seinem Studienzimmer. Phot. Chuffeau-Flaviens, Paris. (2) Das Blindenheim für die Provinz Posen in Bromberg. (3)Eduard von Bauernfeld. (4)Hugo von Ziemssen †. Aufn. von Hofphot. Baumann, München. (5)Ernst Wichert †. Mit Genehm. von J. C. Schaarwächter, Hofphot, Berlin. (6)Das Denkmal für Robert Hamerlings Ehrengrab. (204 - 205) Für müssige Stunden. ([206]) Briefmappe. (208) Werbung (208) [Abb.]: Junge Mädchen vom Berge Karmel. ( - ) Die Wacht am Rhein. Roman von C. Viebig. ([209]) [Abb.]: Zur Nachsuche angekommen. Nach dem Gemälde von J. Vesin. ([212 - 213]) [Abb.]: Kriegserlebnisse. Nach dem Gemälde von A. Schröder. ( - ) [Gedicht]: Flottenlied. (232) Im Zauber der Eiswelt. ([233]) [Abb.]: Aus zwei Etagen bestehender Eisberg. ([233]) [Abb.]: Tafelförmiger Eisberg, von der Schmalseite gesehen. (234) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eisberg mit dicken Schichten blauen Eises. (2)Eisberg, gesichtet am 4. Dezember 1898. (Auf der vorspringenden Zunge eine Kolonie von Pinguinen.) ([235]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zersetzter Eisberg mit hochliegender Hohlkehle und polierten Wänden. (2)Tafelförmiger Eisberg mit Brandungswoge. (236) Die Krebskrankheit als soziale Gefahr. (237) [Gedicht]: Gram. (238) Ein Vogelnest im Winter. ([239]) [Abb.]: Die alte Dorfkirche in Schöneberg. (240) Schöneberg. Zur Entwicklung von Gross-Berlin. (240) [2 Abb.]: (1)Pauluskirche. (2)Luitpoldstrasse. (241) [Abb.]: Bambergerstrasse. (242) [2 Abb]: {1}Prinz Heinrich-Gymnasium. (2)Viktoria Luise-Platz. (243) [Abb.]: Die Hauptstraße in Schöneberg. (244 - 245) [Abb.]: Rathaus in Schöneberg. (246) [Gedicht]: Sinnsprüche. (246) Maskerá. Von Johanna von Düring. (246) [Abb.]: Willkommen! Nach dem Gemälde von A. Seifert. ( - ) Victor Hugo. Zu seinem hundertsten Geburtstag, 26. Februar 1902. ([250]) [Abb.]: Victor Hugo. Nach dem Gemälde von Léon Bonnat. ([250]) [Abb.]: Das Wohnhaus Victor Hugos in Paris. (Wohnzimmer des Dichters.) (251) [Abb.]: Wäscherinnen am Tiber. Nach dem Gemälde von E. Serra. ([252 - 253]) Prinzesschens Marotte. Novelle von Klaus Rittland. (254) Vom Kürbis. (257) Fernsprechämter. ([259]) [Abb.]: Das Gestell mit den Wählern. ([259]) [Abb.]: Das Hauptfernsprechamt in Berlin. (260 - 261) [2 Abb.]: (1)Aeussere Ansicht eines Wählers. (2)Innere Ansicht eines Wählers. ([262]) Tugendpreise. ([263]) Aus dem Reiche der Sterne. (264) [Abb.]: Bestrafter Vorwitz. Nach dem Gemäle von A. Weczerzick. ( - ) Der Verschollene. Ein kleiner Roman von Balduin Grosser. (265) [Abb.]: Ruine Hohen-Eppan in Tirol. Originalzeichnung von M. Zeno Diemer. ([268 - 269]) Die Bagdadbahn. ([273]) [Abb.]: Junge Kurdenfrau aus dem Gebirge bei Mossul. ([273]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schloss von Biredschik, Binnenseite. (2)Mossul. (274) [Karte]: (275) [6 Abb.]: (1)In einer persischen Krawanserai an der Straße von Chaniki nach Bagdad. (2)Kerbela bei Babylon. (3)Straße in Aleppo. (4)Urla. (5)Diadekr, der früher projektierte Knotenpunkt der anatolisch-mesopotamischen Bahnen. (6)Diarbekr (Sassanidenpalast). ([276 - 277]) [Abb]: Ruinen von Harran. (278) [2 Abb.]: (1)Aleppo. Derwischkloster Schech Abu-Bekr und Begräbnisplatz; links das türkische Militärhospital. (2)Rum-Kale, römische Felsenfestung in Nordsyrien. ([279]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Tigrisbrücke in Bagdad. (2)Kurdenmädchen aus dem iranisch-mesopotamischen Grenzgebirge. (280) [Abb.]: Bagdad. (281) Die Ozeanfunkentelegraphie Marconis. (282) [Abb.]: Ein Rettungsboot. Nach dem Gemälde von Georges Haquette. ([285]) Ein Glückspilz. Skizze aus dem neapolitanischen Volksleben von G. St. Laurent. ([286]) [Abb.]: Kloster auf Korfu. Nach dem Gemälde von Karl Mediz. ( - ) [7 Abb.] (1)Das Schaufiggthal, von Langwies aus gesehen; im Hintergrunde die Calanda. (2)Langwies, im Hintergrunde Schiahorn und Küpfenfluh. (3)Im Walde bei Arosa. (4)Eingeschneit. (Der frühere Standesbeamte von Arosa an der Thür seines Hauses) (5)Die "kleine Schlinge" bei Arosa. (6)Ausser-Arosa, von Osten aus gesehen, im Hintergrunde die Erzhörner und das Rothorn. (6)Inner-Arosa, von Westen aus gesehen; links das Sanatorium, rechts Furkahorn und Tijerfluh. ([292 - 293]) Arosa und das Schansiggthal. (Hierzu auch die Abbildungen Seite 292 und 293.) (295) [Abb.] Ein Teil Inner-Arosas im Winter. (295) Fremdländische Früchte. (296) [Abb.]: Mandarine und Orange. (296) [3 Abb.]: (1)Weisser Winterkalvill. (2)Kaktusfeigen. (3)Granatäpfel. (297) [2 Abb.]: (1)Persimonen. (2)Treibhausananas. (298) [Abb.]: Bananenbeeren. (299) Litteratur. (299) Kunst. (301) Aus aller Welt ([302]) [Abb.] ([302]) Zeitgeschichte. ([302]) [Abb.]: Erzherzog Rainer und Erzherzogin Marie von Oesterreich. Phot. Hofatelier Adele, Wien ([302]) Bildende Kunst. ([302]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Präsident Emilie Loubet auf der Jagd. (2)Die Söhne des chinesischen Gesandten Vykeng im Bois de Boulogne zu Paris. (303) [Abb.]: Die Jacht "Orion" (vormals "Meteor"), Geschenk des Kaisers Wilhelm an das Offiziercorps in Kiel. Phot. A. Renard, Kiel. (304) Sanitätswesen. (304) [Abb.]: Die Jacht "Komet", Geschenk des Kaisers an das Offiziercorps in Wilhelmshaven. (304) Industrie, Handel und Verkehr. (304) [Abb.]: Thomas Sidney Cooper †. Phot Fradelle & Young, London. (304) [Abb.]: Madonna mit Heiligen. Von Raffael. Angekauft von Mr. Pierpont Morgan für 2100000 Mark. ([305]) [3 Abb.]: (1) Das Sanitätsfahrrad, zum Transport Verwundeter umgestaltet. (2)Das neue österreichische Sanitätsfahrrad: fertig zur Fahrt. Aufn. von Hand Böhm, Salzburg. (3)Emil Hünten †. (306) [Abb.]: Der neue Südfruchtschuppen in Hamburg, Aussenansicht. (307) Herr und Flotte. (307) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der neue Südfruchtschuppen in Hamburg, Innenansicht. Aufn. von M. Kaulfuß, Hamburg. (2)Maximilian Schmidt. (307) Ehrungen. (307) [2 Abb.]: (1) Vom Besuch des Prinzen von Wales in Berlin: Die Galawache im Weißen Saal des Königl. Schlosses. (2)Generalleutnat von Kessel, der neue Kommandeur des Gardecorps. (308 - 309) Bühne. (308 - 309) [3 Abb.]: (1)Das Stuttgarter Hoftheater am Morgen nach dem Brande (Hinterfront und Maschinenbau. Aufn. vom Hofphot. Brandseph Stuttgart. (2)General Stoetzer, Bouverneur von Metz. Aufn. von Hofphot. E. Jacobi, Metz (3) Das ehemalige Lusthaus in Stuttgart. (308 - 309) Ausgrabungen. (308 - 309) [Abb.]: Die Flugversuche von Santos Dumont in Monte Carlo: Das Luftschiff, über der Bai von Monaco schwebend. (310) Luftschiffahrt. (310) [Abb.]: Das Luftschiff, in die Halle zurückgekehrt. (310) [Abb.] Kaiserin Eugenie im Gespräch mit Santos 'Dumont. (311) Totenschau. (311) [Abb.]: Adelaide Ristori (im achtzigsten Lebensjahre). (311) [2 Abb.]: (1)General Tomas Estrada, Palma, Präsident der Republik Cuba. (2)Begrüssung zwischen deutschem und französischem Militär an der Grenze Vionville-Mars la Tour. (312) Handschriften-Beurteilung. ([313]) Für müssige Stunden. ([313]) Werbung (314) Briefmappe. (315) [Abb.]: Den ihr suchet, er ist auferstanden. Nach dem Gemälde von B. Plockhorst. Photographie-Verlag von Franz Hanfstaengl in München. ( - ) Die Wacht am Rhein. Roman von C. Viebig. ([317]) [Abb.]: Gelungene Ueberraschung. Nach dem Gemälde von A. Perez. ([320 - 321]) [Abb.]: Im Hafen von New York. Nach einem Aquarell von Willy Stöwer ( - ) [Gedicht]: Eisgang im Morgennebel. (340) Auf einem modernen Panzerschiff. Eine Skizze von A. Oskar Klautzmann. (Aufnahmen von A. Renard in Kiel) ([341]) [Abb.]: "Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse" in voller Fahrt. ([341]) [Abb.]: Blick von der Back nach dem Mars. (343) [Abb.] Blick vom Achterdeck nach dem Mittelschiff. (344) [Abb]: Blick vom Mars auf die Bootlager und Bootkrane (345) Aus dem Reiche der Sterne. (346) [Abb.]: Photographische Aufnahme des neuen Sterns im Perseus. (347) [Gedicht]: Taube Nüsse. (347) Schwäbische Bauern im Arwald. (348) [Abb.]: Die Kirche von Továr (348) [Abb.]: Das Schützenhaus von Továr (349) [Abb.]: Blick von der Kolonie. (350) [Abb.]: Die ältesten Leute der Kolonie. (351) [Gedicht]: Osterlied. (352) Fräulein Christel. Skizze von V. Rittweger. ([353]) Die verflossene Jagdsaison. (356) [Abb.]: Die Trauer um den Leichnam Christi. Nach dem Gemälde von Walther Firle. ( - ) Kann die Kindertuberkulose Menschen tuberkulös machen? Eine hygienische Tagesfrage. (358) [Abb.]: Professor Paul von Baumgarten. (359) [2 Abb.]: Automobile in der deutschen Armee. Originalzeichnung von Adolf Wald. (Text S. 362). (1)Daimler-Motorlastwagen (Fernfahrt Cannstatt-Berlin 1901). (2) Thornycroft-Dampflastkraftwagen (Manöver 1901). ([360 - 361]) Automobile in der deutschen Armee. Im Hafen von New York. (362) Was ich am Nil erlebte. Von K. Zitelmann ([363]) [Abb.]: five o'clock-tea im Garten des Luksor-Hotels. ([363]) [Abb.]: Wasserschöpferinnen und Wäscherinnen in Luksor. (364) [Abb.]: Einschiffen von Schafherden auf dem Nil. (365) [Abb.] Der heilige See und die grossen Ruinen von Karnah. (367) [Abb.]: Auf dem Wege zu den Königsgräbern. (368) [Abb.]: Mondnacht im Tempel von Luksor. (369) [Abb.]: Am Sarkophage des Pharao Seti I. (370) [Abb.]: Ziehbrunnen zum Bewässern der Felder. (371) [Gedicht]: Karfreitagszauber. (372) [Abb.]: In der Kirche. Nach dem Gemälde von Friedrich Prölß ( - ) Zwei Wege. Skizze von Hedwig Schunck. ([373]) Hochseefischerei. (375) [Abb.]: Comburg bei Schwäbisch Hall in Württemberg. Nach der Natur aufgenommen von Hofphotograph Brandseph in Stuttgart. ([376 - 377]) Der Fliegende Holländer. (380) [Abb.]: Der Fliegende Holländer. Nach der Originalzeichnung von H. D. Seppings Wright. ( - ) Die geplanten deutschen Befestigungen bei Basel. ([383]) [Abb.] (1)Die deutsche Eisenbahnbrücke bei Hünigen. (2) Ansicht von Basel. ([383]) [Abb.] Die alte Rheinbrücke in Basel. (384) Rumänische Trachten aus Siebenbürgen. (Photogr. Aufnahmen von Emil Fischer in Hermannstadt.) ([385]) [Abb.]: Familie aus Pojana in Festtracht. ([385]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Mädchen aus Szelisty. (2)Junge Frau aus Pojana im Sonntagsstaat. (386) [3 Abb]: (1)Mädchen und Burschen aus Szelisty. (2)Junges Ehepaar aus Rakova. (3)Ehepaar aus Pojana im Werktagsgewande. (387) Die Heiducken. Kulturgeschichtliche Studie von Pile Lotin. ([388]) Das deutsch-amerikanische Telegraphenkabel. (391) [Karte]: 1. Kabelverbindungen zwischen Europa und Nordamerika. (392) [Abb.]: Kabel (392) [Abb.]: 8. Kabel dicht am Strande. (393) [Abb.]: 9. Kabel am Strande, getauft mit einer Flasche Champagner unter dreimaligem Hoch auf den Kaiser. (394) [2 Abb.]: (1)11. Kabelschiff. (2)10. Einbettung des Kabels auf dem Strande. (395) [Abb.]: 12. An Bord des Kabelschiffes. (396) [Abb.]: 13. Innere Einrichtung des Kabelschiffes. ([397]) [2 Abb.]: (1)14. Eingrabung des Küstenkabels auf Horta, Azoren. (2)15. Kabelhäuser auf Horta, Azoren. ([398]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Kabelhaus auf Coney Island. (2)18. Probe der Recorderschrift. (3)16. Landung des Küstenkabels auf Coney Island. (399) Zur Amerikafahrt des Prinzen Heinrich. Von Emil Klaessig-New York. (Nach phot. Aufnahmen von Enrique Muller in Brooklyn.) (400 - 401) [3 Abb.]: (1)Arionhalle. (2)Gebäude der New Yorker Staatszeitung. (3)Battery-Platz und Battery-Park in New York. (400 - 401) [3 Abb.]: (1)Prinz Heinrich von Preussen. Mit Genehmigung von J. C. Schaarwächter, Hofphot., Berlin. (2)Präsident Roosevelt. (3)Frau Roosevelt mit ihrer jüngsten Tochter. (402) [Abb.]: Judenviertel in Hesterstreet. (403) [Abb.]: Chinesenviertel in Mottstreet. (404) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Hotel Waldorf-Astoria in New York, worin zu Ehren des Prinzen Heinrich das Presse-Bankett stattfand. (2)Anfang des Broadway in New York von Bowlingstreet aus, links das deutsche Konsulat und Bureaux des Norddeutschen Lloyd. ([405]) [Abb.]: Prinz Heinrich und Miss Roosevelt auf der "Hohenzollern". (407) [4 Abb.]: (1)Die Kaiserjacht "Meteor" nach dem Stapellauf. Phot. Henry F. Goetz, New York. (2)Gruppe deutscher Offiziere auf Ausguck nach dem "Kronprinz Wilhelm". Phot. Enrique Muller, Brooklyn. (3)Amerikanische Flottille bei Staten Island, die Ankunft des Kronprinz Wilhelm" erwartend. Phot. Enrique Muller, Brooklyn. (4)Inneres der Ankunftshalle des Norddeutschen Lloyd. ([408]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Prinz Heinrich und Präsident Roosevelt auf der "Hohenzollern". Phot. Underwaad & Underwaad, New York (2)Prinz Heinrich mit der Familie des Präsidenten Roosevelt auf der "Hohenzollern". Phot. T. Jürgensen. (3)Aus den Prinz Heinrich-Tagen in Amerika. Phot. Henry F. Goetz, New York. ([409]) [Abb.]: Die Taufe der Kaiserjacht "Meteor" durch Miss Roosevelt. Phot. Henry F. Goetz, New York. (410) [Abb.]: Prinz Heinrich und Unterstaatssekretär Hill im Wagen. (411) Litteratur. (411) Kunst (413) Aus aller Welt ([414]) [Abb]: ([414]) Bildende Kunst. ([414]) [Abb.]: Der Sakrophag der Kaiserin Friedrich für die Friedenskirche in Potsdam. Von Reinhold Begas. ([414]) Herr und Flotte. ([414]) Zeitgeschichte. (415) [Abb.]: Der neue Panzerkreuzer "Prinz Heinrich" auf der Kieler Werft. (415) [2 Abb.]: {1}Afrikaforscher Dr. Emil Holub †. (2)Hofraum des Hauses "Zum Bitterholz" in Nürnberg. (416) Naturkunde. (416) Denkmäler. (417) Totenschau. (417) [3 Abb.]: (1)Hermann Allmers †. (2)Fedor Flinzer. (3)Frühere Fürstenherberge "Zum Bitterholz" in Nürnberg. (417) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Löwe von Babylon. (2)Fremde Gäste auf dem "Kleinen Kiel" in Kiel. ([418]) [Abb.]: Das Victor Hugo Denkmal in Paris. Von L. E. Barrias. Aufn. von Chuffeau-Flaviens, Paris. (419) Handschriften-Beurteilung. (420) Für müssige Stunden. ([421]) Briefmappe. (423) Werbung (423) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )

Un viejo proverbio chino señala que "la puerta mejor cerrada es aquella que puede dejarse abierta". Efectivamente la transformación de China durante la segunda mitad del siglo XX grafica este dicho. De manera impensada para muchos, luego de casi tres décadas de férreo control estatal sobre la economía bajo el liderazgo de Mao Zedong, la dirigencia china que lo sucedió en el poder decidió hacia fines de los setenta "abrir una puerta bien cerrada" y emprender un ambicioso proceso de modernización, liberalización y apertura económica. De la mano de Zhou Enlai primero y Deng Xiaoping después, el Estado chino se embarcó en la tarea de modernizar dentro del país su sector agrícola, su estructura productiva, la ciencia y tecnología y la defensa nacional. El interés central detrás de esta transformación radicaba en acortar la brecha de desarrollo existente con los países más avanzados, situación que se reflejaba en el éxito económico de "vecinos" como Japón, Corea del Sur, Taiwán y Hong Kong. Para Deng, China sólo podría convertirse en una gran potencia a través de una política sistemática de modernización, con énfasis en el desarrollo económico y manteniendo la estructura de control político del Partido Comunista (Wilhelmy y Soto, 2005: 52). El desafío a superar consistía en dejar atrás una empobrecida, cerrada y estancada economía planificada y avanzar en la configuración de una economía competitiva. En la opinión del periodista Li Datong (2009), la política de reformas contó a grandes rasgos con dos etapas bien claras. En la primera, que se extendió de 1978 a 1989, el ímpetu de cambio fue puesto en la reducción de la pobreza rural y urbana. En la segunda, iniciada en 1992 con el famoso viaje de Deng al sur del país y culminada en el 2001 con el ingreso de China a la Organización Mundial de Comercio, el gobierno en estrecha alianza con sectores empresariales concentró esfuerzos en impulsar el crecimiento económico.Las principales medidas adoptadas consistieron en: la descolectivización de la agricultura y la autorización del uso privado de las tierras comunales (household responsibility system); el levantamiento de la prohibición para realizar actividades empresariales de índole privada; la apertura por primera vez desde la Revolución de 1948 al ingreso de capitales extranjeros; la creación de zonas económicas especiales y de apertura (existen actualmente una veintena, entre ciudades, provincias y áreas costeras); la privatización de numerosas empresas (a excepción de algunos grandes monopolios vinculados a energía y al sistema bancario); la descentralización del control estatal nacional hacia los gobiernos provinciales; la reducción general de aranceles y barreras comerciales; y el reconocimiento legal en 2005 de la propiedad privada.Estas reformas hicieron posible el denominado "milagro chino", la gran performance económica desatada a partir de 1978. Entre aquel año y el 2006 China mantuvo un promedio anual de crecimiento del 9,7%, tendencia que sólo se interrumpió tras los incidentes de la Plaza de Tiananmen en 1989 y que apenas se redujo en 1997 y 1998 durante la dura crisis asiática (Zhao, 2006: 3). Asimismo, mientras en los objetivos iniciales se esperaba cuadruplicar el PIB para comienzos del siglo XX, el desempeño real arrojó un impresionante crecimiento de trece veces del PIB de 1978 hacia el año 2006. En materia comercial, su comercio exterior se ha quintuplicado en los últimos diez años, mientras que su participación en el comercio mundial en ese mismo período se ha más que duplicado, llegando en 2007 al 9% de las exportaciones y al 6,8% de las importaciones globales. Además, China incrementó su penetración en los mercados de las economías desarrolladas y simultánea­mente se transformó en un importante destino de exportación, especialmente para las economías de la región asiática, convirtiéndose en un nuevo eje del comercio mundial –segundo exportador y tercer importador en 2007–, disputando así el papel de Estados Unidos, la Unión Europea y Japón (D'Elía et al., 2008: 67-8). Una de las principales fuentes de esta expansión comercial ha sido el creciente emplazamiento de firmas extranjeras en el país, las que se valen de los bajos costos de producción para sus operaciones. La participación de dichas firmas en las exportaciones chinas aumentó del 10% en 1990 a casi un 60% en 2004 (Blonigen y Ma, 2010: 475). Este fenómeno denominado "processing trade"explica que China se haya convertido en el principal receptor entre los países en desarrollo de inversión extranjera directa por primera vez en 1993 y uno de los tres primeros a nivel mundial entre 2003 y 2005 (Cheng y Ma, 2010: 545). Conjuntamente, el doble éxito comercial y en atracción de capitales apuntaló también las reservas internacionales. Mientras que en 1992 se registraron reservas por 19 mil millones de dólares, equivalente a un 4% del PIB, tan sólo quince años después éstas alcanzaron 1,4 billones, correspondiente al 50% del PIB (Truman, 2008: 169).A nivel doméstico, la principal transformación ha consistido en el establecimiento gradual de una "economía de mercado socialista". Su avance se evidencia en que hacia 1979 la totalidad de las industrias eran estatales o "colectivas" y el Estado controlaba los precios del 97% de los productos en circulación, mientras que hacia fines de la década de los noventa, menos del 30% de las empresas seguían siendo estatales y las fuerzas del mercado fijaban ya el 97% de los precios. Desde el 2001 estos márgenes se han mantenido mayormente constantes. Pero este ascenso económico posee una contracara de obstáculos, desafíos y debilidades bien marcados que pondrán a prueba la potencialidad de crecimiento a futuro. Por un lado, China es todavía un país pobre en términos de su ingreso per capita, estimado en aproximadamente U$S 3.000 anuales, lo que equivale sólo al 10% de los ingresos registrados en Estados Unidos y Europa. Este bajo registro se conjuga con una mayor desigualdad y una aguda concentración de los ingresos, siendo el 90% de la riqueza acaparada por el 1% más rico de la población (Datong, 2009). La razón detrás de éste pasivo social yace en las privatizaciones, la liberalización y el marcado contraste entre el interior del país y las más dinámicas zonas costeras e industriales —el 57% del PIB se produce en el este de China, un 26% en la región central y apenas el 17% en el oeste (D´Elía et al., 2008: 69). Consecuentemente, ello explica que el crecimiento de la economía esté principalmente impulsado por las exportaciones y la inversión más que por el consumo doméstico. Por el otro lado, los problemas ambientales se han vuelto verdaderamente acuciantes de la mano de este crecimiento. China ha reemplazado recientemente a los Estados Unidos como principal emisor mundial de gases de efecto invernadero. A causa del creciente parque automotriz, las industrias contaminantes y las numerosas plantas procesadoras de carbón, la calidad del aire se ha deteriorado en las principales ciudades. Así, por ejemplo, la concentración de partículas tóxicas inhalables en Beijing en el año 2008 superó en un 80% el estándar tolerable fijado por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (Jacobs, 2010). En las zonas rurales, la masificación del uso de fertilizantes y agrotóxicos para apuntalar la productividad de la agricultura ha contaminado buena parte de las cuencas hídricas.En el plano de los desafíos, debe sumarse que China no es una democracia. El sistema de gobierno es esencialmente autoritario, regido por actores que se imponen en contiendas intrapartidistas y burocráticas libradas a puertas cerradas en Beijing (Wilhelmy y Soto, 2005: 53). Lejos de ser China una "sociedad armónica", se han registrado al compás de las transformaciones importantes conflictos sociales con base en diferentes reclamos: mayor democratización, mejores condiciones de vida, reconocimiento de autonomía política en el caso del Tíbet, etc. Desde los años de Deng, la regla ha sido la aplicación de una política de "mano dura" para contener el disenso interno —como se evidenció en la plaza de Tiananmen en 1989. No obstante, este disenso ha ido en ascenso. En septiembre de 2003, Human Rights Watch informó que más de tres millones de personas se movilizaron en distintas protestas en sólo un mes y que, en más de cien casos a lo largo del país, los reclamos escalaron en violentos choques con las fuerzas de seguridad locales y la destrucción de edificios gubernamentales (Becker, 2006: 169). Por tanto, resta ver cómo el sistema político logra adaptarse a las radicales modificaciones sociales en curso y da cabida a nuevos actores en la lucha por el poder. A pesar de estos desafíos por resolver, existe un fuerte consenso mundial sobre el actual proceso de ascenso de China al status de gran potencia. La célebre predicción de Napoleón —"Let China sleep, for when she wakes, she will shake the world"—, parece estar siendo confirmada (Kynge, 2006). En efecto, "China is reemerging as a major power after one hundred and fifty years of being a weak player on the world stage—a brief hiatus in China's long history", de acuerdo con Susan Shirk (2007: 4), máxima responsable en el Departamento de Estado de las relaciones con China durante la administración Clinton. Si se considera su situación estructural, una estimación reciente del poder comprehensivo de China comparada con las otras grandes potencias del sistema internacional arroja los siguientes resultados. Allí se advierte que China es la única potencia con un status fuerte de poder en cada una de las dimensiones contempladas y por tanto la principal competidora estratégica detrás de la superpotencia estadounidense. Pero el nuevo protagonismo chino también se percibe de una manera más dinámica. Crecientemente el país empieza a desempeñar roles críticos en distintos asuntos de interés mundial, desde la no proliferación hasta el cambio climático, además de ser materia de controversia en Occidente en asuntos relacionados con la pérdida de empleos, déficits comerciales y derechos humanos. En la última década, además, China ha combinado su dinamismo económico con políticas pragmáticas de seguridad y defensa y un fuerte activismo diplomático, gracias a lo cual ha empezado a establecer sólidas relaciones no sólo en toda Asia sino también en Europa, África y Sudamérica, aprovechando en buena medida los "espacios" generados por la focalización de los Estados Unidos en las guerras de Afganistán e Irak y la lucha contra el AlQaeda (Gill, 2007: 1).En el caso particular de América Latina, el carácter actual de los vínculos con China se remonta a la finalización de la Guerra Fría. Fue entonces cuando la desideologización de la política exterior del gigante asiático y el auge del proceso de globalización brindaron un marco propicio para una fuerte expansión económica de las relaciones sino-latinoamericanas (Cesarín, 2006: 52). Algunas cifras ilustran el fenómeno. Las exportaciones de América Latina y el Caribe a China aumentaron en forma súbita desde los US$1.500 millones en 1990, a los casi US$3.000 millones en 1995 y US$5.400 millones en 2000, para crecer posteriormente un 42% anual entre 2000 y 2004 hasta llegar a superar los US$21.000 millones en 2004. En 2003, los recursos primarios representaban el 45,5% de la canasta (Davy, 2008: 4). Por su parte, las exportaciones chinas a la región durante la década de los 90 crecieron más de cinco veces, logrando un superávit comercial global que perduró hasta el 2002. Sin embargo, con los países ricos en recursos naturales como Brasil, Argentina, Chile y Perú, la balanza mercantil resultó deficitaria para Beijing (Cheng, 2006).El interés chino en los países del subcontinente se ha vuelto desde entonces más claro: América Latina constituye un importante reservorio de materias primas, alimentos y recursos naturales necesarios para la prosecución de su crecimiento —no debe perderse de vista que China importa el 30% del petróleo que consume, el 45% del mineral de hierro, el 44% de otros metales no ferrosos y una proporción cada vez más alta de productos agrícolas. El patrón de intercambio comercial y de inversiones en los últimos años refleja dicho interés: minería y forestación (Perú y Chile), pesca, agroalimentos y petróleo (Argentina y Venezuela), mineral de hierro y acero (Brasil), producción de alimentos (Brasil, Chile, Argentina y Perú) y minería (Perú, Colombia, Chile). (Cesarín, 2006: 52-3.) En efecto, la relativa bonanza económica latinoamericana de comienzos de siglo —en parte— se debe a la fuerte demanda china de este tipo de bienes y commoditiesque traccionó al alza los precios internacionales. Para algunos, esto representa una importante oportunidad de optimizar los procesos subregionales de integración e impulsar cambios en las estructuras productivas nacionales mediante la participación inversora de firmas chinas (Cesarín, 2005: 3). Pero esta situación, en principio favorable, amerita una reflexión cautelosa en la medida en que "el auge de los commodities encubre los riesgos inherentes de depender de un sector volátil y en gran medida poco calificado para el sostenimiento de un crecimiento económico a largo plazo y la prosperidad" (Davy, 2008: 2). En este sentido, China ofrece a la región oportunidades pero también desafíos: detrás de los cantos de sirena, se esconde el peligro de un comercio asimétrico que conduzca a la reedición de lazos de dependencia y a una inserción internacional de América Latina subordinada a los dictados de una gran potencia distante. Precisamente, el profesor Julio Sevares (2007: 12) ve en la relación económica Latinoamérica-China no una relación Sur-Sur, sino más bien el clásico esquema comercial Norte-Sur y el patrón inversor de tipo extractivo británico del siglo XIX.Con respecto estrictamente al plano político-estratégico, dos cuestiones deben considerarse. La primera es que China resulta para muchos de los liderazgos latinoamericanos un simpático ejemplo de éxito en materia de reformas dado el importante rol estatal en la conducción de la transformación económica. Representa así un exitoso experimento, distinto de las propuestas neoliberales que fracasaron en América Latina (Cesarín, 2010: 8). Y la segunda, es que la irrupción de China en la región plantea interrogantes sobre la eventual reacción de los Estados Unidos ante un eventual socavamiento de influencia en su "patio trasero". Se trata de un escenario que desde comienzos del siglo XXI se sigue con atención en las usinas de pensamiento estratégico en Washington. Allí se distinguen al menos dos posiciones: una, la de los decisores estadounidenses más temerosos que entienden a la nueva presencia china en la región como la movida inicial de una ofensiva diplomática a gran escala de Beijing para desafiar a los Estados Unidos en su propio hemisferio; y la otra perspectiva, más benigna, que percibe los crecientes vínculos como una oportunidad antes que una amenaza y como una manifestación natural de las necesidades energéticas y de recursos del país asiático sin miras explícitas de choque con la superpotencia (Roett y Paz, 2008: 1). Esta última visión es la que acepta la idea del ascenso pacífico ("peaceful rise") que ha publicitado Hu Jintao. De acuerdo con Zheng Bijian, uno de sus principales ideólogos, "China no tiene la intención ni de desafiar ni de subvertir el orden internacional político y económico ya existente (…). No buscamos la hegemonía ni en el pasado, ni ahora, ni nunca jamás en el futuro cuando hayamos alcanzado el desarrollo. Hemos convertido ya en una premisa básica de nuestro Estado la de no pretender nunca la hegemonía" (Bijian, 2005).La reemergencia histórica de China debe por tanto discurrir a través de la integración a las reglas de juego internacionales, a través del multilateralismo, la resolución pacífica de las disputas y la tolerancia hacia el resto de las naciones. En última instancia, la evolución hacia un abierto desafío estratégico entre los Estados Unidos y China o hacia una convivencia respetuosa entre superpotencias, dependerá del factor que prime en la interacción mutua: un juego de suma cero producto de las transformaciones estructurales en el sistema político internacional, o bien un juego de suma positiva resultado de intereses y percepciones convergentes.(1) El presente artículo es un fragmento de un capítulo de libro en elaboración sobre la inserción internacional de la Argentina entre el 2003-2007. *Candidato doctoral, Universidad Nacional General San Martín (UNSAM).Referencias bibliográficasBecker, Jasper (2006): Dragon Rising. An inside look at China today (Washington D.C.: National Geographic). Bijian, Zheng (2005): "Diez puntos de vista sobre el ascenso pacífico de China y sobre las relaciones entre China y Europa", Real Instituto Elcano, disponible en:«http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/analisis/867/867_DiscursoZheng.pdf».Blonigen, Bruce A. y Alyson C. Ma (2010): "Please Pass the Catch-Up. The Relative Performance of Chinese and Foreign Firms in Chinese Exports", en Feenstra, Robert C. y Shang-Jin Wei: China's Growing Role in World Trade (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press).Cesarín, Sergio (2005): "Ejes y estrategias del desarrollo económico chino: enfoques para América Latina y el Caribe", en Cesarín, Sergio y Carlos Moneta: China y América Latina. Nuevos enfoques sobre cooperación y desarrollo. ¿Una segunda ruta de la seda? (Buenos Aires: BID-INTAL).Cesarín, Sergio (2006): "La relación sinolatinoamericana, entre la práctica política y la investigación académica", Nueva Sociedad, N° 203, Mayo/Junio, pp. 48-61.Cheng, Joseph Y. S. (2006): "Latin America in China's Contemporary Foreign Policy", Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 36, No. 4, pp. 500-528.Cheng, Leonard K. y Zihui Ma (2010): "China's Outward Foreign Direct Investment", en Feenstra, Robert C. y Shang-Jin Wei: Op. Cit.Datong, Li (2009): "China's stalled transition", Open Democracy (February 19), disponible en «http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/chinas-stalled-reforms». Accedido 16/09/2010. Davy, Megan (2008): "¿Qué presagia el crecimiento de China para América Latina?",Panorama del Desarrollo Internacional del American Enterprise Institute, N° 2, julio.D´Elía, Carlos, Carlos Galperín y Néstor Stancanelli (2008): "El rol de China en el mundo y su relación con la Argentina", Revista del CEI, N° 13, pp. 67-89.Gill, Bates (2007): Rising Star. China's New Security Diplomacy (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press).Jacobs, Andrews (2010): "In China, Pollution Worsens Despite New Efforts", The New York Times (July 28), disponible en «http://www.nytimes.com/2010/07/29/world/asia/29china.html?_r=1»(accedido 18/9/10). Kynge, James (2006): China Shakes the World: A Titan's Rise and Troubled Future - and the Challenge for America (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt).Roett, Riordan y Guadalupe Paz (eds.) (2008): China's expansion into the Western Hemisphere (Washington D.C.: The Brookings Institution).Sevares, Julio (2007): "¿Cooperación Sur-Sur o dependencia a la vieja usanza?", Nueva Sociedad, N° 207, enero-febrero, pp. 11-22.Shirk, Susan L. (2007): China. Fragile Superpower (New York: Oxford University Press).Truman, Edwin M. (2008): "The Management of China's International Reserves: China and a Sovereign Wealth Fund Scoreboard", en Goldstein, Morris y Nicholas R. Lardy (eds.):Debating China's Exchange Rate Policy (Washington: Peter G. Peterson Institute for International Economics).Wilhelmy von Wolff, Mandfred y Augusto Soto (2005): "El proceso de reformas en China y la política exterior: de Deng Xiaoping a Hu Jintao", en Cesarín, Sergio y Carlos Moneta: Op. Cit.Xuetong, Yan (2006): "The Rise of China and its Power Status", Chinese Journal of International Politics, Vol. 1. Zhao, Min (2006): External Liberalization and the Evolution of China's Exchange System: an Empirical Approach (Final Draft, The World Bank Beijing Office), disponible en «http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INDIAEXTN/Resources/events/359987-1149066 764594/Paper_MinZhao.pdf».

Mit der Verabschiedung der Agenda 2030 wurden im Jahr 2015 siebzehn Ziele für eine nachhaltige Entwicklung, die sogenannten Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), festgelegt. Da die SDGs auf alle Ebenen der Regierung anwendbar sind, bilden diese Ziele auch für Kommunen einen wichtigen Rahmen zur Orientierung. Eine nachhaltige Entwicklung gewinnt somit auch auf kommunaler Ebene zunehmend an Bedeutung. Dies zeigt sich unter anderem anhand des Engagements, das in vielen Kommunen zu erkennen ist. Durch die SDGs haben auch Kommunen einen strategischen Orientierungsrahmen und können konkrete Ziele und Maßnahmen leichter festlegen. Nachhaltigkeit kann somit vor Ort wirkungsvoller in die Realität umgesetzt werden.Effektiver Klimaschutz und Nachhaltigkeitsmanagement auf kommunaler Ebene ist essenziell. Neben dem notwendigen Beitrag zur nationalen und internationalen nachhaltigen Entwicklung können Kommunen klare Vorteile aus einer Nachhaltigkeitsstrategie ziehen: Beispielsweise können Gebäude energieeffizienter gebaut und genutzt und das Verkehrssystem kann effizienter und umweltfreundlicher gestaltet werden und gleichzeitig die CO2-Belastung und Verkehrsdichte im urbanen Raum reduzieren. Was zum Klimaschutz beiträgt, kann demnach gleichzeitig die Attraktivität von Kommunen steigern. Des Weiteren schützen sich Kommunen so vor Wetterextremen und können sich an den Klimawandel anpassen.Nach wie vor bestehen Unterschiede. Während einige Kommunen bereits seit mehreren Jahrzehnten an einer möglichst nachhaltigen Stadtentwicklung arbeiten und bereits viele Erfahrungen sammeln und Erkenntnisse gewinnen konnten, haben andere Städte vergleichsweise spät damit begonnen. Weiterhin schlagen Kommunen teils sehr unterschiedliche Wege ein, um die festgelegten Nachhaltigkeitsziele zu verwirklichen. Dies kann beispielsweise an den örtlichen Gegebenheiten oder an unterschiedlichen Ziel- und Schwerpunktsetzungen liegen. Übergeordnet stellen sich die Fragen, wieso gerade auf kommunaler Ebene viel für den Klimaschutz und Nachhaltigkeit getan werden muss und seit wann dies konkrete Formen annimmt.Ziel dieser Ausarbeitung ist es, zwei europäische Großstädte bezüglich ihrer bisherigen Nachhaltigkeitsentwicklung zu untersuchen. Die Schwerpunktsetzung liegt dabei sowohl beim Bereich Mobilität als auch bei ausgewählten Maßnahmen im Bereich einer nachhaltigen Stadtplanung. Weitere Aspekte werden bei Bedarf hinzugezogen. Ein Vergleich zwischen beiden Städten soll anschließend erfolgen. Bei diesem Vergleich müssen die Besonderheiten der jeweiligen Stadt berücksichtigt werden. Auch wenn nicht alle Parameter berücksichtigt werden können und ein direkter Vergleich möglicherweise nicht in allen Bereichen zielführend ist, können dadurch Erkenntnisse, beispielsweise bezüglich des Fortschritts der jeweiligen Stadt, gewonnen werden.Bei den zu untersuchenden Kommunen handelt es sich um Kopenhagen und München. Beide Städte weisen unterschiedliche Ausgangslagen, Besonderheiten und geografische Gegebenheiten auf, was darauf schließen lässt, dass divergente Befunde auftreten. Dies macht einen Vergleich interessanter und aufschlussreicher als beispielsweise einen Vergleich auf nationaler Ebene. Es handelt sich um internationale Städte innerhalb der Europäischen Union. Weiterhin sind beide Städte Großstädte, die ihre jeweilige Region prägen. Trotz der verschiedenen Gegebenheiten werden dabei exemplarisch ähnliche Bereiche beleuchtet. Dies soll die Vergleichbarkeit gewährleisten. Neben der Mobilität werden die Bereiche der Energieversorgung und Extremwetter- beziehungsweise Klimaanpassung beleuchtet.Bevor die Kommunen untersucht werden, werden im Vorgriff die für diese Ausarbeitung notwendigen Grundlagen thematisiert. Hier werden zentrale Elemente untersucht, zum Beispiel, wie Nachhaltigkeit definiert wird, welche Rolle eine nachhaltige Stadt spielt, was eine nachhaltige Stadt ausmacht und wie der urbane Raum überhaupt zentral für internationale Klimaschutz- und Nachhaltigkeitsbestrebungen werden konnte. Da es sich hierbei um zentrale Aspekte handelt, die es auf dem Weg zu einer nachhaltigen Stadtentwicklung zu verstehen gilt, fällt dieser Teil verhältnismäßig umfangreich aus.GrundlagenIn diesem Kapitel werden relevante Grundlagen betrachtet. Dazu gehört neben Grundbegriffen und Faktoren, die sich auf nachhaltige Mobilität und Stadtplanung beziehen, ein kurzer Überblick, der beschreibt, wie das Thema Nachhaltigkeit historisch betrachtet für die kommunale Ebene relevant wurde. Darüber hinaus muss der Begriff Nachhaltigkeit vorab definiert werden, womit nachfolgend begonnen wird.Begriff NachhaltigkeitDer Begriff Nachhaltigkeit existiert seit mehr als drei Jahrhunderten und wurde ursprünglich in der Forstwirtschaft verwendet. Nachhaltigkeit stammt aus einem Bereich, in dem ressourcenschonendendes Wirtschaften äußerst relevant ist. Bezeichnend für das damalige Verständnis von Nachhaltigkeit ist die Vorgabe, innerhalb eines Jahres nicht mehr Holz zu fällen, als in derselben Zeitspanne nachwachsen kann (vgl. Weinsziehr/Verhoog/Bruckner 2014, S. 3). Die Forstwirtschaft arbeitete demzufolge dann nachhaltig, wenn der Verbrauch der Ressourcen und somit die Abholzung die Menge des nachwachsenden Holzes nicht übersteigt. Die heutige Auffassung von Nachhaltigkeit ist mit diesem Ursprungsgedanken eng verknüpft. Dies zeigt sich auch anhand der folgenden Definition:"Nachhaltigkeit oder nachhaltige Entwicklung bedeutet, die Bedürfnisse der Gegenwart so zu befriedigen, dass die Möglichkeiten zukünftiger Generationen nicht eingeschränkt werden" (vgl. Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung 2023c, o.S.).In der heutigen Zeit bezieht sich der Begriff Nachhaltigkeit jedoch auf alle Wirtschaftsbereiche und beinhaltet einen weiteren Aspekt, die sogenannte "Triple Bottom Line" (TBL), welche drei Dimensionen einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung benennt (vgl. Weinsziehr/Verhoog/Bruckner 2014, S. 3f.): Die wirtschaftliche Effizienz, die soziale Gerechtigkeit und die ökologische Tragfähigkeit müssen gleichberechtigt betrachtet werden, und möglichst alle politischen Entscheidungen sollten Nachhaltigkeit als Grundlage beinhalten (vgl. Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung 2023c, o.S.).Der Begriff Nachhaltigkeit wird heute teilweise inflationär verwendet (vgl. Aden 2012, S. 15). Im weiteren Verlauf dieser Arbeit spielt vor allem das Verständnis einer nachhaltigen Entwicklung eine Rolle, was wie folgt definiert werden kann:"Politik und menschliches Verhalten sollen sich an der langfristigen Erhaltung der Lebensgrundlagen orientieren" (ebd., S. 15).Nachhaltige Stadt: Eine ArbeitsdefinitionEs gilt, eine adäquate Arbeitsdefinition von Nachhaltigkeit im Sinne einer nachhaltigen Stadtentwicklung zu formulieren. Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, vor allem den Bereich Mobilität innerhalb von München und Kopenhagen zu beleuchten. Nachhaltigkeit im weiteren Verlauf bezieht sich somit vermehrt auf eine ressourcenschonende und emissionsarme Verkehrsplanung. Neben der Verkehrsplanung sind jedoch weitere Elemente interessant. Eine in der Gesamtheit nachhaltige Stadt lässt sich wie folgt definieren:" […] ein gut ausgebautes Netz des Öffentlichen Personennahverkehrs, eine regelmäßige Müllentsorgung sowie architektonische Innovationen, die es der städtischen Bevölkerung erlauben, einen nachhaltigen Lebensstil zu pflegen" (Bildung für nachhaltige Entwicklung 2023, o.S.).Ein nachhaltiger Lebensstil wiederum bedeutet, dass Menschen durch ihren eigenen Lebensstil und den Verbrauch ihrer Ressourcen nachfolgenden Generationen dieselben Möglichkeiten bieten (vgl. Aachener Stiftung Kathy Beys 2015, o.S.). Eine nachhaltige Stadt ist gleichzeitig eine für ihre Bewohner:innen ansprechende Stadt, die eine saubere Umwelt, ein intaktes Verkehrssystem, erschwingliche Energie und ein gutes gesellschaftliches Miteinander gewährleistet (vgl. Dütz 2017, S. 15).Eine nachhaltige Stadtentwicklung kann somit eine Vielzahl verschiedener Themenbereiche beinhalten (vgl. Firmhofer 2018, S. 10). Aufgeteilt in zwei Oberbereiche muss sich eine Stadt bezogen auf die städtische Infrastruktur und auf das städtische Leben verändern. Die städtische Infrastruktur beinhaltet zum Beispiel das Transportwesen sowie die Energie- und Wasserversorgung. Das städtische Leben enthält unter anderem wohnliche, arbeitstechnische, soziale und kulturelle Elemente (vgl. ebd., S. 10). Der Begriff Stadtentwicklung selbst bezeichnet"die Steuerung der Gesamtentwicklung von Städten und Gemeinden und erfordert eine integrierte und zukunftsgerichtete Herangehensweise, die durch Stadtplanung […] umgesetzt wird" (Koch/Krellenberg 2021, S. 19).Folgende Handlungsfelder sind besonders relevant für eine nachhaltige Stadtentwicklung: Die Dekarbonisierung, die Förderung möglichst umweltfreundlicher Mobilität, das Ziel einer baulich und räumlich kompakten sowie sozial durchmischten Stadt, die Klimawandelanpassung und die Bekämpfung von Armut (vgl. ebd., S. 22).Diese Eingrenzung dient als Fokus dieser Ausarbeitung. Das Augenmerk liegt neben der städtischen Verkehrsinfrastruktur auf weiteren ausgewählten Aspekten, beispielsweise auf der Energieversorgung und baulichen Maßnahmen. Diese Aspekte werden hinsichtlich der Frage betrachtet, ob und in welchem Maße die städtische Bevölkerung dadurch einen nachhaltigen Lebensstil erreichen kann. Somit ist ebenso das städtische Leben relevant.Entwicklung nachhaltiger KlimaschutzzieleUm zu verstehen, wie sich ein Nachhaltigkeitskonzept auf kommunaler Ebene entwickeln konnte, wird ein historischer Überblick gegeben, der die Entwicklung nachhaltiger Klimaschutzziele von der globalen bis hin zur kommunalen Ebene zusammenfasst. Dabei werden vor allem relevante Eckpunkte benannt.Im Jahr 1997 wurde das Kyoto-Protokoll beschlossen und trat acht Jahre später in Kraft. Durch diese Vereinbarung verpflichteten sich die meisten Industriestaaten inklusive der damaligen EU-Mitgliedsstaaten dazu, die Emissionen von bestimmten Treibhausgasen innerhalb von vier Jahren um mindestens fünf Prozent, verglichen mit dem Jahr 1990, zu senken (vgl. Eppler 2023, o.S.).Im Jahr 2000 verständigten sich die Vereinten Nationen (UN) auf die Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (vgl. Koch/Krellenberg 2021, S. 6). Durch diese Erklärung verpflichteten sich die Staats- und Regierungschefs der jeweiligen Staaten neben der Bekämpfung von Armut, Hunger und Krankheiten auch gegen Umweltzerstörung vorzugehen. Um die Fortschritte messbar zu machen, wurden Zielvorgaben für das Jahr 2015 formuliert (vgl. Weltgesundheitsorganisation 2018, o.S.). Der Fokus lag auf der supranationalen, also auf der überstaatlichen Ebene. Eine nachhaltige Stadtentwicklung stand nicht im Fokus, war durch einige Zielformulierungen dennoch indirekt betroffen (vgl. Koch/Krellenberg 2021, S. 6).Im Jahr 2009 fand die Weltklimakonferenz in Kopenhagen statt. Das Ziel, die Erderwärmung auf weniger als zwei Grad Celsius im Vergleich zum vorindustriellen Niveau zu begrenzen, wurde als Absichtsziel erklärt, jedoch fehlten verpflichtende Regelungen (vgl. Schellnhuber u. a. 2010, S. 5). Der festgelegte Wert von zwei Grad Celsius kommt durch die Wissenschaft zustande. Diese geht davon aus, dass dieser Wert nicht überschritten werden darf, um drastische Konsequenzen zu vermeiden (vgl. Buhofer 2018, S. 83).Mit dem Pariser Klimaabkommen wurde das Zwei-Grad-Celsius-Ziel festgelegt (vgl. Edenhofer/Jakob 2017, S. 39). Dieses Mal handelt es sich um ein völkerrechtlich bindendes Abkommen, welches das Kyoto-Protokoll ablöste und zur Erreichung der Eckpunkte verstärkt die kommunale Ebene miteinbezieht (vgl. Landeszentrale für politische Bildung Baden-Württemberg 2023, o.S.). Weitere Ziele des Pariser Klimaabkommens, das Ende 2016 in Kraft trat, sind die Senkung von Emissionen und die Klimawandelanpassung (vgl. Watjer 2023, o.S.). Nationale Klimaschutzkonzepte sind in der Regel als Folge des Pariser Klimaabkommens entstanden (vgl. ebd. 2023, o.S.). Die Vereinten Nationen brachten im Jahr 2015 die Agenda 2030 auf den Weg, die klare Ziele für eine nachhaltige Entwicklung benennt (vgl. Koch/Krellenberg 2021, S. 7).Agenda 2030 und die Sustainable Development Goals"Transforming our world" (Koch/Krellenberg 2021, S. 6) - diese Formulierung verdeutlicht die ambitionierten Ziele, die mit der Agenda 2030 durch die Ziele für nachhaltige Entwicklung, die Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) festgelegt wurden. Die Agenda 2030 ist für alle Mitgliedsstaaten der Vereinten Nationen gültig. Kern der Agenda ist das Ziel einer nachhaltigen globalen Entwicklung auf allen dazugehörigen Ebenen, was durch die 17 Ziele erreicht werden soll (vgl. Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung 2023a, o.S.). Diese Ziele ergänzen sich gegenseitig, haben den gleichen Stellenwert und beinhalten jeweils zwischen acht und zwölf Unterziele (vgl. Koch/Krellenberg 2021, S. 9). Auch wenn die Agenda 2030 von allen UN-Mitgliedsstaaten beschlossen wurde, ist diese rechtlich nicht bindend, was ebenfalls für die SDGs gilt (vgl. ebd. 2021, S. 12).Im Vergleich zu den MDG-Zielen sind die SDG-Zielsetzungen umfangreich formuliert und mit SDG-Ziel elf wird erstmals die regionale und lokale Ebene in den Blickpunkt genommen. Dieses Ziel betrachtet ausdrücklich die Entwicklung von Städten und Gemeinden mit dem Anspruch, diese neben einer nachhaltigen Gestaltung sicherer, inklusiver und widerstandsfähig zu gestalten (vgl. Koch/Krellenberg 2021, S. 7f.).Nachfolgend werden die wichtigsten Unterziele dargestellt. Neben der Sicherung von bezahlbarem Wohnraum soll das Verkehrssystem nachhaltig, sicher, zugänglich und bezahlbar ausgebaut werden (vgl. Vereinte Nationen 2023b, S. 24). Siedlungspläne sollen auf eine nachhaltige Entwicklung ausgerichtet werden (vgl. ebd., S. 24). Ziel hierbei ist es, die Verstädterung bis 2030 nachhaltiger und inklusiver zu organisieren. Ebenfalls bis 2030 soll die Zahl der durch Klimakatastrophen bedingten Todesfälle und Betroffenen deutlich gesenkt werden (vgl. Koch/Krellenberg 2021, S. 10). Von Städten ausgehende schädliche Umweltauswirkungen sollen verringert, die Luftqualität verbessert und Grünflächen als öffentliche Räume geschaffen und inklusiv, also für alle Menschen, zugänglich gemacht werden (vgl. Vereinte Nationen 2023b, S. 24).Weitere SDGs lassen sich nur durch städtische Maßnahmen verwirklichen und sind daher eng mit der urbanen Entwicklung verbunden. Ein Beispiel ist SDG 7, das auf nachhaltige beziehungsweise erneuerbare Energien fokussiert ist und nicht entkoppelt von der zukünftigen Energieversorgung in den Städten betrachtet werden kann (vgl. Koch/Krellenberg 2021, S. 11).Durch die Festlegung dieser Ziele ist Nachhaltigkeit ein zentraler Aspekt der Städteplanung und -entwicklung. Städte stehen somit spätestens seit der Agenda 2030 auch formell vor großen Herausforderungen und Transformationsprozessen. Die Zuspitzung von Umweltkatastrophen und Extremwetterereignissen zeigt, dass Städte darüber hinaus dazu gezwungen sind, Klimaanpassungsmaßnahmen und eine nachhaltige Stadtentwicklung zügig umzusetzen.Klimaschutz in der Europäischen Union, in Deutschland und in DänemarkWas haben diese internationalen Abkommen bewirkt? Da München und Kopenhagen im Fokus dieser Ausarbeitung stehen, müssen diese Städte betreffende Beschlüsse bezüglich der gesetzten Ziele einer nachhaltigen Stadtentwicklung auf weiteren Ebenen betrachtet werden. Trotz der Ähnlichkeit der festgelegten Klimaschutzprogramme in der EU, in Dänemark und in Deutschland, werden diese separat zusammengefasst. Im Jahr 2007 betrug der Anteil der EU an globalen CO2-Emissionen ein Sechstel und der Anteil der Treibhausgasemissionen der Industrieländer ein Fünftel (vgl. Dröge 2007, S. 2). Dies untermauert den Handlungsbedarf.Das Klimaschutzprogramm der aktuellen Fassung des deutschen Klimaschutzgesetzes hat an den ehrgeizigen Zielen nichts geändert. Nach wie vor soll Deutschland bis 2045 treibhausgasneutral sein und den Ausstoß von Treibhausgasen bereits bis 2030 um 65 Prozent gesenkt haben (vgl. Presse- und Informationsamt der Bundesregierung 2023, o.S.).Dänemark hat eine Klimastrategie vorgelegt und sich das Ziel gesetzt, eine Vorreiterrolle einzunehmen. Bis 2030 will Dänemark seine Treibhausgasemissionen um 70 Prozent senken. Klimaneutralität soll bis 2050 erreicht sein (vgl. Außenministerium Dänemark 2020, S. 27). Ebenso will Dänemark dazu beitragen, die globalen Anstrengungen voranzutreiben. Hierfür soll mit anderen Ländern und mit nichtstaatlichen Akteur:innen zusammengearbeitet werden (vgl. Außenministerium Dänemark 2020, S. 6).Auf EU-Ebene sind die Zielsetzungen ähnlich, was sich durch den "Green Deal" der EU zeigt. Demzufolge sollen die Netto-Treibhausgasemissionen bis 2030 um 55 Prozent reduziert werden, bis 2050 soll Treibhausgasneutralität herrschen (vgl. Europäische Kommission 2023, o.S.). Ziel ist es, durch diesen europäischen "Grünen Deal" der erste klimaneutrale Kontinent zu werden und dementsprechend die Verpflichtungen umzusetzen, die sich aus dem Pariser Klimaabkommen ergeben (vgl. Europarat 2023, o.S.). Folglich sind die Ziele von Deutschland und Dänemark bezüglich der Erreichung und der Höhe der Einsparungen teilweise höher angesetzt, als auf EU-Ebene beschlossen.Nachhaltige StadtentwicklungEs stellt sich die Frage, aus welchen Gründen gerade der urbane Raum eine zentrale Größe für Nachhaltigkeitsziele einnimmt. Aktuelle Berichte, Daten und Prognosen können dabei helfen, diese Frage zu beantworten.Relevanz einer nachhaltigen StadtentwicklungDer jüngste SDG-Fortschrittsbericht wurde im Mai 2023 veröffentlicht. Die Vereinten Nationen kommen darin zu dem Ergebnis, dass über die Hälfte der Weltbevölkerung momentan in städtischen Gebieten lebt. Dieser Anteil könnte bis 2050 auf etwa 70 Prozent steigen (vgl. Vereinte Nationen 2023a, S. 34). Verglichen mit dem Jahr 2020 wird die urbane Bevölkerung in Mitteleuropa und somit auch in Deutschland und Dänemark im Jahr 2050 um acht Prozent steigen (vgl. Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung 2023b, S. 4).Im Vergleich zu anderen Kontinenten stellt dies einen geringen Anstieg dar. So wird die städtische Bevölkerung in Nordafrika im gleichen Referenzzeitraum voraussichtlich um 79 Prozent steigen (vgl. ebd. 2023b, S. 4). Zwei Aspekte dürfen jedoch nicht unbeachtet bleiben: Zum einem ist es eine globale Herausforderung, diesem Anstieg gerecht zu werden. Die Auswirkungen werden für viele mittelbar und unmittelbar spürbar sein. Weiterhin stehen bei einem Bevölkerungsanstieg von acht Prozent auch dicht besiedelte mitteleuropäische Städte vor einer Vielzahl an Aufgaben, was sich auch für Städte wie München und Kopenhagen bemerkbar machen wird. Beispielsweise lebten bereits im Jahr 2017 drei von vier Menschen in Deutschland innerhalb von Städten (vgl. Dütz 2017, S. 14). Dementsprechend sind auch europäische Städte zentral, was die Implementierung der Klimaschutzziele angeht (vgl. ebd., S. 13).Städte verbrauchen mit knapp 80 Prozent bereits heute einen Großteil der weltweiten Energie und Ressourcen, beispielsweise durch die großen Abfallmengen, das Heizen und den Schadstoßausstoß der vielen Fahrzeuge (vgl. Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung 2023d, o.S.). Gleichzeitig sind Städte für bis zu 76 Prozent der CO2-Emissionen weltweit verantwortlich (vgl. Climate Service Center Germany 2015, S. 1). Städte gehören somit zu den Hauptverursachern des Klimawandels, was durch folgende Worte deutlich wird:"Der Klimanotstand ist auch ein Notstand der Stadt" (Chatterton 2019, S. 275).Durch den prognostizierten Bevölkerungsanstieg wird die Relevanz von Städten bezogen auf die Realisierung von Klimaschutzzielen weiter steigen. Nicht zuletzt, da Städte bereits heute für den Großteil der CO2-Emissionen und des Energieverbrauchs verantwortlich sind. Städte nehmen eine zentrale Rolle in der Verwirklichung einer nachhaltigen Zukunft ein. Gleichzeitig sind gerade Städte durch den Klimawandel in erhöhtem Maße gefährdet (vgl. Climate Service Center Germany 2015, S. 1f.). Auch aus Gründen des Selbstschutzes sind Städte daher gezwungen, Strategien und Maßnahmen zur Klimaanpassung zu entwickeln. Nur so kann der urbane Raum dem Klimanotstand gerecht werden. Entwicklung einer nachhaltigen und klimaneutralen Stadt"Wie lässt sich die Entwicklung der Städte so steuern, dass diese den notwendigen Beitrag zu einer globalen nachhaltigen Entwicklung leisten können?" (Koch & Krellenberg 2021, S. 2).Diese zentrale Frage stellt sich in diesem Kapitel. Konkret wird der Frage nachgegangen, wie eine Stadtentwicklung aussehen muss, um notwendige Nachhaltigkeitsziele hinreichend zu erfüllen und den Erfordernissen einer nachhaltigen Stadt gerecht zu werden.Der aktuelle SDG-Fortschrittsbericht bilanziert die Hälfte der Zeit seit Inkrafttreten der SDG-Ziele. Die Halbzeitbilanz der Agenda 2030 liest sich bezogen auf die Fortschritte einer städtischen Nachhaltigkeitsentwicklung insgesamt ernüchternd: Lediglich die Hälfte der städtischen Bevölkerung hatte im Jahr 2022 annehmbaren Zugang zu öffentlichen Verkehrsmitteln, auch die Luftverschmutzung und der Mangel an Freiflächen sind anhaltende Probleme in Städten (vgl. Vereinte Nationen 2023a, S. 34).Gleichzeitig hält der Bericht fest, dass in Ländern mit hohem Einkommen viel für die Bekämpfung der Luftverschmutzung getan wurde, was dennoch nicht ausreichend ist. Darüber hinaus wird angemerkt, dass es sich bei der Luftverschmutzung um kein rein städtisches Problem handelt (vgl. ebd., S. 35). Allerdings muss sich gerade der Autoverkehr in der Stadt ändern. Paul Chatterton spielt dabei auf ein neues Mobilitätsparadigma an und fordert eine autofreie Stadt, da nur dies dem Klima wirklich gerecht werden und soziale Ungleichheit reduzieren kann (vgl. Chatterton 2019, S. 278).Ebenso muss der Aspekt berücksichtigt werden, dass Menschen in Großstädten häufig verschiedene Verkehrsmittel nutzen, um an ihr Ziel zu kommen (vgl. Kallenbach 2021, S. 33). Selbst wenn klimafreundliche Mobilität zur Verfügung steht, wird diese somit nicht ausschließlich genutzt. Hieran anknüpfend stellt sich die Frage, wie sich dies ändern lässt. Hierfür besteht bereits eine Vielzahl an Lösungsvorschlägen, unter anderem die Abkehr von der Vorstellung einer autogerechten Stadt, die effizientere Nutzung der vorhandenen Infrastruktur, die Verbesserung des Öffentlichen Personennahverkehrs (ÖPNV) zur Schaffung einer wirklichen Alternative oder eine kilometerabhängige Gebühr für die Nutzung von Straßen (vgl. Edenhofer/Jakob 2017, S. 101f. ).Ein Großteil des Energiebedarfs in Städten kommt durch die Verbrennung fossiler Brennstoffe, den Transport und die Heizung beziehungsweise Kühlung von Gebäuden zustande (vgl. Climate Service Center Germany 2015, S. 2). Sollen die Einsparziele gelingen, so ist eine Verkehrswende unumgänglich (vgl. Jakob 2023, S. 1). Gleichzeitig stehen durch den Klimawandel auch städtische Verkehrssysteme vor enormen Herausforderungen. Gerade in urbanen Gebieten hängen viele Infrastrukturnetze, die zum Funktionieren des städtischen Systems beitragen, mit dem Verkehrssystem zusammen (vgl. Climate Service Center Germany 2015, S. 6).Dabei bestehen mehrere Möglichkeiten, städtische Verkehrsnetze zu verbessern und gleichzeitig zukunftsfähig und nachhaltig zu gestalten: Die Fokussierung auf Fußgänger und nicht-motorisierten Verkehr sowie auf den ÖPNV kann einige Vorteile, wie zum Beispiel eine Reduzierung von Emissionen und wirtschaftlichen Wohlstand, bieten (vgl. ebd. 2015, S. 6). Die Verbesserung des öffentlichen Nahverkehrs und anderer emissionsarmer Infrastrukturen kann darüber hinaus zu Energieeinsparungen, Zeitersparnis und einer besseren Luftqualität beitragen (vgl. ebd., S. 6). Die Zukunftsgestaltung der städtischen Verkehrsinfrastruktur spielt daher in mehrfacher Hinsicht eine zentrale Rolle. Neben dem Verkehrsbereich sind weitere Sektoren, unter anderem das Abfallsystem und der Umgang mit Gebäuden entscheidend (vgl. ebd. 2015, S. 2).Der Energiesektor ist enorm wichtig, da hier das größte Potential für eine Reduzierung von Emissionen liegt. Parallel mit einer steigenden Energienachfrage, beispielsweise in Strom oder Brennstoffen, werden Treibhausgasemissionen ansteigen. Gerade Städte sind dazu gezwungen, den Energiebedarf zu senken, die Energieerzeugung sowie den -verbrauch effizienter zu gestalten, auf erneuerbare Energiequellen umzusteigen und gleichzeitig eine sichere Versorgung zu gewährleisten (vgl. Climate Service Center Germany 2015, S. 6).Im weiteren Verlauf werden nun die Städte Kopenhagen und München in Bezug auf ihre Anstrengungen untersucht. Fokus dabei bleibt der Bereich Verkehr und Mobilität. Ebenso wird exemplarisch der Bereich der Extremwetteranpassung sowie, für den Bereich der Energieversorgung, die kommunale Wärmeplanung untersucht.KopenhagenKopenhagen ist Sitz des dänischen Königshauses (vgl. Heidenreich 2019, o.S.). Die Stadt liegt auf der Insel Seeland (vgl. Britannica 2023, o.S.) und ist an der Meerenge Öresund gelegen, welche die Ost- und die Nordsee miteinander verbindet (vgl. Heidenreich 2019, o.S.). Gegründet wurde die Stadt im frühen zehnten Jahrhundert, seit 1445 ist Kopenhagen Dänemarks Hauptstadt (vgl. Britannica 2023, o.S.). Die Einwohnerzahl Kopenhagens ist in den letzten zehn Jahren um knapp 100.000 Einwohner:innen gewachsen Mit aktuell etwa 653.000 Einwohner:innen ist Kopenhagen die größte Stadt Dänemarks (vgl. Dyvik 2023, o.S.). Sie hat eine Fläche von ungefähr 88 Quadratkilometern, ist damit vergleichsweise klein und liegt 24 Meter über dem Meeresspiegel (vgl. Kallenbach 2021, S. 34).Grundlegende Informationen und BesonderheitenDie Stadt Kopenhagen hat eine bewegte Geschichte. Beispielsweise wurde die Stadt im Laufe der Jahrhunderte mehrmals von Großfeuern zerstört, war sehr umkämpft und im Zweiten Weltkrieg von deutschen Soldaten besetzt (vgl. Findeisen/Husum 2008, S. 146ff.). Damals blieb die Stadt jedoch überwiegend unbeschädigt, was sich auch heute im Stadtbild bemerkbar macht. Ein Beispiel hierfür ist Schloss Rosenborg (vgl. Heidenreich 2019, o.S.). Im Jahr 1996 wurde die Stadt zur Kulturhauptstadt ernannt (vgl. Findeisen/Husum 2008, S. 149).Das Klima in Kopenhagen ist mild und gemäßigt. Die durchschnittliche Jahrestemperatur beträgt 8,9 Grad Celsius (vgl. climate-data.org 2023, o.S.). In Kopenhagen fällt insgesamt viel Regen. Selbst in den trockenen Monaten ist die Niederschlagsmenge erheblich (vgl. ebd. 2023, o.S.). Aufgrund der Lage am Meer können Sturmfluten zu Überschwemmungen mit gravierenden Auswirkungen führen. Dieser Gefahr und der sich daraus ergebenden Notwendigkeit zu handeln, ist sich auch die Stadtverwaltung Kopenhagens bewusst (vgl. Stadtverwaltung Kopenhagen 2023, o.S.).Verkehr und MobilitätBetrachtet man die Verkehrsplanung Kopenhagens, so muss zwingend auf die Fahrradinfrastruktur eingegangen werden. Der Autoverkehr sowie der ÖPNV dürfen dennoch nicht außer Acht gelassen werden. Ziel dieser Betrachtung ist es, Aufschlüsse über die Beweggründe und konkreten Vorgehensweisen der Verkehrsplanung und -infrastruktur in Kopenhagen zu erhalten. Dabei soll eine Bestandsaufnahme der aktuellen Situation erfolgen.Regelmäßig liegt Kopenhagen auf dem ersten Platz der weltweit besten Fahrradstädte und dennoch wurden im Jahr 2021 knapp ein Drittel aller Fahrten mit dem Auto bewältigt (vgl. Kallenbach 2021, S. 5). In den 1950er und 1960er Jahren war die Verkehrsplanung auf das Auto ausgerichtet, was zu einer deutlichen Verringerung der Radfahrenden in den darauffolgenden Jahrzehnten führte. Während 1949 an der Nørrebrogade, einer zentralen Hauptstraße in Kopenhagen, an einem Tag durchschnittlich mehr als 62.000 Radfahrende gezählt wurden, waren es im Jahr 1978 nur etwa 8.000 (vgl. ebd. 2021, S. 5f.).In den 1970er Jahren kam es zu umfangreichen Fahrradprotesten und Forderungen nach mehr Fahrradwegen. Trotz der damals bereits vorhandenen Relevanz war der Umweltaspekt jedoch nicht ausschlaggebend. Vielmehr stand die Verkehrssicherheit für die Radfahrenden im Fokus der Fahrradproteste (vgl. ebd., S. 30f.). Im Jahr 2019 gab die deutliche Mehrheit aller Fahradfahrenden in Kopenhagen an, aufgrund der Zeitersparnis gegenüber anderen Verkehrsmitteln (46 Prozent) und aus praktischen Aspekten (55 Prozent) mit dem Fahrrad zu fahren. Ein deutlich geringerer Anteil von 16 Prozent gab Umweltschutzaspekte als Beweggrund an (vgl. ebd., S. 31). Ein weiterer Faktor war die Ölkrise in den 1970er Jahren, welche die Notwendigkeit alternativer Verkehrsmittel untermauerte und in der Folge die Anzahl der Fahrradfahrenden in Kopenhagen stark anstiegen ließ (vgl. Kallenbach 2021, S. 35).Trotz dieser Faktoren sind gerade die nicht-diskursiven, also die bereits vorhandenen Faktoren wesentlich für den Weg Kopenhagens zur Fahrradmetropole und für die Umsetzung entsprechender Maßnahmen. Zum einem sind es geographisch vorteilhafte Gegebenheiten, die Kopenhagen vorteilhaft für den Fahrradverkehr machen, was durch die geringe Größe und die flache Lage der Stadt sichtbar wird (vgl. Kallenbach 2021, S. 34). Dadurch bedingt ist auch die Geschichte Kopenhagens, in welcher der Radverkehr einen relevanten Teil einnimmt (vgl. ebd. 2021, S. 36). Der Sicherheitsaspekt beim Fahrradfahren ist sehr relevant. In Kopenhagen setzte man dementsprechend bereits früh auf vom Autoverkehr separierte Fahrradwege, was parallel zu einem Anstieg der Fahrradfahrenden führte (vgl. Søholt 2014, S. 1f.).Ein weiterer Faktor ist die ununterbrochene politische Richtung hinsichtlich der Mobilität in Kopenhagen, die durch Sozialdemokrat:innen und linke Parteien seit den 1970er Jahren besteht. Diese Kontinuität wirkte sich ebenso auf Investitionen für den Fahrradverkehr und die Fahrradinfrastruktur aus (vgl. Kallenbach 2021, S. 36f.). Zusammengesetzt aus solchen Faktoren konnte sich in Kopenhagen eine Kultur des Fahrradfahrens herausbilden. Neben den Umweltschutzaspekten ist Kopenhagen dadurch attraktiver für Menschen, aber auch für Unternehmen geworden (vgl. Søholt 2014, S. 1).Auch negative Effekte können auftreten. Beispielsweise kommt es vermehrt zu Staus auf den stark befahrenen Fahrradwegen. Die Stadt reagiert darauf mit dem Ausbau der Fahrradspuren und dementsprechend der Verkleinerung von Fahrbahnen für Autos (vgl. Søholt 2014, S. 2). Auch das Sperren von Straßen für den Autoverkehr wird in Erwägung gezogen. Ziel dabei ist es, mehr Platz für die Radfahrenden und den ÖPNV zu schaffen (vgl. ebd., S. 2). Kopenhagen versucht weiterhin umweltfreundliche Kraftstoffe und den Anteil von Elektroautos, auch unter den Taxen der Stadt, voranzutreiben (vgl. Stadt Kopenhagen 2020, S. 41).Der Klimaschutzplan der Stadt benennt den Bereich der Mobilität als eine von vier zentralen Säulen (vgl. Stadt Kopenhagen 2020, S. 13). Im Bericht aus dem Jahr 2020 wird festgestellt, dass CO2-Emissionen nach wie vor deutlich reduziert werden müssen. So sind trotz der Bemühungen und einiger Erfolge die Kohlenstoffemissionen im PKW-Bereich zwischen 2012 und 2018 um zehn Prozent gestiegen (vgl. ebd. 2020, S. 39f.). Parallel mit dem Bevölkerungsanstieg ist die Zahl der Autobesitzer:innen gestiegen. Dennoch sind die Pro-Kopf Emissionen im Straßenverkehr von 2010 bis 2018 um 16 Prozent gesunken (vgl. ebd. 2020, S. 41).Kopenhagen eröffnete im Herbst 2019 den "Cityring" und baut diesen nach und nach aus. Der damit verbundene Ausbau der U-Bahn soll die verschiedenen Stadteile an den öffentlichen Nahverkehr anbinden und effiziente öffentliche Verkehrsmittel gewährleisten (vgl. Stadt Kopenhagen 2019, S. 26). Langfristig soll der Ausbau immer weiter vorangetrieben werden, um auch während der Rushhour eine attraktive Alternative zum Autoverkehr darzustellen (vgl. ebd., S. 26).Die Stadt Kopenhagen zeigt, wie Mobilität in einer nachhaltigen Stadt der Zukunft aussehen kann. Im gleichen Zug müssen dabei jedoch die vorteilhaften Gegebenheiten berücksichtigt werden, beispielsweise die flache Lage und die geringe Größe der Stadt. Aus diesem Grund muss in größeren und hügligeren Städten beispielsweise der ÖPNV als Alternative gedacht werden und mit ähnlicher Entschlossenheit verbessert werden.Dennoch gibt es Faktoren aus Kopenhagen, die eine grüne Mobilität begünstigen und theoretisch in jeder Stadt umsetzbar sind. Ein Beispiel ist die politische Kontinuität bezogen auf die Förderung des Fahrradverkehrs. Umwelt- und Klimaschutz muss nicht zwingend die ausschlaggebende Motivation für den Beginn einer Verkehrswende sein. Trotz aller positiven Aspekte und der Vorreiterrolle der Fahrradstadt Kopenhagen wurden auch im Jahr 2021 noch einige Fahrten mit dem Auto zurückgelegt.Die dauerhafte Förderung der Alternative Fahrrad konnte das enorme Wachstum des Autoverkehrs jedoch eindämmen. Es liegt auf der Hand, dass durch die Verkleinerung beziehungsweise Sperrung von Fahrbahnen und Straßen für den Autoverkehr auch strittige Debatten entstehen können. Die Stadt Kopenhagen verfolgt jedoch den klaren Plan, das Rad und den ÖPNV als Mobilitätsmittel der Wahl weiter voranzutreiben. Bereits zur Mitte des vergangenen Jahrzehnts nutzen 45 Prozent der Einwohner:innen Kopenhagens das Fahrrad für den Schul- beziehungsweise Arbeitsweg (vgl. Diehn 2015, o.S.). Dennoch halten aktuelle Ergebnisse fest, dass die Anstrengungen bei weitem nicht genügen.Weitere Maßnahmen und HerausforderungenZiel dieses Kapitels ist es, weitere Maßnahmen in Kopenhagen zu untersuchen. Aufgrund des Umfangs handelt es sich dabei jedoch um Beispiele, die kompakt dargestellt werden. Dabei werden Beispiele aus dem Bereich der Extremwetteranpassung und der kommunalen Wärmeplanung untersucht. Mit der Stadt München wird ähnlich vorgegangen, die Kategorien werden gleich gewählt. Ziel dabei ist festzustellen, welche Anstrengungen in der jeweiligen Kommune unternommen werden, um Nachhaltigkeitsziele voranzubringen.Durch die örtlichen Gegebenheiten muss Kopenhagen Extremwetterereignisse bewältigen, die sich durch den Klimawandel verstärken. So gab es in der dänischen Hauptstadt allein zwischen 2010 und 2015 sechs Starkregenereignisse, die Straßen und Gebäudekeller überfluteten und für einen enormen finanziellen Schaden sorgten (vgl. Kruse 2016, S. 669). Dementsprechend ist vor allem die Anpassung der Stadt an solche Starkregenereignisse ein wichtiger Bestandteil, der im Klimaanpassungsplan festgehalten ist.Um das Überflutungsrisiko zu verringern und dieser Herausforderung gerecht zu werden, arbeitet die Stadt an der Verwirklichung fünf zentraler Aspekte. Dazu zählen Maßnahmen, die einen Beitrag zur Verringerung des Überflutungsrisikos leisten können, zum Beispiel eine qualitative und quantitative Erhöhung des städtischen Grünflächenbereichs (vgl. ebd. 2016, S. 669f.).Ein konkretes Beispiel ist der Kopenhagener Ortsteil Skt. Kjelds Kvarter, der nach und nach in einen klimagerechten Stadtraum der Zukunft umgewandelt werden soll. Zum einem soll sich die Natur in diesem Quartier weiter ausbreiten, gleichzeitig wird die Regulierung von Regenwasser verbessert (vgl. Technik- und Umweltverwaltung Kopenhagen 2023, o.S.). Konkret dienen die Grünflächen als Versickerungsbecken, wodurch das Wasser unabhängig von der Kanalisation zum Hafenbecken geleitet wird. Hierfür wurde auch die Straßenführung angepasst (vgl. Kruse 2016, S. 270). Neben der Risikoreduzierung durch Extremwetterereignisse wird die Stadt durch solche Projekte nachhaltiger. Zugunsten von Grünflächen wird die Verkehrsinfrastruktur verändert und der Natur wird mehr Raum innerhalb der Stadt gegeben.Die Gefährdung der Stadt durch Extremwetterereignisse soll durch weitere Maßnahamen reduziert werden. Dazu zählen beispielsweise die Bereitstellung von Pumpen und die Ausrüstung von Kellern, um gegen Überschwemmungen vorbereitet zu sein. Gleichzeitig macht der Klimaanpassungsplan deutlich, dass die Entwicklung eines grünen Wachstums gewünscht ist und parallel zur Klimaanpassung vollzogen wird (vgl. Stadtverwaltung Kopenhagen 2011, S. 5). So sollen Grün- und Freiflächen verbessert und ergänzt werden. Dort wo gebaut wird, ist dies entsprechend zu berücksichtigen (vgl. ebd. 2011, S. 12).Neben dem Schutz vor Extremwetterereignissen sollen diese grünen Maßnahmen dazu führen, den Energieverbrauch der Stadt zu senken, die Luftqualität zu verbessern und die Lärmbelästigung zu bekämpfen. Durch die Schaffung von Freiflächen kann beispielsweise die Temperatur gemäßigt und für Luftzirkulation gesorgt werden (vgl. ebd. 2011, S. 12).Kopenhagen benennt in seinem aktuellen Klimaschutzplan neben der Mobilität drei weitere Bereiche: Den Energieverbrauch, die Energieproduktion und Initiativen der Stadtverwaltung (vgl. Stadt Kopenhagen 2020, S. 13). Laut eigenen Worten will sich Kopenhagen, neben der Konzentration auf den öffentlichen Verkehr, auf den Energieausstoß, die kohlenstoffneutrale Fernwärme und Maßnahmen zur Verringerung von Kohlenstoffemissionen fokussieren (vgl. Stadt Kopenhagen 2019, S. 25).2014 wurde Kopenhagen von einem unabhängigen und internationalen Expertenteam zur Umwelthauptstadt ernannt. Es gibt eine Reihe von Kriterien, die hierfür erfüllt sein müssen. Neben dem Nahverkehr wird die Luftqualität, der Anteil sowie die Qualität des grünen Stadtgebietes und der Umgang mit dem Klimawandel berücksichtigt (vgl. Diehn 2015, o.S.).Dementsprechend wurden früh weitere Anstrengungen unternommen. Gerade das weit ausgebaute Fernwärmenetz Kopenhagens muss hierbei erwähnt werden. Dieses versorgt den Großteil der Gebäude und trägt damit maßgeblich zur Einsparung von C02-Emissionen in Kopenhagen bei (vgl. Burckhardt/Tappe/Rehrmann 2022, o.S.). Gleichzeitig bieten sich auch Vorteile für die dortigen Bewohner:innen: Die Preise werden staatlich kontrolliert und die Infrastruktur der Fernwärme ermöglicht einen einfachen und für Verbraucher:innen kostengünstigen Umstieg auf erneuerbare Energien, was ermöglicht, dass Kopenhagens Fernwärme bereits zu 80 Prozent aus erneuerbaren Energien erzeugt wird (vgl. ebd. 2022, o.S.).Das Fernwärmenetz der Stadt hat unter anderem mehrere Müllverbrennungsanlagen und Blockheizkraftwerke, die von verschiedenen Versorgungsunternehmen betrieben werden (vgl. Harrestrup/Svendsen 2014, S. 296). Dies gewährleistet die Nutzung von Abwärme als Heizquelle. Eine dieser Müllverbrennungsanliegen liegt nah am Zentrum Kopenhagens und trägt den Namen Amager Bakke. Das Dach der Müllverbrennungsanlage dient der Bevölkerung gleichzeitig als Skigebiet und steht somit sinnbildlich für die Innovation und entsprechende Nachhaltigkeitsbestrebungen innerhalb der Stadt (vgl. Kafsack 2023, o.S.).Um im Bereich Energie die gesetzten Ziele zu erreichen, setzt Kopenhagen auf eine Vielzahl weiterer Maßnahmen. Dazu zählt neben der Fernwärme der Einsatz erneuerbarer Energietechnologien und die entsprechende Förderung von Heizungspumpen, Erdwärme, Sonnenkollektoren und Windkraftanlagen. Auch Biomasse als Übergangstechnologie wird von der Stadt befürwortet (vgl. Stadt Kopenhagen 2019, S. 54).Kopenhagen wird häufig als grüne Stadt bezeichnet. Viele Maßnahmen der Stadt wurden bereits vor langer Zeit getroffen. Die Pläne der Stadt Kopenhagen sind weit vorangeschritten, äußerst detailliert und durchdacht. Um sich zukünftig besser vor Extremwetterereignissen schützen zu können, arbeitet die Stadt an verschiedenen Lösungen und setzt beispielsweise auf den Ausbau und die Entlastung der Kanalisation. Dass hierbei ebenfalls freie Grünflächen entstehen, ist nicht nur ein nützlicher Nebeneffekt, sondern gewolltes Ziel.Im Bereich der Energieversorgung muss vor allem die Fernwärme genannt werden. Diese wurde in Kopenhagen bereits sehr früh ausgebaut und versorgt dementsprechend fast alle Gebäude. Somit ist dies der wohl wichtigste Bereich der Energieversorgung und gleichzeitig das Hauptaugenmerk des Kopenhagener Klimaplans. Dennoch gibt es auch hier Verbesserungs- und Optimierungspotential. Auch Kritikpunkte sind berechtigt. Beispielsweise ist der Einsatz von Biomasse fraglich. Einen weiteren Rückschlag musste Kopenhagen kürzlich einstecken: Die Stadt gab bekannt, dass sie das Ziel der Klimaneutralität bis 2025 deutlich verfehlen wird (vgl. Wolff 2022, o.S.).MünchenMünchen wurde im Jahr 1158 erstmals urkundlich erwähnt und liegt am Fluss Isar, der im Stadtgebiet eine Länge von 13,7 Kilometern einnimmt (vgl. Stadt München 2023, o.S.). Die Stadt ist bereits seit Beginn des 16. Jahrhunderts die bayrische Landeshauptstadt (vgl. Stahleder 2023, o.S.). Heute hat München mehr als 1,5 Millionen Einwohner und kann damit einen deutlichen Bevölkerungsanstieg verbuchen (vgl. Statistisches Amt München 2023, o.S.). Verglichen mit dem Jahr 2004 stieg die Anzahl der Einwohner:innen um 300.000 Menschen (vgl. Münchner Stadtmuseum 2004, S. 155). München liegt etwa 519 Meter über dem Meeresspiegel und hat eine Fläche von mehr als 310 Quadratkilometern, wodurch die Stadt flächenmäßig zu den größten Städten Deutschlands gehört (vgl. Stadt München 2023, o.S.).Grundlegende Informationen und BesonderheitenAnlass der Gründung Münchens war ein Konflikt zwischen Herzog Heinrich dem Löwen und Bischof Otto I. von Freising (vgl. Scholz 2004, S. 20). Das Bevölkerungswachstum stieg rasch an, was bereits zur Mitte des 13. Jahrhunderts eine deutliche Vergrößerung der Stadt nötig machte (vgl. Scholz 2004, S. 22). Die Isar wurde in München bereits vor mehreren Jahrhunderten als Transportmittel für Waren genutzt und prägte daher die Entwicklung der Stadt maßgeblich (vgl. Scholz 2004, S. 31f.).Im Jahr 1795 begann eine neue Entwicklung. Die bisher genutzten Festigungsanlagen wurden aufgegeben und die dynamische, unbegrenzte Weiterentwicklung der Stadt konnte gelingen (vgl. Lehmbruch 2004, S. 38). Im Laufe der Jahrhunderte kam es zu mehreren Eingemeindungen (vgl. Münchner Stadtmuseum 2004, S. 155). Während des Zweiten Weltkriegs wurden 90 Prozent der historischen Altstadt Münchens zerstört und die Stadt verlor bis zum Ende des Krieges mehr als die Hälfte seiner Einwohner:innen (vgl. Stahleder 2023, o.S.).Münchens Grünanlagen nehmen etwa 13,4 Prozent der gesamten Stadtfläche ein. Den größten zusammenhängenden Teil bildet dabei der Englische Garten mit einer Größe von 374,13 Hektar (vgl. Stadt München 2023, o.S.). Die Jahresmitteltemperatur in München liegt im Durchschnitt bei 8,7 Grad Celsius und der Niederschlag beträgt circa 834 Millimeter im Jahr (vgl. Deutscher Wetterdienst 2023, o.S.). In jüngster Zeit hat München mit einigen Extremwetterereignissen zu kämpfen gehabt, unter anderem mit Starkregen (vgl. Handel 2023, o.S.) und Rekord-Hitzewellen (vgl. Harter 2023, o.S.). Verkehr und MobilitätMünchen arbeitet seit vielen Jahren an seiner Verkehrsstrategie. Der ursprüngliche Verkehrsentwicklungsplan wurde bereits im Jahr 2006 veröffentlicht. Im Sommer 2021 wurde ein neuer Entwurf bezüglich der zukünftigen Mobilitätsplanung beschlossen. Der Stadtrat setzte sich dabei ambitionierte Ziele: Der Verkehr im Stadtgebiet sollte demnach innerhalb von vier Jahren zu mindestens 80 Prozent durch abgasfreie Fahrzeuge beziehungsweise den ÖPNV oder den Fuß- und Radverkehr realisiert werden. Weiterhin soll der Verkehr in München bis 2035 vollständig klimaneutral sein (vgl. Landeshauptstadt München 2023c, o.S.). Der neue Mobilitätsplan der Stadt soll den zukünftigen Herausforderungen gerecht werden. Dazu zählt unter anderem die steigende Bevölkerungszahl und der somit zunehmende Mobilitätsbedarf sowie der Umwelt- und Gesundheitsschutz (vgl. Landeshauptstadt München 2023b, o.S.).Der motorisierte Individualverkehr nimmt in der bayrischen Landeshauptstadt nach wie vor einen hohen Stellenwert ein und wurde 2017 von rund 24 Prozent der Münchner:innen in Anspruch genommen. Die Anzahl der täglich bewältigten Personenkilometer nahm ebenfalls zu, was durch den Anstieg der Bevölkerung und die Zunahme der täglichen Strecken erklärt wird (vgl. Landeshauptstadt München 2022, S. 107f.).Der ÖPNV wurde im Jahr 2017 von 24 Prozent der Münchner:innen genutzt, was verglichen mit dem Jahr 2008 ein leichter Anstieg ist. Verglichen mit dem Jahr 2008 wird das Fahrrad mit 18 Prozent von weniger Münchner:innen genutzt (vgl. ebd. 2022, S. 107f.). Die Stadt kommt in ihrem Nachhaltigkeitsbericht zu dem Ergebnis, dass die Entwicklung in Richtung ÖPNV und des Radverkehrs geht. Durch das starke Wachstum der Stadt und des Umlands kommt es jedoch zu einem Anstieg des Verkehrs insgesamt, was die eigentlich positive Entwicklung aufhebt (vgl. ebd. 2022, S. 107f.). Die Stadt München beschäftigt sich seit einiger Zeit mit sogenannten Radschnellverbindungen."Radschnellverbindungen sind hochwertige Verbindungen im Radverkehrsnetz (von Kommunen oder Stadt­Umland­Regionen), die wichtige Zielbereiche (zum Beispiel Stadtteilzentren, Wohn­ und Arbeitsplatzschwerpunkte, (Hoch­)Schulen) mit hohen Potenzialen über größere Entfernungen verknüpfen und durchgängig ein sicheres und attraktives Befahren mit hohen Reisegeschwindigkeiten […] ermöglichen" (Landeshauptstadt München 2022, S. 109).Solche Strecken haben somit das Potential, einen nicht zu unterschätzenden Beitrag hin zur grünen Mobilität zu leisten. Radschnellwege können nicht nur für die Freizeit, sondern auch von Berufspendler:innen genutzt werden und sind daher eine Alternative zum Auto. Die Landeshauptstadt München hat bereits mehrere Machbarkeitsstudien in Auftrag gegeben. Die Ergebnisse belegen, dass viele dieser Strecken, beispielsweise die Strecke zwischen der Innenstadt Münchens und Starnberg, technisch machbar und wirtschaftlich gewinnbringend sind (vgl. Landeshauptstadt München/Landratsamt München/Landratsamt Starnberg 2020, S. 29).Die lange Planung der Radschnellwege ist seit diesem Jahr in einer neuen Phase. Im Juni 2023 wurde mit dem Bau der ersten von insgesamt fünf Strecken begonnen, welche die Stadt München mit Unterschleißheim und Garching verbinden soll (vgl. Heudorfer 2023, o.S.). Gleichzeitig müssen die enorm hohen Kosten für den Bau solcher Strecken berücksichtigt werden. Dies ist der Grund, weshalb beispielsweise die Strecke zwischen München und Starnberg nicht realisiert wird (vgl. ebd. 2023, o.S.).München plant die Reduzierung des Autoverkehrs in seiner Altstadt. So soll mehr Platz für Fußgänger:innen, Radfahrende und den ÖPNV geschaffen werden. Die Stadt nennt eine Reihe an Maßnahmen, die das Ziel einer autofreien Altstadt realisieren sollen. Dazu zählen unter anderem das Errichten und die Erweiterung von Fußgängerzonen, die Neuregelung des Parkens, was auch das Erhöhen der Parkgebühren beinhaltet, die Verbesserung des Liefer- und Ladeverkehrs sowie das Erbauen eines breiten Radrings in der Altstadt (vgl. Landeshauptstadt München 2023a, o.S.).Ein Pilotprojekt diesbezüglich befindet sich in der zentral gelegenen Kolumbusstraße. Die Straße wurde für Fahrzeuge gesperrt und mit Rollrasen, Sitzmöglichkeiten und Hochbeeten ausgestattet (vgl. Stäbler 2023, o.S.). Das Projekt hat jedoch nicht nur Befürworter:innen. Der Verlust von knapp 40 Parkplätzen sowie der Lärm durch spielende Kinder wird kritisiert (vgl. ebd. 2023, o.S.).Der ÖPNV hat in München einen hohen Stellenwert. Bereits im Jahr 2010 lag München im Vergleich unter den besten deutschen Städten. Berücksichtigt wurde damals unter anderem die Fahrtdauer, die Informationslage und die Preise (vgl. Wagner 2010, o.S.). Eine ADAC-Studie zeigt, dass München im Jahr 2021 die teuerste Einzelfahrkarte unter 21 deutschen Großstädten mit mehr als 300.000 Einwohner:innen hatte. Die Münchner Monatskarte sowie die Wochenkarte hingegen war mit Abstand am günstigsten. Die Monatskarte kostete im Vergleich zu Hamburg knapp die Hälfte (vgl. ADAC 2021, o.S.). Dieser Aspekt muss hinsichtlich der Einführung des Deutschlandtickets und der damit verbundenen Preisentwicklung des ÖPNV neu bewertet werden, ist jedoch aufgrund der damals fehlenden Alternative des Deutschlandtickets nicht zu vernachlässigen.Langfristig plant München eine Bahnstrecke, die Stadt und Umland miteinander verbindet und das bereits vorhandene Schienennetz ergänzt. Dieses Projekt ist zuletzt aus finanziellen Gründen gescheitert, soll jedoch durch spezielle Buslinien kompensiert und nach Möglichkeit neu geprüft werden (vgl. Landeshauptstadt München 2023d, o.S.). Um die Kapazität des ÖPNV in München und Umland zu erhöhen, werden im Rahmen eines Programms verschiedene Maßnahmen umgesetzt. Dazu zählt unter anderem die Anbindung an den Flughafen und der Ausbau der Schieneninfrastruktur im Nordosten Münchens (vgl. Landeshauptstadt München 2023d, o.S.).Auch das U-Bahn- und Tramnetz soll durch die Münchner Verkehrsgesellschaft (MVG) ausgebaut werden. Vorgesehen ist die Verlängerung beziehungsweise der Neubau verschiedener Strecken (vgl. ebd. 2023d, o.S.). Gleichzeitig wird auf die Problematik verwiesen, dass die Kapazitätsgrenze des Schienenverkehrs in München und der Region bereits erreicht ist (vgl. ebd., o.S.).Die bayrische Landeshauptstadt setzt sich selbst ambitionierte Ziele, was den Verkehr und die Mobilität betreffen. Bereits seit vielen Jahren wurde mit entsprechenden Planungen begonnen. Auf der Webseite der Landeshauptstadt finden sich viele Informationen und Vorhaben bezüglich der Verkehrsplanung. Der Ausbau des Fahrradverkehrs, vor allem die Planungen von Radschnellstrecken sind vielsprechend. Die Machbarkeitsstudien belegen das große Potential. Da jedoch erst vor einigen Monaten mit dem Bau der ersten Strecke begonnen wurde, muss München hier in relativ kurzer Zeit viel erreichen.Gleichzeitig kann somit nicht abschließend festgestellt werden, wie groß das Potential der Radschnellverbindungen in der Praxis ist. Der Zuwachs der Stadt München und des Umlands stellt die Landeshauptstadt vor Herausforderungen in doppelter Hinsicht. Obwohl der Anteil der Radfahrenden und der ÖPNV-Fahrenden deutlich zugenommen hat, steigt der Verkehr insgesamt. Gleichzeitig stellt die Stadt fest, dass der ÖPNV an der Kapazitätsgrenze ist. Dennoch müssen die positiven Aspekte betrachtet werden. Hierzu zählt unter anderem das Potential des Münchner ÖPNV und der verschiedenen Projekte. Auch wenn es von der Planung bis zur Umsetzung viele Jahre dauert, ist München sicherlich vielen Städten, vor allem im deutschen Städtevergleich, voraus, da die Planungen früh begonnen haben.Weitere Maßnahmen und HerausforderungenHier werden nun weitere Maßnahmen untersucht. Dabei wird, wie bei Kopenhagen, in exemplarischer Weise auf den Bereich der Extremwetter- beziehungsweise Klimawandelanpassung und den Bereich der kommunalen Wärmeplanung eingegangen. Gleichzeitig werden Herausforderungen, Chancen und Schwierigkeiten beleuchtet, die sich daraus ergeben.Die bayrische Landeshauptstadt hat im Jahr 2019 den Klimanotstand ausgerufen. Damit verbunden ist das Ziel der Klimaneutralität bis 2035 (vgl. Landeshauptstadt München 2023e, o.S.). Das Klima in der Stadt München weist aufgrund der dichten Bebauung spezifische Besonderheiten auf. Dazu zählt der sogenannte "Wärmeinseleffekt", der dazu führt, dass ein Temperaturunterschied im Vergleich zum Münchner Umland besteht (vgl. Landeshauptstadt München u. a. 2016, S. 8).Im Stadtgebiet ist es deshalb im Durchschnitt zwei bis drei Grad wärmer, wobei der Temperaturunterschied in der Nacht deutlich höher ausfällt: Im Vergleich zum Münchner Umland ist es nachts im Stadtgebiet Münchens bis zu zehn Grad wärmer, was durch den Klimawandel und den damit verbundenen Anstieg der Durchschnittstemperatur noch deutlich ansteigen wird (vgl. ebd. 2016, S. 8).Dementsprechend sieht das Klimaanpassungskonzept verschiedene Maßnahmen vor. Dazu zählt zum Beispiel der Ausbau der Dachbegrünung und Photovoltaikanlagen auf Gebäuden, die Verbesserung des Wärmeschutzes in der Gebäudeplanung und Förderprogramme für Klimaanpassungsmaßnahmen auf privaten Grundstücken (vgl. ebd. 2016, S. 40). In München gründeten sich einige Bewegungen, die sich für mehr Nachhaltigkeit einsetzen. Die Münchner Initiative Nachhaltigkeit (MIN) ist ein Beispiel dafür und setzt sich aus mehrheitlich zivilgesellschaftlichen Organisationen zusammen. Die Ziele der MIN orientieren sich an den SDGs (vgl. Münchner Initiative Nachhaltigkeit 2023, o.S.).Der Münchner Nachhaltigkeitsbericht liefert interessante Aufschlüsse. Der Anteil der erneuerbaren Energien im Gebiet der Stadtwerke München lag 2019 bei insgesamt 6,4 Prozent. Den größten Anteil hat dabei die Wasserkraft, gefolgt von Solar (vgl. Landeshauptstadt München 2022, S. 85). Ökostrom soll in den eigenen Stadtwerken langfristig betrachtet in ausreichender Menge erzeugt werden, um damit die Stadt München selbst versorgen zu können.Daraus ergibt sich für den Leiter der Stadtwerke die politische Aufgabe, die Energiewende voranzubringen (vgl. Hutter 2019, o.S.). Gerade die lokale Erzeugung von Ökostrom kann sich in einer dicht bebauten Stadt als schwierig herausstellen. Hier stellt sich die Frage, wie viel Potential München und das direkte Umland hat. Dabei kann es sich zum Beispiel um den Auf- und Ausbau umliegender Windräder oder Biomassekraftwerke handeln (vgl. ebd., o.S.).München setzt auf Tiefengeothermie und kann einen Anstieg in der Erzeugung und den Anteil der Tiefengeothermie am Fernwärmeverbrauch verbuchen. Jedoch lag der Anteil der Geothermie am Fernwärmeverbrauch im Jahr 2019 lediglich bei 3,8 Prozent (vgl. Landeshauptstadt München 2022, S. 86f.). Aktuell wird in München das größte Geothermiekraftwerk Europas erbaut. Somit ist davon auszugehen, dass der Anteil der Geothermie innerhalb der Fernwärmeversorgung in München weiter zunimmt und diese in der Konsequenz Schritt für Schritt nachhaltiger und regenerativ gestalten (vgl. Schneider 2022, o.S.). In München befinden sich momentan sechs Geothermieanlagen. Durch die Erweiterungen soll das Fernwärmenetz den Wärmebedarf Münchens bis 2040 klimaneutral abdecken (vgl. Stadtwerke München 2023a, o.S.).Die Methode der Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung (KWK), also die gleichzeitige Gewinnung von mechanischer Energie und nutzbarer Wärme (vgl. Umweltbundesamt 2022, o.S.), wird von den Stadtwerken München genutzt und dient als eine Art Zwischenlösung, die intensiver genutzt wird, bis der Ausbau der Geothermieanlagen abgeschlossen ist (vgl. Stadtwerke München 2023b, o.S.). Die durch die Stromerzeugung der KWK-Methode gewonnene Abwärme wird in das Fernwärmenetz der Stadt München eingespeist. Die so erzeugte Fernwärme kann dementsprechend schon heute in einem beträchtlichen Maß umweltschonend bereitgestellt werden und ersetzt laut den Stadtwerken München bereits etwa 400 Millionen Liter Heizöl und spart pro Jahr eine Millionen Tonnen CO2 ein (vgl. ebd. 2023b, o.S.).Die Stromerzeugung selbst funktioniert mit Brennstoffen. Neben erneuerbaren Energien können dabei auch fossile Energieträger zum Einsatz kommen. Die Stadtwerke München selbst setzen sich das langfristige Ziel, fossile Brennstoffe abzulösen (vgl. ebd. 2023b, o.S.). Das Heizkraftwerk Süd der Stadtwerke München arbeitet beispielsweise mit der KWK-Methode. Die Stromerzeugung wird durch Erdgas gewährleistet (vgl. Stadtwerke München 2022, o.S.). Somit wird ein fossiler Brennstoff verwendet.Im deutschen Städtevergleich gilt München oft als Vorreiter, was Nachhaltigkeitsbemühungen betrifft. München hat 2019 den Klimanotstand ausgerufen und sich das Ziel gesetzt, bis 2035 klimaneutral zu werden. Das Ausrufen des Klimanotstands hat eher symbolischen Charakter. Dennoch wird die Dringlichkeit der Sache damit auch auf kommunaler Ebene betont.Bezüglich der Anpassung an Extremwetterereignisse finden sich viele Informationen der Stadt München. Dabei werden auch viele Maßnahmen genannt, die nach und nach umgesetzt werden sollen. Die Stadt ist sich der Relevanz des Themas bewusst. Durch das veränderte Stadtklima wird deutlich, wie wichtig die Anpassung an Extremwetterereignisse ist, um das Leben in der Stadt auch zukünftig zu sichern.Im Fall von München sind die Maßnahmen gegen Hitze besonders relevant. Hier hat München bereits Pilotprojekte und verschiedene Fördermaßnahmen in die Wege geleitet. Im Bereich der Energieversorgung muss vor allem die Tiefengeothermie benannt werden. München setzt verstärkt darauf und erkennt das große Potential. Gleichzeitig müssen die hohen Kosten und der damit verbundene Aufwand berücksichtigt werden.Aktuell kommen auch KWK-Werke zum Einsatz. Dies ermöglicht die umweltschonende Bereitstellung von Fernwärme. Der Einsatz mehrerer Geothermieanlagen kann dieses Potential jedoch beträchtlich steigern. Erdgas wird zur Erzeugung von Strom in München auch aktuell eingesetzt. Langfristig wollen die Stadtwerke jedoch ohne den Einsatz fossiler Brennstoffe arbeiten. Die Fernwärme Münchens ist weit ausgebaut und bietet hohes Potential. Dennoch zeigen erst die nächsten Jahre, wie nachhaltig und flächendeckend das Fernwärmenetz konkret ausgebaut werden kann.ErkenntnisseDie Einwohnerzahl Kopenhagens ist in den letzten Jahren gestiegen. Auch zukünftig muss die Stadt mit einem Bevölkerungswachstum rechnen. In München ist ebenso von einem Bevölkerungsanstieg auszugehen, was auch in den letzten Jahren der Fall war. Der Anstieg der Bevölkerung in Zahlen ist deutlich höher, was sich durch die größere Fläche der bayrischen Landeshauptstadt zumindest teilweise relativieren lässt. Im direkten Vergleich ist München mehr als drei Mal so groß wie Kopenhagen.Kopenhagen gilt als eine der besten Fahrradstädte weltweit. Dies führt neben den positiven Aspekten auch zu vollen Fahrradwegen. Die Stadt reagiert mit der Verbreiterung von Fahrradwegen und der Sperrung beziehungsweise Verkleinerung von Autofahrbahnen und ganzen Straßen. München geht diesbezüglich nicht so konsequent vor, hat jedoch ein vergleichbares Pilotprojekt gestartet, welches eine zentrale Straße zeitweise für den Autoverkehr gesperrt hat.Das Fahrrad als Verkehrsmittel konnte sich in Kopenhagen bereits früh etablieren. Ein zentraler Faktor, der für das Fahrrad in Kopenhagen spricht, ist unter anderem die Zeitersparnis. Eine Reihe nicht-diskursiver Faktoren spielen eine wichtige Rolle für die bedeutsame Rolle des Fahrrads in der dänischen Hauptstadt. Neben der flachen Lage und der geringen Größe zählt dazu auch der politische Wille und die Bereitschaft, das Fahrrad als Verkehrsmittel kontinuierlich zu fördern.In München wurde die Relevanz des Fahrrads ebenfalls erkannt. München kann im Vergleich jedoch auf keine derart ausgeprägte Fahrradkultur zurückblicken. Dennoch stellt sich heraus, dass das Fahrrad in München nicht unterschätzt wird. Die aktuellen Planungen und erste bauliche Maßnahmen der Radschnellverbindungen belegen, dass die Stadt den Radverkehr als Alternative zum Auto etablieren möchte.Dabei sollen, wie es in Kopenhagen bereits der Fall ist, nicht nur Freizeitradler:innen, sondern auch Berufspendler:innen angesprochen werden. Das Münchner Umland soll in den Bau der Radschnellverbindungen zu weiten Teilen integriert werden. Theoretisch könnte München auf diese Weise trotz der deutlich weiteren Distanzen die optimale Infrastruktur für das Fahrrad als grüne Alternative etablieren.Der Autoverkehr spielt in Kopenhagen nach wie vor eine Rolle. Trotz einiger Maßnahmen müssen die CO2-Emissionen weiter reduziert werden. Die Emissionen im PKW-Bereich sind bis vor fünf Jahren noch angestiegen. Auch in München ist der Autoverkehr relevant und wurde im Jahr 2017 von fast einem Viertel der Münchner:innen genutzt. Von der Stadt München werden verschiedene Maßnahmen benannt, die zu einer autofreien Altstadt führen sollen. Dabei soll ähnlich wie in Kopenhagen vorgegangen werden, unter anderem mit der Erweiterung von Fußgängerzonen. Kopenhagen scheint diesbezüglich jedoch weiter fortgeschritten zu sein. Bei der Verkleinerung von Fahrbahnen im Bereich des Autoverkehrs handelt es sich dort um dauerhafte Maßnahmen. In München beschränkt sich dies bislang auf Pilotprojekte und Vorhaben.Beide Städte haben ein gut ausgebautes ÖPNV-Netz. In München ist sich die Stadt der Tatsache bewusst, dass die aktuelle ÖPNV-Infrastruktur an seiner Kapazitätsgrenze angekommen ist. Aus diesem Grund plant München den Ausbau und setzt bereits einige Großprojekte, unter anderem die Erweiterung der Schieneninfrastruktur, in verschiedenen Stadteilen, um. Vor allem das Tramnetz hat sicherlich das Potential, für Münchner:innen eine dauerhafte Alternative zum Auto zu sein. Da das Hauptproblem augenscheinlich die Kapazitätsgrenze des bestehenden Schienennetzes ist, kommt es auf den zügigen und konsequenten Ausbau in den nächsten Jahren an.Kopenhagen hat im Vergleich bereits im Jahr 2019 eine Stadtlinie eröffnet, die immer weiter ausgebaut wird. Kopenhagen will die Attraktivität des ÖPNVs auch während der Rushhour gewährleisten. Dies lässt darauf schließen, dass einer der Hauptfaktoren auch hier die aktuelle Auslastung der vorhandenen öffentlichen Verkehrsmittel ist. In diesem Bereich haben beide Städte somit ähnliche Herausforderungen zu bewältigen. Beide Städte sind aktiv und scheinen den ÖPNV als dauerhaftes Verkehrsmittel fördern zu wollen.Kopenhagen liegt direkt am Meer und 24 Meter über dem Meeresspiegel. Ähnlich wie München sieht sich Kopenhagen mit Extremwetterereignissen konfrontiert. In Kopenhagen regnet es sehr häufig und durch die Lage am Meer und die geringe Höhe über dem Meeresspiegel sind Sturmfluten und Überschwemmungen keine Seltenheit. München hat ebenso mit Starkregen zu kämpfen, wobei Hitzewellen hier auch nicht zu unterschätzen sind. Beide Städte stellen verschiedene Maßnahmen vor, die zur Vermeidung negativer Folgen führen sollen. In der Umsetzung hat Kopenhagen bereits Erstaunliches erreicht, um sich vor Starkregen zu schützen. Beide Städte nehmen die durch den Klimawandel entstehenden Extremwetterereignisse und deren mögliche Folgen ernst und arbeiten an spezifischen Lösungen.Die Energieversorgung ist in beiden Städten ein zentraler Aspekt. Beide Städte nehmen hier in gewisser Weise Vorreiterrollen ein. Sowohl Kopenhagen als auch München fördern den Einsatz erneuerbarer Technologien in verschiedener Hinsicht. Das Fernwärmenetz in Kopenhagen ist bereits sehr gut ausgebaut. Gleichzeitig kann die Fernwärme Kopenhagens bereits zu 80 Prozent aus erneuerbaren Energien gewonnen werden. Die dänische Hauptstadt hat hier einige Vorzeigeprojekte, unter anderem die Müllverbrennungsanlage Amager Bakke.Die Stadt München setzt vermehrt auf Tiefengeothermie und treibt den Ausbau voran. Dies soll die Fernwärme nach und nach nachhaltiger machen. Bis 2040 soll das Fernwärmenetz in München somit klimaneutral arbeiten können. Die KWK-Methode wird in München eingesetzt und spart nennenswerte Mengen an CO2 ein. Fossile Brennstoffe kommen hier aber nach wie vor zum Einsatz. Dennoch hat auch München ein ausgefeiltes Konzept und ist vor allem im deutschen Vergleich weit vorangeschritten und hat bereits früh nach alternativen Wegen gesucht. Daher sind die Fortschritte Münchens in der Wärmeversorgung beachtlich. Im direkten Vergleich kann Kopenhagen jedoch mit noch mehr Innovation und aktuell größeren Fortschritten punkten.FazitEs wurde untersucht, wie eine nachhaltige Stadt gestaltet werden kann. Eine aktuelle Bestandsaufnahme zeigt, dass die Entwicklungen in Städten sehr unterschiedlich sind. Die Abkehr von der Vorstellung einer autogerechten Stadt scheint sinnvoll. Bereits vorhandene ÖPNV-Strukturen und weitere Alternativen zum motorisierten Individualverkehr müssen effizienter genutzt oder geschaffen werden. Der Energiesektor ist besonders relevant, da hier die größten Möglichkeiten hinsichtlich einer Reduzierung von Emissionen bestehen. Städte sollten daher Maßnahmen etablieren, um den Energiebedarf zu senken und auf regenerative Energien umsteigen zu können. In dieser Arbeit wurde bezogen auf den Bereich der Energie die kommunale Wärmeplanung berücksichtigt.Untersucht wurden die Bereiche des Verkehrs und der Mobilität, der Extremwetteranpassung und der kommunalen Wärmeplanung. München und Kopenhagen haben in den untersuchten Bereichen bereits eine Vielzahl an Maßnahmen und Vorhaben vorgestellt und initiiert. Dabei stellt sich heraus, dass die spezifischen Gegebenheiten in Städten stets berücksichtigt werden müssen. Diese unterschiedlichen Gegebenheiten führen dazu, dass ein Städtevergleich nicht in jedem Aspekt einer nachhaltigen Stadtentwicklung zielführend ist. München zeigt jedoch am Beispiel der geplanten Radschnellverbindungen, dass es auch Lösungen für suboptimale Gegebenheiten gibt, in diesem Fall für größere Distanzen beim Radverkehr.Beide Städte sind fortgeschritten, was den Bereich der nachhaltigen Mobilität betrifft. Hier stellt vor allem der erwartete Bevölkerungsanstieg eine Herausforderung dar, da dies zur weiteren Be- beziehungsweise Überlastung der bestehenden Verkehrsinfrastruktur und zur Zunahme des Verkehrs generell führen wird. Dementsprechend finden sich in beiden Städten Projekte, die auch teils in der Umsetzung und bezogen auf die Zukunft der nachhaltigen Mobilität vielversprechend sind. Hier bleiben jedoch die konkreten Fortschritte in den nächsten Jahren abzuwarten, was eine erneute Untersuchung zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt interessant macht. Die Vision beziehungsweise Utopie einer autofreien Stadt scheint für Kopenhagen einen Schritt näher zu sein. München zeigt jedoch, dass zumindest eine autofreie Altstadt in naher Zukunft nicht undenkbar ist.Die Anpassung an die Folgen des Klimawandels ist für beide Städte relevant. Kopenhagen hat hier eine Reihe innovativer Projekte bereits umgesetzt. München stellt viele Maßnahmen vor, die im Detail jedoch noch weiter vorangetrieben werden müssen.Bezogen auf die kommunale Wärmeplanung gehen beide Städte verschiedene Wege und haben bestimmte Visionen. Einen Beitrag zur Energiewende wollen beide Städte und deren ansässige Stadtwerke leisten. Die Fernwärme ist sowohl in Kopenhagen als auch in München der zentrale Faktor. Kopenhagen ist bezogen auf den Anteil erneuerbarer Energien und den Ausbau des Fernwärmenetzes weiter fortgeschritten als München. Ebenso bestehen in Kopenhagen innovative Ideen zur nachhaltigen Erzeugung von Fernwärme und zur Einbettung verschiedener Anlagen in die Kopenhagener Stadt und das Umland. München setzt auf die Nutzung von Geothermie, was zu einer sehr guten CO-2-Bilanz beitragen kann.In den untersuchten Bereichen weisen beide Städte Fortschritte auf. Kopenhagen hat zeitlich betrachtet deutlich früher mit dem Ausbau einer nachhaltigen Stadtentwicklung begonnen. Dementsprechend sind einige Pläne ausgereifter und es finden sich hinsichtlich der untersuchten Bereiche mehr konkrete Umsetzungen. München könnte hier jedoch in den nächsten Jahren ähnlich weit voranschreiten, was unter anderem hinsichtlich des Maßnahmenkatalogs deutlich wird. Auch aus diesem Grund wäre die Betrachtung zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt interessant und würde weitere Aufschlüsse liefern.Durch die Untersuchung der Verkehrsinfrastruktur und der kommunalen Wärmeplanung beider Städte wurden Schlüsselaspekte einer nachhaltigen Stadtentwicklung berücksichtigt. Dennoch muss betont werden, dass bei weitem nicht alle Aspekte einer nachhaltigen Stadt berücksichtigt und untersucht werden konnten. Dies würde den Rahmen dieser Arbeit sprengen. Eine Untersuchung in weiteren Bereichen würde daher eine sinnvolle Ergänzung darstellen.LiteraturverzeichnisAachener Stiftung Kathy Beys (2015): Nachhaltiger Lebensstil (Aachener Stiftung Kathy Beys vom 16.12.2015) < https://www.nachhaltigkeit.info/artikel/nachhaltiger_lebensstil_1978.htm > (11.11.2023).ADAC (2021). 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Die Umsetzung der Sustainable Development Goals auf kommunaler Ebene, Springer VS:Wiesbaden.Kruse, Elke (2016): Kopenhagen: Vorreiter beim Thema "Überflutungsvorsorge" In: Korrespondenz Wasserwirtschaft 9 (11), S. 669-673 < https://www.hcu-hamburg.de/fileadmin/documents/REAP/files/KLIQ_Kopenhagen_KW_Korrespondenz_Wasserwirtschaft.pdf > (02.12.2023). Landeshauptstadt München (2023a): Autoreduzierte Altstadt (muenchen.de 2023) < https://stadt.muenchen.de/infos/autoreduzierte-altstadt.html > (12.11.2023).Landeshauptstadt München u. a. (2016): Konzept zur Anpassung an die Folgen des Klimawandels in der Landeshauptstadt München, Landeshauptstadt München, bifa Umweltinstitut, Institut für ökologische Wirtschaftsordnung, Deutscher Wetterdienst: München, Augsburg, Berlin < https://stadt.muenchen.de/dam/jcr:8eb68d50-5c21-4948-92ae-62fa129ab566/bericht_klwa_10_2016.pdf > (18.11.2023). 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Wolff, Reinhard (2022): Kopenhagen verfehlt Klimaziel (taz online vom 28.08.2022) < https://taz.de/Probleme-mit-dem-Restmuell/!5874726/ > (18.11.2023).

KÄMPFER AN VERGESSENEN FRONTEN Kämpfer an vergessenen Fronten ( - ) Einband ( - ) [4 Abb.]: Die großen Gegenspieler im Geheimdienst (1)Oberst Nicolai Chef des deutschen Nachrichtendienstes (2)Oberst Ronge Chef der Nachrichtenabteilung des k. u. k. Armeeoberkommandos und des Evidenzbüros des Generalstabes (3)Colonel Hivert vom "Deuxième bureau" Paris (4)Admiral Sir Reginald Hall Chef des "Special Department" im "Secret service" London ([2]) Titelseite ([3]) Impressum ([4]) Inhaltsverzeichnis ([5]) Der Krieg in den Kolonien. Aus dem Seekrieg. Helden der Luft. ([5]) Aus dem Geheimdienst. ([6]) Kunstdruck-Tafeln ([7]) Verzeichnis der Tiefdruck-Tafeln ([8]) Vorwort ([9]) Benutzte Literatur. (10) Der Krieg in den Kolonien (11) 1. Kapitel Lettow und seine Helden (11) a) Der Kampf um die Nordbahn bis zum Sommer 1915 (12) Tagebuch des Leutnants Spangenberg der 10. Feldkompagnie. (12) [Abb.]: Berittene Askari-Abteilung (12) Tagebuch des Gefreiten d. Res. Stens der 11. Feldkompagnie. (13) [Abb.]: Da ist der Feind! (14) Brief des Oberleutnants v. Lettow-Vorbeck an Frau v. Prince. (15) Tagebuch des Landsturmmannes Albert Henzler der 7. Schützen-Kompagnie. (16) [Abb.]: Marsch durch die Steppe westlich des Kilimandscharo. (16) [Abb.]: Askaris in Feldstellung am Kilimandscharo ( - ) Tagebuch des Leutnants d. Res. Bleeck der 15. Feldkompagnie. (19) [Abb.]: Auf Patrouille (19) [Abb.]: Maschinengewehr im Gefecht (23) Tagebuch des Landsturmmannes Guth (im Zivilberuf Missionar) der 6. Schützen-Kompagnie. (26) [Abb.]: Maschinengewehr-Stellung im Kilimandscharo-Gebiet (27) Tagebuch des Gefreiten d. Res. Stens der 11. Feldkompagnie. (27) [Abb.]: Askari-Patrouille meldet sich nach erfolgreicher Sprengung der Uganda-Bahn zurück (29) Tagebuch des Leutnants d. Res. Osterhage der 19. Feldkompagnie. (29) b) Grenzwacht im Westen (31) Brief des leutnants d. Res. Dr. Friedrich, Führer der 4,7-Zentimeter-Schnellade-Kanone der Abteilung Bukoba. (31) [3 Abb.]: Brückenschlag über den Ngono (1)Der Landstoß wird gelegt (2)Bei der Arbeit (3)Kurz vor der Fertigstellung (32) [Abb.]: Lager (35) Brief des Hauptmanns von Linde-Suden, Führer der 7. Feldkompagnie. (37) [Abb.]: Teil der Boma Bukoba (38) Tagebuch des Leutnants d. Res. Köller der Abteilung Bukoba. (39) [Abb.]: Am Rufua (40) Aufzeichnungen des Oberleutnants d. Ldw. v. Debschitz, Führer der Abteilung Debschitz, über die Expedition nach Bismarckburg im Frühjahr 1915. (42) [Abb.]: Patrouillenboot auf dem Tanganjika-See (43) Aufzeichnung des Oberleutnants d. Ldw. v. Debschitz, Führers der 29. Feldkompagnie. (46) [Abb.]: 10,5 Zentimeter-Geschütz der "Königsberg" an Bord des Hilfskreuzers "Götzen" (46) [Abb.]: Die "Königsberg" im Hafen von Daressalam ( - ) c) Der Kreuzer "Königsberg" (49) Tagebuch des Gefreiten d. Res. Wöhrle der Abteilung Delta. (49) [Abb.]: Übersetzen auf Zeltfähre im Ruftiji-Delta (50) Niederschrift des Obersignalgasts Fritz Borisch des Kreuzers "Königsberg". (51) d) Das große Kesseltreiben der Feinde 1916 (53) Tagebuch des Unteroffiziers d. Res. Kurzhals der 18. Feldkompagnie. (54) [Abb.]: Schützengraben im Kilimandscharo-Gebiet (54) Tagebuch des Unteroffiziers d. Res. Kurzhals der 18. Feldkompagnie. (56) Aufzeichnung des Oberleutnants d. Ldw. v. Debschitz vom Stabe der Abteilung Schulz. (57) [Abb.]: Heliographenstation (59) Tagebuch des Leutnants d. Res. Orth der 29. Feldkompagnie. (61) [Abb.]: Askari im Feuergefecht (62) [Abb.]: Rast (65) Aufzeichnungen des Vizewachtmeisters d. Res. Dr. Hoffmeister. (66) Aufzeichnungen des Oberleutnants d. Ldw. v. Debschitz vom Stabe der Abteilung Schulz. (68) [Abb.]: Auf Patrouille (69) [Abb.]: Trägerkolonne im Gebirge (71) Tagebuch des Vizefeldwebels d. Ldw. Bruno Baring der 21. Feldkompagnie. (74) [Abb.]: Trägerlager (75) Tagebuch des Unteroffiziers Viohl der 3. Schützen-Kompagnie. (77) [Abb.]: Daressalam (77) Aufzeichnungen des Vizefeldwebels d. Res. Pfeiffer der 8. Feldkompagnie. (80) [Abb.]: Bahnhof Tabora (80) Aufzeichnungen des Vizefeldwebels d. Res. Pfeiffer der 8. Feldkompagnie. (82) Tagebuch des Ersatz-Reservisten Hoch vom Stabe der Abteilung v. Langenn. (83) [Abb.]: Im Lager. (84) Aufzeichnungen des Vizefeldwebels d. Res. Pfeiffer der 8. Feldkompagnie. (85) [Abb.]: Askari beim Kartenspiel. (86) Tagebuch des Gefreiten d. Res. Schönwälder der 3. Schützenkompagnie. (87) [Abb.]: "Ohne Weg und Steg durch das taufrische Gras" (89) e) Die Kämpfe zwischen Rufiji und Rowuma (90) Aufzeichnungen des Oberleutnants d. Ldw. Methner, Führers der 4. Schützenkompagnie. (91) [Abb.]: Schützenkompagnie im Angriff. (91) Tagebuch des Sanitätsfeldwebels Knaak der Wangoni-Kompagnie. (93) Tagebuch des Leutnants d. Res. Osterhage der 19. Feldkompagnie. (96) [Abb.]: Trägerkolonne mit Verpflegung auf dem Wege zur Front (96) [Abb.]: Marsch am Natronsee (im Norden von Deutsch-Ostafrika) ( - ) Tagebuch des Vizefeldwebels d. Res. Nottbohm der 17. Feldkompagnie. (97) Tagebuch des Leutnants d. Res. Osterhage der 19. Feldkompagnie. (99) [Abb.]: Am Maschinengewehr (99) Tagebuch des Leutnants d. Res. Osterhage der 19. Feldkompagnie. (101) [Abb.]: "Der Gegner griff in dichten Kolonnen an" (102) Tagebuch des Vizefeldwebels d. Res. Nottbohm der 17. Feldkompagnie. (104) Tagebuch des Sanitätsfeldwebels Knaak des Etappenlazaretts I. (105) f) Das letzte Kriegsjahr (106) Tagebuch des Hauptmanns Spangenberg, Führeres der 6. Schützenkompagnie. (106) Tagebuch des Hauptmanns Spangenberg, Führers der 6. Schützenkompagnie. (107) [Abb.]: Auf dem Marsche (107) Tagebuch des Hauptmanns Spangenberg, Führers der 6. Schützenkompagnie. (108) Aufzeichnung des Generals Wahle. (108) Aufzeichnung des Hauptmanns Boell. (109) Tagebuch des Vizefeldwebels d. Res. Nottbohm der 17. Feldkompagnie. (110) Tagebuch des Hauptmanns Spangenberg, Führers der 10. Feldkompagnie. (112) [Abb.]: Die 4. Kings African Rifles (113) 2. Kapitel Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika (114) Tagebuch des Kriegsfreiwilligen Stintzing der 2. Ersatz-Kompagnie. (114) [Abb.]: Brandung bei Swakopmund; im Vordergrund ein 1914 auf Strand gesetzter Woermann-Schlepper (114) Tagebuch des Hauptmanns Hensel, Führers der 3. Gebirgsbatterie. (115) [Abb.]: Lüderitzbucht (116) Bericht des Leutnants von Löbbecke der 2. Gebirgsbatterie. (117) [Abb.]: Der Oranje bei Ramansdrift (117) [Abb.]: Gebirgsgeschütz in Feuerstellung (118) Tagebuch des Kriegsfreiwilligen Stintzing der 1. Reservebatterie. (119) [Abb.]: Bergland am Oranje (121) Bericht des Leutnants d. Res. Seeliger der 7. (Kamelreiter-) Kompagnie. (123) [Abb.]: Gochas, der Standort der Kamelreiter-Kompagnie (123) [Abb.]: Die Kamelreiter-Kompagnie (124) Tagebuch des Hauptmanns Hensel, Führers der 3. Gebirgsbatterie. (125) [Abb.]: Der Hafen von Lüderitzbucht (125) Bericht des Oberleutnants d. Res. Gaedtke der 1. Reservekompagnie. (126) [Abb.]: Buren-Freikorps (128) Aufzeichnung des Hauptmanns Trainer, Führers der 1. Gebirgsbatterie. (129) [Abb.]: Abtransport der 1. Gebirgsbatterie auf der Otawibahn nach Norden (129) [Abb.]: Das portugiesische Fort Naulia. (131) Bericht des Leutnants v. Löbbecke der 2. Gebirgsbatterie. (132) [Abb.]: Auf dem Marsch (133) Tagebuch des Hauptmanns Hensel, Führers des Regiments v. Rappard. (135) Aufzeichnung des Leutnants d. Res. Erich Lübbert. (135) [Abb.]: Packkamel mit Maschinengewehr (136) Tagebuch des Hauptmanns Hensel, Führers des Regiments v. Rappard. (137) [Abb.]: Von der Schutztruppe zerstörte Bahn bei Aus (137) Bericht des Oberleutnants d. Res. Gaedtke der 1. Reservekompagnie. (138) [Abb.]: Gibeon (138) [Abb.]: Deutsche Gräber auf dem Gefechtsfeld bei Gibeon (140) Tagebuch des Hauptmanns Hensel. (140) [Abb.]: Von der Schutztruppe gesprengte Eisenbahnbrücke bei Rehoboth (141) Tagebuch des Feldkriegsgerichtsrats Stintzing. (142) Bericht des Leutnants a. D. Bertelsmann der 9. Kompagnie. (143) [Abb.]: Swakopmund und die Namib (143) [Abb.]: Windhuk (144) Bericht des Leutnants v. Dewitz der 3. Gebirgsbatterie. (145) [Abb.]: Unionstruppen nach dem Einmarsch in Windhuk vor dem Rathaus (146) Bericht des Leutnants a. D. Bertelsmann der 9. Kompagnie. (146) Tagebuch des Feldkriegsgerichtsrats Stintzing. (148) [Abb.]: Die 5. Kompagnie in Zugkolonne (148) [Abb.]: Absitzen zum Gefecht zu Fuß (149) Aufzeichnung des Rittmeisters a. D. v. Szczytnicki. (151) [Abb.]: Im Busch lagernde deutsche Reiter (152) Brief des Majors a. D. Trainer. (153) [Abb.]: Auf dem Rückzug (154) 3. Kapitel Kamerun (155) Aufzeichnung des Oberjägers d. Res. Petersen der Etappen-Kompagnie. (156) [Abb.]: (156) Bericht des Hauptmanns v. Sommerfeld, Führers der 2. Kompagnie. (157) Tagebuch des Sanitäts-Vizefeldwebels Müller. (159) [Abb.]: Station Bamenda (159) Aufzeichnung des Oberarztes Dr. Kluge der 5. Kompagnie. (162) [Abb.]: Befestigte Feldstellung (162) [Abb.]: Gewehrreinigen (164) Aufzeichnung des Oberleutnants Harttmann, Führers der 9. Kompagnie. (165) Aufzeichnung des Hauptmanns Dickmann. (166) [Abb.]: Gesprengte Eisenbahnbrücke über den Kele östlich Edea (168) [Abb.]: Schützenlinie am Buschrand (170) Aufzeichnung des Unterarztes d. Res. Dr. Appel. (172) Aufzeichnung des Oberjägers d. Res. Petersen der Etappen-Kompagnie (173) [Abb.]: Abmarsch aus der Garnison (173) [Abb.]: "Mit Hurra ging es auf den Feind" (175) Tagebuch des Oberleutnants Lüders. (177) [Abb.]: Astverbau bei Ossdinge (178) Brief des Leutnants d. Res. Brendel an Oberleutnant Lüders. (178) Aufzeichnung des Vizefeldwebels Fabian. (179) Aufzeichnung des Oberjägers d. Res. Petersen der Etappen-Kompagnie. (180) [Abb.]: Abmarsch aus dem Lager (180) Aufzeichnung des Oberarztes Dr. Kluge. (182) [Abb.]: Unterstand im Walde (183) Tagebuch des Unterzahlmeisters Kopitz. (184) [Abb.]: Der Marktplatz von Jaunde (185) Brief des Stabsarztes Dr. Kalweit an Oberleutnant Lüders. (187) Aufzeichnung des Oberjägers d. Res. Petersen der Etappen-Kompagnie. (187) Aufzeichnung des Oberjägers d. Res. Petersen der Etappen-Kompagnie. (188) [Abb.]: Innenhof der Station Jaunde (189) [Abb.]: Oberhäuptling der Jekaba, Nasaga Eboko, mit seinen Frauen (192) Tagebuch des Oberarztes Dr. Podzun der 3. Kompagnie. (194) [Abb.]: Befestigte Feldstellung (195) [Abb.]: Deutsche Kriegsgräber in Kamerun (197) Aufzeichnung des Vizefeldwebels in Kamerun (197) 4. Kapitel Togo Schilderung der Ereignisse in Togo durch einen deutschen Kaufmann. (199) [Abb.]: Polizeiwache in Lome (200) [Abb.]: Polizeitruppen überschreiten den Jogu-Fluß (202) 5. Kapitel Deutsch-Neu-Guinea (203) Aufzeichnung des Rittmeisters v. Klewitz, Inspektors der Polizeitruppe für Deutsch-Neu-Guinea. (204) Aufzeichnung des Oberleutnants Mayer. (205) Aufzeichnung des Polizeimeisters Mauderer. (206) [Abb.]: Landung australischer Truppen auf Samoa (206) Aufzeichnung des Leutnants d. Res. Kempf über die Ereignisse bei der Truppenabteilung in Bitapaka am 11. September 1914. (207) [Abb.]: Durch versenkte Schiffe versperrte Hafeneinfahrt von Tsingtau ( - ) [Abb.]: Weiße Freiwilligen-Abteilung von Deutsch-Neu-Guinea im Gefecht (209) 6. Kapitel Tsingtau (210) Brief des Matrosenartilleristen Rasch des Matrosen-Artillerie-Kommandos 4. Tsingtau, den 18. August 1914. (211) Brief des Unterarztes der Reserve. Peking, den 20. Dezember 1914. (211) [Abb.]: Notbrücke der Japaner nach der Sprengung der Cäcilienbrücke in Lauschan (212) Bericht des Kapitänleutnants Brunner, Kommandanten des Torpedobootes "S 90". (213) Brief des Assistenzarztes Dr. Scheidemann. Deutsches Lazarett Peking, den 8. Januar 1915. (214) [Abb.]: Japanisches Massengrab (215) [Abb.]: Der Ehrenfriedhof der gefallen Verteidiger Tsingtaus (216) [Abb.]: Der Ehrenfriedhof der gefallen Verteidiger Tsingtaus (217) [Abb.]: Japanischer Schützengraben vor dem deutschen Haupthindernis (218) Brief des Hauptmanns Sodan. (220) [Abb.]: 28-cm-Haubitze auf dem Bismarckberg nach der Sprengung durch die Deutschen (221) [Abb.]: Feldhaubitzenbatterie mit Ochsen bespannt (222) Aus dem Seekrieg (223) 1. Kapitel Der Krieg in der Nordsee bis zur Schlacht an der Doggerbank (223) Brief eines Matrosen des kleinen Kreuzers "Stralsund". (224) Brief des Deckoffiziers Paul Käßner des Torpedobootes "G 9". (225) [Abb.]: Zum Angriff vorbrechende Torpedoboote (225) [Abb.]: Treffer auf einem Torpedoboot (227) Brief eines Matrosen über den Untergang des kleinen Kreuzers "Ariadne" am 28. August 1914. Wilhelmshaven, den 4. Oktober 1914. (227) Brief des Artilleriemechaniker-Obergasts August Bickel, 2. Marine-Luftschiff-Abteilung. (229) Brief eines Matrosen einer Minenleger-Division. Cuxhaven, den 11. November 1914. (230) [Abb.]: Deutsches U-Boot taucht zum Angriff gegen feindliche Kreuzer (230) Brief eines Matrosen des kleinen Kreuzers "Stralsund". (231) Brief eines Oberheizers des Linienschiffes "Kaiserin". Wilhelmshaven, den 8. November 1914. (232) [Abb.]: Die Schlachtschiffe "Kaiser" und "Kaiserin" mit U-Boot-Sicherung (232) Brief des Oberheizers Artur Fischer, II. Werftdivision, 1. Zweigkompagnie. Wilhelmshaven, den 28. November 1914. (233) [Abb.]: Der untergehende Panzerkreuzer "Yorck" (234) Brief des Torpedo-Obermaschinenmaats Ernst Schwanitz des Torpedobootes "S 120". Nordsee, den 19. Dezember 1914. (235) Brief des Materialienverwaltersmaats Thilo Sölter des Torpedobbotes "V 158". ., den 20. Dezember 1914. (235) Brief des Fähnrichs z. See Reinhardt des Schlachtkreuzers "Seydlitz". ., den 18. Dezember 1914. (236) Brief des Obermatrosen Ernst Fischer des Schlachtkreuzers "Derfflinger". Wilhelmshaven, den 18. Dezember 1914. (236) [Abb.]: Der Schlachtkreuzer "Derfflinger", ein kleiner Kreuzer und Torpedoboote passieren eine Schiffssperre (237) Brief des F. T.-Gasts Kurt Wandt des Schlachtkreuzers "von der Tann". An Bord S. M. S. "von der Tann", den 19. Dezember 1914. (238) Brief eines Maats an Bord eines U-Bootes. (239) [Abb.]: Deutsches U-Boot vor Helgoland (239) Brief des Artilleriemechaniker-Obergasts August Bickel, 2. Marine-Luftschiff-Abteilung. (240) [Abb.]: Die brennende "Seydlitz" in der Schlacht an der Doggerbank ( - ) Brief des Fähnrichs z. See Reinhardt des Schlachtkreuzers "Seydlitz". S. M. S. "Seydlitz", den 25. Januar 1915. (241) [Abb.]: Der Beobachter eines abgeschossenen englischen Flugzeuges wird von einem deutschen Flieger an Bord genomme (241) Brief des Obermatrosen Fritz Goldhardt des Schlachtkreuzers "Moltke". S. M. S. "Moltke", den 26. Januar 1915. (242) Brief des Deckoffiziers Paul Käßner des Torpedobootes "G 9". Wilhelmshaven, den 31. Januar 1915. (242) [Abb.]: Die deutschen Schlachtkreuzer in der Seeschlacht an der Doggerbank (243) Brief des Reservisten Franz Reichardt des Torpedobootes "S 34". Wilhelmshaven, den 28. Januar 1915. (246) Brief eines Maschinistenmaates des Torpedobootes "T 77". Nordsee, den 13. März 1915. (246) 2. Kapitel Sieg und Untergang des deutschen Kreuzergeschwaders (248) Brief eines Matrosen des Panzerkreuzers "Scharnhorst". ., den 12. Oktober 1914. (248) [Abb.]: Tafel A. Panzerkreuzer "Scharnhorst" verläßt den Heimathafen ( - ) [Abb.]: Tafel B. Nach Torpedierung aufbrechender Dampfer ( - ) Zwei Briefe eines Obermaats des Panzerkreuzers "Scharnhorst". An Bord S. M. S. "Scharnhorst", Stiller Ozean, den 25. September 1914. (249) [Abb.]: Die "Scharnhorst" bei den Marquesas-Inseln (250) Brief des Vizeadmirals Grafen v. Spee über die Seeschlacht bei Coronel. ., den 2. November 1914. (251) [Karte]: Die Seeschlacht bei Coronel (252) [Abb.]: Vizeadmiral Graf v. Spee, Gesandter v. Erckert und Generalkonsul Dr. Gumprecht in Valparadiso am 3. November 1914. (253) Brief des Obermaats Hans Stutterheim des "Panzerkreuzers "Scharnhorst". Valparadiso, den 3. November 1914. (254) [Abb.]: Kopie des Gästebuchs des Deutschen Vereins in Valparadiso. (255) Brief eines Leutnants z. See des kleinen Kreuzers "Dresden". S. M. S. "Dresden", in der Nähe von Talcahuano, den 2. November 1914. (255) [Abb.]: Panzerkreuzer "Monmouth" in der Seeschlacht bei Coronel ( - ) [Abb.]: "Scharnhorst", "Gneisenau" und "Nürnberg" verlassen den Hafen von Valparadiso am 4. November 1914 (257) Brief des Leutnants z. See Lietzmann des Panzerkreuzers "Gneisenau". ., den 10. Dezember 1914. (258) [Karte]: Die Seeschlacht bei den Falkland-Inseln (259) Brief des englischen Seekadetten Esmond des Schlachtkreuzers "invincible" an seinen Vater Sir Thomas Esmond, Parlamentsmitglied. (259) Brief des Artilleriemechaniker-Obergasts Kurt Hildenheim des Kreuzers "Dresden". (261) Brief des Artilleriemechaniker-Obergasts Kurt Hildenheim des Kreuzers "Dresden". (262) Tagebuch eines Deckoffiziers des Kreuzers "Emden". ., den 28. Oktober 1914. (263) Tagebuchaufzeichnungen eines Matrosen während der Fahrt der "Ayesha". Montag, den 9. November 1914. (264) [3 Abb.]: Tafel C. (1)Kleiner Kreuzer "Emden" (2)Granatwirkungen (3)Das Wrack der "Emden" ( - ) [Abb.]: Tafel D. U-Boot-Netzsperre ( - ) [Abb.]: Der Schoner "Ayesha" (265) [Abb.]: Die Ayesha" auf Padang Reede bewacht von einem holländischen Regierungsfahrzeug (267) Bericht über das weitere Schicksal des Schoners "Ayesha" und seine Besatzung. (267) Brief des Maschinisten-Assistenten Karl Tuchel an Bord des Dampfers "Rio Negro". (268) Bericht des Kapitänleutnants Thierichens, des Führers des Hilfskreuzers "Prinz Eitel Friedrich". (269) [Abb.]: Kapitänleutnant v. Mücke landet mit der "Ayesha"-Besatzung in Konstantinopel (272) Brief des Marineingenieurs Karl Giesecke des Hilfskreuzers "Cap Trafalgar". An Bord der "Eleonore Woermann", Atlantik, den 19. September 1914. (273) 3. Kapitel Die "Goeben" und "Breslau" im Mittelländischen und im Schwarzen Meer (276) Brief eines Matrosen des kleinen Kreuzers "Breslau". Dardanellen, den 12. August 1914. (276) [Abb.]: Die "Breslau" vor dem Goldenen Horn (277) [Abb.]: Die "Goeben" im Bosporus (279) Brief des Oberstabssignalisten Albert Eichhorn des Schlachtkreuzers "Goeben". Konstantinopel, den 18. Dezember 1914. (279) Zwei Briefe des Obersanitätsgastes Paul Günther, S. M. S., "Goeben". Konstantinopel, den 2. November 1914 (282) [Abb.]: Treffer im hinteren Schornstein der "Goeben" (282) [Abb.]: 30,5 Zentimeter Treffer auf der Back der "Goeben" (283) [Abb.]: Unter der Back (284) Brief des Bootsmannsmaats Oskar Eydam des Schlachtkreuzers "Goeben". Konstantinopel, den 15. November 1914. (284) Brief des Geschützführers Ernst W. des türkischen Kreuzers "Hamidie". Konstantinopel, den 4. Dezember 1914. (285) [Abb.]: Der türkische Kreuzer "Hamidie" vor dem Goldenen Horn (286) Brief des Bootsmannsmaats Oskar Eydam des Schlachtkreuzers "Goeben". Konstantinopel, den 3. Januar 1915. (286) Brief des Generalfeldmarschalls Freiherrn v. d. Goltz an Großadmiral v. Tirpitz. Konstantinopel, den 27. Januar 1915. (287) Zwei Briefe des Leutnants z. See Missuweit des Schlachtkreuzers "Goeben". Konstantinopel, den 23. Fabruar 1915. (288) [Abb.]: Vor den Dardanellen versenkte feindliche Kriegsschiffe (288) Brief des Bootsmannsmaats Oskar Eydam des Schlachtkreuzers "Goeben". Konstantinopel, den 13. Mai 1915. (289) [Abb.]: Russische Mine detoniert im Suchgerät (289) Brief des Arztes Dr. Landrock des Schlachtkreuzers "Goeben". Juni 1915. (290) Bericht über den Untergang des österreichisch-ungarischen kleinen Kreuzers "Zenta" am 16. August 1914. (292) [Abb.]: Kleiner Kreuzer "Zenta" (292) [Abb.]: Das vor Pola abgeschossene italienische Lenkluftschiff "Città di Jesi" (293) Brief eines Steuermeisters des österreichisch-ungarischen Torpedobootszerstörers "Lika". (294) [Abb.]: Österreichisch-ungarische Linienschiffe in Kielwasserlinie (294) 4. Kapitel Der Krieg in der Ostsee 1914/1915 (295) Brief eines Matrosen des kleinen "Kreuzers "Magdeburg". ., den 31. August 1914. (296) Aufzeichnung des Fliegers Hanns von Rhyn an Bord von "U 26". (297) [Abb.]: Hohe achterliche See (297) Brief des Obermaschinenmaats August Brecklein des großen Kreuzers "Victoria Louise". ., den 23. Oktober 1914. (298) [Abb.]: Blasenbahn eines Torpedos (298) Brief des Matrosen Ferdinand Rudolf des großen Kreuzers "Prinz Adalbert". ., den 24. März 1915. (299) Brief eines Maschinistenmaats des Panzerkreuzers "Roon". Neufahrwasser, den 10. Juni 1915. (299) [Abb.]: Torpedoboote bei Windstärke 12 (300) Brief eines Matrosen des kleinen Kreuzers "Lübeck". Danzig, den 3. Juli 1915. (301) [Abb.]: Das Wrack der "Albatros" bei Oestergarn auf Gotland (302) Brief des Heizers P. Schneider des Torpedoboots " S 139". (303) [Abb.]: Teilansicht der "Albatros" mit Granatlöchern (303) Brief des Oberleutnants z. See Mac Lean des kleinen Kreuzers "Bremen". ., den 1. Oktober 1915. (304) [Abb.]: Das Bergen des Schiffsinventars der "Albatros" (304) Brief des Oberheizers Kryphan des kleinen Kreuzers "Pillau". Sonnabend, den 21. August 1915. (305) [Abb.]: Das auf Minen gelaufene Torpedoboot "V 99" in sinkendem Zustande (306) Bericht des Kapitänleutnants Claußen des Torpedobootes "V 99". (307) [Abb.]: Das auf Minen gelaufene Torpedoboot "G 102" wird in den Hafen eingeschleppt (311) Brief des Hilfssteuermanns Kumm der Vorposten-Halbflottille Ost, Boot 16. In der Ostsee, den 12. November 1915. (312) Brief des Matrosen Franz Tänzer, Hilfs-Minensuchdivision Kiel. (312) [Abb.]: Minentreffer am Heck des Minensuchbootes "T 49" (313) 5. Kapitel Die Schlacht vor dem Skagerrak (314) Brief des Leutnants z. See d. Res. Hans Gebauer des Marine-Luftschiff-Detachements Tondern. Tondern in Schleswig, den 11. Februar 1916. (314) [Abb.]: Begegnung zwischen U-Boot und Zeppelin auf hoher See (315) Brief des Heizers Walter Oswald des Schlachtkreuzers "Lützow". (316) [2 Karten]: Die Seeschlacht vor dem Skagerrak (1)Der Kampf der Schlachtflotten (2)Der Kampf der Schlachtkreuzer ([318]) Brief des Oberheizers Kryphan des kleinen Kreuzers "Pillau". ., den 2. Juni 1916. (319) [Abb.]: Deutsche Schlachtkreuzer mit U-Boot-Sicherung, vom Flugzeug aus aufgenommen (320) [Abb.]: Englischer Fesselballon mit Mutterschiff in der Nordsee ( - ) Brief des Matrosen Erwin Lang des Torpedobootes "V 69". ., den 12. Juni 1916. (321) Brief des Artilleriemechaniker-Anwärters Erich Kleinschmidt des Linienschiffes "Kronprinz". (322) [Abb.]: Die anmarschierende deutsche Schlachtflotte (322) [Abb.]: Torpedoboote durchbrechen das anmarschierende deutsche Gros (323) Brief des Obermatrosen Karl Felchner des Panzerkreuzers "Thüringen". S. M. S. "Thüringen", den 5. Juni 1916. (324) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kehrtwendung I. (2)Kehrtwendung II. (325) [Abb.]: Torpedotreffer auf dem Schlachtschiff "Kronprinz" (November 1916) (326) Brief eines Matrosen, Schiff unbekannt. ., den 13. Juni 1916. (327) [Abb.]: Gefechtswendung der Schlachtflotte (327) 6. Kapitel Die Eroberung der baltischen Inseln (328) Brief des Signalmaats Motzbar des Linienschiffes "König". (329) [Abb.]: Die deutsche Flotte in der Tagga-Bucht (330) [Abb.]: Deutsches Flugzeug überbringt den gelandeten Truppen auf Ösel Meldungen (332) Brief des Obermatrosen Adolf Geißenhörner des Linienschiffes "König". (333) [Abb.]: Das im Moonsund zusammengeschossene und gestrandete russische Linienschiff "Slawa" (335) Brief des Unteroffiziers Matthias der 3. reitenden Batterie des Feldartillerie-Regiments Nr. 8. Insel Moon, den 26. Oktober 1917. (335) 7. Kapitel U-Boot-Taten (337) Aufzeichnung des Kapitänleutnants Frhr. Spiegel von und zu Peckelsheim, Kommandanten von "U 32". (339) [Abb.]: Aufgetauchtes U-Boot auf hoher See (339) [Abb.]: In Brand geschossener Dampfer (340) Aufzeichnung des Kapitänleutnants Jürst, Kommandanten von "U 43", über eine Fahrt ins Nördliche Eismeer im Oktober 1916. (340) Aufzeichnung des Kapitänleutnants Forstmann, Kommandanten von "U 39". Mai 1917. (342) [Abb.]: Sinkender Holzdampfer (342) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ungemütliches Schießen (2)"Plötzlich steht eine schwarze Rauchwolke über dem Mitteldeck des Dampfers" (343) [Abb.]: Deutscher U-Kreuzer (344) Brief des Matrosen Blume des U-Boots "Deutschland". Ravensburg, den 24. September 1917. (344) [Abb.]: Sinkender Dampfer (345) Aufzeichnung des Kapitänleutnants Krause, Kommandanten von "U 41". (346) [Abb.]: Torpedoraum eines U-Bootes (346) [Abb.]: "Ein großes Leck im Maschinenraum ließ den Dampfer über den Achtersteven sinken. (347) [4 Abb.]: Sinkender Dampfer zeigt das durch den Torpedo gerissene Loch (349) [Abb.]: Torpedierter englischer Dampfer (350) Bericht des Kapitänleutnants Steinbrinck, Kommandanten von "UB57", vom 26. Dezember 1917. (350) Bericht des Kapitänleutnants Steinbauer, Kommandanten von "U 48", vom 28. April 1918. (351) [2 Abb.]: (1)Torepdo reißt englischen Dampfer in der Mitte auseinander (2)"Nach zwei Treffern beginn der Segler zu brennen" (352) [Abb.]: 500 Tonnen großer italienischer Segler im Mittelmeer von U B 49 am 19. März 1918 in Brand geschossen (353) Bericht des Kapitänleutnants v. Schrader, Kommandanten von "UB 64", vom 26. Dezember 1917. (354) [Abb.]: Der Kessel explodiert (354) [Abb.]: In der Biskaya in Grund gebohrter Segler (355) 8. Kapitel. Wie die deutsche Flotte zerbrach. Brief des Seekadetten Hans Elsner des Linienschiffes "Schlesien". (355) [Abb.]: U-Boote vor der Übergabe an England (358) [Abb.]: Die deutsche Hochseeflotte auf der Fahrt nach Scapa Flow (361) [Abb.]: U-Boot übergibt einem Flieger erbeutete Papiere (364) Helden der Luft (365) 1. Kapitel. Luftkämpfe (366) Bericht des Oberleutnants Kraft der Bayerischen Feldflieger-Abteilung 5. Flughafen Houplin, den 1. Dezember 1915. (367) [Abb.]: Hinter den deutschen Stellungen abgestürztes französisches Flugzeug (368) [Abb.]: Hinter den deutschen Stellungen abgeschossener französischer Flieger ( - ) Bericht des Flugzeugbeobachters Leutnants v. Scheele des Kampfgeschwaders 2. Flughafen Saarbrücken, den 23. Januar 1916. (369) Bericht des Leutnants Lehmann der Feldflieger-Abteilung 32 über einen Luftkampf mit fünf englischen Fliegern am 5. März 1916. (370) Brief des Hauptmanns Bölcke. ., den 16. März 1916. (370) Bericht des Leutnants Hüttich der Artillerie-Flieger-Abteilung 221. (371) Brief des Leutnants Manfred Frhr. v. Richthofen. Jagdstaffel 11, den 18. September 1916. (372) Brief des Leutnants Manfred Frhhr. v. Richthofen. Jagdstaffel Boelcke, den 3. November 1916. (373) Aufzeichnung des Leutnants Lothar Frhr. v. Richthofen. (373) Bericht des Flugzeugführers Sergeant Brüwer. (374) Bericht des englischen Fliegers, Majors Mc. Suddens, über das letzte Luftgefecht des Leutnants Voß. (375) Bericht des Leutnants d. Res. Koch. (376) Bericht des Vizefeldwebels Grasmeher der Flieger-Abteilung 246 über einen Luftkampf in Mazedonien am 5. Oktober 1917. (376) [Abb.]: Fliegerabwehr ( - ) [Abb.]: In Mazedonien abgeschossenes englisches Flugzeug (377) Brief des Leutnants Hans Joachim Wolff an den Leutnant Lothar Frhr. v. Richthofen. Flughafen, den 25. April 1918. (378) [Abb.]: Richthofens Grab (379) 2. Kapitel Bombenangriffe (380) Tagebuchaufzeichnungen des Majors Siegert, Kommandeurs der "Brieftauben-Abteilung" der Obersten Heeresleitung. (380) Bericht eines österreichisch-ungarischen Marinefliegers über den Luftangriff auf Venedig in der Nacht vom 24. zum 25. Oktober 1915. (382) Brief eines Flieger-Unteroffiziers des Kampfgeschwaders 1 der Obersten Heeresleitung. (382) Bericht des österreichisch-ungarischen Oberleutnants Neugebauer über einen Fliegerangriff auf Ancona am 3. April 1916. (384) Bericht des Oberleutnants Scherzer über die Kriegsfahrt des L. Z. 85 am 4./5. Mai 1916. (386) [Abb.]: Das Wrack des am 28. Dezember bei Libau gestrandete "L. Z. 38" (386) Bericht des Oberleutnants Koreuber, Kommandanten des L. Z. 101, über den Angriff auf Mudros am 20./21. März 1917. (387) Bericht der Kampfstaffel 19 der Obersten Heeresleitung über den in der Nacht vom 27./28. Juli 1917 ausgeführten Bombenflug nach Paris. (388) Bericht des Hauptmanns Kleine, Kommandeurs des Kampfgeschwaders 3, über die Angriffe auch Chatham, Cheerneß, Margate und London in den Nächten vom 3./4. und 4./5. September 1917. (389) [Abb.]: Bombenangriff auf ein englisches Munitionslager (390) Bericht des Hauptmanns Köhl, Kommandeurs des Bombengeschwaders 7, über den Angriff auf das Munitionslager Blargies. (391) Bericht des Unteroffiziers Polter der Riesen-Flieger-Abteilung 501 der Obersten Heeresleitung über einen Nachtangriff auf Boulogne. (392) [Abb.]: Das deutsche Riesenflugzeug R 69 (392) [Abb.]: Tafel E. Zeppelin über London im Abwehrfeuer englischer Flaks ( - ) [Abb.]: Tafel F. Abgeschossener französischer Flieger ( - ) 3. Kapitel Schlachtflieger (394) [Abb.]: Deutscher Schlachtflieger nimmt Handgranaten an Bord. (394) Bericht des Hauptmanns Zorer. Bericht des Leutnants d. Res. Klinker. (395) Bericht des Leutnants Holbek, Führer der Schlachtstaffel 37, über einen Angriff gegen den französischen Flughafen Magneux am 27. Mai 1918. (396) Bericht des Oberleutnants Greim der Bayerischen Jagdstaffel 34 über einen Angriff auf zwei englische Tanks im Kampfgelände östlich Proyart am 23. Mai 1918. (396) [Abb.]: Der Beobachter eines deutschen Infanterie-Flugzeuges gibt mit Blinklampe Signale nach der Erde (397) 4. Kapitel Angriffe auf Fesselballone (397) Bericht des Leutnants d. Res. Wangemann über einen am 21. September 1917 durchgeführten Angriff auf einen feindlichen Fesselballon vor der Deutschen Südarmee. (397) Bericht des Leutnants d. Res. Röth über den Abschuß von fünf Fesselballonen am 29. Mai 1918. (398) [Abb.]: Absprung eines Beobachters aus einem Fesselballon (398) Bericht des Offizierstellvertreters Heibert der Jagdstaffel 46 über den Abschuß von vier Fesselballonen am 1. August 1918. (399) [Abb.]: In Brand geschossener feindlicher Fesselballon (399) 5. Kapitel Absprünge aus Flugzeugen und Fesselballonen (400) Bericht des Vizefeldwebels Hausmann von der Feldluftschiffer-Abteilung 39 über seinen Absprung am 6. August 1916. (400) Bericht des Flugzeugführers Leutnant Steinbrecher der Jagdstaffel 46 über seinen Absprung aus einem brennenden Albatros D. 5. (401) [Abb.]: Beobachter springt von einem Fesselballon ab (401) Bericht des Leutnants d. Res. Udet über seinen Absprung aus Fokker D. VII. (402) Bericht des Leutnants d. Res. Raesch der Jagdstaffel 43 über seinen Absprung aus brennendem Flugzeug. (402) Bericht des Unteroffiziers Bauer über seinen Fallschirmsprung am 11. August 1918. (403) [Abb.]: Landung eines mit Fallschirm abgesprungenen deutschen Fliegers (403) 6. Kapitel Notlandungen und Flucht aus Feindesland (404) Bericht des Oberleutnants Gravenstein der Feldflieger-Abteilung 69. (404) Bericht des Unteroffiziers Bruns des Bombengeschwaders 7 der Obersten Heeresleitung über seine Notlandung auf englischem Gebiet am 6. Januar 1917. (405) Bericht des Oberleutnants Daum über seine Landung bei Hod Salmana, 150 Kilometer hinter den feindlichen Linien, zur Sprengung der militärisch wichtigen Anlagen am 5. August 1917. (406) [Abb.]: Englisches Lager in der Wüste (407) [Abb.]: Englischer Stützpunkt mit Drahthindernissen in der Wüste (408) [Abb.]: Tafel G. Italienische Kriegsschiffe suchen sich dem Angriff österreichisch-ungarischer Flugzeuge durch Schleifenfahrt zu entziehen ( - ) [Abb.]: Tafel H. Der Innenhafen von Port Said ( - ) Bericht des Flugzeugführers Unteroffizier Straumer der Flieger-Abteilung A 209 über seine Flucht aus französischer Gefangenschaft. (409) Bericht des Unteroffiziers Doerzenbach und des Gefreiten Bruckhuber der Flieger-Abteilung 304 b. (410) [Abb.]: Englischer Fliegerangriff auf den Flughafen der Flieger-Abteilung 304 bei Afouli im Frühjahr 1918 (410) [Abb.]: Englischer Flughafen westlich Ismailia (1, 2 und 4 = Flugzeuge, 3 = einschlagende Bomben) (412) Bericht des Leutnants Haehner der Fliegerabteilung 16 über seinen Flug nach Finnland. (413) [Abb.]: In Finnland abgeschossenes russisches Flugzeug (414) Bericht des Vizefeldwebels Mühlberger über seinen Abschuß und seine Gefangennahme am 22. März 1918. (415) 7. Kapitel Die Afrikafahrt des Marineluftschiffes "L 59" (416) [Abb.]: Tafel J. Absprung ( - ) [3 Abb.]: Tafel K. Aus dem britischen Kriegsmuseum ( - ) [Abb.]: Karawane in der Wüste (419) [Abb.]: Englische Befestigungsanlagen am Suezkanal (421) Aus dem Geheimdienst (422) 1. Kapitel Allgemeines über den Nachrichtendienst (422) [Abb.]: Bekanntmachung (423) [Abb.]: Espion, traître à son pays. Dieser Spion wurde im September 1914 von den Franzosen auf der Straße von Verzy bei Reims erschossen. ( - ) Orgainsation und Ziele. (425) [Abb.]: Erschießung eines des Landesverrates überführten englischen Soldaten hinter der englischen Front (425) [Abb.]: Allgemeine Bekanntmachung über zwei mit Flugzeug abgesetzte Spione (427) Agenten und Spione. (428) [Abb.]: Vorsicht Soldaten bei der Abgabe von Briefen und Postkarten während der Eisenbahnfahrt! (431) 2. Kapitel Der Nachrichtendienst an der Westfront (431) Kriegsnachrichtenstellen (433) [Abb.]: Die Liste der in obigen Bekanntmachungen wegen Zuführung wehrfähiger Belgier zur belgischen Kampffront genannten Verurteilten zeigt, wie sich alle Gesellschaftsklassen unterstützend halfen (434) Das Wesen des Kriegsnachrichtendienstes. (435) [Abb.]: Einem deutschen Spion abgenommener Revolver (435) Die Aufgaben des geheimen Nachrichtendienstes. (435) [Abb.]: Schuh, Weste und Schlips eines deutschen Spions, auf Geheimcode und Geheimtinte untersucht (436) Agenten. (437) Organisierung der Agentenarbeit und ihrer Meldewege. (438) [Abb.]: Vor der Erschießung (438) Interessante Vorfälle bei der Nachrichtenstelle Antwerpen. (439) [Abb.]: Feuer! (440) [Abb.]: Feindlicher Beobachter hinter den deutschen Linien ( - ) Ein "Agent provocateur" (441) [Abb.]: Loslassen einer Brieftaube aus einem steckengebliebenen Tank (441) Der Koffer des französischen Kapitäns R. (442) [Abb.]: Brieftaube mit Meldung (443) [Abb.]: Brieftaubenwagen hinter der Front (444) Telegrammstreifen und Postsäcke (445) Die Fochschen Reserven und die Amerikaner (446) [Abb.]: Feindliche Kräfteverteilung vor der deutschen 4. Armee am 6. Dezember 1914 (447) [Abb.]: Am elektrischen Zaun ( - ) [Karte]: Verteilung der franz.-engl.-belg. Kräfte. Stand vom 5. 6. 1918. Auf Grund der von den deutschen Nachrichtenoffizieren der Armeen der O. H. L. eingereichten Unterlagen wurde bei der O. H. L. die Gesamtübersicht über die Verteilung der gegenerischen Kräfte von der ganzen deutschen Westfront in große Karten gedruckt. (449) Der elektrische Drahtzaun (450) [Abb.]: In der Mitte die elektrisch geladenen Drähte, rechts und links die ungeladenen Schutzzäune (451) [Abb.]: Der Generalgouverneur von Belgien, Exzellenz von Bissing, bei der Besichtigung des elektrischen Drahtzaunes an einem größeren Einlaßtor (452) Brieftaube, Freiballon und Flugzeug im Spionagedienst (453) Die Brieftaube. (453) [Abb.]: Maueranschlag in drei Sprachen, über ganz Belgien verbreitet, zur Warnung vor dem elektrischen Grenzzaun (454) Flugzeug und Freiballon. (455) [Abb.]: Abb. 1 Skizze 1. (455) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 2 Skizze 2. (2)Abb. 3 Skizze 3. (456) [Abb.]: Ertappt ( - ) [Abb.]: Abb. 4 Skizze 4. (457) [3 Abb.]: (1), (2)Abb. 5 Skizze 5. (3)Abb. 6 Skizze 6. (458) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 8 Skizze 8. (2)Abb. 9 Skizze 9. (459) [2 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 10 Skizze 10. (2)Abb. 11 Skizze 11. (460) [Abb.]: Abb. 12 Skizze 12. (461) [3 Abb.]: (1)Abb. 13 Skizze 13. (2)Abb. 14 Skizze 14. (3)Abb. 15 Skizze 15. (464) [Abb.]: Tafel L. Schutzmittel des Spions. Isolierte Strümpfe, Schuhe und isoliertes Werkzeug von Spionen zum Überschreiten und Durchschneiden des elektrischen Zaunes ( - ) [Abb.]: Tafel M. Der elektrische Zaun. Längs des Zaunes waren Läutewerke aufgestellt, die in Tätigkeit waren, sobald der Zaun berührt wurde. Ein Grenzbeamter prüft mit isoliertem Material das richtige Funktionieren der Läutewerke ( - ) [Abb.]: Eine französische Ballonpost. Die Zettel hingen an einem kleinen Ballon und waren durch eine Zündschnur verbunden, durch deren langsames Abbrennen die einzelnen Zettel über das besetzte Gebiet verstreut werden sollten. (465) Von der "Geheimen Feldpolizei" (466) [Abb.]: Mühle in Roulers, in der im Oktober 1914 zwölf deutsche Soldaten von Franktireurs ermordert wurden (467) [Abb.]: Artikel aus "Le Littoral" (468) Feindliche Spionage. (469) [Abb.]: Durchsuchung belgischer Landleute nach Waffen (470) [Abb.]: Selbst die Belgier hatten schon am 18. August 1914 eine eigene Landsmännin wegen Kriegsverrats zugunsten Deutschlands zum Tode verurteilt und das Urteil sofort vollstrecken lassen. - Obiger Maueranschlag des deutschen Generalgouvernements in Belgien ruft den Vorfall anläßlich der "Cavell-Entrüstung" erneut den Belgiern und aller Welt in die Erinnerung (471) Sabotage und Sprengagenten. (472) [Abb.]: Gefaßt! ( - ) Brief- und Personenschmuggel, Schmäh- und Hetzschriften. (473) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der Chiffrierschlüssel für französische Spione nach einer bekannten Melodie (2)Meldung nach obigem Schlüssel, die besagt, daß der Absender "mit Vergnügen den Empfang einer Sendung bestätigt!" (474) 3. Kapitel Grenzschmuggel (475) [Abb.]: Aus dem britischen Kriegsmuseum Planskizze eines französischen Spions über die Belegung und Verteilung deutscher Truppen in La Bassée (475) [2 Abb.]: (1)Grenzwache (2)Nächtlicher Grenzübergang (476) [Abb.]: Hinter künstlichem Gebiß eingelegter Meldestreifen, der entrollt, 4,50 Meter lang war (477) [Abb.]: Röntgenbestrahlung ergibt in einem Zigarettenetui eine mit einer besonderen Kapsel versehene und Spionagenachrichten enthaltende Zigarette (478) [Abb.]: Der ganze Schlüsselstiel war bis zum Ring ausgebohrt worden, so daß er beträchtliches Meldematerial fassen konnte. Die Hohlöffnung war vorn mit Blei ausgegossen, um den Eindruck eines Vollschlüssels zu erwecken (479) [2 Abb.]: (1)Quaste an einem Damenschirm als Behälter wichtiger Nachrichten (2)Spionenversteck (480) [Abb.]: Tafel N. Die von den Franzosen in Vincennes erschossene Tänzerin Mata Hari ( - ) [2 Abb.]: Tafel O. (1)Kapitän Estève auf dem letzten Gang zu Vincennes 13. Juli 1917 (2)Erschießung eines Spions durch die Franzosen ( - ) [Abb.]: Spione wurden zwischen der Außenwand und unter der Bodenverschalung von Frachtschiffen häufig versteckt, um so unbemerkt der Paßkontrolle zu entgehen (481) 4. Kapitel Russischer Geheimdienst (482) [Abb.]: Kragen, enthaltend Mitteilungen in Geheimtinte (482) [Abb.]: Eingenähte Leinenstücke wurden mit Vorliebe zu Nachrichtenübermittlung und Briefschmuggel benutzt (483) [2 Abb.]: (1)Links: Seite aus einem deutschen Buch, das bei einer Spionin gefunden wurde, auf der durch Durchlochen einzelner Buchstaben die Spionagenachricht gegeben wurde: "Das Fort ist nach Angabe der Bevölkerung verlassen" (2)Zigarren von Holland an einen deutschen (?) Spion in England gesandt. Aufgeschnitten und nach Geheimmeldungen untersucht (485) [Abb.]: Links: Flasche mit Tabletten zur Herstellung von Geheimtinte - Mitte: Büchschen mit Talkumpulver im Gebrauch eines deutschen Spions zur Herstellung von Geheimtinte; Federhalter dazu - Rechts: Zur Bereitung von Geheimtinte durch deutsche Agenten (487) [3 Abb.]: (1)Zigarrenkatalog als Deckblatt zu untenstehendem Code (2)Mundwasserflasche mit Geheimtinte (3)Schrift- und Telegrammcode für Marinenachrichten (488) [Abb.]: Die Exekution ( - ) [3 Abb.]: (1)Versteckte Geheimtinte: In Tabaksbüchse, im Holzkästchen, (2)im Schwamm, (3)im Seifenstück (490) [Abb.]: Hohles Schokoladentäfelchen mit schriftlicher Spionagemeldung (491) [Abb.]: Schlips eines im Tower von London erschossenen Spions (492) 5. Kapitel Spionage und Spionage-Abwehr. Erinnerung eines Nachrichtenoffiziers im Osten. (493) [Abb.]: Öffentliche Erschießung eines armenischen Spions (494) [Abb.]: Der Spion wird abgeführt (496) [3 Abb.]: Tafel P. (1)Der Gang zur Richtstätte (2)Verlesung des dreifachen Todesurteils (3)Stillgestanden - Legt an - Feuer! ( - ) [Abb.]: Tafel Q. Erschießung von vier Franzosen nach Friedensschluß zu Vincennes, die im Kriege Landsleute als Spione an die Deutschen denunziert hatten ( - ) [2 Abb.]: (1)Denkmal der Miß Cavell auf dem Trafalgar Square in London (2)Die ganze Welt wurde wegen der Erschießung der Miß Cavell in künstliche Aufregung versetzt, obwohl sie einwandfrei nachgewiesen erfolgte. Straßen und Berge wurden nach ihr benannt und mehrfach Denkmäler gesetzt (498) [Abb.]: Eine Kriegsgerichtssitzung (500) [Abb.]: Abhörstelle (502) 6. Kapitel Aus dem Kriegstagebuch eines Nachrichtenoffiziers an der Ostfront (503) I. Im Stabe Hindenburgs. (503) Beim Oberkommando der 8. Armee. (503) [Abb.]: Verhör eines Spions (505) Beim Oberbefehlshaber Ost. (505) [Abb.]: Kriegsgerichtssitzung gegen zwei ertappte Spione (507) [Abb.]: Eine Zivilgerichtssitzung im Osten (508) [2 Abb.]: (1)Untersuchung eines Spionageverdächtigen (2)Ein Ausweis des Bezirksgerichts Suwalki (510) [Abb.]: Gefangene Russen werden von einem Offizier verhört (511) II. Bei den Österreichern und Russen. (512) [3 Abb.]: Erhängung von Spionen in Rußland (1)Der Moment des Aufhängens (2)Das Ende (3)Gehängte Spione ([513]) [3 Abb.]: Die Verbrüderung der Fronten (1)Rückfragen sind nötig (2)Begrüßung durch russische Delegierte (3)Prüfung der Vollmachten (518) [3 Abb.]: Die Verbrüderung der Fronten(1)Verbinden der Augen (2)Der Weg in die Russenstellung (3)Im russischen Graben (519) Der russische Fall Dreyfus. (Hinrichtung des Obersten Mjassojedow.) (522) [Abb.]: Feind hört mit (523) [Abb.]: Befehl des russischen Gouverneurs Dr. Bierfreund während der kurzen Besetzung von Insterburg (525) [4 Abb.]: Spionageverdächtige Volkstypen aus dem Osten. Aufgetriebene Spione und Leichenräuber (527) [Abb.]: Harmlose Geldgeschäfte (530) III. Im Baltikum. (532) [Abb.]: Verhaftete russenfreundliche Geistliche (533) [Abb.]: Gefaßter Spion wird gefesselt abgeführt (535) [Abb.]: Steckbrief gegen den feindlichen Spion Zorn (538) Rückblick. (541) IV. Spionage-Fälle aus den Akten der Abwehr-Polizei. (542) Russische Sprengtrupps hinter der deutschen Front. (542) [Abb.]: Vernehmung eines holländischen Schiffers (542) Der russische Nachrichtendienst. (543) [2 Abb.]: (1)Erschießung eines Franzosen wegen Verbergung von Brieftauben (2)Übersetzung (543) Entwichene russische Kriegsgefangene als Spione hinter der deutschen Front. (544) [Abb.]: Erschießunsgbekanntmachung (545) [Abb.]: Steckbrief Jan Kaniewski oder Nakonieczny (546) Russische Spione hinter der österreichisch-ungarischen Front. (547) [Abb.]: (547) [Abb.]: Damentaschentuch auf Geheimtinte untersucht (548) [Abb.]: Von deutschen Zivilgerichten in den Jahren 1914 - 1918 abgeurteilte Spionagefälle (550) [Abb.]: Über das Anwachsen der Spionagetätigkeit der Entente-Mächte von der Zeit vor dem Kriege bis auf den heutigen Tag gibt die hier abgedruckte Statistik Auskunft. Die drei Darstellungen sind alle im gleichen Maßstab gehalten (551) [Abb.]: Über das Anwachsen der Spionagetätigkeit der Entente-Mächte von der Zeit vor dem Kriege bis auf den heutigen Tag gibt die hier abgedruckte Statistik Auskunft. Die drei Darstellungen sind alle im gleichen Maßstab gehalten (552) 7. Kapitel Der österreichisch-ungarische Geheimdienst (552) [Abb.]: Russische Bauern als Wegweiser (553) [Abb.]: Ein spionageverdächtiger Bauer wird abgeführt (556) 8. Kapitel Spionage an der Tiroler Front (558) Aus den Erinnerungen eines österreichischen Nachrichtenoffiziers. (558) [Abb.]: Erschießung eines österreichischen Verräters (559) Wie ich zum Nachrichtendienst kam. (559) Kundschafter und deren Tätigkeit. (562) [Abb.]: Der Weg zum Galgen (563) Der Abwehrdienst. (564) [Abb.]: Von Spionen gemachte Kreidezeichen auf österreichischen Eisenbahnwagen, die Angaben über Bestimmungsort der Wagen und Stärke der transportierten Truppen enthielten. (565) Die Zeit der italienischen Neutralität nach Ausbruch des Weltkrieges. (566) [Abb.]: An der Zollgrenze entdeckter Stiefel, in dessen Schnürsenkel geheime Nachrichten versteckt waren (567) [Abb.]: der italienische Spion Battisti wird zur Exekution geführt (569) Der Krieg mit Italien. (570) [Abb.]: Battisti auf dem Wege zum Galgen (570) [2 Abb.]: (1)Das Todesurteil wird Battisti nochmals vorgelesen. (2)Battisti wird an den Galgen gebunden (571) [Abb.]: Verhaftete Spione (574) Schlußbemerkung. (575) 9. Kapitel Öffentliche Meinung im Kriege; Presse und Kriegspresseamt (576) Wille und Beweggründe. (576) Quellen deutscher Volksmeinung. (576) "Sein oder Nichtsein!" (577) [Abb.]: Deutsche Warnungsplakate (577) Offiziere, Generalstab. (578) Der innere Hader. (579) [Abb.]: Hütet Euch! Der Boche hängt mit an der Strippe! (579) Glaube an den Sieg. (580) Der Weg durch Auge und Ohr. (580) Die deutsche Presse. (581) Die Leitung des Pressedienstes. (582) Entwicklung und Tätigkeit des Kriegspresseamts. (582) [Abb.]: Propaganda der Franzosen, die das Überlaufen deutscher Soldaten zur Folge haben sollte (583) Stimmungsbilder. Gegnerschaft. (584) Berlin 1916. (585) [Abb.]: Französische Abwurf-Propaganda. Diese gefälschten Schilderungen waren in Zeitungsform gehalten und oben mit einem schwarz-weiß-roten Streifen oder dem Titel "Deutsche Feldpost" mit Aufdruck des deutschen Reichsadlers ausgestattet, wodurch ihre Herkunft verschleiert wurde (585) Kriegsanleihen. Reden und Vorträge. (586) Friedensresolution. (587) Abschied vom Kriegspresseamt. (587) [Abb.]: Englisches Flugblatt zur Aufhetzung des deutschen Soldaten (mit Ballonpost abgeworfen über den deutschen Linien) (587) 10. Kapitel Vom Wesen der Pressezensur im Kriege (588) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blatt eines Schmuggelbriefes vor der Behandlung auf Geheimtinte hin (2)Dasselbe Blatt nach chemischer Behandlung, wodurch sich dann im Original die mit Geheimtinte eingefügten Zeilen hellbläulich hervorheben. Es handelt sich hier allerdings um harmlose Nachrichten ([589]) [Abb.]: Gefälschter Kriegsgefangenen-Brief, der von den Engländern vervielfältigt und zu Tausenden über den deutschen Linien durch Flieger abgeworfen wurde (592) [Abb.]: Chiffrierte Nachrichten (595) 11. Kapitel Die "Gazette des Ardennes" (596) Deutsches Zeitungsunternehmen in Nordfrankreich (596) [Abb.]: Gazette des Ardennes (596) Gazette des Ardennes! (597) [Abb.]: Gazette des Ardennes (598) 12. Kapitel Als Kriegsberichterstatter im Felde (600) [Abb.]: Brieftauben im Schützengraben (601) [Abb.]: Einlassen von Brieftauben unter Gasalarm (602) [Abb.]: Die Brieftauben werden in das Flugzeug verladen (603) [Abb.]: Deutsche Brieftauben mit selbständigem Photoapparat (604) [Abb.]: Französische Brieftaube mit Photoapparat (605) [Abb.]: Mit Brieftaubenkamera gemachte Aufnahme (606) Kartenanhang (607) [Inhaltsverzeichnis]: (607) [Karte]: Deutsch-Ostafrika (608) [Karte]: Deutsch-Ostafrika. Lettows Zug durch Portug. Ost.-Afrika vom 25. 11. 17 bis zum 28. 9. 18. (609) [Karte]: Deutsch-Südwestafrika (610) [Karte]: Kamerun (611) [3 Karten]: (1)Togo (2)Das Schutzgebiet Kiautschou (3)Der nördliche Teil der Gazelle-Halbinsel (612) [Karte]: Ostsee (nördl. Teil) (613) [Karte]: Die Fahrten des "L 59" (614) [Karte]: Luftschiff- und Fliegerunternehmungen in der Ostsee (615) [Karte]: Die Zeppelinangriffe auf England ( - ) Einband ( - ) Einband ( - )

The Mercury March, 1907 HELP THOSE WHO HELP VS. I Li The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Cotrell & Leonard, ALBANY, N. Y Makewof CAPS ANDQ0WN5 To Gettysburg College, Lafayette. Lehigh Dickinson. State College. Univ of Penn-sylvania, Harvard, Yale. Princeton. Welleslev, Bryn Mawr nnd the others Class Contracts a Specialty. Correct Hoods for Degrees. A HARVAHD MAN whom we placed with a large publishing house a year ago has just been advanced to the managership of an important department. He's only one of the 1500 college men placed in satisfactory posi-tions last year. In each of our offices is a department exclusively for college men. Each man's case receives personal attention and our employment experts find for him the position in business, in teaching or in technical work which he is best fitted to fill. Write us to-day and we will tell you what we can do for you. c _ _. r^L r^. _ _. THE JWaTlOJVAb »ltU.I.\-l/.1TH>.\- »/.' H^PG-BISEGD, BRJIIJS- WUHKKRS. 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T ••!•■ T ■'I- ■t .j'. '•I- 7■ •] 7 •■.!■ If. '*• 7i "i" '•I-' 7 •i "i" jj 'i •J 'i \v ■it \V Students' Headquarters —FOR-HATS, SHOES, AVD GENT'S FURNISHING. Sole Agent for WALK-OVER SHOE ECKERT'S STORE. Prices Always Right TJie Lutheran PuWiGctioij Society No 1424 Arch Street, PHILADELPHIA, PA. / Acknowledged Headquarter* for anything and everything' in the way of Books for Churches. Colleges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and develop one of the church in-stitution* with pecuniary ad-vantage to yourself. Address HENRY S. BONER, Sup't. I H E M-E'RCURY The Literary Journal of Gettysburg College. VOL. XV GETTYSBURG, PA., MARCH 1907 No. 1 CONTENTS VACATION OVER THE SEA.—Essay. W. B. HEILMAN, '08- POE : WIZZARD OR CHARLATAN.—Essay. W. WISSLER HACKMAN, '08. BLOODY RUN—Legend. E. E. SNYDER, '09. ia IN HER PLACE.—Story. JOSEPPI ARNOLD, '09. 15 THE SICKLER COMES TO ALL.—Poem. OSCAR C. DEAN, '08. 22 FROM CLERKSHIP TO FRESHMANSHIP.—Essay. G. E. WOLFF, '09. 22 THE MISSIONARY SPIRIT—Oration. CHARLES W. HEATHCOTE, '05. 25 EDITORIALS. 29 EXCHANGES. 31 THE MERCURY. VACATION OVER THE SEA. W. B. HEILMAN, '08. rrjHERE are innumerable ways a college student may spend -L his summer vacation. To some, one way appeals more than others and they will then strive to make it possible to spend their vacation that way. To me it seemed that a trip across the ocean on a cattle boat would be at once interesting and exciting. My chum and I talked the matter over and made our preparations to leave as soon as school had closed. At the last moment another student joined us and on a boiling hot day iu the month of June we three students, billed as ex-perienced cattlemen, sailed out of Baltimore on the steamship Maryland. We had about 300 cattle aboard but before the day was over owing to the terrific heat several had died. At once we received our first lesson in cattle boat training. By the aid of the steam winch and a long rope the carcasses were drawn to the side of the vessel and dropped into the bay to become the food of crabs and fishes. We also suffered as well as the cattle for we three having incautiously sat down on the deck, which-on these boats is painted black with a mixture of tar and turpentine, when we attempted to arise the usual re-sults happened, As there was plenty of corn sacks aboard however we did not suffer. I was appointed night watchman while my two chums were placed on day duty. Being on duty at night I consequently became well acquainted with the sail-ors and many were the strange yarns of different countries, which they told me during the long night watches. Our voy-age was enlivened several times by unusual occurrences. When we were about half way over the Newfoundland Banks we passed within a quarter of a mile of three immense icebergs of which we obtained several good photographs. It was hours before we lost sight of them owing to their intense white brilliancy. Two days after passing the icebergs we laid to in mid ocean to receive three stowaways, who were trying to get back to the States, from a homeward bound vessel of the same line. These stowoways were put to work at odd jobs on the vessel until we reached England where they were taken into custody. As we drew away from the American coast the weather which up to this time had been very pleas- THK, MF.KCITRV. ant grew much colder. The men no longer slept out on deck but sought their bunks and blankets. The nights were much damper. About four days before we expected to land all the crew were busy painting, scraping and scouring. The masts were repainted, the brasswork shined up, and the deck was tarred, but this time we did not get caught ; we sat on news-papers. The Sunday before we arrived the waist of the ship was full of clothes lines, all bearing burdens which flapped gayly in the'breeze, for the men were desirous of making a good showing when they reached home. Several days later we sighted the Scilly Islands. In the neighborhood of these islands we passed a fleet of Penzance fishing luggers. These boats on account of their red, leg of mutton sails, have a very peculiar and striking appearance which the character of their crews helps greatly to heighten. These hardy fishermen go out in all kinds of weather and handle their boats with a skill and daring that is little short of marvelous. From here until we anchored at Gravesend shipping was very numerous. That afternoon I saw the rugged coast of Cornwall from the rigging and the same evening the lookout reported Lizard's Light. We were now fairly in the English Channel. As the night was very clear and calm the lights of the var-ious cities we passed were remarkably distinct and the look-out went to great pains to explain to me at length all about them. About i, A. M. we sighted the Calias light in France and so for several hours we steamed along, seeing the lights of England on our left and on our right the lights of France, Shortly before daylight we dropped anchor in the muddy, filthy Thames at Gravesend to wait for the turning of the tide. Although the river here is less than a quarter of a mile wide the officers of the boat told us that a man would be unable to swim across owing to the foul gases that are being constantly stirred up by the anchors of the thousands of vessels and the impurities from the great city which are churned by the pro-pellors of the steamers. This they said would overcome a man before he was half way over, as many a poor stowaway had found out when, seeking to escape justice, he had leaped overboard in the hope of swimming ashore but, overcome by the foul waters, had sunk before he could be rescued. As dawn began to spread over the s-ky, surrounding objects grad* THE MERCURY. ually grew plainer and we saw that we were anchored in the midst of an immense fleet all waiting for the turning of the tide. Slowly the shore grew plainer and we saw a strange mixture of old docks and warehouses interposed between huge locks and fine buildings on terraces which sloped to the water's edge. Indeed, all the way from Gravesend to London, a distance of about 18 miles we noticed this same strange in-termingling ; strange to us because in most American cities where there is any considerable shipping the water front is the last place'where one looks for respectable dwellings. But in London the very Houses of Parliament themselves are marked by the ebb and flow of the Thames, the citadel of ancient Lou-don, the famous Tower, bears mute witness to centuries of contact with the turbid river in the shape of innumerable bar-nacles and accumulations of slimy sea weed. One of the fin-est drives, the Thames Embankment, runs right along the river's edge, while several palaces and hotels grace the banks at various places. We steamed slowly up the river between lines of ships of every nationality, from the big black ocean . tramp to the many colored deck of the Norwegian fishing smacks, with crews as motley as the vessels. Tall, fair-haired Saxons, Lascars with their broad turban and oriental dress, sailors from all of England's tributaries, each dressed in their own peculiar garb and speaking the tongue of their birth, formed a constantly shifting scene before our wondering eyes. And so it was all the way to the cattle market where with many strange cries, aided by steel pointed sticks the yardmen drove the beasts ashore and our vessel steamed clown to take her place in one of those wonders of modern engineering, the Royal Albert Docks, where having bidden farewell to the kindly officers and sailors and being passed by the custom house officials, we went ashore and passed through the dock yard gates out into busy, rushing London. As it was already late in the afternoon we took lodging for the night at a seamen's boarding house which one of the quartermasters had told us of, and then boarded a train for the center of the city. The train caused us all much amuse-ment, first on account of the ridiculous small looking engines —which nevertheless go at a very respectable speed—and next because of the sizeand general appearance of the coaches, re- THE MERCURY. setnbling in a great many respects our old stage coaches, each divided into three or four compartments separated from each other by partitions and entered from doors on the side. These compartments will hold about 12 people. We thought we were lucky to have an empty compartment but we were soon robbed of that illusion for at the very next stopping place a crowd of factory hands filled up our section so completely that there was no possible way of escaping the odor of garlic. The dinner of the working classes usually consists of a large onion and a hunk of bread which they, carry to work tied up in a large bandana and this they wash down with a large cup of tea purchased from some restaurant. But even worse than the smell of onions was their habit of taking snuff. An old woman next to me taking a generous pinch of snuff I received about half of it. and as a result I sneezed for the rest of the evening. 1 think snuff taking is a most reprehensible prac-tice. Arrived at the huge station .we hastened to see some of the principal streets by night. We were all struck by the ex-treme'crookedness of the streets, the principal streets of well known London so narrow that it is impossible for three streams of traffic to pass each other and so crowded that it is necessary for policemen to be stationed at every crossing—and here let me pause to say a word about the guardians of London. Tall fine built men, I don't believe there is a man on the force un-der 6 feet, and this appearance is heightened by the wearing of helmets, courteous to all, going out of their way to direct the stranger, saying very little but minded implicitly by the citizens, this is the force that guards the world's largest city. We spent some time exploring the city from the top of a bus, for London has no street cars in the business section on ac-count of the traffic. It seemed to us that about every fifth man wore a soldier's uniform and here as with the policemen, we noticed the fine physique of those who had taken the '-'Queen's shilling." Strange sights and sounds were not lack-ing but wearied with our long day, we early betook ourselves to our lodgings. Next day we took a long ride through the principal parts, ending up at the Billingsgate fish market. All that has ever been written concerning the langragi and cus-toms of this famous market I can surely endorse'. The lan-guage is extremely forcible and picturesque, the smells are THK JIKRCURY. certainly the former and the venders themselves are the latter. Here you see the fishwives with odd looking, heavy straw hats, bearing baskets of fish on their head while they give utterance to strange cries. Men and women alike carrying fish, some in iced boxes which dripping catch the unwary stranger, block the way but persevering we pushed through and came to the Tower. Just a look at the Tower and its guides immediately takes you back to the times when England's kings overawed their unruly subjects from its frowning walls. But now the wide moat surrounding the Tower is dry, while the sentinels al-though in the costume of the 12th century are merely the painstaking guides whose only care is that you shall not miss seeing any spot of interest. They point out to you Traitor's Gate, where state criminals condemned by Parliament and brought down the river in boats, to prevent rescue by friends, were landed and passed through to their doom. The stairs under which the bodies of the young princes were hidden after their murder, and the rooms where some of England's great-est wrote their pathetic history on the walls using their blood for ink, or with infinite care carved their coat of arms in the stone wall, all rival in interest the crown jewels kept in a wing of the castle under guard. Here are the crowns of Brit-ain's rulers famed in history. There is so much of interest in the tower that we left it with regret. St. Panl's with its mighty dome and stained glass windows, its costly pictures and monuments to famous men we saw in the hush of a religious service, when the choir and altar, lighted with innumerable candles, flashed back their light from gilt and marble and lent a tone of softness to the vast arches of stone. Westminster Abbey we also saw during a religious service. This abbey is built in the form of a cross and is even more famous than St. Paul's, for here the kings and queens and great men of England are buried, while mon-uments of others keep fresh their memory. Here we walked with reverent tread for almost every step is over the ashes of some noble whose tablet, giving his rank and history, has been worn smooth by the shuffling of countless feet. Statues of warriors in full armor mark the last resting place of some valiant knight. Carvings and sculptures of all kinds denote THE MEKCIJRY. where the ashes of statesmen, soldiers, sailors, poets and authors, the flower of Britain's greatest, have been given their last honors. Yet of the thousands honored there but two bore tokens of the love and respect of the present day. The stat-ues of Longfellow and Tennyson both bore fresh cut flowers which nearly every day are renewed by some admirer of the poets. Near to the poet's corner is the royal chapel where the kingly dead are laid, while a step or two away stand the coronation chairs, the foundation of which is the Scone stone of the Scotch kings which was taken by one of the English kings. In one of the wings is the old chapter house where the monks originally met, and here is a door one side of which is covered by a human skin. This was the skin of the "robber abbot," who when Edward I marched against the Scots, leaving his treasure in his charge, betrayed his trust. His sovereign learning of his treachery flayed him alive and nailed his skin to the door of his cell as a warning. The skin has been trimmed down by curio hunters till only a little strip remains under the old fashioned hinges. After taking a last look at Queen Victoria's casket we reluctantly left this hal-lowed spot, so intimately associated with the history of Eng-land, and turned our steps toward the Congress of our sister nation the Houses of Parliament. NOTK: This article will be continued in the next issue.—ED. 8 THE MEUCl'KV. POE: WIZARD OR CHARLATAN? W. WISSLER HACKMAN, EX. '08. IV. AS CRITIC. i | (HIS no doubt, to most of Poe's admirers, is the phase of -L his character least familiar and to his detractors most familiar. It must seem strange, at first sight, that criticism should be entrusted into the clutches of a fanatic and misan-thrope such as Poe's enemies present him to be. Not only that but into the care of one so notoriously vicious, irregular and dissipated should be placed any position such as a literary critic possesses, sesms an evide ice of rein ir'cably poor judg-ment. We must in fact admit at the start that he must have possessed the abilities of a literary critic to no small degree to recommend him to the attention of the literary arbiter of the middle nineteenth century in America. His criticel produc-tions fall into two great classes : frank and- legitimate criticism and satire The first named again falls into two classes, journalistic or magazine critism, and independent criticism. For what his-tory we have of his career as critic in the employ of periodi-cals we can do no better than refer you to N. P. Willis, mag-azine editor, and "Arbiter Elegaus" during Poe's career. He speaks in high terms of commendation of Poe's character both personal and professional. He asserts that while in his employ he detected none of those irregularities, nor did he at any* time evince that haughty resentment he was led by com-mon report to expect. He further refers to him as a pale, sad-faced, quiet "gentleman," courteous and tractable. When he (Willis) pointed out some clause as too sharp, perhaps, where momentary enthusiasm for the time usurped discretion to the possible injustice of the victim, Poe changed to milder form without the least demur, and when they dissolved their relation so agreeable to the editor, it was under circumstances not in the least derogatory to the sad, pale-faced critic. Verv kind indeed of Mr. Willis, I am sure. Yet we cannot but smile a little indulgently as we note the patronizing kindness of the elegant arbiter ; Poe, indeed, forced to Nathaniel P. Willis's door to get a glib recommendation. Truly Fate is ironical. To-day, who reads the elegant Nathaniel, the Poet THE RIKRCUKY. of fashion and its pet? Who ever knows that his thumb de-termined the fate of more than one aspirant to Parnassus ? However, most of this work was of a fugitive character, too much of it mere hack work, which paid miserably. In those days, the critic had not yet attained to the throne. He was not yet a staple product, a necessary of literary life, He was not'even a luxury ; he was a mere byproduct. We cannot but feel that the lofty spirit of the Poet and Dreame'r revolted from the indignity of his place. Painfully struggling for a mere pittance of life which unliterary America, to her shame be it said, most grudgingly doled out to him ; hampered by abject poverty and a long drawn domestic tragedy ; who can blame him for his bursts of bitterness and even resentful malice if such there was? But let us leave this field of his activities, it is at best barren and rocky soil and yields little of interest or benefit studied aside from contemporary life and history. Turning then to his independent criticism we shall expect to meet him ready for scrutiny without apolog}' or excuse. His criticism on Poetry, English (ancient) and American and on verse and versification has been reviewed in a previous paper ; we shall omit from closer examination, only begging that you turn again to them and reread them with your men-tal eye focused more on the correctness of his logic than on the correctness of his doctrine. But there is one mutter which for very important reasons I shall not pass by ; it is Poe's attitude to contemporary poets in general and to Longfellow in particular. Poe was undoubtedly one of the strongest literary forces of his period—his influence was more far reaching in his own life and more profound than that of any other, save perhaps Longfellow. Yet, himself always, doomed to the underside of prosperity's wave, he was forced to witness his smaller rivals ride the crest in smug pride, or at best mod-est acquiesence. He felt the injustice, and it rankled, and glowed, and raged and seared, what under happier stars might have been a kingly and beneficent soul. His keen vision de-tected the vulnerable points with an intensity almost malig-nant. Of all his rivals—as he chose to consider them—Longfellow called forth his most notable attacks ; probably because he was most formidable. And it is to this attack [See Rationale of to THE MERCURY. Verse] that much of Poe's present unpopularity is in a meas-ure due. Seeing Longfellow as we do to-day, in the full glory of his completed work, we cannot but reverence the man as the great American poet—nearest to representative of our nation we have yet produced. As we celebrated the centenary of his birth but a few days ago our sense of reverence was re-newed into a sense of devout joy that a man so wholly pure, and high, and generous, and notable was accorded us, a nation too fast growing sordid and enfevered. How then must Poe appear to us in his half sneering analysis? Is there any good thing in a character so unjustly malicious? Come and see. First and always let us remember that they were contempo-raries, and both great, but in different ways. Poe was an avowed formalist, by which I mean he considered purity of verse-form the first essential of good poetry, and does he ar-raign Longfellow on any other charge ? Does he attack Long-fellow's Tightness or beauty of thot ? He never mentions them. He may well have disagreed on these latter matters also for they stood at the opposite poles of poetical purposes ; Poe asserting that beauty was the only legitimate excuse ior poetry—that didacticism was injurious and at best only toler-able, Longfellow feeling that Poesy's only office was the clothing of a good nd beautiful thot, beautiful because di-vine. Turning to Longfellow's early poetry then, we find- it strongly charged with this idea. Even the warmest support-ers of Longfellow among present day critics admit that dis-tinct injury is done him by attempting to rate him by those first products,—"The Reaper" and "Excelsior." They were ethical calls to arm, and their instant popularity was in the unconscious reception of them as such. To-day with the con-ditions calling them forth we can and do admit that as poetry such as Poe conceived it should be and even by whatever standard we choose, it is inferior. Turning to "Evangeline" with Poe we find his specific charge supported by Longfellow's warmest admirers of his and our own time. It was even then felt generally and as-serted that the English language was poorly adapted to the form of verse employed in the Canadian pastoral "Epic" i. e. the dactylic Jiexameter. As a result there are many weak lines. The task was more than even Longfellow's genius could en- THE MERCURY. II compass, and he tacitly admits it by substituting the iambic in Miles Standish's Courtship with a vast increase not only of verse purity but of general effectiveness. Now this is just • what Poe perceived and pointed out, a little strongly, a little too sharply perhaps, but thoroughly justified by and in har-mony with, his own peculiar and preavowed doctrines on verse—its forms and purposes. Let this then suffice at pres^ ent for the Poe—Longfellow episode. His satirical products were aimed chiefly at contemporary conditions in magazine prose. Blackwood's comes in for the major share of his spleen. Whatever private grievance Poe had against that compilation of fastidious elegance it is certain that he pilloried the literary "Elects" fetish in a most effect-ive and vigorous manner. Read his "How to write a Black-wood Article," and overlooking certain overdrawn crudities verging on nonsense, note the smug, unctiousself complacency of the portly, well fed editor, the ludicrously worshipful cred-ulity of the admiring and self-important spinster, you can al-most see them sitting face to face in the revered sanctum sanc-torum, he in super-respectable broad-cloth, his large oily ex-panse of florid smoothness with bland lips perked up in mild self-love breaking pompously into milky-—I should say rather —buttery smiles, his white, soft flabby hands, with the invar-iable huge seal ring radiating importance from a plump third digit, waving with dreamy grace before the enchanted orbs of the erudite self enshrined Miss Farobia, spinster. On the other side the spidery form of the yearning spinster—devoted' votary at Minerva's shrine. I can see her primly erect on a spindly chair her half mitted palms worshipfully clasped in the folds of that gorgeously hued gown or anon raised ecstat-ically with true old maid fervor and simpering affectation to her throbbing bosom ! About that bonneted cranium seething with abortive romances cluster, none too thickly, in orderly array clusters of astounding gray-green cork screw curls. From between them through gold-rimmed eye glasses, no doubt, peer and squint and sparkle the soulful optics of the divine and famous Psyche Zenobia. No, thank you, not Suche Snobbs, oh, no indeed ! Bear this in mind gentle reader. 12 THE MERCURY. This picture, then, well visualized, turn to the product of that renowned interview, read the remarkable adventures of the divine Psyche and her dearly beloved factotum and poodle, the harrowing incidents of that gruesome belfry tragedy ! Here is satire in spots that would have delighted the soul of Swift and no doubt drew an answering smile from the thank-less Dickens. It is not a mere skit, it is a skillful attack upon the too prevalent evils of affectation, ridiculing it, sneering at it and at times growing quite abusive in his contempt. For example let us examine the interview just referred to. We cannot at once determine whether the irony and ill concealed sarcasm and horseplay is the editor's as represented, or Poe's, speaking through him ; surely the latter. Editors also are his prey. In those days editors were rather tyrannical toward fugitive verse, and Poe, no doubt, makes his own grievances the excuse for his bitter attacks upon them. With viscious pen jabs he caricatures editors, magazines, literary idols and fads alike. Aside from this better class there is another grade I would only too gladly pass by unnoted, to wit :—his "funny satires" at the head of which stands "The Life of Thingum Bob." There are bearable spots here and there widely scattered in this minor branch, but, on the whole, its pretty weak, sloppy stuff—downright sickening and without the slightest spark of humor at places. I have referred to it in a previous paper as none better than "school-boy click-clack"—that's just what it is. To be convinced, read it yourself. In my opinion I think it an injustice to Poe's good taste to say more about them save that they never should have been published. THE MEKCURY. 13 BLOODY RUN. E. E. SNYDER, '09. NESTLED among the mountains in the northern part of Bedford county lies a beautiul valley, through which flows a stream of cool, sparkling mountain water, known as Bloody Run. Merrily it winds its way from its source, a fountain in the heart of the Tuscaroras, over rocks, beneath logs and overhanging banks, through forests and meadows, steadily downward, until finally it joins its water with those of the "Blue Juniata." It is a beautiful stream, yet a treacherous and turbulent one. Its beauty attracts the attention and excites the admir-ation of all seeing it : yet its waters have wrought more de-struction than those of its mother stream, the Juniata. It is too large to be called a brook, yet it has all of a mountain brook's attractiveness. In its bright laughing waters the trout and minnow play ; happy children gather flowers upon its banks, or, wading its crystal pools, piok the shining pebbles from its bed. Its waters are swift and noisy, ever hastening onward, but in such a merry, happy manner that in watching it its haste is forgotten in its mirth and song. But in stormy seasons it leaves off its merry, playful mood, and becomes as fierce and avenging as its name would indicate. In a few hours it is transformed from the laughing brook into a might/, raging river, sweeping to destruction everything that comes in its way. At such times it carries to the Juniata chickens, pigs, sheep, calves, small buildings, household goods, boardwalks and fences and sometimes before its wrath is ap-peased even the larger buildings are seriously damaged. Its fall is as rapid as its rise, and ere the storm has long passed, it has become once more the playful brook. There is a beautiful Indian legend connected with the nam-ing of the stream, which has been handed down from genera-tion to generation in true Indian fashion. It runs as follows*, Long years ago near the source of this beautiful, turbulent stream dwelt a mighty Indian chieftain, an Uncas of the Del-awares, and throughout all the Iriquois Nations, there was no other so brave in battle or so wise in council as he. He lived in peace and quietness, but no stranger was ever turned H THE MERCURY. away, cold or hungry, from his wigwam. All found a cordial welcome, the white man as well as the Indian. This chieftain had but one child, a daughter, the lovely Minnehaha. She was the idol of her father and the pride of the Iriquois nation. And well might they love and pet her; for throughout the Indian world there was none more kind or more beautiful than Minnehaha of the Delawares. Her form was graceful and slender ; her eyes were soft and beautiful ; her teeth were" as pearls; her forehead high and beautiful. There was ever a kind word on her lips and a song of happi-ness in her heart. She was the playmate of the children ; the nurse of the sick or wounded ; the friend of the'hard working .squaws ; a hearer for' the tales of the warriors ; and a never ceasing source of happiness to her father. Such was the beautiful Minnehaha. By the source of this stream Minnehaha played in her child-hood, and here she would come as a maiden and gaze into the . crystal waters of the bubbling spring and try to solve the mystery of the "Great Spirit," who the Indians believe dwelt in the waters. Now among the Indian warriors this princess had many lovers, but none so persiscent and perhaps none so much fav-ored as Growling Bear. Among the warriors there was none braver than he, yet none so cruel and vengeful. He had wooed Minnehaha for a long time but she persistently de-clined to be won. Because of the fierce jealously of Growling Bear the other lovers were shy and timid,.and there was little danger of any of them winning the fair princess. But one day while Minnehaha was sitting by the spring a handsome young hunter stopped to drink from its waters As he arose he beheld the Indian maiden before him. Struck by her won-derful beauty he began to talk with her, nor did he leave t he spring till sunset. The next day they again met at the spring and before they parted that day a strong friendship had sprung up between them—a friendship which soon ripened into love. The spring became their trysting place, and for many months they would meet at twilight on its banks, and the young hunter, with the Indian maiden clasped in his arms, would repeat o'er and o'er to her his vows of undying love ; and the princess, with clasped hands and a happy heart, would THE MERCURY. 15 listen, with her eyes, full of love, fixed upon him. Thus the days passed bright and happy. But Growling Bear began to suspect the love of Minnehaha for the young hunter, and one evening, as she left her wig-wam, he stealthily followed and discovered their secret. Filled with an uncontrollable anger, he plunged his long knife through ihe hearts of both, as they stood beside the spring. Then with a wild cry he plunged the knife into his own heart and the three bodies fell together into the clear fountain. Their life blood reddened the waters of the stream, and the Indians always after called it the "bloody" run and the white man adopted the name. IN HER PLACE. JOSEPH ARNOLD, '09. J7T FEELING of joy thrilled Mabel Burton as she entered -L-A. the library. It was a bright and sunny afternoon in June, just two days before the time announced for her marriage to William Carr. Could she be other than happy, as she made her way to the home of her betrothed to make a few final ar-rangements for the joyful event of her life ? Indeed, so happy was Mabel that she was barely conscious of what occurred about her. Even the rattle of the car in which she rode seemed music to her ears. This happiness however, was of short du-ration, for suddenly she was roused by a "How do you do Miss Burton ? Where do you come from and where are you bound ?'' "Why Mr. Walsh," exclaimed Mabel with a look of sur-prise on her beautiful face, "wheredo you come from ? it is almost two years since we had the pleasure of meeting." - "It is by mere chance I came this way," replied Mr. Walsh, i6 THE MERCURY. "I am on my way to Albany to see Senator B— on some pri-vate business. But where are you going, if I may ask?" ' I am about to visit Mrs. Carr—" "Do you know a Mr. William Carr ?" interrupted Mr. Walsh. "He is engaged to a Miss EfRe Stone a friend of mine." Just then the conductor called out "Change here for Harlem Ex-press," and Mr. Walsh arising from his seat said, "Adieu Miss Burton, pleased to have met you," and with that, he left the car. Had he thrust her with a dagger he could not have wounded her more deeply. It seemed to her for a moment as' if some-one had crushed out of her heart every drop of blood. In the anguish of her soul she turned her beautiful brown eyes from the passengers so as to avoid detection of her inward struggles and peered out into the darkness of the subway as the train sped on. Thoughts came crowding into her mind so fast that they fairly bewildered her. "What was she to do if what she heard were true," was the question which continually arose before her. This chaotic state of mind continued for a while but finally it quieted to such a degree as to make it possible for her to solve some of the questions that naturally arose out of the situation. She at length decided to carry out her plan for the day with but little difference, that she would make her stay at Mrs. Carr's as brief as possible. Fortune seemed to favor her, for, on arriving at the home •of Mrs. Carr, she found that William was out at the time. Thus, she felt freer and could appear perfectly natural in her actions. In fact Mrs. Carr saw in her over anxiousness to get away only the nervous excitement due to the nearness of the coming crisis in the young woman's life, and thus overlooked the action with a good natured smile. Mabel was soon on her way again and with a heavy heart arrived at the home of her cousin whom she had decided to visit. She was somewhat comforted as she walked up to the door, for she knew that in Jack, as she was want to call her cousin, it was possible for her to confide. Had she not gone to him with many a burden before her betrothal to William ? THE MERCURY. 17 Therefore, no sooner had he opened the door, than she with-out even so much as a greeting cried out : "Oh. Jack, I am miserable !" "Why, Mable, what is the matter? You are all excited. What has happened, house on fire, dog dead, canary flown away, eh, girlie, what is it?" 'Don't jest Jack, please don't; for I hardly know how to tell you. Do listen to me—" "Yes, yes," broke in her cousin, "just come in and be seated and try to be yourself for a moment." They both entered the parlor and as soon as they were-seated Jack began. "Now tell me all about it." "Alas Jack I am unhappy for William, no Mr. Carr, is en-gaged to a Miss Effie Stone." Jack muttered something unintelligible between his teeth, but in his usual thoughtful manner, for he knew how easily his cousin could be aroused by what she chanced to hear, he then said, "What evidence have you ?J' • Why Mr. Walsh, an old friend whom. I had not seen for two years, just told me." • "Very well then let us investigate the truth of the matter. There is a directory in which I shall try to locate Miss Stone and should I succeed we will talk it over, for I cannot quite believe it." "I do not wish to either," put in Mabel, "but something seems to tell me it is true.'' "Mabel, you women are all alike in that respect. You seem to feel that something is about to happen." But Mabel was too busy with her own thoughts to pay any attention to remarks her cousin chanced to make concerning women. So while Jack was running his fingers along the S's in the directory before him, Mable thought out a little scheme, which she decided wise to keep secret till she was. sure of Miss Stone's position, in the matter. "There is an Effie Stone resident at Eighty-Sixth Street and Third Avenue," at last said Jack. Having located Miss Stone, then talked the situation over, finally deciding to. cdl on the young woman, it being early in the afternoon. They then left the house, boarded a Third Avenue car and 18 THE MERCURY. were soon walking up the high stoops of an old fashioned brown stone house. Mr. Jack Dayton, for that is the full iwme of Mable's cousin, knocked at the door. It was opened by a sweet faced old lady who introduced herself as Mrs. Stone. "We desire to have a private interview with a Miss Effie Stone, presumably your daughter," Jack said. "Yes," responded Mrs. Stone, "won't you please come in and be seated, while I call Effie." "Thank you," Jack said, with a feeling of satisfaction that all had worked so well thus far. While waiting for Miss Stone to put in an appearance, Ma-bel glanced about the room. "The Stones," thought she, "may not be well-to-do, yet I should feel perfectly at home here." Then she came to the conclusion that Mr. Carr either did not know his own mind or had purely mercenary reasons for changing his affections. "Men are, after all, queer animals," she continued in her mind, "and, if my scheme works well, I shall at least punish one of them." While thus musing, in came Miss Stone, a charming young woman, with light hair, blue eyes and a carriage to be envied by many of her own sex. Yet, her fine features told tales of brooding over something, and Mabel was quick in reading past history in every expression of the beautiful face of the young woman before her. Cousin Jack and Mabel then ex-changed the usual courtesies with Miss Stone, after which Jack put a rather direct question to Miss Stone, for he asked her. "Are you acquainted with a Mr. Carr?" The face of Miss Stone paled for a moment and she ans-wered. "I am." "Pardon me, Miss Stone, may I ask you one more question ? Were you, or are you, engaged to Mr. Carr?" For a moment Miss Stone seemed perplexed and hardly knew what to do. Should she answer ? Why should anyone wish to know that which she was trying to forget ? Yet, in her own heart, she knew that she still loved William Carr. Could he still love her ? She was at a loss to answer. The situation was becoming painful and oppressive, when Mable, THE MERCURY. 19 who was quick to notice the momentary flush and pallor which followed, came to the rescue. Walking up to Miss Stone, she put her arms tenderly about her and said : "Miss Stone, I know that you love Mr. Carr, and I want to be of assistance to you, I am to marry Mr. Carr on Wednesday, but I want you to take my place. He always did seem to think of some one else, whenever we were alone." Both Jack and Miss Stone were for a time speechless. How was Mable about to manage such an unusual affair ? After a few moments of silence Mable continued : "Will you agree to come to my home ? All arrangements will be made and I shall act as bridesmaid." Thus Mable revealed the scheme she had thought out, while Jack had been busy with the di-rectory. "Do permit me to ask mother ?" said Effie. "Oh certainly," replied Mabel. Mrs. Stone was called in and after a discussion which lasted fully an hour, during which the propriety of the entire affair was talked over, they all agreed that the scheme was worth trying. Soon Mabel was on her way home. The news of the action of Mr. Carr created no small stir in her home. Mr. Burton, in a brief space of time said many things, but finally yielded to the will and acquiesced in the proposition of his daughter, for he saw that her happiness was at stake. He immediately had the proper changes made in the announcements. At length evening came. All was in readiness. Mabel, though she was to act as bridesmaid, had her wedding gown on. Effie Stone was dressed in a plain white suit, which, though plain, was very becoming to her. Her blue eyes sparkled with delight as she gayly chatted with Mabel whose merry brown eyes showed that she had no regrets whatever. What the outcome would be seemed to occupy, for the mo-ment, the minds of neither. The minister had arrived a few minutes before, Jack was stationed at the door to receive the bridegroom on his arrival. At last, a cab was heard rattling down the streets and sure enough it stopped at the door» Out stepped William Carr, in 20 THE MERCURY. appearance a handsome and at the time, happy looking man. For he really liked the one whom he professed to love and fully believed that in the course of time he would eventually love her. All thoughts of Effie Stone, for the time being, had slipped from his mind. In this happy frame of thought, he quickly walked up the steps of the stately residence of the Burton's and knocked at the door. It was opened by Jack who greeted him with, "How do you do Carr ?" "I am feeling tip top this evening" joyfully responded Carr. "Glad to hear it old boy" laughed Jack, "Come in, Mabel is ready to act as bridesmaid at your wedding this evening." "As bridesmaid ? Ha ha !" exclaimed Carr, "You old joker. When will you cease your jesting? Yet I fail to see the point." "Neither do I see it," more coolly replied Jack, ' 'Everything is in readiness, so come into the parlor. Mr. Carr." The face of Mr. Carr was a study when he saw Miss Stone in the room. Where had she come from ? Who had invited her and why? He was simply dazed. Mr. Burton gave him no time to collect his confused thoughts. ' Let us proceed," he said. William Carr was ushered before the minister who read the ceremony and tied the knot. So before Carr knew what had happened he was married to Effie Stone. The ceremony over, Mr. Burton coolly and cuttingly said, "You have our permission to leave now and the sooner the better.'' Jack was about to lead Carr to the door, when Mabel no-ticed Miss Stone suddenly turn pale. She quickly interposed herself between Carr and the door saying: "Mr. Carr you love Miss Stone and I have from the moment I first met her learned to love her too. You alone can make her happy and I feel that you would be happier with her than had you been married to me." There stood William Carr ; his head drooping for shame ; his eyes riveted to the floor. All was silent ; he was given time to think. At last he slowly raised his head, the perspi-ration was dropping from his brow. Raising his eyes he looked steadily at Mabel for a moment ; then extending his hand said slowly as if it pained him to utter the words : THE MERCURY. 21 "Miss Burton you have shamed me. Forgive the past, I have indeed always loved Effie but through a slip of the tongue I have erred and almost wronged the one I loved." "And through a slip of the tongue a kind Providence has rescued you," joyfully interrupted Mabel. Then she led him to Effie Stone who in the midst of embarrassment on her part and the applause of those present received from her lover the kiss which made glad not only her heart but the hearts of all present. Soon a jolly party was gathered about the table and all en-joyed the feast spread in honor of him who had married an-other. L^^'^C-T THE SICKLER COMES TO ALL. BY OSCAR C. DEAN, '08. ' 7 HE grim and aged Sickler, Death, Moves on and in his flight, He breaks the shackles, cuts the strands, To give the spirit flight. No earthly hand can check his march, Or turn his course aside ; But onward e'er, with mighty bound, He conquers time and tide. Humanity, like fallen grain Along his pathway lies— A blooming flower, here and there Fallen, withers and dies. It may be at the eve of life When locks are turning grey, It may be at the dawn of youth ; Death will come your way. To some he comes with plodding step, His hoary head bowed low, And brings at last the welcome end Of earthly toil and woe. 22 THE MERCURY. To some he comes with rapid flight, His sickle Hashing far, And many, e'er a prayer escapes. Are hurled across the bar. Man's life is but a passing day, Oft bright the morning's charm, But e'er tis noon, dark clouds roll on— At evening comes the storm. Perchance, the morning may be dark And noon rnay bring the showers That in the sunny eve of life Will nourish blooming flowers. Alas ! so oft the day is short— Oft e'er the sun is risen, The Slckler cuts the tender tie That binds the soul in prison. So live that when thy summons comes To leave this house of clay, The angel white, from heaven bright, May bear thy soul awlay. (^*^|%(^%r FROM CLERKSHIP TO FRESHMANSHIP, OR FROM THE BUSINESS WORLD TO THE COLLEGE WORLD. G. E. WOLFF, '09. JTJHIS little paper, let it be made known at once, by way of -*- introduction, is simply an attempt to acquaint briefly, an}' who may be interested with what it is to be a clerk in the business world—his requisite qualifications and his opportun-ities— in so far as it will serve to show what it means for such a one to go to college—the difficulties that are likely to con-front him, and his likely attitude toward college opportunities and college life in general. As is the case in every pursuit in which men engage, there are certain qualifications which one must have in order to be able to enter the commercial world as a clerk, differing, of THE MERCURY. 23 course, according to the importance and responsibility of the position. Unfortunately, however, the qualifications which it is demanded that the ordinary clerk possess are, to say the least, comparatively light. To be sure, to begin with, a fair elementary education, such as is given b)r our public schools, is required, and now, also, in most cases, a Business College course. Include also accuracy, a pretty fair amount of com-mon sense, and plenty of capacity for work and hustle, and 3'ou have, generally speaking, the required make-up of the clerk. Aside from the comparatively light qualifications which are demanded, there are a few worthy inducements that a clerk-ship has to offer which form part of the reason why this pos-ition is so attractive to so many young persons, but it is the several unworthy considerations that seem to be the chief cause of attraction. In line with the latter is a perverted con-ception that so many seem to have, that it is a nice, a respect-able thing to be a clerk, and therefore just the thing for the "promising" young man. On account of thjs shallow, re-spectableness, it is easy to become satisfied with being a clerk and with mere externals, so long as the salary is not too meagre, and almost invariably results in the curbing, if not the crushing, of a desire to rise to higher positions and to as-sume greater responsibilities, and in the creating of an almost utter indifference to the adornment of the mind. A worthy consideration, on the other hand, is the opportunity to become thoroughly familiar with business and business methods, and in many cases there is an opportunity to rise to high positions. And then there is the possibility, in this position more than many another perhaps, despite the unfortunate tendencies, above mentioned, that the need of and longing for a higher education will present themselves. What will it mean to the clerk to go to college—the only place where he can efficiently satisfy this need and longing ? Difficulties will present themselves. There will be the obvious necessity for an almost complete readjustment of his mentality. His crippled condition, because of his comparatively poor training for the college world, inasmuch as his energy has been centered in entirely different lines, will impede his prog-ress very materially. However, the clerk's business experi- 24 THE MERCURY. ence has not been wholly in Vain ; it will serve him well in a number of ways. He has come to college with a definite pur-pose in view, and he will work for the accomplishment of that purpose with much the same practical mind that he had when he was in the commercial world. It means also that a great deal of the vivacity and extravagance so common to college life will appear to him to be not only quite dispensable, but also unnecessary and dangerous. College, with its many good features, will be considered by him as the greatest tem-poral blessing of which he has yet been the recipient, and his regret will be that he will not be able to take full advantage of the same. It will seem very strange to the clerk, who has been accus-tomed to being confined for eight, nine or ten hours a day in the interests of his employer, to feel that he is at perfect liberty to devote sixteen hours a day to his own personal growth. To be sure, while the clerk was giving so much of his time to the work of his employer, he was himself being benefitted thereby, but the favorable contrast between the mo-notony and oftimes the tediousness of the life in the office and the diversified life of the college is very great ; so great, in fact, that the college world seems a veritable Utopia, where everything is favorable to the complete development of self. To discover that the opportunities in college are devoted to other than their natural ends, and, in fact, that they are ut-terly ignored in many instances, is one of the unfortunate fea-tures of the clerk's life. College seems to him to be the em-bodiment of all that was lacking in his everyday life in the commercial world, and how anyone can misuse such Utopian privileges is practically inconceivable. But whatever unfortu-nate conditions may exist, the way of independence is still open to him who chooses to improve rather than pervert his opportunities. THE MERCURY. 25 THE MISSIONARY SPIRIT. CHARLES W. HEATHCOTE, '05. THE annals of the world's history ring with the deeds of heroes. True many of them were noble and great. But behold the bloody deeds of Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar and Nero ! Destruction followed in their paths. Their rec-ords make one turn away sick and faint. Indeed it is true they helped to develop the world's civilization. But how much of their work was the result of selfishness and aggran-dizement ? The heroes who laid and who are laying the deep foundation-of the world's civilization are not warriors. They are men whose mission is the Gospel of Peace. They are men whose souls breathe the missionary spirit. Men whose lives are unselfish . and consecrated. Men who work and endure all things for the Master in order to raise the conditions of humanity and advance the world's civilization. Indeed the true missionary spirit is found in the command of Him who said : "Go ye and make disciples of all the nations." Glorious is the message to preach the gos-pel to all people, to establish among them the immortal broth-erhood of the kingdom, to make each individual realize there is a direct communion between him and the Golden Throne. Receiving such a glorious message he possesses the most noble heritage of all time. Thus each individual becomes conscious of a new life and new joys hitherto unknown to him. This life eventually affects many individuals,, and the result is many believe. Everyone beccmes a witness to the new life. ' The scope of missions is world wide. It includes all hu-manity. The spirit is to work among all mankind. The most intelligent heathen nations or the lowest degraded savage tribes are to come within its sphere. All receive the purifica-tion of the Spirit and are blessed. Weak, decaying nations are raised and saved. Broad and far reaching is the purpose- Truly has the poet said :. "The hands upon that cruel tree, Extended wide as mercy's spaa Have gathered to the Son of Man The ages past and vet to be. 26 THK MERCURY. One, reaching; backward to the prime Enfolds the children of the morn ; The other, to a race unborn Extends the crowning gift of time !" But back of all this there must be a motive. There must be one great principle. Though the missionary spirit may be the result of love for humanity yet the true motive is not in the philanthropic realm. It is in the theanthropic realm. The impulse comes from Christ himself. It is he who is the author, operator and energizer of every great activity. The spirit absorbs him in the work and carries it onward to suc-cess. Thus thTs spirit becomes a passion, a second nature that cannot be eliminated. It is a nature that sees only success and not failure. "I have but one passion, I have but one passion," said Count Zinzendorf, "and that is He, only He." Men who realize the full meaning of the missionary spirit feel themselves called to the work. Their lives are lives of consecration. The will is surrendered to the noble cause. They are men of purpose, intensity of faith, true to service and dut}\ Thus indeed 'tis true ! '•The sweetest lives are those to duty wed, Whose deeds, both great and small, Are close-knit strands of an unbroken thread Whose love ennobles all." They are true workers. They are unselfish. To undertake this noble work for humanity they sacrifice everything. They break the bonds of love and friendship for this noble cause. At home honor, fame and position are often offered them, yet they sacrifice all these things. But above the din and clamor of everything the missionory hears a still small voice saying, "Follow thou me." Ah noble is such devotion, consecration and sacrifice ! The missionary is the embassador of the Divine King. He has received the noblest heritage that is possible for man to receive. His religion is of divine origin. He is ready to prove the falsity of other religious. What has Confucianism, Mohammedanism or Buddhism done to benefit humanity ? What can the creeds of pessimism, fatalism and doom accom-plished ? True there are golden threads of truth running- THE MERCURY. 27 through these religions. Granting that, in the lands of these religions there are men of culture and intelligence, yet their religions are imperfect. But the missionary imbued with the true spirit, keen intellect, broad mindedness, optimism and enthusiasm points out the true way to the heathen. He is filled with enthusiasm and not fanaticism. Fanaticism would destroy the cause of the missionary. He takes those golden threads and weaves them into his own system and uses them to convert the people. But in these lauds where vice, bigotry, fatalism and pessimism reign supreme, privation, danger, hardship and even martyrdom await the missionary. Brave, enthusiastic, optimistic and guided by the Spirit, he presses on. Thus St. Paul endured shipwreck, scourgings, privations, imprisonment and at last suffered martyrdom for this undying cause. Again, St. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany, while zeal-ously working among our ancestors met his death. Then, too, the early missionaries of great and glorious North America, to whom we owe so much, bore toil, famine, sickness, solitude and insult. They were surrounded by thousands of savages. They were the forerunners of a great Christian civilization. The deeds of Livingstone are still fresh in the memory of the world. He is the greatest hero of the nineteenth century. A missionary, traveler and philanthropist whose life work has permeated the whole of Africa. He was determined to open the continent to Christianity. By his self-sacrifice he brought salvation to thousands of souls. It was he who sounded the death knell to African slave traffic. He braved the African fever and savage tribes. This scarred hero died in the midst of his work. His last prayer that ascended to the Golden Throne was for a blessing upon the Dark Continent. Carey has well said : "They who love the best their fellow men Are serving god the holiest way they can.'' Great and glorious results have been achieved. Thousands upon thousands of heathen within the last century have been rescued from vice and degradation. They have been enrolled under the banner of the gospel. 28 THE MERCURY. Yet Africa aud Asia call for help. Does the soul of a Christian people refuse to hear the cry ? Are men swayed too much to-day by mercenary motives? Have commercialism and selfishness crushed out the spirit ? Oh for [the spirit of a Paul, or a Xavier or a Livingstone ! Great indeed is the re-sponsibility of a people if these things are true. If a brother, be he black or yellow, dies crying for help and a Christian people refuse to respond to that cry what will be the result? The death knell of that civilization has been sounded. Nations cannot afford to sit idly by in ease and self-indulgence while these things exist. "Is it nothing to you, Oh Christian, That Africa walks in night ? That Christians at home deny them The blessed gospel light ?" If the missionary spirit fills the heart of the individual it will permeate the nation. If the Christ is leader, victory will be ours. Thus Christendom will reign supreme. The Spirit will strengthen manhood and glorify all nations. Thus : "It raised a brother from the dust, It saved a soul from death, O germ ! Oh fount ! O word of love L O thought at random cast ! Ye were but little at the first, But mighty at the last. [NOTE: Some who heard this oration desired its publication. —ED.] T H E HERCURV Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class }fatter. VOL. XV GETTYSBURG, PA., MARCH 1907 No. 1 Editor in-Chief EDMUND L. MANGES, '08 Exchange. Editor ROBERT W. MICHAEL, '08 Business Manager HENRY M. BOWER, '08 Ass't Bus. Managers LESLIE L. TAYLOR, '09 CHARLES L. KOPP, '09 Assistant Editor MARKLEY C. ALBRIGHT, '08 Associate Editors PAUL E. BLOOMHART, '09 E. E. SNYDER, '09 Advisory Board PROF. .1. A. HIMES, LITT.D PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M.D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D.D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsnaylvia (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance ; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending THE MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contri-bute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. With this issue of GREETING. " THE MERCURY the recently elected staff take upon their shoulders the duty of its publication for the ensuing year. It may be needless to state that we intend to do our best to make this year the banner one. We fully recognize and appreciate the untiring efforts of the pre-ceding staff in bringing THE MERCURY to its present position of prominence in the college 3° THE MERCURY. community, after a year of irregular publication. It now stands firmer than ever before. That fact makes'us aware that we owe our best efforts to" maintain the present high s.audard. Due to the aggressiveness of the retiring staff with the kindly assistance of the literary societies, the business end of our journal is in an excellent condition. In truth, as well as it possibly could be owing to the fact that it no longer bears, the burden of a heavy debt for it has been liquidated. All other conditions being so favorable, the success now alone depends upon the manner in which the students co-op-erate with the staff. It is not our intention to make a public plea for material to publish. The material is plentiful, but what is desirable is that the students take a more lively in-terest so that competition may make the class of literature bet-ter. This is the duty of the students, not of the staff. Thus it is very plain that a great share of the responsibility rests upon the student body. The alumni have been contributing, a thing which is en-couraging for the reason that it is the best proof that they are interested in the affairs of their alma mater. We hope they may continue and help us publish an interesting paper. WORK. There comes a time in the course of every college man's life while at college when he is seized with an unconquerable feeling of discouragement aud dejection. He becomes impatient of his intellectual development ; to his own measurement he seems to be progressing very slowly, and the time which he has already spent in college seems to have been wasted. How are we to overcome this feeling? Work is the stern and faithful officer who drives such thoughts from the sacred domains of our intellects. Work is the golden key which unlocks to us Learning's unlimited supply of wisdom— untiring, unhasting unyielding work. With work all things are possible. Let us not have any apprehension for the pro-gress which we make, but let us keep working, and we are; bound to succeed. Although our dreams of success may never; be fully realized, although we may never reach our ideal, yet if we are sincere in our efforts, and if we put ourselves into THK MRRCURY. 31 our work heart and soul, there is no doubt but that we shall wake up some fine morning and find that the capabilities which have so long lain dormant within us have become active. We will find ourselves to be competent men, well qualified to do things, and head and shoulders above our fellow men who have been so unfortunate as not to have the opportunity for intellectual training in a higher institution of learning. M. C. A., '08. xS^v^v^ EXCHANGES. The lectures of Robert G. Ingersoll in "The College Stu-dent" brings out some of the ideas of Ingersoll's opinion of the Bible very nicely. Also ' 'True College Spirit'' found in the same number points out the need of more true college spirit. I am of the opinion of the writer that college spirit is on the decline, and the support of each and every man at college is needed for it's building up. The article in the "Lesbian" for February, entitled "Chris-topher Marlowe,'' deserves mentioning for the masterful way in which it is handled, as also does the article on "Aristole's Po-etics." These articles are evidence of much study on the part of the writers. "The Susquehanua" contains a very good production "The Patriot of the Revolution." It is nicely composed and shows thought. The Senior Class of Yale have adopted an absolute Honor System.—Ex. The MERCURY extends her best wishes to the new Editors of the "Harvard Lampoon." 32 THE MERCURY. The Postman. The postman is a funny man Who never does things right; The things he brings on time we wish Had never met our sight. The bills and such and postal cards That bear the college seal, Are always brought in perfect time With sadly misplaced zeal. But checks from home and notes from •'Her"' Don't come in such a drive, And though we're.sure that they were sent They sometimes don't arrive. —Ex. There i$ a $mall matter which JSoine of our $ub$criber$ and adverti$er$ have $eemingly forgotten. To u$ it i$ nece$$ary in our bu$ine$$. We are very mode$t and do not wi$h to $peak of it.—Ex. "The Individual in the Solution of the Liquor Problem" in the "Juniata Echo," is very nicely handled. "The Brown and White" was up to its usual standard, it contained some very interesting reading. "The Albright Bulletin," An appreciation of Rev. Arthur Dimmesdale in "The Scarlet Letter," remarkably sets forth a type of a wolf in sheep's clothing, and although in the wrong we are made to feel by the author that Dimmesdale is truly to be pitied. The selection "The Evils of Child Labor" is in line with our own conception of the curse. We agree with the writer in his liberal views. "The Touchstone" is a well conducted paper, both delight-ful and instructive. "A Chinese Dinner Party" is interesting, showing as it does the manner and customs of the country. The plea for the forest in the same number is worthy of recognition as placing before the public eye a need of pre-serving the haunts of the red men The subject is well handled and also pleasantly arranged. "The Carnation" is the largest exchange we have received this month. It is finely arranged and the different pictures add greatly to its make up. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. Mattresses, "Re^ Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking- a specialty. - Telephone No. 97. EC. IB. IBerLcior, 37 Baltimore St., Gtttynburff, 1** THE WINDSOR HOTEL 1217-2 FILBERT ST., PHILABELPHIA-HEADQUARTERS FOR STUDENTS. THOROUGHLY RENOVATED, REFURNISHED, AND REMODELED. FKANK M. SCHEIBLKY, Manager. Graduate of Lafayette College 1898- ICE CREAM. SODA WATER. Telephone Call 1612. SheaoY High Grade Confections 37-39 Chambersburg Street, GETTYSBURG, PA. FRUITS. Restaurant Attached HENRY KALBFLE1SCH new line of all grades of CIGARS, PIPESJOBACCOS, &C. Pool Parlors in Connection. Chambersburg St., Two doors above Eagle Hotel. GETTYSBURG SUNDAY SCHOOL LESSON HELPS AND SUPPLIES, P. ANSTADT & SONS, Publishers, Book and Job Priniinrj of all Kinds OjrUc for Prices. YORK, PA. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. ConkUn's *"■ Pen For busy people. No bother. Fills itself. Cleans itself. No dropper. Nothing to take apart. Nothing to spill. A dip in ink, a touch of thumb to nickel cres-cent and the pen is full, ready to write. All the best dealers everywhere— Stationers, Druggists, Jewelers—handle the Conklin Pen or can supply it if you in-sist upon having it. Costs no more than other fountain pens of best grade. 100 styles and sizes to select from shown in our catalog furnished free upon request. Any make or style of fountain pen repaired promptly. THE (Mi™ PEN CO. 514-516-518 Jefferson Ave." Toledo, GMo. Sole Manufacturers Conklin Self-Filling Pen PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS MIL ZOTHE COL^: ;BLEMS ENGRAVER, DESIGNER, AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER 722 Chestnut St,. Phila. SPECIALTIES : MASONIC MARKS, SOCIETY BADGES, COLLEGE BUTTONS, PINS, SCARF PINS, STICK PINS AND ATHLETIC PRIZES. All Goods •rdered through F. A Faust, CHARLES S. 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The Most Popular College Songs 50 New College Songs " - Songs of ALL the Colleges Songs of the WESTERN Coll-ges Songs of the EASTERN Colleges SCHOOL Songs with COLLEGE Flavor Songs of the Flag and Nation 100 iNew Kindergarten Songs New Songs fur College Glee Clubs • New Son^s for Male Quartets - - Songs of the University of Pennsylvania Songs of the University of Michigan - Songs of Washington and Jefferson College Songs ot Haveiford College - New Songs and Anthems for Church Quartets, (Eleven Numbers) each .10 to HINDS, NOBLE & ELDREDGE, Publishers 3J-33 35 West 15thSt. New York City COMPILER IMPRINT ON JOB WORK MEANS TASTY WORK CAREFULLY DONE. MENU CARDS WINDOW POSTERS. DANCE CARDS, LETTER HEADS, ENVELOPES, TICKETS, Programs of all kinds. Everything- the College Man wants in Paper and Ink. Specially designed work. Latest Effects in Paper,. done in Colors along lines of College Men's Associations. Catalog and Book work. 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ILLUSTRIERTE GESCHICHTE DES WELTKRIEGES 1914/15. SECHSTER BAND. Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges (-) Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/15. Sechster Band. (Sechster Band) ( - ) [Einband]: Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914-17 ( - ) [Abb.]: Rumänische Heeresteile verwüsten auf ihrer regellosen Flucht vor der Armee Mackensen die Ortschaften der Walachei. ( - ) [Titelblatt]: Illustrierte Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. ( - ) [Impressum]: ( - ) Kriegskalender zur Original=Einbanddecke der Illustrierten Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Sechster Band enthaltend die Ereignisse vom 1. Januar bis 30. Juni 1917 ( - ) Januar. ( - ) Februar. ( - ) März. ( - ) April. ( - ) Mai. ([I]) Juni. ([I]) Inhaltsverzeichnis. ([III]) Kunstbeilagen. (IV) Karten (IV) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 126 (Heft 126) ([1]) [Abb.]: Kaiser Karl von Österreich, König von Ungarn. ([1]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Oberst Marquard, der Leiter der Ersatzabteilung und des Arbeitsamts im neugeschaffenen Kriegsamt, bisher Generalstabschef einer Armee. (2)Dr. Kurt Sorge, Direktor des Magdeburger Grusonwerkes, der Chef des technischen Stabes des neuen Kriegsamts. (2) [ 2 Abb.]: (1)Typen rumänischer Gefangener aus der Walachei. (2)Talmacz an der Roten Turm=Strasse, das die Rumänen auf ihrer Flucht durchzogen. (3) [Abb.]: Der Donauübergang der Truppen des Generalfeldmarschalls v. Mackensen am 24. November 1916 bei Svistow ([4 - 5]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Minenräumer der österreichisch=ungarischen Donauflottille auf der Streife gegen Rumänien. (2)Deutscher 21=cm=Mörser kurz nach dem Abschuss im Roten Turm=Pass. (6) [2 Abb.]: (1)Auf Patrouille im Roten Turm=Pass. Sichtung des Feindes. (2)[Abb.]: Durch Panzertürme befestigter rumänischer Schützengraben auf rumänischem Gebiet, den österreichisch=ungarische Truppen im ersten Sturm eroberten. (7) [Abb.]: Strassenleben in der mazedonischen Stadt Jstip. (8) [Abb.]: Das "Eiserne Tor Bulgariens", die Schlucht des Isterflusses im Balkan. (9) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (10) Wofür kämpfen wir? (10) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Gebirgshaubitze an der griechisch=mazedonischen Front. (10) [2 Abb.]: (1)Blick von der Festung auf den Ort Dchrida am Dchridasee in Mazedonien. Im Vordergrunde bulgarische Infanterie. (2)Stand eines Töpfers im Basar der mazedonischen Stadt Dchrida am Dchridasee. (11) [Abb.]: Türkisches Ballonabwehrgeschütz an der Südspitze von Gallipoli, wo sich die Dardanellen mit dem Ägäischen Meer vereinigen. Der Kampfplatz der Franzosen und Engländer, den sie am 9. Januar 1916 fluchtartig verliessen. Auf der Höhe Sedd ul Bahr. Drüben, auf asiatischer Seite, Kum Kaleh und das Tal von Troja. (12) Die starkbefestigte Sighine=Schlucht auf Gallipoli. (12) [Abb.]: Die Sighine=Schlucht auf Gallipoli. Diese Schlucht, die vom Golf von Saros bis zum Dorfe Krythia unterhalb des heissumstrittenen Berges Altchi=Tepe sich hinzieht, war von den Engländern auf das grossartigste befestigt worden. Die fast senkrechten Abgänge waren oft bis acht Stockwerke übereinander mit unterständen versehen und auf alle Art uneinnehmbar gemacht. Aber die Einsicht, dass ein weiteres Vordringen unmöglich war und das englische Riesengrab auf Gallipoli täglich mehr Menschen verschlang, veranlasste sie, sich aus dieser einzigartigen Befestigung zurückzuziehen. ([13]) [Abb.]: Die Beobachter eines österreichisch=ungarischen Wasserflugzeuges beim Anlassen des Motors. (14) Wasserflugzeuge. (14) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarisches Wasserflugzeug wird zu einem Aufstieg aus dem Schuppen geholt. (15) Die Vorbereitung der Friedenswirtschaft. 4. Hebung der wirtschaftlichen Tätigkeit. (15) [Abb.]: Start eines Wasserflugzeuges der österreichisch=ungarischen Marine. (15) [2 Abb.]: (1)Vom Erholungsurlaub der kriegsgefangenen Internierten der kriegführenden Staaten in der Schweiz. In Luzern ist ein Hofspital errichtet, in dem sich ein Anzahl Kriegsinternierter befindet. Die bereits wiederhergestellten Soldaten besorgen täglich die Post für ihre Kameraden, wobei jedesmal ein Deutscher, ein Franzose und ein Engländer unter Aufsicht eines Schweizer Soldaten zu gleicher Zeit den Dienst versehen. (2)Vereidigung österreichisch=ungarischer Truppen in Lida in Russland anlässlich der Krönung des Kaisers Karl. (16) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 127 (Heft 127) ([17]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Oberleutnant zur See Kurt Frankenberg, (2)Kapitänleutnant der Reserve Max Dietrich, die Führer der in der Nacht zum 28. November 1916 beim Luftschiffangriff auf England verunglückten Fahrzeuge. (3)Zu den abermaligen Vorstoss deutscher Seestreitkräfte gegen die englische Küste in der Nacht vom 26. 27. November 1916: Versenken eines englischen Vorpostenschiffes und Gefangennahme der Mannschaft. ([17]) [Abb.]: Artilleriestellung australischer Truppen nördlich der Somme. (18) [Abb.]: Französische 15,5=cm=Batterie=Stellung an der Sommefront. (19) [Abb.]: Rückeroberung des Nordrandes des St. Pierre=Vaast=Waldes in der Nachmittagsdämmerung des 15. November 1916 durch das hannoversche Füsilierregiment Nr. 73. ([20 - 21]) [Abb.]: Generalleutnant Otto v. Garnier, dessen Truppen zugleich mit denen der Generale v. Kathen, v. Boehn, v. Schenck, Sixt v. Arnim und Freiherr vom Hügel an der Sommerfront den blutigsten feindlichen Angriffen standhielten. Generalleutnant v. Garnier ist Führer eines Reservekorps und erhielt den Orden Pour le Mérite. (22) [2 Abb.]: (1)Munitionsnachschub für die schwere englische Artillerie an der Somme. (2)Eines der von den Engländern an der Westfront gebrauchten, von deutscher Artillerie vielfach zusammengeschossenen Panzerautomobile, "Tant" oder auch "Caterpillar" (Raupe) genannt, auf die die Engländer vergeblich ihre Hoffnungen setzten. (23) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (24) Das britische Weltreich und der Krieg. (24) [3 Abb.]: Die Wacht an der österreichisch=ungarischen Südwestfront im Gebiet des Ortlers. (1)Österreichisch=ungarische Hochgebirgspatrouille begibt sich auf die tief verschneite Ortlerspitze. (2)Schützengrabenbau im Hochgebirge (3)Das am höchsten stehende Geschütz im Weltkrieg auf einem 3860 Meter hohen Berggipfel. (24) [Abb.]: Aus den Wochen der deutschen Heeresreserve in Flandern. Deutsche Feldgraue bei einem fröhlichen Plauderstündchen auf einem flandrischen Bauernhofe. ( - ) [Abb.]: Tiroler Kaiserjäger weisen am Monte Piano heftigste italienische Angriffe ab, nachdem sie am Tage vorher verloren gegangene Stellungen in kühnem Gegenangriff zurückgewonnen hatten. ([25]) [Abb.]: Einer der österreichisch=ungarischen Donaumonitore, die sich im Feldzug gegen Rumänien besonder hervorgetan haben. (26) [8 Abb.]: Der Donauübergang der Armee Mackensen bei Svistow. (1)Eine Dampffähre setzt Truppen über die Donau. (2)Artilleriebeobachter am rechten Donauufer. (3)An der Ansatzstelle der Brücke (4)Die Brücke während des Baues. (5)Ein neuer Brückenteil wird angesetzt. (6)Artillerie überschreitet die fertige Brücke. (7)Generalfeldmarschall v. Mackensen und sein Generalstabschef Generalmajor Tappen beobachten auf der rumänislchen Seite den Übergang. (8)Generalfeldmarschall v. Mackensen und sein Generalstabschef Generalmajor Tappen besichtigen das Gelände am rumänischen Zollhaus gegenüber von Svistow. ([27]) Der Kampf gegen die Rumänen. 3. Die Eroberung der kleinen Walachei. (28) [Abb.]: Der siegreiche Reiterführer in der Walachei, Generalleutnant Eberh. Graf v. Schmetrow, der mit seiner Reiterei eine rumänische Kavaleriedivission am Alt zurückschlug, ein Sohn des Kommandeurs der Halberstädter Kürassiere bei dem Todesritt von Mars=la=Tour. (28) [Abb.]: Deutsche Kavallerie unter Führung des Generalleutnants Grafen v. Schmettow wirft am 25. November 1916 im Gelände östlich des unteren Alt eine sich zum Kampf stellende rumänische Kavalleriedivision unter siegreichem Nachdrängen. ([29]) [2 Abb.]: Aus einer staatlichen Geschossfabrik. (1)Dreherei. Hydraulische Presse zur Formgebung der Geschosse. (2)Füllen der Schrapnelle mit Bleikugeln. (30) [2 Abb.]: Aus einer staatlichen Geschossfabrik. (1) Teil eines Lagerraums für Geschosse der Fuss= und Feldartillerie. (2)Abnahme der Geschosse für Fuss= und Feldartillerie. (31) Deutsche Schiessbedarfwerke. (32) [Abb.]: Schweizer Patrouille auf dem Monte Rosagletscher mit Blick auf Matterhorn und Gornergrat. (32) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Hef 128 (Heft 128) ([33]) [Abb.]: Russische Soldaten, links das Idealbild eines Russen, wie ihn die französische Zeitung "Le Temps" ihren Lesern in ihrer Nr. 28 vorführt mit der Bemerkung, dass mehrere Millionen Leute wie dieser dem Verbündeten im Osten zur Verfügung ständen. Wie der russische Durchschnittsoldat in Wirklichkeit aussieht, zeigt das Bild auf der rechten Seite. ([33]) [3 Abb.]: Von der Front des Generalobersten Erzherzog Joseph. (1)Sturm ungarischer Honvedinfanterie. (2)Rast in einem kleinen Ort unweit der Front. (3)Transport einer schweren Haubitze auf schneebedeckten Waldwegen. (34) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generaloberst Erzherzog Joseph, der Oberkommandierende im Frontabschnitt, den bisher Kaiser Karl befehligt hat. Erzherzog Joseph (nich zu verwechseln mit Erzherzog Joseph Ferdinand, der früher die 4. österreichisch=ungarische Armee bei Luck kommandierte) stand in Friedenszeiten an der Spitze des 7. Armeekorps in Budapest und führte dieses Armeekorps auch seit Beginn des Krieges, besonders erfolgreich in den Karpathenkämpfen. Als der Krieg mit Italien ausgebrochen war, übernham er das Oberkommando einer Armee an der Isonzofront. (2)Ein deutsches Feldlazarett westlich von Luck. (35) [Abb.]: Eroberung russischer Feldstellungen bei Strobowa. (36 - 37) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zum Kampf am Strobowabach (36 - 37) [2 Abb.]: (1)Angriff deutscher Seeflugzeuge auf feindliche Streitkräfte im Hafen von Reval. Im Vordergrund ein Flugzeugmutterschiff mit zwei Unterseebooten, links der Hafen mit Krieg= und Hilfschiffen, rechts die Werft (2)Angriff deutscher Seeflugzeuge auf militärische Anlagen im Hafen des russischen Stützpunktes Reva. Der Rauch kennzeichnet die Einschlagstellen der geworfenen Bomben (38) [Abb.]: Angriff deutscher Luftstreitkräfte auf die Küste am Rigaischen Meerbusen. ([39]) [Abb.]: Der Hafen von Archangelsk am Weissen Meer, in dem eine furchtbare Explosion mehrerer für Rumänien bestimmter Munitionsdampfer ausbrach. (40) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (40) Der Tag von Strobowa. (40) [Abb.]: Einzug des Generalfeldmarschalls v. Mackensen in Bukarest an der Spitze deutscher und bulgarischer Truppen. Empfang durch die Stadtvertretung und andere Behörden auf der Calea Victoriei. ( - ) [Abb.]: Kämpfe mit russisch=kaukasischen Streifkorps (Tscherkessen) in den Waldkarpathen nördlich des Prislop=Sattels. ( - ) [Abb.]: Von den türkischen Truppen in der Dobrudscha gefangene Russen auf dem Transport nach dem Innern Kleinasiens. (42) [Abb.]: Generalfeldmarschall v. Mackensen mit seinem Stab bei einer Parade türkischer Truppen nach den siegreichen Kämpfen gegen die Rumänen. (43) Schwäbische Regimenter aus der Sommeschlacht. (43) [Abb.]: General Hilmi Pascha, der Führer der Türken in der Dobrudscha, und General Toscheff, der Generalissimus der bulgarischen Truppen auf dieser Kampffront, auf ihrem Gefechtstand vor Medgidia in der Dobrudscha. (43) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bulgarische Batteriestellung an der Donau. (2)Einschiffen von deutschem schwerem Geschütz durch österreichisch=ungarische Pioniere an der Donau. (44) [Abb.]: Eine Eskadron des Pasewalker Kürassier=Regiments "Königin" nimmt am 28. November 1916 unter Führung des Rittmeisters v. Borcke eine rumänische Kolonne bei Ciolanesti gefangen. (45) Das britische Weltreich und der Krieg. (45) [2 Abb.]:(1) General der Infanterie Kosch, Führer der von Svistow vorgedrungenen Donauarmee. (2)Generalleutnant Kühne, siegreicher Heerführer in der Schlacht am Arges. (46) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die Festung Bukarest. (2)Die Übergangstelle der Armee Mackensen über die Donau und das Kriegsgebiet von Bukarest, nach Generalstabskarten bearbeitet. (47) [Abb.]: Eroberter englischer Schützengraben an der Somme. (48) Die Verluste des Vierverbandes gegen Ende des Jahres 1916. (48) [Abb.]: Von den farbigen Engländern: Indische Soldaten mit einem Hotchkitzmaschinengewehr an der Front von La Bassée. (48) [Abb.]: Rast eines Gefangenentransportes afrikanischer Jäger in der Abenddämmerung am Toten Mann. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. (Heft 129) ([49]) (Abb.]: Die denkwürdige Reichstagsitzung am 12. Dezember 1916: Der deutsche Reichskanzler v. Bethmann Hollweg verliest das Friedensangebot der Mittelmächte. ([49]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Alarmierung einer deutschen Sturmabteilung an der Somme. (2)Zu den ausserordentlichen artilleristischen Anstrengungen der Franzosen und Engländer an der Sommefront: Der Verkehr auf einer Strasse hinter der Front. (50) [Abb.]: In Kämpfen nördlich der Somme gefangene Australier. (51) [Abb.]: Ein von den deutschen Truppen bei Verdun erobertes Negerdorf. Erdhütten der Senegalneger. (52) [Abb.]: Erfolgreicher Sturm auf den "Backenzahn" auf Höhe 304 vor Verdun durch deutsche Handgranatenkämpfer am 6. Dezember 1916. ([53]) [Abb.]: Mächtiger bombensicherer deutscher Unterstand in einem französischen Walde. (54) [Abb]: Notlandung eines österreichisch=ungarischen Flugzeuges. (55) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (56) Schwäbische Regimenter aus der Sommeschlacht. (56) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der französischer General Nivelle, der Verteidiger Verduns und Nachfolger Joffres im Oberbefehl an der Westfront. (2)Aufstellung eines österreichisch=ungarischen 30,5=cm=Mörsers. (56) [Abb.]: Vorstoss deutscher Tauchboote in den Hafen von Funchal auf Madeira am 4. Dezember 1916 morgens. ([57]) [Abb.]: Deutscher Soldat in den Alpen auf Vorposten. (58) [Abb.]: Ankunft deutscher Soldaten in einer österreichischen Ortschaft an der italienischen Front. (59) Der Flugplatz. (59) [Abb.]: Schwere Niederlage der Armee Sarrail in der Monastirebene und in den Bergen des Cernabogens durch Scheitern eines grossen Angriffs meist afrikanischer Truppen von Trnova (nordwestlich Monastir) bis Makovo ([60 - 61]) [Abb.]: General der Infanterie Otto v. Below, der heldenmütige Erstürmer eines Berggipfels in Serbisch=Mazedonien, wurde zum Chef des Jägerbataillons ernannt, an dessen Spitze er den Sturm ausführte (62) Praktische Ernährungsfragen im Kriege. (62) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Kolonne durchschreitet einen Gebirgsbach in den Babunabergen (Mazedonien). (2)Ein deutsches Auto auf halber Höhe des Babunapasses (Mazedonien). Im Vordergrunde ein deutscher Soldat, der mit der eingeborenen Bevölkerung beim Zerkleinern des Strassenpflasters beschäftigt ist. (64) [Abb.]: Bulgarische Truppen setzen in der Nacht auf den 10. Dezember 1916 im Schutze der Dunkelheit zwischen Tutrakan und Cernavoda über die Donau. Infolge dieses kühnen Unternehmens wurden die gegenüber Cernavoda liegenden russischen und rumänischen Truppen gezwungen, ihre mächtig ausgebauten Stellungen zu räumen und in überstürzte Weise den Rückzug anzutreten. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 130 (Heft 130) ([65]) [Abb.]: Russische Gefangene am Lagerfeuer. ([65]) [3 Abb.]: Bilder von der Ostfront. (1)Stellungswechsel der Artillerie im winterlichen Osten. (2)Die größte für Kriegszwecke gebaute Brücke, die Brücke über das Tal des Szczeberkabaches im Osten, die 845 Meter lang ist und in 16 Tagen von einer deutschen Eisenbahnkompanie errichtet wurde. (3)Deutsche Patrouille im Sumpfgebiet am Stochod. ([67]) [Abb.]: Beschiessung einer rumänischen Stellung im Gebirge durch Teile des linken Flügels der 9. Armee. (68 - 69) [Abb.]: Blick auf Kirlibaba in den östlichen Karpathen. (70) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (70) Praktische Ernährungsfragen im Kriege. (70) [2Abb.]: (1)Graf Stanislaus Szeptycki, Kommandant der polnischen Legion. (2)Einmarsch der polnischen Legion in Warschau. Die polnische Kavallerie im Vorbeimarsch am Hotel Bristol, vor dem der deutsche Generalgouverneur von Polen General der Infanterie v. Beseler die Parade abnimmt. Nachdem polnische Legionen schon ruhmreich an der Seite der Mittelmächte gegen Russland gefochten, war die Bewilligung einer eigenen Wehrmacht ein brennender polnischer Wunsch und ein Zeichen besonderen Vertrauens der Mittelmächte. (71) [Abb.]: Siebenbürgische Flüchtlinge kehren nach der Wiedereroberung ihres Landes durch die Armee Falkenhayn in ihren Heimatort zurück. (72) [Abb.]: Rumänische Freischärler. ([73]) Die Opferung englischer und französischer Hilfsvölker. (74) [Abb.]: Generaloberst v. Falkenhayn, der Führer der siegreichen 9. Armee vor seinem Hauptquartier in einer kleinen rumänischen Stadt. (74) Deutscher Heldenfriedhof in Therapia. (74) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von deutschen Pionieren bei dem Vormarsch auf Bukarest über den Alt geschlagene Schiffbrücke. Im Hintergrund die Ortschaft Caineni. Truppen beim Überschreiten der Brücke. (2)Durch eine deutsche Fliegerbombe zerstörter rumänischer Munitionszug Deutsche Soldaten beim Aufräumen der Trümmer. (75) Der Krieg in Ostafrika im Oktober und November 1916 und die Kämpfe an der Ugandabahn im Januar und Februar 1916. (76 - 77) [Abb.]: Friedhof der in der Türkei gefallenen deutschen Helden im Botschaftsgarten zu Therapia am Bosporus. (76 - 77) [Abb.]: Askari=Hornist von Deutsch=Ostafrika. (78) Charakterköpfe der Weltkriegsbühne. (78) 1. Lloyd George als englischer Volksheld. (78) [Abb.]: Blick auf Tabora, das am 4. September 1916 vom Feinde besetzt wurde. (78) [2 Abb.]:(1) Eine Abteilung rhodesianischer Truppen, die auf ihrem Vormarsch im dichten Busch Deutsch=Ostafrikas von den Deutschen vollkommen vernichtet wurde. (2)General Smuts, der Kommandeur der englischen Truppen in Ostafrika, besichtigt von seinem Panzerauto aus das Gelände. (79) [2Abb.]: (1)Englische Offiziere beobachten den Verlauf eines Gefechtes ab der Tanga=Moschi=Eisenbahn von dem Dache eines Hauses aus. (2)Lloyd George, der englische Diktator. (80) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 131 (Heft 131) ([81]) [Abb.]: Nächtliches Artilleriefeuer mit Leuchtgranaten an der Sommerfront. ([81]) [Abb.]: In voller Ausrüstung gefangen genommener französischer Soldat. (82) [2 Abb.]: (1)Schützengraben im Westen nach schwerem Minen= und Artilleriefeuer.(2)Die Fahrspuren der englischen Riesen=Panzerwagen, der sogenannten Tanks. (83) [Abb.]: Englische Riesen=Panzerwagen, sogenannte "Tanks", im Kampf an der Sommefront. ([84 - 85]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Tragtierkolonne mit Infanteriemunition durchschreitet den Ort Lebocourt im Westen. (2)Tragtier mit Infanteriemunition begibt sich durch einen Laufgraben in eine vordere Stellung im Westen. (86) [Abb.]: Rast vor der Kirche von Véry vor Verdun. (87) [2 Abb.]: (1)Leutnant d. R. Gustav Leffers, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite, am 27. Dezember 1916 im Luftkampf gefallen. (2)Hauptmann Zander, einer unserer erfolgreichen Luftkämpfer, der sich in den Kämpfen am 27. Dezember 1916 besonders auszeichnete. (88) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (88) Die roten Teufel in Rumänien. (88) [Abb.]: Ein südwestlich von Lille gelandeter englischer Vickers=Doppeldecker. (88) [Abb.]: Der Munitionstransportdampfer "Suchan" der russischen Freiwilligen=Flotte wird auf seiner Fahrt von Amerika nach Archangelsk durch ein deutsches U=Boot im Nördlichen Eismeer aufgebracht und in schwerem Wetter, im Schnee= und Regensturm durch die Nordsee in einen deutschen Hafen geleitet. Eine seemännische Glanzleitstung der deutschen Marine. ([uncounted]) [Abb.]: Flugzeugabwehrgeschütz auf einem Kraftwagen beschiesst feindliche Flieger. ([89]) [Abb.]: Die Besatzung des deutschen U=Bootes, das den russischen Munitionstransportdampfer "Suchan" in einen deutschen Nordseehafen brachte. Von links nach rechts stehend: Deckoffizier Berner, Oberleutnant z. S. Mertens, Deckoffizier Bergmann; Marineoberingenieur Ahrens, Kapitänleutnant Buss (Kommandant), Oberleutnant z. S. d. R. Hashagen (Prisenoffizier). (90) Fliegerkämpfe bei Ostende und Zeebrügge. (90) [Abb.]: Gefangengene Engländer von Kut=el=Amara auf dem Abtransport. (91) Erfolgloser russischer Sturmangriff auf eine deutsch=türkische Minenwerferstellung Kaukasus. (91) [Abb.]: Kapitänleutnant Max Valentiner, Kommandant des U=Boots 38, der bis Ende 1916 128 Schiffe von 282 000 Bruttoregistertonnen versenkte. Er führte auch den Angriff im Hafen von Funchal (siehe Seite 52) aus und wurde mit dem Orden Pour le Mérite ausgezeichnet. (91) [Abb.]: Oberstleutnant Guse (X), Chef des Generalstabes der III. ottomanischen Armee, und Major Paulke (XX), Instrukteur und Kommandeur der Schi= und Hochgebirgstruppen. (92) Rumäniens Erdölquellen. (92) [Abb.]: Bayerischer 15=cm=Haubitzbatterie geht an die Front in Mesopotamien. Die Gespanne bestehen aus zwanzig Ochsen. (92) [Abb.]: Erfolgloser russischer Sturmangriff auf eine deutsch=türkische Minenwerferstellung im Kaukasus. ([93]) [Abb.]: Köpfe von Kriegszeitungen, davon die erste eine Feldzeitung der österreichisch=ungarischen Armee, die letzte in türkischer Sprache für die türkischen Truppen. Der "Champagne=Kamerad" hat auch in Deutschland Verbreitung gefunden (94) Kriegszeitungen. (94) [Abb.]: Köpfe von Kriegszeitungen, von denen zwei in französischer Sprache erscheinen, die erste, "Le Journal du Camp d´Ohrdruf", als Blatt des französischen Kriegsgefangenenlagers zu Ohrdruf in Thüringen, die letzte, "Gazette des Ardennes", als offizielles Nachrichtenblatt in den besetzten Teilen Frankreichs. Diese enthält auch ein Verzeichnis sämtlicher in deutsche Gefangenschaft geratenen Franzosen und ist in der kurzen Zeit ihres Bestehens (seit 1. November 1915) bereits zu einer Auflage von über 100 000 Exempülaren angewachsen (siehe auch die Abbildungen aus ihrem Betriebe Band IV Seite 77). Grosser Beliebtheit erfreut sich die seit Mitte Oktober 1914 erscheinende "Liller Kriegszeitung" auch in Deutschland. (95) [Abb.]: Die erste Nummer der griechischen Zeitung "NEA TOY GÖRLITZ", die in Görlitz für die dort untergebrachten griechischen Gäste in ihrer Sprache herausgegebenn wird. Die Zeitung wird von griechischen Soldaten gesetzt und bringt ausser dem deutschen Heeresbericht Nachrichten aus Griechenland und einen grossen Vergnügungsanzeiger, da die griechischen Offiziere alle öffentlichen Veranstaltungen besuchen können. (96) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 132 (Heft 132) ([97]) [Abb.]: Das Flussgebiet des Sereth und Pruth im nördlichen Teil von Rumänien. ([97]) [Abb.]: Kolonnen überschreiten die Donaubrücke bei Sviftow. (98) [6 Abb.]: Im eroberten Bukarest. (1)Vor dem königlichen Schloss in Bukarest. (2)Deutsche Feldkpostautos vor dem Grand Hotel de Londres in Bukarest. (3)Deutsche Radfahrerkompanie (Jäger) überquert den Schlossplatz in Bukarest. Links das Sparkassengebäude. (4)Der Vierbund beim Einkauf: ein türkischer, deutscher, österreichisch=ungarischer und bulgarischer Soldat beim Einkaufen von Pfefferkuchen auf dem Schlossplatz von Bukarest. (5)Österreichisch=ungarische Kavallerie zieht, von einer schaulustigen Menge betrachtet, in Bukarest ein. (6)Gefangene eines Bukarester Regiments werden durch die Calea Victoriei, die Hauptstrasse von Bukarest, geführt. ([99]) [Abb.]: Russische Artillerie wird zur Verstärkung der wankenden rumänischen Front herbeigeholt. ([100 - 101]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Haubitze fährt durch einen Rebenfluss der Putna in Stellung. (102) [2 Abb.]: (1)Verhör eines gefangenen rumänischen Offiziers durch deutsche und österreichisch=ungarische Offiziere. (2)Eine Gruppe gefangener rumänischer Soldaten. (103) [3 Abb.]: (1)Ansicht von Galatz von den Hafenanlagen aus. (2)Lagerräume des österreichischen Lloyd im Hafen von Galatz. (3)Ansicht des Hafens von Braila. (104) [Abb.]: Angriff ungarischer Honved auf russische Infanterie. ( - ) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Donaumonitore beschiessen die rumänische Schiffbrücke bei Rahovo. (105) [Abb.]: Bulgarische Kriegsauszeichnungen. 1. Das Tapferkeitskreuz 3. Klasse. 2. Das Tapferkeitskreuz 4. Klasse. 3. Der Orden Pour le Mérite für Mannschaften. 4. Alexanderorden mit Schwertern 5. Klasse. 5. Der Militärverdienstorden 4. Klasse am Kriegsbande. Die Orden werden mit Ausnahme des Alexanderordens, der an einem roten Bande befestigt ist, an einem lila Band, das an der Seite mit Silber durchwirkt ist, getragen (106) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Kriegsauszeichnungen. Das Militärverdienstkreuz mit Kriegsdekoration 1) 1. Klasse, 2) 2. Klasse, 3) 3. Klasse. Die Farben des Ordens sowie der Schleife sind weiss und rot. (107) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (107) Österreichisch=ungarische Donaumonitore beschiessen die Schiffbrücke von Rahowo (107) [Abb.]: Kriegsleben am Schwarzen Meer. Verladen von schweren deutschen Geschützen und Kriegsmaterial in der Poirasbucht. (108 - 109) Verladen von Kriegsmaterial und schweren Geschützen in der Poirasbucht des Schwarzen Meeres. (108 - 109) Münzrecht in den besetzten Gebieten des Ostens. (110) Die Wirtschaftslage der kriegführenden Mächte. (111) [3 Abb.]: Ein Fünfzig=Kopeken= und ein Ein=Rubel=Schein, die mit Genehmigung der Regierung von der Ostbank für Handel und Gewerbe in Posen für das Gebiet des Oberbefehlshabers Ost herausgegeben wurden. (1)Ein Dreikopekenstück, das der Oberbefehlshaber Ost zur Hebung des Kleingeldmangels hat schlagen lassen. Vorder= und Rückseite. (2)Vorderseite. (3)Rückseite. (111) [Abb.]: Ein französischer Lenkballon, im Begriff, aufzusteigen. (112) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 133 (Heft 133) ([113]) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (-) Die englischen Zerstörungen im rumänischen Petroleumgebiet. (118) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldten vor ihrem Quartier in einem türkischen Bauernhause in Prilep (Mazedonien). (118) Charakterköpfe der Weltkriegsbühne. (119) [Abb.]: Deutsche Wasserflugzeugstation an der bulgarisch=griechischen Grenze am Ägäischen Meer. (119) [Abb.]: Übersichtskarte von Athen und Umgebung mit dem Piräus und der Bucht von Phaleron. (120) [Abb.]: Vernichtung rumänischer Petroleumraffinerien in Ploesci durch die skrupellose englische "Zerstörungskommission" im Dezember 1916. ( - ) [Abb.]: Auf der Kommandobrücke eines deutschen Vorpostenbootes (Fischdampfer) im Schneesturm. ([121]) [Abb.]: Oberleutnant z. S. Wolfgang Steinbauer, der Kommandant des U=Bootes, das am 27. Dezember 1916 im Ägäischen Meer das von Bewachungsstreitkräften gesicherte französische Linienschiff "Gaulois", am 1. Januar 1917 im Mittelmeer den von Zerstörern begleiteten englischen Truppentransportdampfer "Ivernia", und am 3. Januar ebenda einen weiteren Transportdampfer versenkt hat. (122) Verteidigung des polnischen Gutes Poronosziewo. (122) [3 Abb.]: (1) Das englische Schlachtschiff "Cornwallis", das am 1. Januar 1917 von einem deutschen Unterseeboot im Mittelmeer versenkt wurde. Die "Cornwallis" wurde im Jahre 1901 gebaut und verdrängte 15250 Tonnen. Sie führte vier 30,5=cm und zwölf 15=cm=Geschütze. Die Besatzung betrug 750 Mann. (2)Das am 12. Dezember 1916 von einem deutschen Unterseeboot 55 Seemeilen ostsüdöstlich von Malta torpedierte französische Linienschiff "Vérité" von der "Patrieklasse". Es ist 1907 vom Stapel gelaufen, verdrängt 14900 Tonnen und läuft 19,3 Knoten in der Stunde. Seine Bewaffnung besteht aus vier 30,5=cm=, zehn 19,4=cm=, dreizehn 6,5=cm und zehn 4,7=cm=Geschützen. Die Besatzung umfasst 735 Mann. (3)Das italienische Linienschiff "Regina Margherhttp://goobi.landesbibliothek.at/goobi/uii/metseditor.xhtml#ita", das vor Valona gesunken ist. Es war 1901 vom Stapel gelaufen, verdrängte 13 400 Tonnen und lief 20,3 Knoten in der Stunde. Seine Bewaffnung bestand aus vier 30,5=cm=, vier 20,3=cm=, zwölf 15=cm= und zwanzig 7,6=cm= Geschützen. Die Besatzung umfasste 820 Mann. (123) [Abb.]: Verteidigung des polnischen Gutes Poronosziewo (Gouvernement Suwalki) durch die 1. Kompanie des 1. Ersatzbataillons des Landwehr=Infanterieregiments Nr. 12 gegen Teile der russischen Infanterieregimenter Tambow Nr. 122 und Koslow Nr. 123 und Kommandos vom 4. Sappeurbataillon am 6. Oktober 1914. (124 - 125) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze 1 zu dem Aufsatz "Die Wahrheit über Combles". (126) Die Wahrheit über Combles. (126) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze 2 zu dem Aufsatz "Die Wahrheit über Combles". (126) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze 3 zu dem Aufsatz "Die Wahrheit über Combles". (127) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kriegslage beim deutschen Friedensangebot. (2)Was die Mittelmächte nach dem Willen des Vierverbandes bei dem Frieden verlieren sollen. (128) [Abb.]: Auffahrende Artillerie. ( - ) [Abb.]: Italienische Gefangene am Lagerfeuer auf dem Balkankriegschauplatz. ([113]) [Abb.]: Bulgarische Kavallerie auf dem Marsche. (114) [Abb.]: Bulgarische Infanterie auf dem Marsche in Mazedonien. (115) [Abb.]: Bau eines bombensicheren Unterstandes durch deutsche Truppen in Mazedonien. (116) [Abb.]: Bulgaren stürmen eine von serbischen Truppen verteidigte Ortschaft in Mazedonien. ([117]) [Abb.]: Katapulte zum Handgranatenschleudern bei der bulgarischen Armee an der mazedonischen Front. (118) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 134 (Heft 134) ([129]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Karte zu den Kämpfen an der Aa.(2)Die deutsche Front am Rigaischen Meerbusen, der äusserste linke Flügel der gesamten Ostfront. ([129]) [Abb.]: Rast eines Korpsbrückentrains auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz. (130) [2 Abb.]:(1) Österreichisch=ungarische Reiterabteilung bei einem Umgehungsversuch gegen die Russen bei Dorna Watra. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Feldwache in den Waldkarpathen. (131) [Abb.]: Sturmangriff des deutschen Infanterieregiments 189 nördlich der Oitozstrasse am 10. Januar 1917 auf stark ausgebaute, zäh verteidigte russische Höhenstellungen. ([132 - 133]) [Abb.]: Übersichtskarte der Moldau. ([135]) [3 Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen der österreichisch=ungarischen Armee gegen Rumänien. (1)Verschneite österreichisch=ungarische Feldhaubitze. (2)Eroberte rumänische Stellung. (3)Holztransport mittels Pferden einer österreichisch=ungarischen Maschinengewehrabteilung für die Vorpostendeckung. (136) [Abb.]: Von den Kämpfen an der Heeresfront des Erzherzogs Joseph. Abwehr des grossen Russenangriffs beiderseits der Strasse Valeputna-Jakobeny durch die Armee des Generalobersten Kövesz v. Köveszhaza. ([137]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Grabenstellung an der italienischen Front. (138) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (138) Deutschlands Weltstellung und der Friede. (138) [Abb.]: Aufstellung eines schweren italienischen Marinegeschützes an der italienisch=österreichischen Fr ont. (139) [Abb.]: Lawinengefahr im Hochgebirge (140 - 141) Die Neutralität der Schweiz. (142) [Abb.]: Soldaten der schweizerischen Armee mit Probehelmen aus Stahl, wie solche auch bei der eidgenössischen Armee eingeführt werden sollen. (142) [Abb.]: Zu den verstärkten Sicherheitsmassnahmen der Schweiz. Fertiger Kehlgraben mit einem Verbindungsgang, der in einen Stützpunkt einmündet. (143) Valuta. (143) [Abb.]: Zu den verstärkten Sicherheitsmassnahmen der Schweiz. Beobachtungstand mit grossen Fernsichtinstrumenten. (143) [Abb.]: Generaloberst Freiherr v. Falkenhausen, Führer einer Armeegruppe im Westen, erhielt in warmer Anerkennung seiner dem Vaterland geleisteten Dienste den hohen Orden vom Schwarzen Adler. (144) [Abb.]: Torpedobootsangriff. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 191417. Heft 135 (Heft 135) ([145]) [Abb.]: Eines der neuen amerikanischen Grosskampfschiffe. Der Über=Dreadnought "Revada", ein Schiff von 27 500 Registertonnen Wasserverdrängung und mit einer Bestückung von zehn 35=cm=Geschützen. Die durch Ölfeuerung betriebenen Turbinen entwickeln 25 000 Pferdekräfte und bewirken eine Geschwindigkeit von 21 Knoten in der Stunde. ([145]) [Abb.]: Beförderung deutscher Truppen auf Kraftwagen zur Front im Westen. (146) [3 Abb.]: (1)Richten eines 21=cm=Mörsers. (2)21=cm=Mörser wird geladen. (3)21=cm=Mörser in vorzüglicher Deckung. (147) [Abb.]: Rückkehr einer erfolgreichen Patrouille an der Combreshöhe, der die französische Artillerie etwa 1000 Granaten nachsandte (148) [Abb.]: Erstürmung feindlicher Gräben im Priesterwalde am 2. Januar 1917 durch eine Abteilung des deutschen Landwehrinfanterieregiments Nr. 93. ([149]) [4 Abb.]: Deutsche Fliegerbeute im Westen. (1)Französischer Farman=Doppeldecker mit 160 Pferdekräften (Renaultmotor, 6=Zylinder=Standmotor). Unter dem Beobachtersitz befindet sich ein Scheinwerfer. Rechts neben dem Flugzeug die beschädigte Motorhaube. Es wurde an der Somme erbeutet, wo sich die Insassen, ein französischer Leutnant als Führer und ein englischer Hauptmann als Beobachter, im Nebel verirrt hatten. (2)In der Chhampagne abgeschossenes französisches Flugzeug. (3)Französisches Nieuport=Kampfflugzeug (Einsitzer), das infolge einer Notlandung in die Hände der Deutschen fiel.(4)Französischer Breguet=Doppeldecker mit 220 Pferdekräften (Renaultmotor), der imstande ist, 800 Kilogramm Bomben zu tragen. Die Abwurfgeschosse sind unter den Tragflächen sichtbar. (150) [Abb.]: Bestattung zweier französischer Flieger auf einem Friedhof im Westen. An der Beerdigung nahmen eine Abordnung Infanteristen und eine Abordnung Luftschiffer teil. (151) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (151) Kriegsgefangen. (151) [Abb.]: Das nach ruhmreichen Kampf in der Nordsee am 23. Januar 1917 in Qmuiden eingelaufene deutsche Torpedoboot "V 69". Nachdem es mit eigenen Mitteln seine Seefähigkeit wiederhergestellt hatte, lief es in der Nacht zum 11. Februar wieder aus und erreichte Tags darauf wohlbehalten einen deutschen Stützpunkt. (152) [Abb.]: Beschiessung des befestigten Platzes Southwold an der englischen Ostküste durch deutsche leichte Seestreitkräfte in der Nacht vom 25. auf den 26. Januar 1917. ([153]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Arilleristen im Taurusgebirge beim Überschreiten der cilicischen Pässe. (154) Die Verwaltung von "Ober=Ost". (154) [ 2Abb.]: (1)Deutsche Kraftfahrerabteilung im Taurus. (2)Botzanti, die vorläufige Endstation der Bagdadbahn am Taurus, wo deutsche und türkische Truppen ein grosses Lager aufgeschlagen und Vorräte an Lebensmitteln und anderem Material aufgespeichert haben. (155) [Abb.]: General Halil=Pascha, Kommandant der 6. türkischen Armee, der Eroberer von Kut=el=Amara, und Oberstleutnant Wilhelmi bei einer Besprechung in Bagdad. (156) [Abb.]: Die Russen räumen, von den Türken vertrieben, die persische Stadt Hamadan am 4. Januar 1917. ([157]) Generalmajor Anton Höfer. (158) [Abb.]: Generalmajor Höfer, Leiter des österreichischen Amtes für Volksernährung. (158) Aufgaben der Luftschiffe beim Eisenbahnrückzug. (158) [8 Abb.]: Friedliche Bilder aus dem "Gebiet des Oberbefehlshabers Ost". (1)Russische Bauernhäuser nach deutscher Bearbeitung. (2)Inneres eines Blockhauses im Osten, das mit Birkenstämmen und Birkenrinde wohnlich gemacht ist. (3)Fischen von Holz aus einem russischen Fluss. (4)Erbeutete grosse Holzlager in einem russischen Fluss. (5)Fortschaffen erbeuteten russischen Holzes aus einem Fluss. (6)Von deutschen Soldaten errichtetes Elektrizitätswerk in einem russischen Dorfe. (7)Lebensmittelausgabe in einem russischen Walde. (8)Musterung russischer Pferde in einem Dorfe. ([159]) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zu dem Artikel "Aufgaben der Luftschiffe beim Eisenbahnrückzug". (160) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 136 (Heft 136) ([161]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Erkundungsabteilung sucht sich eine Furt durch einen halb zugefrorenen Bach im russischen Walde. ([161]) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen im Raume Mitau=Riga. (162) [Abb.]: Vorgetriebener deutscher Schützengraben mit Beobachtungsposten an der kurländischen Front. ([163]) [Abb.]: Angriff deutscher Stosstruppen an der Dünafront. (164 - 165) [Abb.]: Vorgehen einer deutschen Infanterieabteilung im Sturm gegen Monte Miglele (1299 Meter) in den rumänischen Karpathen (Anfang November 1916). (166) [Abb.]: Deutsche Munitionsverladestelle in der Walachei. (167) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (167) Heldentat des Majors Viola (167) [Abb.]: An die Front ziehende Bosniaken in Rimnicul=Sarat. (167) [ 3 Abb.]: Die Sicherung der erbeuteten Petroleum= und Benzinvorräte in Bukarest. (1)Abtransport von Petroleum aus den rumänischen Raffinerien am Bahnhof von Bukarest (2)Wegführen wohlgefüllter Benzinwagen in Bukarest. (3) Die unversehrten Petroleumlager am Bukarester Bahnhof unter deutscher Aufsicht. (168) Die Verwaltung von "Ober=Ost". (169) [2 Abb.]: (1)Bulgarischer Verwundetentransport in einer Strasse von Constanza. (2)Deutscher Offizier auf der Strandpromenade von Constanza. (169) [Abb.]: Sturmangriff österreichisch=ungarischer Truppen an der italienischen Front. (170) [Abb.]: Mittagessen österreichisch=ungarischer Soldaten in luftiger Höhe an der italienischen Front. (171) Vom deutschen Kleinkrieg zur See. (172 - 173) [Abb.]: Gekaperte Dampfer in flandrischen Häfen. Die Prisen im Hafen von Zeebrügge. (172 - 173) Minensperren. (172 - 173) [Abb.]: Skizze zu dem Artikel "Minensperren". (172 - 173) [Abb.]: Skizze zu dem Artikel "Minensperren". (172 - 173) [Abb.]: Deutscher Tauchboot=Minenleger beim Auslegen der Minen. Die in der Abbildung angegebenen Zahlen haben folgende Bedeutung : 1. Kettenlast. 2. Anker 3. Flutventile. 4. Minenrohre. 5. Pressluftflaschen. 6. Druckschott. 7. Türe. 8. Lotmaschine. 9. Boje mit Fernsprecher und Lampe. 10. Ventilator. 11. Turm mit Sehrohr und Fernrohrmast. 12. Hintere Luke. 13. Zentrale. 14. Wohnraum. 15. Elektrischer Kraftsammler. 16. Maschine. 17. Schalldämpfer. 18. Ölkasten. 19. Wasserballast. 20. Sicherheitsgewicht. 21. Ballastkiel. 22. Hinterer Trimmraum. Das Legen der Minen vollzieht sich in folgender Weise: Nach Lösung des Süerrhebels vom Turm aus gleitet die Mine samt Stuhl und Anker zum Rohr hinaus und sinkt. Nach Berührung des Bodens beginnt die Sperrung der Mine im Stuhl sich zu lösen. Die nach gewisser zeit freigewordene Mine steigt, das Untertau, wickelt sich ab. Die Mine stellt sich selbstätig auf bestimmte Tiefe unter dem Wasserspiegel ein. (174) Fliegerhauptmann Buddecke. (175) Die Milch=, Butter= und Käseversorgung während und nach dem großen Kriege. (175) [Abb.]: Italienischer Minenleger während der Fahrt. (175) [Abb.]: Fliegerhauptmann Buddecke, der auf dem türkischen Kriegschauplatz bis zum 1. Oktober 1916 zehn feindliche Flugzeuge abgeschossen hat und dafür mit dem Orden Pour le Mérite ausgezeichnet wurde. (176) [Abb.]: Minensprengung an der kurländischen Küste. Die bei Nordweststürmen antreibenden russischen Minen werden durch besondere Sprengkommandos entweder gesprengt oder entschärft, d. h. durch vorsichtiges Herausnehmen der Zündvorrichtung unschädlich gemacht. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 137 (Heft 137) ([177]) [Abb.]: Auf der Kommandobrücke eines deutschen Unterseebootes. Das U=Boot beim Auslaufen aus einem deutschen Hafen. ([177]) [Abb.]: Karte zur deutschen Sperrgebietserklärung. (178) [Abb.]: Abschiessen treibender Minen von Bord eines Vorpostenschiffes aus. ([179]) [Abb.]: Vernichtung eines französischen Segelschiffes durch ein deutsches U=Boot. Das Schiff wird, während die Mannschaft zu Boote gelassen wird, in Brand gesetzt. ([180 - 181]) [Abb.]: Blick auf das Deck des amerikanischen Grosskampfschiffes "New York" (182) [3 Abb.]: Aus einem deutschen Küstenfort. (1)Ein grosser Geschosslagerraum unter der Erde, in dem die Geschosse mittels Flaschenzuges auf kleine Karren geladen werden. (2)Ein schweres Geschoss wird zu einem Küstengeschütz befördert. (3)Das Klarmachen eines grossen Küstengeschützes. (183) [2 Abb.]: Die Verwendung deutscher Handgranaten im Schützengrabenkrieg. (184) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen an der Aa bei Mitau. ( - ) [Abb.]: Alarm in einem Ort der Champagne. ([185]) [Abb.]: Ein Grössenvergleich: Sieger und Besiegter. Das kleine deutsche Fokkerflugzeug (links) und ein von ihm bezwungener englischer Kampfdoppeldecker. (186) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (186) Abschiessen von treibenden Minen. (186) [Abb.]: Französischer Doppeldecker mit zwei Motoren und einem Maschinengewehr zum Aufsstieg bereit. (186) [Abb.]: Zur Beschiessung feindlicher Anlagen durch deutsche Flugzeuge (187) Die Kämpfe zwischen Mitau und Riga im Januar 1917. (187) [Abb.]: Deutsche Funkerabteilung beim Überschreiten einer Passstrasse in Siebenbürgen. (188) [Abb.]: Deutsche Alpentruppen im Kampf gegen Rumänen in den siebenbürgischen Karpathen. ([189]) Der Kampf gegen die Rumänen. 4. Um die Serethlinie. I. Der Vormarsch um Sereth. (190) [Abb.]: General Hilmi=Pascha, der Führer der Türken, und General der Infanterie Kosch, der Führer der siegreichen Donauarmee und Eroberer von Braila, während der Kämpfe am Serethufer. (190) [3 Abb.]: Der Donauübergang bei Braila. (1)Blick auf das Donauufer. Die Truppen setzen auf Fähren über den Fluss. (2) Die Bagagewagen werden mittels der Fähre bei Braila über die Donau gebracht. (3)Das Beladen der Fähre zum Übergang über die Donau bei Braila. (191) Die Milch=, Butter= und Käseversorgung während und nach dem grossen Kriege. (192) [Abb.]: Abzeichen, das an der Heeresfront des Erzherzogs Karl (jetzigen Kaisers Karl) getragen wurde; hergestellt nach dem Entwurfe des Bildhauers Heinrich Kautsch, Wien. (192) [Abb.]: Auf der Rückzugstrasse der geschlagenen Rumänen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 138 (Heft 138) ([193]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Mineure begeben sich zur Vornahme einer Sprengung in die dem Feinde am nächsten liegende Stellung. ([193]) [Abb.]: Ablösung von Schanzarbeitern aus der Feuerlinie im Osten. (194) [3 Abb.]: Bilder zu den Kämpfen bei Mitau. (1)Blick über den Markt von Mitau, von der Trinitatiskirche aus. (2)Blick in das verschneite Aatal bei Mitau. (3)Zurückkehrende Jägerpatrouille am kurländischen Ostseestrande. (195) [2 Abb.]: (1)Von österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen in Rumänien erbeutetes Bretterlager. (2)Einer der österreichisch=ungarischen Donaumonitore, die die Unternehmungen gegen Rumänien erfolgreich unterstützten. (196) [Abb.]: Deutsche Artillerie auf dem Vormarsch an der unteren Donau. Im Vordergrunde rumänische Gefangene. ([197]) [Abb.]: Vogelschaukarte zu den Kämpfen um Galatz. (198) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (198) Der Kampf gegen die Rumänen. 5. Um die Serethlinie. II. Die Wegnahme der Brückenköpfe und die russische Gegenoffensive. (198) [Abb.]: Vom Flüchtlingselend in Bessarabien. Übergetretene rumänische und russische Flüchtlinge werden hinter den deutsch=österreichisch=ungarischen Linien in Sicherheit gebracht. Der Abschub der rumänischen Zivilbevölkerung nach der Moldau und nach Bessarabien hatte dort eine grossse Hungersnot verursacht, weshalb die russsischen und rumänischen Familien in Scharen wieder auswanderten. Sie wendeten sich jedoch nicht, wie anzunehmen wäre, nach Russland, sondern suchten bei ihren Feinden Schutz. Das bessarabische Kampfgebiet hinter den Linien der Verbündeten wurde von Flüchtlingskarawanen geradezu überschwemmt, und die zuständigen Stellen, die den armen Auswanderern Unterkunft und Nahrung verschaffen mussten, hatten ein schwierige Aufgabe zu lösen. (199) [Abb.]: Serbische Gefangene kaufen Brot in einem serbischen Dorfe. (200) Der Krieg in Ostafrika im Dezember 1916 und im Januar 1917. (200) [Abb.]: Durch einen Schrapnellschuss am Arm und an der Hand verwundeter Knabe in einem serbischen Grenzorte. (200) [2 Abb.]: (1)Unterstände im Berglande an der griechischen Grenze, wo das zu ihrem Bau nötige Holz oft von weit her geholt werden musste. (2)Deutsche und bulgarische Truppen beim Wiederaufbau einer von den Serben gesprengten Eisenbahnbrücke. (201) [Abb.]: Das am 3. Dezember 1916 bei Marlinje im Karstgebiet abgeschossene Caproni=Flugzeug. (202) Die Milch=, Butter= und Käseversorgung während und nach dem grossen Kriege. (202) [Abb.]: Ausladen von Lebensmitteln für die österreichisch=ungarische Armee in Albanien in einem Hafenort der südlichen Adria. (203) [Abb.]: Aufsteigen eines türkischen Kampf=Wasserflugzeuges. (204) Charakterköpfe der Weltkriegsbühne. 3. Grosswesir Talaat Pascha. (204) [Abb.]: Zur erfolgreichen Tätigkeit der türkischen Flieger im Ägäischen Meer, die eine Anzahl Dampfer auf hoher See. Zwei türkische Offiziere in ihrem Kampf=Wasserflugzeug, fertig zum Aufstieg. (204) [Abb.]: Deutsche Minenleger bei der Arbeit. ([205]) [Abb.]: Einzug türkischer Truppen in Jerusalem. (206) [Abb.]: Gefangene Engländer werden nach einem erfolgreichen Gefecht auf der Sinai=Halbinsel in Jerusalem eingebracht. (207) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der neue türkische Grosswesir Talaat Pascha (links), der türkische Kriegsminister Enver Pascha (rechts) und der Militärbevollmächtigte der deutschen Botschaft in Konstantinopel, bayrischer Generalmajor v. Lossow. (2)Ankunft englischer Offiziere in Jerusalem, die in einem Gefecht an der Suezkanal=Front gefangen wurden. (208) Deutsche Minenleger bei der Arbeit. ([205]) [Abb.]: Die Erstürmung der Höhe 185 bei Ripont in der Champagne am 15. Februar 1917. Nach der Zertrümmerung der feindlichen Stellung durch das deutsche Trommelfeuer wurde die französische Besatzung von den deutschen Sturmwellen überrannt und mit Handgranaten, Kolben und Bajonett niedergerungen. Abgeschnitten, durch das deutsche Feuer fast aufgerieben, verschüttet in Gräben und Unterständen, mussten sich die Franzosen gruppenweise ergeben. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 139 (Heft 139) ([209]) [Abb.]: Karte zu den Kämpfen südlich von Ripont. ([209]) [Abb.]: Deutscher Alarmposten im vordersten Graben auf Bauquois. ([209]) [Abb.]: Englische Motorfahrerabteilung an der Somme. An jedem Motorrad befindet sich ein Anhängewagen mit eine Maschinengewehr. (210) [Abb.]: Englische Soldaten begeben sich an die Front, um neue Drahtverhaue anzulegen, zu deren Befestigung sie an Stelle der Holzpflöcke Eisenstäbe benützen, die an einem Ende schraubenförmig gebogen sind und sich deshalb leicht in den Boden bohren lassen. (211) [Abb.]: Englische Viermastbark wird im Sperrgebiet von einem deutschen U=Boot versenkt. ([212 - 213]) [Abb.]: Unterseeboot=Kommandant Kapitänleutnant Willy Petz, der innerhalb 24 Stunden 52 000 Tonnen feindlicher Handelschiffe versenkte. Alle diese Schiffe waren mit Munition und Lebensmitteln schwer befrachtet, so dass nicht nur der versenkte Schiffsraum, sondern auch die versenkte Ladung einen schweren Verlust für die Feinde bedeutete. (214) [Abb.]: Die Grösse der bedeutendsten Handelsflotten vor dem Kriege. (214) [Abb.]: Leutnant z. S. v. R. Badewitz. Ein deutsches Prisenkommando in Stärke von 16 Mann von der Besatzung des deutschen Hilfskreuzers "Möwe II" brachte unter Führung des Leutnants Badewitz den im Atlantischen Ozean gekaperten englischen Dampfer "Darrowdale" (4600 Tonnen) mit 469 Gefangenen in Swinemünde ein. (215) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (215) Mit der neuen "Möwe" auf hoher See. (215) [Abb.]: Die Hafenanlagen von Dünkirchen, von einem deutschen Flugzeuge aus aufgenommen. Man sieht im Hafen eine Anzahl feindlicher Kriegschiffe liegen. (215) [Abb.]: Die Überreste des in der Nacht vom 23. zum 24. Februar 1917 durch Abwehrfeuer brennend zum Absturz gebrachten französischen Luftschiffes im Walde bei Wölferdingen. (216) [Abb.]: Aus den Kämpfen einer Reservedivision an der Somme. Aufrollen eines feindlichen Grabenstückes. ([217]) Die Bewertung der Erfolge des U=Bootkrieges. (218) [Abb.]: Senegalschütze, in der Champagne bei Berry au Bac gefangen. (218) [Abb.]: Senegalschütze vor dem Abtransport nach Deutschland (219) Ein tapferes Regiment. (219) [Abb.]:Das tapfere Olmützer k. u. k. Landwehr=Rego,emt Mr- 13 beo Werbem am Styr, von dem der russische Generalstabsbericht vom 22. Juli 1916 fälschlich behauptet hatte, dass es in diesen Kämpfen gefangen genommen worden sei. ([220 - 221]) [Abb.]: Ein englisches Kamelreiterkorps am Suezkanal. Die Kamele werden wie Pferde verwendet, der Reiter benutzt Sattel und Steigbügel; nur die Offiziere erhalten einen bequemeren Sitz. (222) Der Suezkanal. (222) [Abb.]: Ein deutscher Doppeldecker vom ägyptischen Kriegschauplatz wird von deutschen Ansiedlern besichtigt. (222) [Abb.]: Reichsgraf Fritz v. Hochberg mit Mitgliedern seiner Sanitätsexpedition in Jericho am Toten Meer. (223) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze vom Suezkanal. (224) [Abb.]: Der Chef des Stabes der Suezexpedition, Oberst Freiherr Kress v. Kressenstein (X), mit seinem Stabe im Hauptquartier in Jerusalem. (224) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen im südöstlichen Kaukasus. Die Vorhut russisch=kaukasischer Reiterei gerät in einen türkisch=persischen hinterhalt. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 140 (Heft 140) ([225]) [Abb.]: Feldmarschalleutnant Szurmay, der volkstümlichste ungarische Heerführer, ist zum ungarischen Honvedminister ernannt worden. ([225]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Angriff österreichisch=ungarischer Truppen im Osten. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Flammenwerfer=Schleichpatrouille vernichtet feindliche Drahthindernisse im Osten. (226) [Abb.]: Soldaten einer deutschen Schneeschuhtruppe bringen ein Maschinengewehr in die Feuerlinie. (227) [Abb.]: Durch Schneeschmelze eingetretene Überschwemmung in einer deutschen Waldstellung vor Galatz in Rumänien. (228) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (228) Winterflug im Osten. (228) [Abb.]: Zu den Kämpfen an der litauischen Front. Russische Angriffe werden abgewiesen. ([229]) [3 Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Wacht in Ostgalizien. (1)Feldwache in Ostgalizien. (2)Vorgehende Batterie in den Karpathen. (3)Sumpfstellungen in Ostgalizien. Im Hintergrund sieht man deutlich die Drahtverhaue. (230) [3 Abb.]: Winterbilder aus Rumänien. (1)Blick in das Putnatal mit einer von deutschen Truppen über den Fluss geschlagenen Holzbrücke. (2)Vorgeschobener deutscher Posten in den Waldkarpathen. (3)Deutsches Lager in einem Walde der Putnaniederung. (231) [Abb.]: Erstürmung eines rumänischen Dorfes vor Mizil. (232) Offensive. (233) [2 Abb.]:(1) Eines der Lager reifer rumänischer Maiskolben in Braila, von denen eine grosse Menge in die Hände der Eroberer fiel. (2)Von den Russen auf ihrer Flucht zerstörte Maschinenhallen in Fauri. (233) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten an einem Sonntagmorgen am Wardar im serbischen Mazedonien. (234) Der Kampf um Bagdad. (235) [Abb.]: Zum verschärften U=Bootkrieg. Englische, von Zerstörern begleitete und nach Italien bestimmte Kohlenflotte wird im Mittelmeer von deutschen Unterseebooten mit Erfolg angegriffen. (235) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zu den Kämpfen um Kut=el=Amara. (236) [Abb.]: Idyll am Kanal von Basra am westlichen Ufer des Schat=el=Arab, von wo die Engländer auf einer neu angelegten Schmalspurbahn ihren Munitionsnachschub an die Irakfront bewirkten. (236) [Abb.]: Ein unter Aufopferung indischer Hindutruppen von den Engländern unternommener Ansturm bei Kut=el=Amara. ([237]) Die Ausgaben für den Krieg. (238) [Abb.]: Abb I. Die Kriegsausgaben der kriegführenden Staaten vom August 1914 bis zum 6. Februar 1917 in Milliarden Mark. Die schwarzen Teile der Blöcke bezeichnen die durch feste Anleihen aufgenommenen Verträge. (238) [Abb.]: Abb. III. Prozentualer Anteil der kriegführenden Staaten an den Gesamtausgaben für den Krieg im Betrage von 293 Milliarden Mark. (238) [Abb.]: Abb. II. Die Kriegsausgaben der kriegführenden Staaten vom August 1914 bis zum 6. Februar 1917 auf den Kopf der Bevölkerung berechnet. (239) [Abb.]: Abb IV. Der Wert der Weltproduktion in einem Jahre an: 1. Weizen, 2. Reis, 3. Hafer, 4. Mais, 5. Roggen, 6. Stein- und Braunkohlen, 7. Baumwolle, 8. Kartoffeln, 9. Gerste, 10. Erzen, 11. Edelmetallen, der zusammen 90 615 Millionen Mark beträgt, sowie 12. der Edelmetallgewinnung seit 1493 (116 108 Millionen Mark) im Verhältnis zu den Gesamtausgaben für den Weltkrieg. (239) Motorboote im Kriegsdienst. (239) [Abb.]: Motorboote im Kriegsdienst. Ein Motorboot mit einem Torpedoboot auf der Streife. (240) Feldmarschalleutnant Alexander Szurmay. (240) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 141 (Heft 141) ([241]) [Abb.]: Deutscher Beobachtungsposten auf einem Kirchturm im Westen. ([241]) [Abb.]: Das Schlachtfeld von Soyécourt an der Somme. Französische Schützengräben und Granattrichter in allen Grössen; links schlagen deutsche Granaten ein. (242) [3 Abb.]: Bilder aus dem von den Deutschen freiwillig geräumten Gebiete zwischen Bapaume und Peronne. (1) Ansicht der Dorfstrasse von Le Transloy. (2)Ein Teil der Strasse Bapaume-Le Transloy-Peronne. (3)Ein französisches Dorf im Sommegebiet, das dauernd unter englischem Artilleriefeuer lag. (243) [Abb.]: Das Kampfgebiet an der Somme und Ancre aus der Vogelschau. (244 - 245) [Abb.]: Deutscher Motorradfahrer auf einer Erkundungsfahrt im Westen. (246) [Abb.]: Englisches Geschütz wird durch den vom Regen aufgeweichten und von unzähligen Granaten durchwühlten Boden an der Westfront in Stellung gebracht. ([247]) [3 Abb.]: (1)Korvettenkapitän Konrad Albrecht, Führer eines Teils der deutschen Torpedobootstreitkräfte, die in der Nacht vom 25. zum 26. Februar bis über die Linie Dover-Calais und in die Themsemündung vordrangen. (2)Kapitänleutnant Hans Walter, der für die Versenkung des französischen Linienschiffes "Suffren" den Orden Pour le Mérite erhielt. (3)Oberleutnant z. S. Otto Steinbrinck, einer der erfolgreichsten deutschen u=Bootkommandanten, der das Ritterkreuz des Hohenzollerischen Hausordens mit Schwertern und den Orden Pour le Mérite erhielt. (248) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (248) Eine U=Bootfalle. (248) [Abb.]: Deutsches Torpedoboot im Kampf mit englischen Zerstörern bei bewegter See. ( - ) [Abb.]: Deutsches Tauchboot im Kampf mit einem als U=Bootfalle eingerichteten englischen Tankdampfer vor dem Bristolkanal. ([249]) [Abb.]: Doppelmotoriger französischer Caudron, im Luftkampf abgeschossen. (250) Die Luftwaffe. (250) Das "Schlosskasino" bei Francs=Fossés. (251) [Abb.]: Ballonaufstiegplatz bei Verdun. (251) [Abb.]: Lager "Schlosskasino" der Fernsprechabteilung einer Reservedivision bei Francs=Toffés in den Argonnen. ([252 - 253]) [2 Abb.]:(1) Dromedar=Proviantkolonne in Deutsch=Ostafrika. (2)Militär=Kraftwagenkolonne in Deutsch=Ostafrika. (254) Die Kämpfe am Kilimandscharo im März 1916. (254) [Abb.]: Erkundungsabteilung der 13. Kompanie der deutsch=ostafrikanischen Schutztruppe bei einer Aufklärungsfahrt in der Gegend von Mahenge. (255) [3 Abb.]:(1) Schausch (eingeborener Unteroffizier) von der Schutztruppe in Deutsch=Ostafrika (vom Stamm der Manyema), der sich durch hervorragende Tapferkeit auszeichnete. (2)Sol (eingeborener Feldwebel) von der Schutztruppe in Deutsch=Ostafrika (vom Stamm der Sudanesen) mit dem Militärehrenzeichen für Tapferkeit am schwarzweissen Bande. (3)Die Stationsquelle in Kilimatinde in Deutsch=Ostafrika. (256) [Abb.]: Die nach stärkerem Artillerie= und Minenwerferfeuer bei Kostanjevica vorbrechenden Italiener werden von den k. u. k. Truppen mit Handgranaten und Bajonetten zurückgeworfen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 142 (Heft 142) ([257]) [Abb.]: Erkletterung einer Felswand im Hochgebirge an der Südwestfront. ([257]) [Abb.]: Unterstände österreichisch=ungarischer Truppen auf dem Krn. (258) [2 Abb.]: (1)In 1600 Meter Höhe liegende Fassungstelle in Tirol.(2)Österreichisch=ungarische Kolonne mit Vorräten im Aufstieg zu einer 2500 Meter hoch liegenden Lebensmittelfassungstelle an der italienischen Front. (259) [Abb.]: Vom österreichisch=ungarischen Truppen erobertes italienisches Riesenschiffsgeschütz im verschneiten Wald. (260) [Abb.] Österreichisch=ungarisches Wachtkommando auf dem Tonale. ([261]) [2 Abb.]: (1) Vizeadmiral v. Kailer, der neue österreichisch=ungarische Marineminister. (2)Gepanzertes österreichisch=ungarisches Küstenfahrzeug. (262) [Abb.]: Linienschiffsleutnant Franz Mikulezky, der Chef des österreichisch=ungarischen Seeflugwesens. (263) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (263) Kriegsentschädigungen. (263) (Abb.]: Rastende Lebensmittel= und Munitionskolonne auf dem Balkankriegschauplatz. Im Hintergrunde eine Haubitzenbatterie in Feuerstellung. (263) [3 Abb.]: (1)Russische Überläufer. (2)Deutsche Offizierpatrouille auf Schneeschuhen mit Vorspann bei der Postenrevision. (3)Deutsche Husarenabteilung setzt bei Sdruga in Mazedonien über die Dvina. (264) [Abb.]: Ein Annäherungsversuch russischer Infanterie auf dem vereisten Sankt=Georgs=Arm der Donau wird von den Bulgarischen Posten zurückgewiesen. ([269]) [Abb.]: Die vielumstrittene Höhe Mesticanesti in den Waldkarpathen. (266) Giftgase als Kampfmittel. I. (266) [Abb.]: Deutsche Artillerie auf dem Vormarsch in dem zerklüfteten Vereczker Waldgebirge. (267) [3 Abb.]: (1)Grossfürst Michael Alexandrowitsch, der Bruder des Zaren, zu dessen Gunsten der Zar abdankte, war anfänglich für die Regentschaft in Aussicht genommen. (2)Der entthronte Kaiser und Selbstherrscher aller Reussen Zar Nikolaus II. (3)Grossfürst Nikolai Nikolajewitsch. Vom Zaren vor der Abdankung zum Oberbefehlshaber der russischen Armee ernannt. (268) [3 Abb.]: (1)Michael Rodzianko, Präsident der Duma und Vorsitzender des revolutionären Vollziehungsausschusses. (2)George W. Buchanan, britischer Botschafter in Petersburg. (3)Miljukow, der neue russische Minister des Auswärtigen. (268) [Abb.]: Eroberung des Grenzkammes des 1340 Meter hohen Magyaros in den ostsiebenbürgischen Karpathen durch galizische Infanterie= und ungarische Landwehrregimenter sowie Teile eines deutschen Regiments. ([270]) [Abb.]: Begrüssung der in Gent angekommenen Hilfsdienstpflichtigen durch eine Ansprache des Rittmeisters Schnitzler. (270) Charakterköpfe der Welkriegsbühne. (270) [Abb.]: Anmeldung der Hilfsdienstpflichtigen in Gent bei Rittmeister Schnitzler und Leutnant Davidts in der Schreibstube Abteilung II b. (271) Der vaterländische Hilfsdienst. (271) [Abb.]: Die nach Gent gekommenen Hilfsdienstpflichtigen werden den einzelnen Arbeitstellen zugeteilt. (271) [Abb.]: Der zur Einführung bestimmte neue schweizerische Stahlhelm. (272) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 143 (Heft 143) ([273]) [Abb.]: Angriff eines deutschen Stosstrupps mit Handgranaten und Flammenwerfer auf einen englischen Trichtergraben bei Sailly=Saillisel nördlich vom St. Pierre=Vaastwalde. ([273]) [3 Abb.]: Bilder aus dem von den Deutschen freiwillig geräumten Gebiet im Westen. (1)Blick auf die Kathedrale von Noyon vom Rathausturm aus. (2)Malerische Straße in Noyon, im Hintergrunde die Kathedrale. (3)Die von den Franzosen zerschossene katholische Kirche in Roye. (274) [Abb.]: Wie es auf dem von den Deutschen im Westen geräumten Geländestreifen aussah. (275) [Abb.]: Karte des von den Deutschen geräumten Gebietes im Westen. (276) [Abb.]: Wegnahme eines französischen Bagagetransportes. ([277]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Im Frühjahrschlamm an der Ancrefront. (2)Eroberte französische Gräben auf der Höhe 304 bei Verdun. (278) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (279) Aus meinem Tiroler Kriegstagebuch. (279) [Abb.]: Ribot, französischer Minister des Äussern und Vorsitzender des Ministeriums (279) [4 Abb.]: (1)Vizefeldwebel Friedrich Manschott, einer der erfolgreichsten deutschen Kampfflieger, ist im Luftkampf gefallen. Er hat in drei Monaten acht Flugzeuge und drei Fesselballone vernichtet. Noch an seinem Todestag schoss er einen feindlichen Fesselballon ab. (2)Kapitänleutnant Morath, Kommandant des deutschen Unterseebootes, durch dessen Torpedoschiffe das 18.400 Tonnen verdrängende französische Linienschiff "Danton" am 19. März 1917 im westlichen Mittelmeer versenkt wurde. (3)Prinz Friedrich Karl von Preussen, der Zweite Sohn des Prinzen Friedrich Leopold, eines Vetters des Deutschen Kaisers, wurde im Luftkampf zwischen Arras und Peronne abgeschossen und geriet, schwer verwundet, in englische Gefangenschaft, wo er an den Folgen einer Operation starb. (4) Die neueren Typen der amerikanischen Linienschiffe und Panzerkreuzer. 1. Oklahoma und Nevada. 2. L. Michigan und South Carolina. 3. L. Delaware und North Dakota. 4. L. Texas und New York. 5. L. Arizona und Pennsylvania. 6. L. Florida und Utah. 7. L. Missouri, Maine und Ohio. 8. L. Vermont, Minnesota, New Hampshire, Louisiana, Kansas und Connecticut. 9. L. Vigrinia, Georgia, Nebraska, New Jersey und Rhode Island. 10. L. Alabama, Illinois und Wisconsin. 11. L. Kentucky und Hearfarge. 12. L. Arkansas und Wyoming. 13. P.=K. Montana, North Carolina, Washington und Tennessee. 14. P.=K. Constitution, Constellation, Alliance und Congress. 15. P.=K. South Dakota, San Diego, West=Virginia, Colorado, Maryland und Pittsburgh. 16. P.=K. St. Louis, Milwaukee und Charlestown. (280) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Verwundetensammelstelle in einem eroberten italienischen Ort. ( - ) [Abb.]: Vernichtung des durch Torpedoboote und Patrouillenschiffe gesicherten französischen Linienschiffes "Danton" durch zwei Torpedoschüsse eines deutschen Tauchbootes am 19. März 1917 im westlichen Mittelmeer. ([281]) Giftgase als Kampfmittel. II. (282) S. M. Schiff "Szamos" und sein tapferer Kommandant. (283) [2 Abb.]: (1)Eduard Kankovsky, Kommandant des österreichisch=ungarischen Donaumonitors S. M. Schiff "Szamos", der für seine kühnen Leistungen in den Kämpfen an der unteren Donau das Eiserne Kreuz und den Eisernen Kronenorden erhielt. (2)S. M. Schiff "Szamos", dessen Beschädigungen im Dock ausgebessert werden. (283) Erstürmung der Höhen von Tameczysko bei Grybow durch die Bayern. (283) Die Sicherung marschierender und ruhender Truppen im Kriege. (284) [Abb.]: Die Ruinen der Zuckerfabrik in Przeworsk bei Jaroslau, die die Russen am Tage ihres Rückzugs in Brand setzten. (284) [Abb.]: Erstürmung des Taeczyskoberges bei Grybow durch das 3. bayrische Infanterieregiment. ([285]) [2 Abb.]: Die Sicherung marschierender und ruhender Truppen. (1)Die Marschsicherung eines den Vortrupp bildenden Bataillons. Der Aufstand der aufklärenden Kavalleriespitze ist beliebig, ebenso der der Kavallerievorhut von der Infanteriespitze. Die Entfernung der Infanteriespitze von der Spitzenkompanie beträgt 400 bis 500 Meter, von der Spitzenkompanie bis zum Vortrupp ebensoviel. Dazwischen gehen Verbindungsleute oder =rotten in Ruf= und Sichtweite zu beiden Seiten des Weges. (2)Biwak eines Bataillons. Bei sehr schlechtem Wetter wird das Lederzeug mit in die Zelte genommen. Beim Alarm eilt jede Kompanie auf ihren Alarmplatz, schnallt um und tritt zugweise an die Gewehre. (286) [2 Abb.]: Die Sicherung marschierender und ruhender Truppen. (1) Ortsunterkunft eines Detachements. In dem Dorfteil, der dem Feinde zugekehrt ist, liegt das 1. Bataillon und die Kavallerie, in der Mitte das 2. Bataillon und ein Teil der Artillerie, in der vom Feinde abgekehrten Seite das 3. Bataillon und der Rest der Artillerie sowie die Bagagae. Zeichenerklärung:A.W.1 Aussenwache 1, Quartier des Ortskommandanten, Innenwache, Regimentstab und Artillerieabteilungstab, Ortskrankenstube, Telegraph. (2)Vorpostenaufstellung im Gelände. Die Posten sind in Wirklichkeit nicht sichtbar, sondern befinden sich in voller Deckung. Zeichenerklärung: Aussenwach, U.P. Unteroffizierposten, F.W. Feldwache, St.P. stehende Patrouille, V.P. vorgeschobener Posten, Beobachtungsposten, Richtung nach dem Feinde. (287) Angriff eines deutschen Stosstrupps mit Handgranaten und Flammenwerfer auf einen englischen Trichtergraben bei Sailly=Saillisel. (288) [Abb.]: Gefreiter eines sächsischen Sturmtrupps. (288) [Abb.]: Aus den Strassenkämpfen der russischen Revolution. Vor dem kaiserlichen Winterpalast in Petersburg. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 144 (Heft 144) ([289]) [2 Abb.]: Russische Generale des alten Regimes, von denen sich Ewerth mit Russki und Alexejew (siehe Abbildung Band III, Seite 304) der Revolution anschloss, während Iwanow dem Zaren treu blieb. (1)General Ewerth. (2)General Iwanow. ([289]) [4 Abb.]: Die Führer der russischen Revolution. (1)Gutschkow, Landesverteitigungsminister. (2)Tscheidse, der Führer der Sozialisten. (4)Kerenski, Justizminister. (4)Fürst Lwow, Ministerpräsident. ([289]) [Abb.]: Von der russischen Revolution. Brotverteilung durch eine der in den Stadt= und Landbezirken eingesetzten Brotkommissionen. (290) [Abb.]: Stellung im Sumpfgelände der Ostfront. (291) [Abb.]: Karte zum deutschen Erfolg an der Schtschara (292) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Minenwerferstellung. (292) [Abb.]: Deutscher Vorstoss an der Beresina. ([293]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarischer Flammenwerfer. (294) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (294) Die Verpflegung unseres Feldheeres. I (294) [Abb.]: Russische Militärtransporte auf dem Bahnhof Radziwilow werden durch Bombenabwürfe deutscher und österreichisch=ungarischer Flieger zerstört. ([295]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Lagernde türkische Division im Taurus in Kleinasien. (2)Ein Lager der arabischen Kamelreitertruppe am Sinai. (296) [Abb.]: Türkische Truppen auf dem Marsche durch Anatolien. ([297]) [Abb.]: Musterhaft ausgebaute Stellungen der österreichisch=ungarischen Isonzoarmee auf der Karsthochfläche. (298) Ein U=Boot im Kampf. (298) Die zweite Kreuzerfahrt der "Möwe". (299) [Abb.]: Italienische Gefangene werden hinter die Front geführt. (299) [Abb.]: Versenkung eines russischen Transportdampfers im Schwarzen Meer mittels Torpedos durch den türkischen Panzerkreuzer"Javus Sultan Selim". ([300 - 301]) [2 Abb.]: Von der erfolgreichen zweiten Fahrt des deutschen Hilfskreuzers "Möwe". (1)Ein feindliches Handelschiff wird durch das Megaphon angerufen. (2)Die Mannschaft eines versenkten englischen Schiffes wird an Bord genommen. (302) [2 Abb.]: (1) Die zahlreichen Gefangenen an Bord der "Möwe". (2) Von der erfolgreichen zweiten Fahrt des deutschen Hilfskreuzers "Möwe". Burggraf und Graf zu Dohna=Schlodien hält nach glücklich vollbrachter Kreuzerfahrt im Heimathafen eine Ansprache an seine Mannschaft. (303) Wie sich die Deutschen auf feindliche Flugzeuge einschiessen. (303) [Abb.]: Wie sich die Deutschen auf feindliche Flugzeuge einschiessen. (304) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 145 (Heft 145) ([305]) [Abb.]: Deutscher Horchposten mit Schalltrichter in einem Granatloch auf dem westlichen Kriegschauplatz. ([305]) [Abb.]: Bei Peronne an der Somme gefangene Franzosen und Engländer. (306) [3 Abb.]: (1)General v. Hülsen, der Führer einer Gefechtsabteilung in der Champagne. (2)Deutscher Sturmtrupp baut einen frisch besetzten Minentrichter zur Verteidigung aus. (3)Der Zug der bei Ripont in der Champagne gefangenen Franzosen. (307) [Abb.]: Der Platz vor dem Rathaus in St. Quentin. (308) [Abb.]: Deutsche Maschinengewehre im Kampf um eine Ortschaft. ([309]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Die stehen gebliebenen Überreste des Dorfes Boursies in dem geräumten Gebiet zwischen Arras und St. Quentin. (2)In den Trümmern des vernichteten Dorfes Boursies. (310) [Abb.]: Deutsche Fliegeraufnahme aus dem geräumten Gebiet im Westen. Die Strasse Roye-Lancourt, die durch Sprengungen derart unterbrochen ist, dass sie nicht mehr befahren werden kann. Vor dem Trichter in der Mitte des Bildes sieht man drei französische Kraftwagen, die infolge der Sprengungen nicht weiterkommen. (311) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (311) Die Verpflegung unseres Feldheeres. II. (311) [3 Abb.]: (2)Zwei deutsche Kampfflieger als Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite. (1)Leutnant d. R. Werner Voss. (2)Rittmeister Manfred Freiherr v. Richthofen. (2) Kapitänleutnant Felix Graf v. Luckner, Kommandant des deutschen Kaperschiffes "Seeadler". (312) [Abb.]: Beschiessung von Dünkirchen durch deutsche Torpedoboote in der Nacht vom 25. zum 26. März 1917. ( - ) [Abb.]: Gefecht deutscher Torpedoboote mit englischen Zerstörern am 18. März 1917, wobei die Zerstörer "Paragon" und "Llewellyn" vernichtet wurden. ([313]) [Abb.]: Eine der letzten entscheidenden Sitzungen des amerikanischen Kabinetts vor der Erklärung des Kriegszustandes mit Deutschland. Von links nach rechts: Präsident Wilson, Finanzminister G. Mc Adoo, Justizminiser Thomas W. Gregory, Marinenminister Josephus Daniels, Landwirtschaftsminister D. F. Houston, Minister der öffentlichen Arbeiten William Wilson. - Vordere Reihe: Staatssekretär des Auswärtigen R. Lansing, Kriegsminister Newton D. Baker, Generalpostmeister Albert S. Burleson, Minister des Innern Franklin K. Lane, Handelsminister W. C. Redfield. (314) Monastir und Saloniki. (315) [Abb.]: Infanteristen von der als Freiwilligenkorps nach dem Kriegschauplatz in Frankreich abgegangenen amerikanischen Maschinengewehrabteilung. (315) [2 Abb.]: (1)Zu den Kämpfen vor Monastir. Sächsische Jäger im Feuer. (2)Zu den Kämpfen vor Monastir. Vorgehende bulgarische Schützenlinien. (316) [Abb.]: Abweisung eines französischen Sturmangriffs auf die deutschen Stellungen an den Ufern des Prespasees. ([317]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Füllen eines deutschen Fesselballons. (2)Fertig gefüllter deutscher Fesselballon. (318) Unsere modernsten Soldaten. (319) [Abb.]: Auf der Verladerampe beim Umzug einer Fliegerabteilung (319) [Abb.]: Offiziersunterstand eines deutschen Fliegerabwehrzuges an der Aisne. (320) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 146 (Heft 146) ([321]) [Abb.]: Deutsche Artillerie auf dem Vormarsche in den verschneiten Karpathen. ([321]) [Abb.]: Fahrbare und zusammenlegbare österreichisch=ungarische Beobachtungstelle mit Telephon (322) [Abb.]: Kartenskizze zu dem Artikel "Der Sieg von Toboly", (322) [Abb.]: Vogelschauansicht der Gegend am Brückenkopf von Toboly am Stockod. (323) [2 Abb.]: (1)Letschitzky, russischer General, erhielt das Kommando an der rumänischen Front, das er jedoch bald wieder abgeben musste. (2)Aus den Kämpfen in Rumänien. Österreichisch=ungarische Gebirgskanone in Feuerstellung (324) [Abb.]: Entwicklung österreichisch=ungarischer Schützenregimenter unter Führung des Generals der Kavallerie Freiherrn v. Hauer zum Sturmangriff auf den Brückenkopf von Toboly am Stochod am Morgen des 3. April 1917. Rechts im Vordergrunde die liegende Batteriebedienungsmannschaft. ([325]) [Abb.]: General Tülff v. Tschepe und Weidenbach, der Leiter der deutschen Militärverwaltung in Rumänien. (326) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (326) Der Sieg von Toboly. (326) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kamele im Dienste des Roten Halbmonds im Sandsturm in der Wüste. (2)Auf einem Verbandplatz in der Wüste. Die neu angekommenen Verwundeten werden von den türkischen Ärzten in Behandlung genommen. (327) [2Abb.]: (1)Soldat der k. u. k. berittenen Marine auf dem Kriegschauplatz an der adriatischen Küste. (2) Karst und Adria, die südlichste Frontspitze auf dem österreichisch=ungarisch=italienischen Kriegschauplatz. (328) [Abb.]: Der Sieg von Toboly. Eindringen deutscher Sturmbataillone in die "Tobolylöcher", die völlig verwahrlosten russischen Unterstände am Stochodbrückenkopf ( - ) [Abb.]: Hungerrevolte in Mailand. Berittene treiben die nach Brot und Frieden schreiende Menge auseinander. ([329]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Leutnant z. S. d. R. Conrad Sörensen, Kommandant des Hilfsdampfers "Marie", der Anfang 1916 aus einem deutschen Hafen auslief und allen feindlichen Nachstellungen zum Trotz grosse Mengen Kriegsmaterial in der Sudibucht in Deutsch=Ostafrika ablieferte. Mit dem entleerten Schiff gelang ihm dann der Durchbruch nach Niederländisch=Indien, von wo aus er später mittels eines Segelbootes Manila auf den Philippinen erreichte. (2)Oberleutnant z. S. d. R. Carl Christiansen, dem es glückte, im Februar 1915 sein mit Munition und anderem Kriegsmaterial für die Schutztruppe in Deutsch=Ostafrika beladenes Schiff durch die Kette der englischen Bewachungsfahrzeuge in der Nordsee und den atlantischen Gewässern sowie an der afrikanischen Küste zu führen, wodurch die Widerstandsfähigkeit der sich heldenmütig verteidigenden Schutztruppe gekräftigt wurde. (330) Unter deutscher Flagge nach Ostafrika. (330) [3 Abb.]: (1)Jkoma in Deutsch=Ostafrika. Der Fluss Grunesti. (2)Jtilima in Deutsch=Ostafrika. Ansicht der Steppenlandschaft. (3)Blick auf den goldhaltigen Kitengeraberg in Deutsch=Ostafrika. (331) Rumänische Treibminen. (332) [Abb.]: Rumänische Treibminen. (332) [Abb.]: Die Furcht vor den deutschen U=Booten. Eine Reihe von Transportschiffen der Verbandsmächte wird von Zerstörern geleitet. ([333]) Das Schutzgeleit von Handelschiffen. (334) [Abb.]: Prinz Zia Eddin Effendi (1), der älteste Sohn des Sultans, der den vom Sultan dem Deutschen Kaiser verliehenen Ehrensäbel überbrachte, bei seinem Aufenthalt in Berlin. In seinem Gefolge befinden sich Generalleutnant Zekki Pascha (2), Tewsik Bei (3), erster Kammerherr und Oberhofmarschall, und Salib Pascha (4), Generaladjudant. (334) Die der Person Seiner Majestät des Deutschen Kaisers zugeteilten Offiziere der mit dem deutschen Heere verbündeten Armeen. (334) [Abb.]: K. u. K. Generalmajor Alois Ritter Klepsch Kloth v. Roben. (335) Strategischer Rückzug. (335) [2 Abb.]: (1)Der bulgarische Militärbevollmächtigte und Flügeladjutant Oberst Gantschew. (2)Zekki Pascha, Generalleutnant und Generaladjutant. (335) [Abb.]: Denkmalsenthüllung auf dem Heldenfriedhof Viéville=sous=les=Cótes, auf dem über 1000 Gefallene ruhen. (336) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 147 (Heft 147) ([337]) [2 Abb.]: (1)Generalleutnant v. Moser. (2)Generalleutnant v. Hofacker. Zwei verdienstvolle württembergische Heerführer, erhielten den Orden Pour le Mérite. Die von ihnen geführten tapferen Truppen hatten sich in der Schlacht bei Arras wiederum ausgezeichnet geschlagen und den Engländern keinen Fussbreit Boden überlassen. ([337]) [Abb.]: Karte zu der Schlacht bei Arras. (338) [Abb.]:Vorgeschobene Stellung der deutschen Linie an der Strasse Arras=Cambrai. (338) [Abb.]: Der vollständig zusammengeschossene Ort Givenchy nördlich von Arras. (339) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein deutscher Sturmtrupp erhält Anweisungen vor dem Angriff im Aprilschnee an der Westfront. (2)Deutscher Sturmtrupp bei der Überwindung von Drahthindernissen im Aprilschnee an der Westfront. (340) [Abb.]: Ein im Gebiet südlich von der Scarpe bei Monchy angesetzter englischer Reiterangriff bricht im deutschen Feuer verlustreich zusammen. ([341]) [3 Abb]:(1) Karte zu der Schlacht an der Aisne. (2)Wie sich die Franzosen den Angriff an der Aisne dachten. (3)Karte zu der französischen Offensive in der Champagne. (342) [2 Abb.]:(1) Schloss in Cravonne. (2)Eine stark ausgebaute vorgeschobene Stellung bei Cravonne. (343) [Abb.]:Einer der erbeuteten englischen Tanks (Panzerwagen), die, von der deutschen Artillerie getroffen, bei den feindlichen Durchbruchsversuchen kläglich versagten. (344) [Abb.]: Nach vorn zum Schanzen. ( - ) [6 Abb.]: Durch englisches Artilleriefeuer angerichtete Zerstörungen in der nordfranzösischen Stadt St. Quentin. (1)Ein beliebtes Ziel der englischen Artillerie. Eine Granate schlägt in das Dach der Kathedrale. (2)Durch englisches Artilleriefeuer in Trümmer gelegte Häuser am Dufourplatz. (3)Ein beschädigter Teil der Kathedrale. (4)Der linke Flügel des Justizpalastes. (5)Häuserruinen der Rue de Paris. (6)Austellungsraum in dem völlig verwüsteten Warenhaus Galerie Nouvelle. ([345]) [Abb.]: Aufgefundene Reste von englischen Brandbomben, die bei dem barbarischen englischen Fliegerangriff auf die offene Stadt Freiburg i. Br. am 14. April 1917 abgeworfen wurden (346) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (346) Auf Patrouille. (346) [5 Abb.]: (1)Kampfflieger Oberleutnant Hans Berr, Ritter des Ordens Pour le Mérite, stiess während eines Luftkampfes mit dem Flugzeug eines Kameraden zusammen und stürzte tödlich ab. Er hat neun feindliche Flugzeuge und einen Fesselballon abgeschossen. (2)Kampflieger Offizierstellvertreter Reimann, Ritter des Eisernen Kreuzes erster Klasse, der in kurzer Zeit fünf feindliche Flugzeuge zum Absturz gebracht hatte, fand den Heldentod im Luftkampf. (3)Oberstleutnant Thomsen, Chef des Generalstabes der Luftstreitkräfte, erhielt am 8. April 1917 den Orden Pour le Mérite. (4)Kampfflieger Leutnant Hans Müller, hat bis Mitte April 1917 acht feindliche Flugzeuge und sieben Fesselballone vernichtet. (5)Kampfflieger Leutnant d. R. Boehme, hat bis Mitte April 1917 zwölf Gegner im Luftkampf bezwungen. (347) Volltreffer eines deutschen Flugzeuges in die Transportmannschaft eines englischen Schiffsgeschützes. (348 - 349) [Abb.]: Volltreffer eines deutschen Flugzeuges in die Transportmannschaft eines schweren englischen Schiffsgeschützes in der Gegend vom Gommecourt am 23. März 1917. Das Geschützrohr ist mit einem Stoffüberzug versehen. (348 - 349) Der Schipperdienst. (348 - 349) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten bei Schanzenarbeiten auf dem östlichen Kriegschauplatz. (350) Die Abendmeldung. (350) [Abb.]: Beim Bau von Unterständen in dem Felsgebirge an der Front bei Doiran. (351) General der Infanterie Rudolf Stoeger=Steiner v. Steinstätten, der neue österreichisch=ungarische Kriegsminister. (352) [Abb.]: General der Infanterie Rudolf Stoeger=Steiner v. Steinstätten, der nach dem Rücktritt des Freiherrn v. Krobatin (siehe Abbildung Bad I Seite 3) zum k. u. k. Kriegsminister ernannt wurde. (352) Die Rüstungslieferungen der Vereinigten Staaten an den Vierverband. (352) [Abb.]: Reitergefecht im Diala, einem Nebenfluss des Tigris. Im Hintergrund die flachen Berge des Djebel Hamrin. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 148 (Heft 148) ([353]) [Abb.]: Österreichisch=ungarische Sturmtruppen mit Stahlhelmen beziehen ihre Stellungen an der Südtiroler Kampffront. ([353]) [Abb.]: Telephon in einem von österreichisch=ungarischen Sappeuren besetzten Sprengtrichter. (354) [Abb.]: Einem durch Rauchgase verunglückten österreichisch=ungarischen Sappeur wird Sauerstoff zur Wiederbelebung zugeführt. (355) [Abb.]: Rumänische Bauern liefern ihre Getreide an die Mühle eines deutschen Proviantamtes in Bukarest ab (356) [Abb.]: Im russischen Sumpfgebiet auffahrende deutsche Artillerie ([357]) [Abb.]: Mit Lebensmittel beladene Kamel kommen in einem deutschen Feldlager hinter der türkischen Irakfront an. (358) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (358) Der Stellungswechsel im Westen. (358) [11 Abb.]: (1)Josephus Daniels, der amerikanische Marineminister. (2)Der frühere amerikanische Staatssekretär des Auswärtigen William J. Bryan. (3)Der Chef des amerikanischen Admiralität, Admiral William S. Berson. (4)Der amerikanische Staatssekretär des Auswärtigen R. Lansing. (5)Der frühere spanische Ministerpräsident Maura. (6)Graf Romanones, der zurückgetretene spanische Ministerpräsident. (7)General Aguilera, der neue spanische Kriegsminister. (8)General Hugh Scott, der Chef des amerikanischen Generalstabs. (9)Roosevelt, der frühere Präsident der Vereinigten Staaten. (10)Affonso Costa, der neue portugiesische Ministerpräsident. (11)Knudsen, norwegischer Ministerpräsident. (359) [2 Abb.]: (1)Österreichisch=ungarische Sappeure erwarten auf der Karsthochfläche Befehle. (2)Österreichisch=ungarische Hundebatterie der Isonzoarmee auzf der Karsthochfläche. (360) [Abb.]: Eroberung der Hohen Schneid durch österreichisch=ungarische Truppen. ([361]) Die russische Sommeroffensive. (362) [Abb.]: Deutsche Soldaten beim Baden im Wardar in Mazedonien. (362) [2 Abb.]: (1)Korvettenkapitän Gautier, der mit leichten deutschen Seestreitkräften in der Nacht vom 20. zum 21. April 1917 in den östlichen Kanal und gegen die Themsenmündung vorstiess und die Festungen Dover und Calais auf nahe Entfernungen mit insgesamt 650 Schuss wirkungsvoll unter Feuer nahm. (2)Scharfschiessen eines grossen deutschen Panzerkreuzers. (363) [Abb.]: Ein deutsches Marineluftschiff unter Führung des Kommandanten Kapitänleutnant Koch bringt am 23. April 1917 siebzig Seemeilen von Hornsriff in der Nordsee die mit Grubenholz nach Westhartlepool beladene norwegische Bark "Royal" auf und lässt sie durch ein Prisenkommando unter Befehl des Obersteuermannsmaats Fegert mit drei Matrosen des Luftschiffes in einen deutschen Hafen einlaufen. ([364 - 365]) Aufbringen eines Seglers durch ein deutsches Marineluftschiff. (366) [6 Abb.]: Bei der Jagdstaffel des Rittmeisters Manfred Freiherrn v. Richthofen. (1)Kampfflieger Vizefeldwebel Sebastian Festner, der den berühmten englischen Flieger Robinson im Luftkampf zum Niedergehen hinter den deutschen Linien zwang und nach 12 Luftsiegen im Mai 1917 im Luftkampf fiel. (2)Kampfflieger Leutnant Lothar Freiherr v. Richthofen, der jüngere Bruder des Rittmeisters, kehrt von einem Fluge zurück. Bis zum 7. Mai 1917 hat er 20 Gegner zum Absturz gebracht. (3)Im Quartier des Rittmeisters v. Richthofen. An den Wänden Nummern und Abzeichen abgeschossener feindlicher Flugzeuge. Von der Decke herab hängt als Kronleuchter der Motor einesenglischen Flugzeuges. (4)Die starbereiten Flugzeuge der Jagstaffel, die bis zum 22. April 1917 einhundert feindliche Flugzeuge im Luftkampfe zum Niedergehen gezwungen hat. (5)Kampfflieger Leutnant Schäfer, der am 1. Mai 1917 seinen 24. und 25. Luftsieg errang. (6)Kampfflieger Leutnant Wolff, der am 1. Mai 1917 seinen 28. und 29. Gegner besiegte. ([367]) Jagdstaffel Richthofen. (368) [Abb.]: Oberst Freiherr v. Oldershausen, der neue Chef des Feldeisenbahnwesens. (368) Der neue Chef des Feldeisenbahnwesens. (368) [Abb.]: Bei Braye an der Aisnefront zum Gegenstoss vorgehende deutsche Sturmtruppen. ( - ) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 149 (Heft 149) ([369]) [Abb.]: In Erwartung eines feindlichen Angriffs im vordersten deutschen Graben. ([369]) [Abb.]: Kanadische Truppen bringen bei einem Angriff im Westen ihre Maschinengewehre in Stellung. (370) [2 Abb.]: (1) Gepanzerter Sappentopf für ein Maschinengewehr in der La=Folie=Stellung bei Vimy im Norden von Arras. (2)Deutsches Maschinengewehr in Feuerstellung während eines Gasangriffs. (371) [Abb.]: Aus der Schlacht bei Arras. Deutsche Sturmtruppen im Kampf mit englischen Panzerkraftwagen. (372 - 373) [Abb.]: Ein in der Schlacht an der Aisne erbeuteter, völlig in Trümmer geschossener französischer Panzerkraftwagen. (374) [6 Abb.]: Bilder von der Schlacht an der Aisne. (1)Strasse in einer unter feindlichem Feuer stehenden Ortschaft. (2)Die rauchenden Trümmer eines im Kampftraum liegenden Ortes (3)Mit Gasmaske und Stahlhelm versehener deutsche Meldereiter. (4)Deutsche Radfahrerpatrouille fährt durch eine zerstörte Ortschaft. (5)Im Kampfgebiet rastende deutsche Trainabteilung. (6)Deutsches Feldlazarett unmittelbar hinter der Kampflinie. ([375]) Zeitschriftenteil (376) Infanterieflieger. (376) [Abb.]: Gegen die feindlichen Gräben vorgehender deutscher Stosstrupp in der Champagne. (376) Sturm. (376) [Abb.]: Infanterieflieger im Westen, die der stürmenden Infanterie voranfliegen und mit Maschinengewehren die feindlichen Linien beschiessen. Im Mittelgrund des Bildes ein zusammengeschossener englischer Panzerkraftwagen. ([377]) [Abb.]: Ansicht einer Strasse von Reims. Die zerschossenen Häuser waren früher Hotels. (378) Pferdeschwemme bei Vaux=les=Mouron im Aisnetal. (378) [2 Abb.]: (1)Feindlicher Farman=Doppeldecker wird im Luftkampfe brennend zum Absturz gebracht. (2)Kampfflieger Leutnant v. Bertrab, der in seinem ersten siegreichen Luftgefecht am 6. April 1917 vier englische Flugzeuge zum Absturz brachte. (379) Major v. Olberg, der Leiter der Oberzensurstelle im deutschen Kriegspresseamt. (379) [Abb.]: Kampfflieger Leutnant Bernert, der bis zum 1. Mai 1917 22 Gegner abschoss, wurde mit dem Orden Pour le Mérite ausgezeichnet. (379) [Abb.]: Pferdeschwemme bei Baux=les=Mouron an der Aisne. ([380 - 381]) [Abb.]: Major v. Olberg, der Leiter der Oberzensurstelle im deutschen Kriegspresseamt in seinem Arbeitszimmer. (382) Das Leben unserer U=Bootmannschaften. (382) Brieftauben. (383) [Abb.]: Die Mannschaft eines gesunkenen Unterseebootes rettet sich mittels eines mit einer Sauerstoffpatrone versehenen Atmungsapparates, der zugleich als Schwimmweste dient. (383) [3 Abb.]: Die Brieftauben im deutschen Heeresdienst. Oberes Bild: Verbringen von Brieftauben zur Brieftaubenstation in die vordersten Stellungen. Zum Schutz gegem Gasangriffe wird ein Gasschutzkasten mitgeführt. -- Mittleres Bild: Bei einem drohenden Gasangriff werden die Brieftauben im Unterstand in den Gasschutzkasten gebracht. - Unteres Bild: Eine Meldung wird zur Beförderung durch Brieftauben aufgeschrieben. (384) Die Geschichte des Weltkrieges 1914/17. Heft 150 (Heft 150) ([385]) [Abb.]: Rückkehr deutscher U=Boote aus dem Sperrgebiet (Passieren der ersten deutschen Vorpostenboote). ([385]) [Abb.]: Prinz Heinrich von Preussen (X) unterhält sich auf einer deutschen Wasserflugzeugstation mit einem zurückgekehrten Flieger. (386) [Abb.]: Vorstoss deutscher Seestreitkräfte gegen die englische Küste. (387) [Abb.]: Bayrische Funkerabteilung wechselt im serbischen Feuer in der Nähe der Stadt Prizrend in Mazedonien ihre Stellung. (388 - 389) [Abb.]: Luftige Wohnung eines bulgarischen Soldaten an der Front in Mazedonien. (390) Illustrierte Kriegsberichte. (390) Von der österreichisch=ungarischen Isonzoarmee. (390) [Abb.]: Schweres deutsches Marinegeschütz auf dem Wege zur Front in Mazedonien. (391) [2 Abb.]: (1)Kaiser und König Karl bei einem Besuch der Front im Wippachtal. (2)Feldmarschall Freiherr Conrad v. Hötzendorf beim k. u. k. 59. Infanterieregiment an der Front gegen Italien. ([392]) [Abb.]: Die wichtigsten Kriegsorden und =ehrenzeichen Deutschlands, Österreich=Ungarns, Bulgariens und der Türkei Tafel I. ( - ) [Abb.]: Artilleriekampf im Ortlergebiet. (393) Schweizerische Sappeure beim Bau einer Behelfsbrücke. (393) [2 Abb.]: (1)Ein englisch=indisches Lager in einem Palmenhain in Mesopotamien. (2)Versorgung englischer Truppen mit Wasser in Mesopotamien. (394) [Abb.]: Deutsche Stosstruppen dringen am Nordosthang des Coman in den Waldkarpathen in die russischen Stellungen und Unterstände ein (395) Die Kriegsbrücke bei Caineni. (395) [3 Abb.]: Bau einer Jochbrücke durch Pioniere der schweizerischen Armee. (1)Oberes Bild: Die Arbeitsbrücke muss infolge Steigens des Wassers gehoben werden. - (2)Mittleres Bild: Die Pionieroffiziere beim Rammbock. - (3)Unteres Bild: Die fertige Brücke. (396) Die Abwehrschlacht an der Aisne. (396) [Abb.]: Die Kriegsbrücke bei Caineni in Rumänien, von einer württembergischen Ersatz=Bahnkompanie in acht Tagen erbaut. (397) Die Kriegsorden und =ehrenzeichen Deutschlands. Österreich=Ungarns, Bulgariens und der Türkei. I. (398) [Abb.]: Deutsche Stosstruppen am Aisne=Oise=Kanal erwarten den Befehl zum Vorgehen. (399) [Einband]: (404) [Einband]: (405)

Issue 63.3 of the Review for Religious, 2004. ; Communal Discernment . Heritages Prayer Vocation QUARTERLY 63.3 2004 Revlew for Rel~igious helps people respond'and be faithful to Goit~s universal call to holiness "by making available to ~be~° tbe spiritua! legiicie~s tbat flow from the cbarisms of Catbolic,~consecrated life. Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published quarterly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393 Telephone: 314-977-7363 ° Fax: 314-977-7362 E-Mail: review@slu.edu ¯ ~reb site: www.reviewforreligious.org Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, MO 63108-3393 Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP ¯ St. Joseph's Provincial House 333 South Seton Avenue ¯ Emmitsburg, Maryland 21727 POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©2004 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. 0 for religious LIIV~NG OUR CATHOLIC LEGACIES Editor Associate Editor Canonical Counsel Column Scripture Column Editorial Staff Vdebmaster Advisory Board David L. Fleming SJ Philip C. Fischer SJ Elizabeth McDonough OP Eugene Hensell OSB Mary Ann" Foppe Tracy Gramm Judy Sharp Clare Boehme~ ASC Steve Erspamer SM Kathleen Hughes RSCJ Ernest E. Larkin OCarm Louis and Angela Menard Bishop Terry Steib SVD Miriam D. Ukerids CSJ QUARTERLY 63.3 2004 contents 230 communal discernment Election and Communal Discernment: Goals, Myths, and Gifts Ted Dunn clarifies some of the reasons for using communal discernment as a method for electing leadership. 244 249 heritages Frances Siedliska's Mystical Life Barbara Sudol CSFN enters us into the mystical prayer experiences that marked the life of Frances Siedliska, foundress of the Congregation of the Sisters of the Holy Family of Nazareth. Is Even More Good Coming from Nazareth? A. Paul Dominic SJ gives witness to the new form of religious life represented in the Little Brothers of Jesus. 263 274 prayer Not for the Faint of Heart: Journaling into Honest Prayer Ren~e Nienaber SND shares her experience of journaling in prayer that brings both focus and perspective in our relationship with God arid with others. A Hidden Treasure of the Ignatian Exercises J. Thomas Hamel sJ describes experiences in the life and writings of St. Ignatius Loyola which give an insight into prayer as "looking." Review for Religious Fidelity and Commitment: Letter to a Young Marist Brother Sefin Sammon FMS as superior general writes a letter to his brothers below age forty about nurturing the commitment to their vocation. 305. Vocations and Vocation Discernment Charles J. Jackson sJ describes vocation in terms of the initial call people experience and their ongoing responsiveness to God's action in their life, and then uses this description to explain vocation discernment in terms of preconditions and repeated process. 316 Why One Younger Religious Stays Terri Emslie PBVM reflects on her own growth in religious life in the face of personal gaps and the gaps of others within the same congregation. 228 Prisms 323 Canonical Counsel: Religious Institutes as Juridi~ Persons in Reconfiguration 329 Book Reviews 63.3 2004 prisms Everyone receives the divine call to be holy. For God is the One who calls us all to "be holy as I am holy." The Vatican II docu-ments re-emphasized this universal vocation to holiness. In our Catholic tradition, vocation tends to remain a word restricted to the calls of priests and bishops and women and men vowed in the consecrated lifeform. But everyone is being called by God to grow in holiness, that is, in his or her relationship with God. And everyone is called by God to a way of living out this holiness. To learn God's idea of this way of living, we need to pray, especially to listen to God. We need to reflect with the word of God. We need to take in the opinions and advice of others, especially friends and those who know us well. In other words, we need to be in a process of discern-ment if we are to attune ourselves to the way that God seems to be drawing us to fulfill our basic vocation to holiness. As one recent writer notes, there is no lack of vocations in the church. Rather there seems Review fbr Religious to be a lack of awareness among church members of the twofold call: to holiness and to a particular ~ay that God has in mind--for us to respond to. If all Catholics took seriously the personal calling from God, we would find ourselves in a church and a world in which the kingdom of heaven was being made the more visible. We would have a church that was alive with people in the tradi-tional ~service roles. Listening for and responding to God's call is the necessary foundation for a continuing Pentecost experience in our day. Closer to home, there have been a few different "call-ings" among the Review for Religious advisory board members. Brother Adrian Gaudin SC left the board some months ago when he found it necessary to cut back on his commitments. Sister Raymond Marie Gerard FSP has been assigned to new work in the Roman headquarters of the Daughters of St. Paul. Bishop Carlos Sevilla SJ has completed his six-year term. Brother Steve Erspamer SM, artist and liturgical design consultant, brings his expertise to our journal world. Sister Kathleen Hughes RSCJ, currently provincial of the United States province, offers her liturgical and theological wisdom. Bishop Terry Steib SVD, bishop of Memphis, Tennessee, contributes his experience of religious life, along with his ecclesial vision as bishop. As editor, I acknowledge my debt of gratitude to our three retiring board members. At the same time, I wel-come with great pride the three new members who bring such wonderful gifts in their counsel for Review for Religious. David L. Fleming sJ 63.3 2004 communal TED DUNN Election and Communal Discernment: Goals, Myths, and Gifts discernment For fifteen years my wife, Beth Lipsmeyer, and I have, as facilitators, been privileged to accom-pany many communities through communal dis-cernment leading to the election of leadership teams. We have discovered that there are not only wide-ranging views on what communal dis-cernment is, but also varied expectations regard-ing what it will achieve. In other words; beyond the election, What does communal discernment offer communities and what does the "commu-nal" part mean? On this topic there are myths, commonly held beliefs that no longer apply. In addition, while increasing numbers of commu-nities are using communal discernment, many of them focus so much one the outcome (the election) that they fail to see the gifts they are receiving along the way. I offer here some reflections on what I con-sider the worthwhile goals, common myths, and Ted Duma is a clinical psychologist. He and his wife operate Comprehensive Consulting Services; 6217 Mid Rivers Mall Drive, Suite 294; St. Charles, Missouri 63304. Review for Religious subtle gifts of communal discernment. There is, of course, no one right way to understand communal dis-cernment; every community defines its own objectives and ways of using it. With this article I invite your reflec-tions. I hope communities will dialogue among them-selves about how to get the most from the communal discernment they use in their elections. Goals of Discernment Like flipping a coin or agreeing that the majority rules, discernment is, after all is said and done, just another way to make decisions. Unlike flipping a coin, however, there is nothing random or quick about it. Discernment is intentional and requires a great deal of time if it is to be done well. Unlike a simple, democratic vote, in discernment it is the Spirit, not the majority, that rules. In communal discernment it is deepening partnership, rather than well-conducted campaigning, that ensures integrity and brings persuasion. The communal discernment we are discussing seeks the election of the best leaders. It is, however, about more than just choosing leaders. Another goal is to engage you in the drama of a deeper story, your collec-tive story, as it continues to unfold. In communal dis-cernment, bonds of partnership are formed and re-formed, woven together with your charism and your traditions and with questions of who you are called to become. Communal discernment offers all members the opportunity to influence how your leadership should function, to shape the team's values and style of working. A third goal .of communal discernment is to shape the nature of the partnership between elected leadership and membership. I would like to elaborate on this, for it appears central to the yearning of many communities. Communal discernment can create new ways for leadership and membership to be together. This includes 63.3 2004 Dunn ¯ Election and Communal Discernment sharing the same vision. To do this, to have the same vision living inside each member, they all must have some degree of ownership of it. Looking toward the future, they must, as partners, share in some detail how they envision it and what they hope to contribute to it. Communal discernment invites this kind of heartfelt talking and listening, such fostering of shared hope. Communities yearn to be able to share one another's gifts more fully, to affirm one another more fully, to feel more deeply the possibilities and power inherent in their being together in one community, no matter what their individual positions or ministries. Communities appear to be struggling for a deeper kind of partnership laced together by their personal commitments to, and their emotional investment in, their collective future. They want to become freer by having greater personal respon-sibility. This kind of partnership does not just happen. It may be a promise of faith, but it is formed by experience, tested by challenges, and re-formed through expressions of care, the anguish of confrontation, and the hard work of reconciliation. In communal discernment, opportu-nities abound to shape the partnerships you aspire to achieve. Communal discernment enables you to reflect, both personally and collectively, upon where your com-munity seems to be heading, what your vision of the future is, what your communal needs are, and what indi-vidual and collective gifts you possess to work with. Ideally, communal discernment will affirm and assist each and every one of you in your search for clarity and wisdom as you together appreciate your collective truth through a new kind of partnership. Thus, along with (1) choosing your leadership, com-munal discernment also enables your communities (2) to discover the values and style of leadership you want for yourselves and (3) to build the kind of partnership Review for Religious between elected leadership and membership that will enhance your preferred future. Myths of Discernment What follows are seven myths that I commonly hear expressed in our work across communities. While I have my opinions about these myths, I do not have definitive "answers" about them. My purpose in mentioning these, however, is to evoke conversation among you about what you believe. Eliciting your own understanding of your attitudes and belief about these seven so-called myths may help you to appreciate the terrain through which you will make your way during any future communal discernment efforts. Myth 1: Discernment is primarily between me and my God. Traditionally this has been true. Discernment has traditionally emphasized one's deeply personal and prayerful search for God's will. In recent years, however, communities have developed and emphasized the inter-play of personal and communal prayer. Beyond individ-ual prayer, communities are stretching the boundaries of personal discernment to include conversations as a way to hear what the Spirit is saying. In communal discernment, open dialogue pools the wisdom of your personal efforts so that together you can discover God's intentions. Personal and communal prayer, personal and shared reflection and dialogue, are increasingly the norm for the discernment used in elec-tions. Discernment is no longer just a private matter between you and your God. It is between you and your God, but also with and among all your fellow members bringing their God-given inspirations and longings and wisdom. Myth 2: Leaders are elected to represent what I want and believe. In a democracy, leaders are elected to "repre-sent" their constituency. People cast their votes for the 63.3 2004 Dunn ¯ Election and Communal Discernment In discernment the emphasis is on the process, not on the outcome, the election itself. candidates they believe will best represent them and speak up for their interests. These politicians are elected, in part, as conduits for the voices of their constituents. In discernment the emphasis is on the process, not on the outcome, the election itself. In fact, in the process there must be "detachment" from the outcome. This is necessary for people to hear what God may be asking, to hear the truth as it unfolds. Detachment from the outcome is meant to aid in listen-ing honestly to what is really being revealed rather than to what you already know, or expect to hear, or want or do not want to hear. In other words, if what someone tells you, or asks you to look at, seems to assail the out-come you prefer, you might stop your ears from hearing it. Setting aside your preferred outcome helps you to listen more honestly. If communal discernment has been done carefully, the subsequent voting expresses the wisdom of an enlightened group, not contentious efforts to put one's own candidate into the office. The power of individuals to enlighten, to forge partnerships, to stir vision, to cooperate in one another's future, is not limited to vot-ing. Your community's power in discernment is limited only by your difficulties in listening, your inhibitions about speaking, or your complicated efforts to get oth-ers to'speak for you. Discernment invites all of.y6u to give full voice to your most authentic truth. In a dis-cerned election, voting is only one of many oppor(-uni-ties (perhaps the least influential of all) to have your voice heard. Leaders called forth in this way are not so much elected to represent what you believe and to speak Review for Religious for you, but rather are affirmed to partner with all mem-bers in forwarding the movement of your community's mission. Myth 3: Discernment is primarily for those who are endorsed. From my perspective, and in our preferred approach to facilitating, communal discernment involves everyone in the community from beginning to end, not just those endorsed. Everyone goes through each phase of communal discernment, and everyone is invited to participate in processes along the way. Individual and communal prayer takes place throughout, Individual and shared reflections take place throughout.The interplay between personal and communal discernment is a dance that begins.with the preparations for endorsements and concludes with the election. While sometimes separate and sometimes together, all members (not just those endorsed) are engaged in discernment, and any process that is done separately needs to reconnect with the whole so that. there truly is a communal discernment. Our approach to communal discernment encourages the pooling of wisdom from past leadership and from those endorsed, from supportive,~ collaborative, .and deliberative members. Everyone is invited to submit endorsements, and these are the basis of invitations to the first discernment gathering, such as a discernment weekend. Those who attend come with the wider com-munity's blessings, input, prayers, and concerns, includ-ing expressions of desires and critical issues. Afterwards these persons bring to the community, at the "discern-ment assembly," their presumed group enlightenment. They share what they have found helpful and pertinent, and in turn they listen carefully to the wider commu-nity's wisdom--so'that all have a better basis for their continuing discernment. No matter how many phases or gatherings there are, the emphasis in communal discernment is to bring t 63.3 2004 Dunn ¯ Election and Communal Discernment together into unity the fruits of every individual or group discernment. Open dialogue, sharing discoveries along the way, and making decisions (such as to withdraw from the process) only in the context of the whole--all of these bolster trust in the overall discernment and in one another. Myth 4: Those with fewer endorsements are not serious contenders. Those with one, five, or fifty endorsements are of equal voice and value to the communal discern-ment. Each person endorsed, regardless of numbers, has been validly called. All are asked to consider themselves potential leaders and to discern with the Holy Spirit and the community. The Spirit is present to all, whether endorsed or not, and not more or less present according to the number of endorsements. It is a mistake to think of endorsements as a straw vote or, worse yet, as a reflection of the number of friends you have that believe in you. Endorsements are signs that people believe that you may have the quali-ties needed at this time in this leadership position. Numbers are not as important as what the endorsements invite you to explore. Those with the most endorsements may not be elected, and those with :one endorsement could be. We facilitated an election wherein a sister with one endorsement was ultimately elected after discern-ment had its deep effect on both her and the commuo nity. Endorsements are a departure point for conversation, an invitation to dialogue, and not a straw vote or a test of popularity. Do not expect numbers to satisfy your discernment questions, about either your faith or your future. Myth Y: Discernment means logically weighing pros and cons. Discernment, at its heart, is about searching for what God intends. While reason and logic are impor-tant, they are not of preeminent value. In discernment the irrational is not irreverent. Irrational processes of Re~iew for Religious cognition, such as our intuitions and our hearts' desires, are very much pa.rt of what leads us to God. We are made of head and heart, body and soul, mind and spirit. All of these are real. All are valid. Perhaps we can learn and appreciate better what God intends by allowing our-selves to be more fully ourselves, to embrace our human-ness in all its dimensions. That reason and our intuition, or logic and our feel-ings, may sometimes conflict is not itself a problem. Nor are we called to ignore one in favor of the other. Each of these different kinds of infor-mation needs to be understood in its own right. The invitation here is for deeper integration, not muting one in favor of another. What you think is right may conflict with how you feel. What you know may conflict with what you intuit. What you should do may conflict with what you want to do. Conflicting emo-tions and reasoning and intuitions .are signs that your dis-cernment is not as complete as it could be. The journey of faith often invites us to explore pos-sibilities beyond the boundaries of what reason and logic would dictate. Discernment is, in its essencE, a faith jour-ney, and, because there is a communal dimension to this, you are invited to make this journey with one another. Pros and cons are important to look at, and so is spiritual growth. Filtering the qualities needed for leadership is important, and so are opportunities for reconciliation. Assessing your future needs is important, and so too is the struggle to reinvest in community when your past wounds would urge you otherwise. Reason is important, and so is grace. Myth 6: Tbe election is where my voice really matters. Some may think that all this discernment talk is nice, What you think is right may conflict with how you feel. 63.3 2004 Dunn ¯ Election and Communal Discernment but in the end "I'I1 get my vote, and that's all that counts anyway." This is perhaps the biggest myth of all. In years past, when some were chosen to be delegates at chap-ters or senates, votes were the ultimate expression of the voices that mattered. If you were not chosen,, your del-egates carried your voice. If you were a delegate, your voice, expressed through voting, had the same weight as that of other delegates. Your vote expressed not only your own desire, but also spoke for those members not in attendance. The delegates were .often seen as privi-leged, and indeed they were, for only their voice was the one counted in the end. Whether through Robert's Rules or other rules, the voices heard at the time of election were confined to carefully laid-out rules of procedure. Votes equaled voice, and this voice was .the power of a privileged few. Most communities have moved to,open chapters or senates, whereall of you are invited to choose your own mode of participation .(supportive, collaborative, delib-erative). Everyone is offered the privilege of voting and, more important, the privilege of discernment. Your abil-ity to affect the shaping of your future, and to deter-mine the leaders to help you do so, is entirely~ dependent upon your personal choosing. You can be of little influ-ence if you choose minimal .participation:or have a great deal of influence if you involve yourself more deeply. Your voice matters at every step of the discernment, not just during the few hours you spend casting ballots. Your votes will be counted in the end, but, during the months that precede the voting; itis your discerning voices that count the most. In communal discernment the ones who shape the ultimate outcome are the ones who dialogue along the way, who listen and share, who invest in this faith journey and in one another. Myth 7: Discernment is mainly about cbtosing the most qualified. From our perspective, focusing upon the most Review for Religious qualified is as flawed an approach to discernment as its countercorollary, that you should elect only those per-sons who see eye-to-eye and can get along well. I believe that it is important for team members to have differ-ences and be able to work with them, that process is as important as outcome, that tasks are as important as rela-tionships, and that the ability to work as a team is as important as any team's constellation of gifts and tal-ents. You could elect the best and brightest, but, if they cannot get along, if they cannot gel into a cohesive work-ing unit, you will not see the best of what they have to offer. Likewise, if you elect those that get along with-out regard for the differing gifts and talents needed, you will not get a leadership adequate to your needs. From our experience of working with a variety of teams, the composite of its members' talent is effective only to the degree that the "team" functions as a team. In other words, the talent will have its desired proper effect only if there is also a commitment to. stay in the struggle: not give up on one another or the tasks at hand, deal with conflict rather than avoid it, work through dif-ferences honestly and directly, do the hard work of repairing trust when it is broken (mend wounds and clar-ify misunderstandings), speak out of principle and com-passion, and so on. Discernment can assist communities in electing indi-viduals who have the flair and the desire or willingness to work as team members, but teams are not elected. Rather, the individuals elected form themselves into a team. It is, however, incumbent upon those electing to look at more than the composite of talents, at more than the rtsum~s. How homogeneous or different the team members are in their styles, beliefs, and abilities is impor-tant only insofar as the composite captures what you have collectively claimed is important. No one person has all of these gifts, but as a whole the team you elect 63.3 2004 Dunn ¯ Election and Communal Discernment should resemble what the community has discerned to be necessary both in mixture of talents and in preferred style of working together. Gifts of Discernment: Wisdom, Relationship, and Light At any given time some of you can see farther and better than others. Some of you are around the curve and up the hill before others. At another time someone else may have the greater vantage point and see what is on or over the horizon. On journeys everyone has a unique perspective to offer. Some can see what has been, others can see what is, and still others can see what is probably ahead. All of you play a part in understanding and discerning the collective truth. One sign of a discerning group is that it allows for its communal "truth" to be born from the womb of the whole. The truth that r~diates from everyone, if shared by all through open dialogue in the Spirit, can become a wisdom that is beyond the sum of all the contributions. When imbued with the Spirit, communal discernment can transcend individual wisdom and thereby bring a deeper understanding of God's intentions. I would like to offer a quotation (source unknown) that expresses what I consider the heart of communal discernment: "I sought my God and God abandoned me; I sought my soul and it eluded me; I sought my brother and sister--and found all three." This is very much the essence of discernment. It is a spiritual group pilgrimage inspired by our strong human desire for relationship and our search for love and understanding. It is persohal, but it is also spiritual and relational. Communal dis, cernment involves private and shared prayer, private and shared reflection, private and shared understandings of how the Spirit is experienced within each of you and among all of you. You choose this journey in search of Review for Religious God's will in order to decide personal and shared direc-tions. You commit yourselves to this soul-searching, truth-telling pilgrimage out of your yearning to be closer to God and one another. Communal discernment is, without question, an invi-tation to walk intimately with one another. Communal discernment is not a side-by-side experience wherein you share fruit that you found by yourself in prayer. It is an ever deepening conversation about your faith and your experience of one another along the way. You are invited to share not only good things you have found, but also your labor: you are to share in giv-ing birth. It is an awesome invitation to meet God in another human being and to discover who that stranger is on the road to Emmaus. We human beings often seek God when we are dis-turbed, when we are displaced from our comfort zone of the known, the familiar, and the safe. It is because of our poverty, our powerlessness, because of becoming aware of our fractured selves, that we. seek the healing, understanding presence of God and one another. The gift of our disturbance is that our passions are unearthed, the status quo is challenged, and what we have always known is no longer enough. We yearn for, and are fright-ened by, God's invitation to enter the mystery of our humanness. Yet our faith tells us that new life is found here, in the struggle, in this privileged place where Jesus lives. This place, where we meet Jesus in one another, is a profound gift of discernment. Communal discernment also offers the gift of light. It challenges you to recognize how you can fool yourself When imbued with the Spirit, communal discernment can transcend individual wisdom. 241 . 63.3 2004 Dunn * Election and Communal Discernment in order to get what you want and camouflage it as being "of God." It challenges you to catch how you hide from yourself and eclipse a deeper truth. This is where you are invited to reckon with your hidden payoffs for keep-ing your.own goodnes~ under wraps. This is where you can ask yourselves questions like ".What does grace enable me to be?" and "What on earth is holding me back from claiming this?" This is where your loyalties to the way things have always been, to the relationships that have given you life, come face-to-face with your fidelity to the truth you keep getting more awareness of. This is where current realities insist upon new wineskins and new patterns of being and relating. This is where your growing edges encroach upon the status quo of relationships, causing you to look anew at what you have hidden from one ~nother and kept from the people you love. Discernment is an attitude of listening, listening to the intimate whispers of God through prayer and through your conversations. It is a quiet process of attun-ing yourself to God's voice, giving special attention to urgings toward new life. Listen for the yes that radiates from within. Listen to fugitive t.ruths, and do not turn away-from newborn insights, so that all of you together manage to hear and see more truth. Listen to everyone as if you are listening for the first time, without conjur-ing up the cries of your old wounds .or letting the white noise of a hundred thumbnail reputations blur your attentiveness. Listen to God's urgings toward a future just beyond your grasp, but. reachable if you let go and give yourself to it. The paradox of discernment is that once you have adapted and become adjusted, once you have privately prayed, sifted, and sorted, you must again "let go" and be influenced by the Spirit working within and among you. You must be willing to take in new information, feel new Review for Religious feelings, and again be influenced by one another. You must seek the gift of interior freedom, of spiritual indif-ference, as to the outcome. Ideally, you will find a way to hold all personal agendas and desires, all hopes and wishes, all values and passions, in an attitude of openness. Ideally, you will experience being deeply rooted yet hold-ing on to things lightly. In this kind of freedom, God's intentions and those of all of you are together. This is neither blind Obedience nor stern self-denial. Rather, it is a transcending of self with eyes wide open as together you follow, or keep trying to follow, God's lead on this journey of faith. God is ceaselessly inviting us into the mystery of relationships, the mystery, of our humanness, the mystery of our life in Christ. ' Late August Blooms are bur, ning themselves out in backyard gardens. During evening's lengthenihg gloom the whirring chhnt of Iocu's.ts ebbs "and rises. '. ." Musk of squash and pumpkin n~w replaces headier,scents ofMayand June. You tooare seasoned, pausing between ripeness and the threadbare husks of winter. But within you the blueflame of chicory along country roads burns like a votive candle before the God of harvests. Patricia Schnapp RSM 63.3 2004 BARBARA SUDOL Frances Siedliska's Mystical Life heritages Frahces Siedliska was born on 12 November 1842 in Roszkowa Wola, near.Warsaw, Poland, of aristocratic parents, Adolph Siedliski and Cecilia Morawska Siedliski, and died in Rome on 21 November 1902. Her parents were wealthy landowners in the village of Zdzary, where their manor was situated. She had one sibling, a brother, Adam. In her early life Frances displayed intelligence, a love for beauty and music, and an elegance and maturity beyond her years. She also had a quick temper and a tenacious stubbornness, often matching her father in a clash of wills; In 1875, at the age of thirty-one, she would found the Sisters of the Holy Family of Nazareth,~ but in her childhood, religion was all but absent in the Siedliski home. Her parents, like other contemporary Polish aristocratic families, were indifferent to reli-gion. Materialism, rampant worldwide, and positivism discarded all that was supernatural, including religion. The nobility, identifying Barbara Sudol CSFN writes from 61-03 56th Avenue; Maspeth, New York 11373. Review for Reli~ous ,Catholicism with Polish patriotism, became the defending wall of the church, yet it did not know the church, did not understand it, and did not give wimess to it by their lives. (Strzalkowska, 16) Such an irreligious familial atmosphere had its effect on Frances's spiritual life. She walked in the darkness of religious ignorance until a Capuchin friar, Father Leander Lendzian, prepared her for her first Holy Communion, on 1 May 1855. He opened Frances's soul to religion and a growing spiritual life, notwithstanding much pressure from Adolphe Siedliski, who desired his daughter to live a more worldly life and enter into a mar-riage befitting her social station. But such a life was not to be for Frances. Her love of God grew throughout her life until her death in 1902 at the age of sixty. Her auto-biography, journals, letters, and other extensive writings to her sisters and to various members of the clergy give testimony to this love. Early in her religious life, Frances experienced the spiritual passivity of mysticism, a passivity that would enable her to give more and more of herself to God. She writes: In his mercy Jesus continued gifting me with ever deep-ening prayer., so that at times nothing else mattered, only., sometimes he takes away from me the ability to meditate, to have any feelings, and directs me to an immediate experience and acceptance of his holy truth. Then he suspends my faculties and . . . fills my soul according to his divine pleasure. (Strzalkowska, 58) Always she looked to God for her consolation and support, even in the midst of great difficulties, for with her emotional and mental suffering came physical suf-fering. Her health was flail, but, remaining in close union with God, she never permitted it to stop her from ardu-ous travel and time-consuming correspondence. As a foundress she went through all the rigor, heartache, legal-ism, and deprivation that are part of the early days of any 63.3 2004 Sudol * Frances Siedliska's Mystical Life foundation, all the while progressing on .the mystical way and entering more fully in(o deep prayer and union With God. In her diary she writes: "I knelt at Your fee~, and you drew my soul to yourself. It s~emed to me that I had left my body and was .moving toward you, my Love." She continues: "Later I fell into a deep stillness. My spiritual faculties were absorbed into a glorious intuition of God, of my Lord Jesus. At that time no word, no feeling, seemed appropriate or timely. I nee'ded to be drawn by and submerged in the love of my God" (Strzalkowska, 64). But there was even more.,Before,the end of her life, Frances was given the grace of espousal with God. In her diary she writes: ¯ I was at Mass at St. Claude's . My soul remained near Jesu~s in a spirit of elation. After Communion I experienced a strong desire which I expressed to.him , present within me. I asked Jesus to espouse my soul forever . Yet, as i pondered what it means to be a spouse of God, and as I looked at myself, I had not the courage ~o ask Jesus for this great grace. Instead, I humbled myself and abased myself while in my heart I sensed this message: "What I am doing for you now consider as an espousal, for I am espousing you to myself, uniting your soul to mine." (Strzalko.wska, 66) She wrote, kneeling, the constitutions and statutes that her congregation would ~idopt as their way of life, and she kriew the joy as well as the disappointment that comes with living in community. At her death she left two hundred and ninety-one sisters on both sides of the Atlantic, and a total of seventy-two youthful novices and postulants who would find in Nazareth their incentive to scale the heights she had envisioned; she was relinquishing without misgi ~vings twenty-nine ¯.houses .of Nazareth, centers of apostolic services in Europe and the United'States. (De Chantal, 128) In Frances Siedliska there was the delicate combina-tion of deep prayer life and vigorous-activity. Her coop- Review for Religious eration with God's grace was a daily undertaking, a con-scious decision to refuse Godnothing. For her generosity God gave her everything, including the heavy burden of the cross. "In .the mystical life, one passes from one layer to the next in an inner or downward journey to the core of the personality where dwells the great mystery called God--God who cannot be known .directly, cannot be seen, and who dwells in thick darkness" (Johnston, 127). If she experienced the dark night of the senses through her continual death to self in her relationships, journeys, and hardships in establishing the congregation, she also entered into the dark night of the soul, particularly in 1892, when she was fifty years old. Father Anthony Lechert, who had been her spiritual director and also a director for her Nazareth community, was removed from that position by his re.ligious superiors as a result of calumnious reports about him and his dealings with her and her sisters. In Frances Siedliska there was the delicate combination of deep prayer life and vigorous activity. 1892 marked the beginning of the mys.tic passion of Mother Siedliska; it would perdure another ten years and end with her death . Her physical suffering was accompanied by prolonged and oppressive moral suffering which, as the consequence of the event~ of 1892, she was compelled to bear and which she accepted in fullest conformity to the divine will. (Ricciardi, 244) Frances entered into her personfil dark night of the soul while continuing an indefatigable active life as foundress of her growing congregation. "Some circum-stances, particularly those surrounding the difficulties 63.3 2004 Sudol ¯ Frances Siedliska's Mystical Life of 1892 and the years following, including problems that affected the American foundation, placed Mother Siedliska in the crucible of calumny, a victim of treach-ery and lack of understanding" (Ricciardi, 379). Witnesses gave written testimony to the fact that Frances remained steadfast in her devotion to God and to the congregation, offering forgiveness to those who had injured her reputation and even personally doing good to them. To live a mystical life is no easy task, but the path of mysticism begins in a progression of steps. Only rarely are people given the grace of apophatic mysticism, as Frances Siedliska was. By her great love she gave her-self completely to God. Her greatest legacy to her reli-gious community was her belief in love: God's Love and her own love for each person. She understood the gospel imperative to love and knew well how difficult loving is in practice. God had already given himself to her as her Good Shepherd, her Rock, and her Lord. Note ' Actually Frances Siedliska founded the congregation when she sought and obtained on 1 October 1873 Pope Pius IX's approval and blessing to begin the Congregation of the Sisters of the Holy Fa~mily of Nazareth. In Rome in 1875 she opened the first permanent convent of the congregation. Works Cited De Chantal, Sister M., CSFN. Out of Nazareth. New York: Exposition Press, 1974. Johnston, William. The Inner Eye of Love: Mysticism and Religion. San Francisco: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1978. Ricciardi, Antonio. Hi~ Will Alone: The Life of Mother Mary of Jesus the Good Shepherd. Trans. Regis N. Barwig. Oshkosh, Wisconsin: Castle-Pierce Press, 1971. Strzalkowska, Sister M. Inez, CSFN. For Me to Live Is Christ. Trans. Sister Mary Paul Krasowski CSFN. Pittsburgh: Sisters of the Holy Family of Nazareth, 1995. Review for Religious A. PAUL DOMINIC Is Even More Good Coming from Nazareth? On what would be one of my happiest days as a Jesuit, I went to a religious house in a village, at that time the only house of its kind in India. (That was about thirty-five years ago, when I was a student of the-ology. Today there are only two such houses in India.) The house, unlike other religious houses I had lived in or seen, was in no way different from the other houses in the village street. It belonged to the Little Brothers of Jesus. Three of them, two from France and one from Belgium, were living like the villagers in almost every respect except that they worked with the leprosy patients, prayed together regularly as Christians in an Indian way, and, unlike Indian males especially of those days, cooked their own meals. Welcomed into their little tiled house of four small rooms--including a kitchen, a chapel, find a storeroom for medicines used in their paramedical work--I felt much at home and that religious life itself was at home there in close contact with the people around. I saw the brothers being all things to all people, learning the cus- A. Paul Dominic SJ writes again from Missionaries of the Poor; Fatima Nagar; Warangal 506 004; India. 63.3 2004 Dominic ¯ Is Even More Good Coming~/~om Nazareth? toms and beliefs of ~eir Hindu neighbors, joining their celebrations, speaking their Tamil language though amusingly with a French lilt, preparing and enjoying the local variety of quite spicy food, lending an ear to the varied tales of the young and old, lending a measure of rice occasionally, or just giving away a handful of chilies when a neighbor ~ent her child asking for some, and so on--ahd I felt a new thrill regarding religious life, at once Christian and Indian! The people of Alampoondi, the village in which the brothers had settled, witnessed all that, but they had no idea of their identity except as foreigners and Christians. With their little knowledge of church matters, they could not of course have any idea of the newcomers' being members of a religious congregation, the Litde .Brothers of Jesus. Did even knowledgeable Christians know of their existence? Like myself, hardly any of my theology companions had heard about their surprising way of life, although the Little Brothers, admittedly few in number, were keeping.up a quiet and unassuming but distinct presence on all the continents. A New Charism of Living and Working The Little Brothers' charism, as I learned from the brothers in India, is to live as Jesus lived at Nazareth, unknown and unheralded but unfailingly helpful in lit-tle ways. Who would want such a charism? ~About the Little Brothers who have taken to it eagerly and seri-ously, an outsider like me can say that they have shown themselves faithful to it. The first Little Brothers who came and settled in India have not given up hope of their continuing presence although they have attracted less than a half dozen Indian followers despite the consid-erable numbers of religious vocations here. In October 1933 Ren~ Voillaume and a few of his friends, all of them newly ordained, left their native Review for Religious France and went to E1-Abiodh-Sidi-Cheik in the Algerian Sahai'a and started living the Nazarene charism as a group. VoiHaume served as their elected prior from the beginning till 1965. On 13 May 2003 he died .at the age of ninety-seven. His death, if I am not mistaken, did not get much attention in the Christian. press or even among members of religious orders and congregations, let alone in the secular world. Maybe it could not have been different, but I incline to think that it was what it should hav.e been, given his and his brothers' choice to live in today's world like Jesus at Nazareth, in hidden mystery amid plain or harsh earthly reality. He died just as he had lived, with no splash of publicity for having accomplished some widely recognized good, though of course God knows all he did in the Nazareth-like places where he and his brothers lived. I came to know of his death by chance, but at the very' place where I first felt the spell of his humble charism. Here I would like to present an account of it as a loving tribute to Voillaume, and I hope a true one. The Original Recipient of This Charism ¯ The inspiration for Voillaume and his companions was an aristocrat named Charles de Foucauld (1858- 1). Though born in a devout Catholic family .and educated in Jesuit schools,Foucauld turned his back on Christianity at sixteen and entered military service only to quit it because of his undisciplined and even disso-lute ways. Later, around 1880, he went on an expedition to unexplored parts of Morocco and returned to pub-lish his findings in a book that won him fame. Still he was restless, least suspecting that the human heart is restless until it rests in God. In late October 1886 he found himself converted, in the confessional though he had gone there without wanting to confess. Once he was converted he knew the raison d'etre of his existence: to 63.3 2004 Dominic ¯ Is Even More Good Coming from Nazareth? live for God and only for God. He came to discover the person of Jesus as God's incarnate Son. He entered and left the Trappists and then became a priest, only to feel a compelling urge to be like Jesus not only inwardly but even outwardly. Out of love he wanted to reproduce in himself the life of Jesus at Nazareth, hidden, humble, hardworking, and helpful to others. In a letter he describes himself thus: The ,gospel proved to me that the "the first com-mandment" was for me to love God with all my heart, and that I must put everything within that love; and, as everybody knows, one of the effects of love is imitation. ¯ . . I did not feel at all made for imitating him in his public life and his preaching; I consequently knew I must imitate the hidden life of the poor and humble workman of Nazareth.~ As he delved into the hidden treasure of Nazareth, he found that he could not keep it private: his newfound pearl of vision was not for himself alone. He hoped that it would become a pattern of life for others too. But, however much he wanted to have companions to live with him, he was not to have even one up to the day he died tragically. Even his tragedy was not perceived as greatness. He died as the two French soldiers visiting him did, victims caught in a tribal conflict, shot in the head by a frightened Tuareg youth. What could the worth of his life be? But his story, told only briefly here, got circulated in his native France. Surprising stories began to be told of men and women, young and old, married and unmarried, from different walks of life, who sought to live in the spirit of Jesus the Nazarene somewhat as Foucauld did. Such was his influ-ence within a decade after his death that at least one col-lege removed a biography of Foucauld from its library for fear that too many young people might be drawn to his unusual example. Review for Religious The Nazareth Brand of Religious Life Among those who could not deny his impact on their life, Voillaume and his four friends may be ranked first. They were the first to attempt as a group to live their lives according to Foucauld's vision, and their attempt has stood the test of the times. Their fraternity (as they liked to call their group) centered their life on Jesus' way of living at Nazareth. Voillaume has reflected on this and spoken of Nazareth as a complete form of reli-gious life. Following Foucauld, he discerned in Nazareth a type of religious life undreamt-of before and, I am afraid, largely unknown even now. Religious life modeled on Nazareth is distinct, he pointed out, from the hidden life of many a traditional novitiate. It is unlike the lives of Carthusians or enclosed Carmelites, and it is also dif-ferent from the lives that ded-icated lay people lead in the footsteps of Jesus, the work-man at Nazareth. These three versions of Nazareth do not go beyond certain aspects. Voillaume's version diverges from them in discovering something new, even though it is at one with all the earlier forms of religious life inas-much as it does not swerve from the spiritual reality of freely promising to God, with the public approval of the church, to live in chastity, poverty, and obedience. Instead of following the Jesus of the public life, the Little Brothers follow the Jesus of the hidden life. They renounce a distinct habit, large or isolated buildings of their own, and large enterprises or projects. They choose to live like the ordinary worker that Jesus was: poor and humble and unavoidably involved with and even depen-dent on others. They live in an aura of prayer, much Their fraternity centered their life on Jesus' way of livin, g at Nazareth. 63.3 2004 Dominic * Is Even More Good Coming from Nazareth? prayer, so as to grow in favor with God and their fellow human beings as Jesus, did in ,Nazareth.2 Some of this may seem to ignore things indispensable to religious life. But are they? Or are they just means for0a particular way of living the three vows? And can one: not conceive of a~true religious life that makes less use of traditional means and ye~ proves to be a sure road to the ex;angelical perfection of the joyous embrace of the three vows? In this spirit Voillaume says: Such a road has been opened up for us by Father de Foucauld. It lies in sharing the lot of the workers and the other poor, with all the consequences involved, and being a living presence of Christ among them) Voillaume explains this new spirit and style of religious life: Less attention is paid to sheltering oneself off from risks by means of separations, or to being helped by observances superimposed upon one's daily occupa-tions, than to ordering one's entire life into a single moy.ement of charity for Christ and or_tier people, and learning to use the very difficulties attendant Upon such a life as so many mean~ to self-dispossession and the very concrete realization of one's profession of the . three vows? A Name of Prideand Humility . The Nazareth-based form of religious life described above may be further appreciated by reflecting-on the name that Voillaume and his companiong; following Foucauld; gave to their group: Little Brothers of Jesus. No one can. mistake where .their love was. Their love was not .for ~an unusual, heroic, rele~cant ideal surpass-ing the old, but for Jesus; and so they gave their hearts, their.very selves, to the person of Jesus. By their name they.made a claim on Jesus;~ ofbelonging to himand his belonging to them. (In this they have measured up'to the holy ambition of the,original b'and of Jesuits,. and Review for Religious may have stolen a march on some of my brother Jesuits.) The brothers' loyal love is not a romantic thing. They have found him whom they love in persevering faith, in their common Eucharist, in the Gospels, and in their neighborhood,s In their very love for Jesus, they turn to people and attend to their urgent, unfilled needs such as their need for justice. They are. wise enough not to be misled: they know the lurking temptation of sincere Christian apostles to think, in Voillaume's words, "that one does not have the time to look towards Jesus and love him as he should be loved: for himself." He coun-sels his Little Brothers that they have their set task right there: It is to act as the "regard" of men today upon Jesus, to be in Jesus' presence the "standing delegates" of the forgetful crowd, carrying to him in their place their adoration, their needs, their complaints, and their faults.6 Are they here inspired by Jesus' approval of Mary of Bethany "wasting" costly ointment on him? By their name Little Brothers of Jesus, they mean to express how their love of Jesus marks their way of loving others, including one another. Voillaume can say to his brothers: If we are to be of any "use" at all in the world,' it will be for having been faithful enough to allow a bit of Christ's immense love for men to appear through our.hearts and our comportment . If we are really united with our Lord, if we keep our eyes trained upon.Jesus living and working at Nazareth, then, like Father de Foucauld, we shall be able to remain open to people's solicita-tions. 7 So, as brothers of Jesus, they become brothers of all according to the revelation that all people are to be con-sidered brothers and sisters and not titled personages (Mr 23:8-10). Abhorring all superiority, they behave as 63.3 2004 Dominic * Is Even More Good Coming from Nazaretb? brothers who imitate Jesus in his redeeming love. Inspired thus, they contact specially the poorest just as they are and because of what they are, persons bereft of all power. In doing this they are aware of God calling each one by.name in the intimacy of lovefl and so they too aim at reaching out to individuals as if each one were the only soul to be loved in the world. They do not cal-culate their mission success in terms of administering and applying approved techniques and technologies. If in their love they feel the urge to give Jesus to people and help people find their lofiged-for kingdom of God, it is in the unglamorous way of being the salt of the earth or the world's ordinary daylight.9 Voillaume challenges his brothers: So long as our love has not reached the point where it has made us truly capable of showing them that the kingdom of Jesus is for them, and that it has even begun to be present in their midst through us, we shall not have met the demands of Jesus' love upon us. The kingdom must be able to appear to them through us in all its realness: th~ patience, the peace, the force of Christ, and also Christ's demands for justice--all this enveloped, as it were, in love and void of all hatred (even when it is right to fight),l° Another challenge, even a greater one, facing the Little Brothers is love among themselves. Though this challenge may appear common to all religious, the Little Brothers are not quite the same. Modeling their very lives on the homely life of Nazareth can foster mutual friendship in a supernatural way. Voillaume says: It is our Lord's friendship that has gathered us together, and the human features of friendship, visible in ourselves, are something we must labor to produce. It is our duty gradually to become true friends, even though it may seem that by nature we are not self-evidently made for each other.~l Review for Religious This is something that I am afraid may often slip the attention of religious of every kind. The brothers choose to be litde. They choose to live within littleness, the mystery of littleness. It is a part of their learned ignorance (docta ignorantia). I have been amazed by their fund of knowledge and grasp of what is going on among religious and in church circles and in the world at large. Is it because they are little and thus open to learn? Being little, they also surely strive to keep grow-ing in their love of Jesus and of their fellow human beings. The proof is that they embrace the hard way of the poverty of little people. Knowing, however, that such a life and such a mission are impossible for humanity's lit-tleness, they look to God, for whom everything is pos-sible (Mt 19:23-26). Their way of mission is so different from the usual apostolates that it may not even seem to be mission work. In traditional Christian circles, eyebrows are surely raised at the Little Brothers. Failing to understand what they intend by their style of life, their poverty and their appar-ent unproductiveness, many Christians, including ecclesi-astics, may consider them useless for the church. But, following their own vocation, the Litde Brothers opt to be unprofitable servants in the eyes of people who do not-- but to my mind should--know better. They know that, if they are to instill the beatitudes in people's hearts, no activ-ity that takes them out from among the poor, the mourn-ful, the hungry, and so forth would be in keeping with the little way marked out by Jesus for them.~2 Their name, Little Brothers, expresses Jesus' humble and soaring spirit. A Mission Common and Yet Uncommon For a further understanding of the Little Brothers' charism, reflect that their mission is to be, in little ways, hands of Jesus in touching the lives of his least brothers and sisters. Though the Little Brothers share with other 63.3 2004 Dominic ¯ Is Even More Good Coming from Nazareth? religious congregations one and the same mission from Christ, the way they discharge it is unique,13 as indeed it should be in the case of every charism. A simplistic and falsifying view must be avoided here. Voillaume is very insistent on this. He points out that well-meaning peo-ple could give a wrong picture of the Little Brothers' mission with a "wooden and detestable definition" such as this: "The Petits Fr~res are not engaged in this activ-ity or that; they must not be involved in anything, but simply give an example."14 As Voillaume envisages it, the Little Brothers' life is to be far different: They will be poor in all things except God, and be of little apparent use, sharing the weariness of those who labor, their sole purpose being the proclamation of the Savior's gospel. They will submit their thoughts and deeds to the divine friendship in order that they may make known to those around them the infinite mystery of that friendship towards men, hidden from all eternity, but revealed to us in the heart of Christ.~s Their lives are, then, obviously bound up with two vibrant movements closely combined: being or becom-ing oneself enriched with God and also enriching others, particularly the masses of poor laboring people. Their twinned vocation may be expressed as contemplation of God and comforting their neighbors by their presence. These two elements, invisible and visible, which consti-tute the life of the Little Brothers, are commonly viewed as mutually exclusive. People contrast the contempla-tive and active vocations, or else see them as combined, but with prominence given to action for the good of the neighbor. The Little Brothers give equal importance to contemplation and their neighbors' good, but their con-templation is not like that of the cloistered,16 and the help they give their neighbors is far from the various well-defined goals of apostolic communities. Some brothers have lived as regular members in a Revie*v for Religious kibbutz in Israel. They shared and enjoyed the life and work there as much as the others did. Living poorly, they appeared happily settled, though unmarried. They impressed others as lov-ing, and they surprised them by praying regu-larly and unashamedly. The young Israelis were intrigued enough to ask what made them live like that. They were told that, if they were really eager to know, they had better contact some of the many religious in Tel Aviv. But they would not; they said, "No, we don't want to hear from others; we are not interested in their codes or customs. What we want is to understand your life from your own telling.'"7 One of the Little Brothers was a prisoner among prisoners, though known to the authorities to be inno-cent of any crime. He had sought and found admittance to a prison, and lived there sharing the life of the con-victs and offering them his unsought presence and friendship. Surely the prisoners needed to be instructed and converted, but the lone brother was not there to serve as a chaplain, nor did he mean to function as a social worker helping them to find money for their needs or to establish contact with their family or to do some-thing of the kind. What he wanted was to love them as a friend, standing by them and sharing with them all the physical and mental hardships of imprisonment though he himself did not deserve them2s In such circumstances the brothers are not concerned with expla!ning them-selves to people, but with so doing things with them or Their twinned vocation may be expressed as contemplation of God and comforting their neighbors by their presence. 63.3 2004 Dominic * Is Even More Good Coming from Nazaretb? for them that they cannot avoid being aware of God's nearness in some slight way at least. The Little Brothers' particular grace and genius in this matter may be expressed in one word, presence, total pres-ence to God and total presence to the poor people around, a presence that cannot but be humble. It may be called unpretentious prophetic presence, that is, the presence of a prophet drawn by God to himself and sent to people and sent by their plight back to God. It is reminiscent of Jesus' long years at Nazareth: ever turned toward God and toward the needy people near at hand. Whatever Jesus' double stance might have looked like, one thing is certain: he would have been burning with zeal for God's mission among these burdened people. His zeal showed itself in the temple at the dawn of his adulthood and would have continued during his adult years at Nazareth. There, how-ever, it could ordinarily find expression only in his daily commonplace contacts with people, and could only be fully exercised fully in the realm of the Spirit. In the Spirit he was attuned to Abba, his Father, and to his Father's mys-terious mission of compassion for the human race. At the same time he was intimate with the people in and around Nazareth, in a way that was both human and divine. That is to say, he looked upon and loved and desired the good of everyone he met, in accord with his Father's love and desire.19 This was, then, contemplative attention to God and to people needing redemption. It was a contempla-tion of God's compassion and of people's condition in the light of God's personal care for them. Such contempla-tion can occur only with the constant activity of God him-self in life's present moments. Such a life is one of intercession for people, and the people may perceive it as such. The Little Brothers learn to do as Jesus did. Voillaume explains: In our time this awareness has become more vivid than ever, and it has reached the point when many have Review for Religious come to feel that they must give concrete expression to this permanent commission to pray in the name of mankind by really sharing the circumstances of men's lives. This new way of imitating the life of Jesus of Nazareth, this summons to be united with that Man- God who was also one of the workmen of his native village, is in fact a development in the nature of prayer itself. Our own vocation has followed this course.2° One of his Little Brothers put it more simply and sharply, to the delight of Voillaume: "We are the voice of the poor, their liturgy.''2~ Each Group in Its Place For those who are still wondering about the import of this vocation, Voillaume has said: The Brotherhood's position in the church is very hum-ble, and their way of life must not be interpreted as a criticism or a failure to appreciate the other forms of the apostolate which the church approves. At the same time, the apostolate of the Petits Fr~res seems to meet a new need for the evangelization of the world which it is well we should realize)~ In saying this he shows the healthy tension of a man who appreciates the continuing value of traditional approaches in the present, and yet cannot deny the new demands that our changed times make. I think this is what Brother Michael, his successor as prior general in the 1990s, meant by what he wrote to me in a letter: "Ren6 Voillaume has been given an unusual charism: he trans-mitted the message of Nazareth life against his own feel-ings!" So it seems the inheritors of that charism have to live experiencing in themselves the attraction and tension of bipolar ideals. More could be said, but let Ren6 Voillaume have the last word: The ideal of life of the Petits Fr~res through its twofold requirement of contemplation and of pres- 63.3 2004 Dominic ¯ Is Even More Good Coming from Na~aretb? ence among men, and also through the nature of the means envisaged for carrying it out, constitutes indeed a new and original form of religious life.23 Notes I Ren6 Voillaume, Seeds of the Desert (London: Burns and Oates, n.d.), p. 24 n.2. ~ Seeds, p. 12. 3 Seeds, p. 53. 4 Seeds, pp. 53-54. s See Seeds, p. 70. 6 Seeds, p. 7 I. 7 Seeds, pp. 72-73. s See Brothers of Men (Denville, New Jersey: Dimension Books, 1966), p. 142. 9 See Seeds, pp. 74-77. to Seeds, p. 76. ii Brothers, p. 52. lz See Seeds, p. 80, and Brothers, p. 23. 13 See Ren6 Voillaume, Follow Me (London: Darton, Longman, and Todd, 1978), p. 64. 14 Brothers, p. 195. is Brothers, p. 134. 16 See Seeds, pp. 60, 63, 65. 17 Ren~ Voillaume, Faith and Contemplation (London: Darton, Longman, and Todd, 1974), p. 111. is See Brothers, pp. 145-146. 19 See Follow, p. 141. 2o Brothers, pp. 90-91. 21 Brothers, p. 91. 22 Brothers, p. 138. ~ Brothers, p. 122. Review for Religious RENI~E NIENABER Not for the Faint of Heart: Journaling into Honest Prayer Within a short time, three of my closest rela-tives died. A fourth death was imminent. With too much heaviness to hold any longer, I had to find a way to deal with my grief and anger. Journaling became my path into honest prayer. At one breakthrough I wrote to God in letters big enough to read through my tears: !'Why don't you pick on someone your own size?" Slowly my response came, not with the earth opening to devour me, but with a deep, endur-ing peace. God had answered my fierce words with comforting silence. Anyone who prays with raw candor is in good company. Such honesty with God charac-terizes some of our famous ancestors in the faith, who impolitely told God when they had had enough. Jacob, Jeremiah, Jonah, and Job wres-tled with God. There is modeling for honest Ren6e Nienaber SND writes again from St. Mary of the Assumption Parish; 121 West Main Street; Alexandria, Kentucky 41001. 63.3 2004 Nienaber ¯ Not for the Faint of Heart prayer in the Lament psalms: the psalmist gives God a piece of his mind! The prophets likewise were never afraid to speak to God from their gut. Even Jesus in Gethsemane begged that the cup of suffering be taken away, and he cried out on the cross, feeling forsaken. In more recent centuries the complaint of Teresa of Avila, doctor of the church, was "If this is how you treat your friends, no wonder you have so few." Tevye, the strug-gling father in the play and movie Fiddler on the Roof, asks God in frustration, "Would it spoil some vast, eter-nal plan if I were a wealthy man?" We too can speak to God with such holy boldness. Spirituality deals with all aspects of life, not just the pious parts. Our jealous Lover wants all of us with no doors locked. Honest Journaling--and Us and God Many people are afraid to pray with honesty, think-ing that God will love us only if we are polite. Early training taught some of us to leave our problems at the door of the church. Rather, prayer needs to be a come-as- we-are experience. Spirituality is not just for the pious, but also for us who get wounded in the battles of every-day life and need somewhere to go with our pain. True prayer is about gathering up all of the stuff of our lives and offering it to God. The spiritual life challenges us to be not just holy but real: true to ourselves in all sorts of inner weather. Honesty, the essence of the eighth com-mandment, is essential for every relationship, including the divine/human one. To improve human relationships, sometimes people have to sit down and thrash things out. Similarly, at times we need to bring to God even the parts we would prefer to suppress. God does not want marionettes but real people with real emotions. The One who knocks on our door wants entrance into the whole truth of our lives. Some people, however, fear that they will be struck dead if they bring Review for Religious their frustration or anger to God. Rather, we might pic-ture God with strong, anthropomorphic shoulders--big enough to embrace us even when we feel far below par. We do not have to be on our good behavior with God in order to be loved. We speak about God as all-wise, about Jesus as "the way, the truth, and the life," and about the Spirit as our indwelling guide. This God wants to communicate that wisdom and truth to us from within our very beings. Jesus even seeks us out in our messiness, as he did the disciples on the way to Emmaus. He asks us, "What are you discussing as you go your way?" (Lk 24:17). Why Write This Type of Prayer? Why write in order to be honest with God? History has many examples of peo-ple who journaled in order to get in touch with their inner depths. Some in the last century were Pope John xxIII, Dag Hammarskj61d, and Anne Frank. Writing helped them clarify their sometimes confused and scattered thoughts, and it can help us. Journaling can provide both focus and per-spective. Putting pen to paper without editing can bring clarity that we would never achieve in our conscious mind alone. Some people will say they "can't write." But unedited journaling is not for anyone else to see. Spelling, punc-tuation, grammar, handwriting--none of these count. To many, writing honest prayer might still seem impos-sible, and people seldom try something if they expect to fail. But I hope readers will learn from the examples If we are afraid to be angry with God, at least writing is a silent outlet. 63.3 2004 Nienaber ¯ Not for the Faint of Heart below that the prayer of honest journaling can open wide a door to both themselves and God. If we are afraid to be angry with God, at least writ-ing is a silent outlet. Some polite people, when they dare to confront, prefer to write a note rather than to yell. Writing also helps people listen to the divine. This prayer communicates both ways. Especially when we are trou-bled, we need to be still and wait upon the Lord, as the psalmist says, asking for divine insight that we might not otherwise receive, If the wisdom from God is in writing, or between the lines, we have a better chance that it will touch our lives more than a fleeting inspiration does. Examples of Honest Journaling Following are ten samples excerpted from twenty years of honest journaling. Names have been omitted and some situations adapted to preserve anonymity. The summary titles, numbered 1 to 10, were of course added afterwards. My candid words addressed prayerfully to God are in roman type, and what seem to be God's can-did responses are in italic type. 1. God wants to reveal not only our sin but also the divine hesed (steadfast love or loving kindness). What do you want me to learn through this contin-ual frustration with A? Sbe presses a lot of buttons in you that are still deep, dark recesses of sinfulness: anger, resentment, negativity, revenge, self-pity, barred. Wow! That's pretty ugly! Much uglier than what she. did to me. I guess I thank you for letting me see this dark side. What good is it to see these faults? The more you're aware, the less power they'll bare over you. ~ls you become.more bumble and less reactive, the more connected you will be witb people and freer from this gravity. It's pretty ugly, yet you love me. You pick me up and kiss my wounds. You love me in my sinfulness. You allow Review for Religious me to journey to a deeper level of self-knowledge and awareness of being clothed in your grace, your love, your mercy, your truth (albeit painfully). 2. God wants to help us get through a problem, not bail us out. Is there something you want to say to me? Are you back to that feeling of being le~ out? Toujours--well, just more often than I wish, and B was the perfect catalyst for it. Ab, B, the lady you love to bate. She is so perfect, so superior, and so sure of how to do things better. She really tapped into a lot of your stuff I know. Help me sort through my stuff. Help you through? I will, but not by taking it away. This will keep you bumble-that quality you admire in otber people. This will always be your Achilles' bed. Will you love me just the same if1 help you through it rather than remove it? What a silly question. Will I still love you? Is there any other way to life? 3. God promises to help us forgive. God, I need your help to forgive her again. I hope I can last through this year. I will be with you. Remember my love, shown through the surprise ice cream and your notes from C. I appreciate any kindness you send my way because I'm feeling pretty crummy. Much is going well for you. I know. Thanks. But every day I have to forgive her. You are growing. And I am suffering. I know. I am with you. Remember that I'm not just remote, way out there, but very close in the workings of every day. I'm not sure. I'll try to cooperate with you. For now, help me forgive her once more. You are all I have. 7- 63.3 2004 Nienaber ¯ Not for the Faint of Heart That's not such a bad place to be. 4. God wants to calm our anger. #olo\&~÷~÷. I don~t want to find another note from D. Help me to look at this objectively and not come down too hard on her. But I am angry at having to deal with this again. Enough is enough. O.K. Your turn to speak. I'm calling you, my dear, to ever greater depths of love. I'm asking you to have your heart stretched to embrace the weak and vulnerable. I'm inviting you to have my heart towards her. Will you accept? ~Vill you be the bigger person? Will you keep the lines of communication open? Will you be a channel of my love towards her-please? She so needs human love. Will you please help me? How can I tell you no? Yet my anger is so close to the surface with her. I will belpyou. I will be withyou. Unlessyou meet her at her stage of growth, however stunted, you'll never be my pres-ence to her. You'll be the foe, and shb will regress again. This is PROGRESS??? God, save me! I will, I am, I have been. Think of her as a work in progress. You can help or hinder that progress. 5. God wants to answer our questions. Why won't the song "Carry Your Candle" leave my mind even though it's the middle of the night? You're feeling overwhelmed after your meeting with E. You realize once more that you're not part of the "in group." YOu know~that you've bitten off more than you can chew. That's all true, but what about the song? You might be wishing that you could hide some of your light under a bushel basket. You want me to bring my light not just to E but also to F? You never let up, do you? Sometimes. But you know about the hothouse effect, right? I'm trying to get a beautiful, well-formed, and well-pruned plant. Are you up .to the challenge? Only with your grace, my dear, only with your grace. Review for Religious 6. God calls us to the truth about ourselves. You're letting me see my sinfulness. A lot of anger arises in me, now more quickly and verbally. Maybe it has always been there and is just now getting a chance to be seen because of my buttons being pushed. It's not pretty, and I repent. Partly I'm sorry because my mask of niceness is coming off. Partly I'm sorry because I'm going to have to go and talk with G. The fact is, my dear, that the fault is not all in her. She's pressing your buttons. This is not all black and white. Thank you for letting me see my own sinfulness and for letting me see my need for a Savior. I too have a somewhat hardened and peevish heart. Thank you for this important lesson. Doing so many holy things, I think my nose is pretty clean. Lord, I need your amazing grace. 7. God always gives the ultimate promise. I'll put it bluntly: I'm worried about my meeting with H. We know how strong-headed she can be. You saw how she treated me in our last encounter. I don't want to be gobbled up. It's not Thanksgiving; it's Christmas. I'm surprised at how weak-kneed I still can get just think-ing about it. I don't want to challenge anyone too seri-ously. HELP! I'll never get stronger unless I face this kind of thing. May I talk now? I will give you the words you need and the courage you desire. You don't need to or want to come off like J with no feeling. If you appear weak, that's O.K. You're doing what I call you to. You need only to be faithful. Don't forget the insight and power you've recqived from me in prayer, especially in this written form. I am your God, beside you and within you. As you know well, 1 WILL BE WITH YOU ALWAYS.t 8. God sends us the light we need. I am getting sick from the black hole that is sucking out my life. So much negativity! It's beginning to affect my stomach. I didn't know if the time was ripe to say 63.3 2004 Nienaber ¯ Not for the Faint of Heart anything or not. So, once again, I swallowed my words. Dear God, speak to me. I will if you'll give me a chance and listen. Be still and know that I am God. Your God and her God. You're not going to change bet much. Maybe you can think of bet as a sick person who needs compassion. Maybe she is the lost lamb that needs to be picked up in your embrace. Maybe even she is the prodigal who needs to be welcomed with open arms. She is your responsibility to pray for. What are you doing about it? You're right. I do pray that she might find a few ounces of happiness. Help her to see your goodness in herself. And help me to treat her with a little more of the Spirit of Jesus - not just write about it. Help me to find any rays of light in the darkness. Let me .look more with your compassionate eyes, not my increasingly hard-ened eyes and face and mouth. The light is coming into the darkness. VVatcb for tbe first streaks! 9. God helps us to see more reality.than we're aware of. Why am I still so upset that it shows in my eyes? It reminds you of Mother's Day fifty years ago and the arguing, never reconciled, just stuffed. No one should ruin an important day like this for others. I hate that stupid trick called "I was only kid-ding." Doesn't she know that's a lie? She wasn't really lying. She was kidding herself, not quite aware of her motivation. I have really internalized this. Is it also about me? Yes, you hate not being the good guy. You dislike being one of the sources of controversy. You hate having "lost it" in a way you would never have done had you been fully in control. You dislike that you have to go and apologize again. You're right, as Usual. 10. God comforts.us in our disappointments. Dear God, you seem to be the only constant in my life. My family, friends, and fellow parishioners disap- Review for Religious point me. I don't want to get too Jesus-and-me-ish, but you're the only one I can really rely on. This is a self-pitying but true statement: I give out so much and receive propor-tionately so little in return. My dear child, lay your bead against me, and let go of another birthday that could never reach your expectations. I am not just bigb in the heavens but very real and very near. I am inside you, guiding you, encouraging you, shoring you up, opening new paths, loving you unconditionally, giving you loyal friends, reminding you of your v~ortb, sending people to delight you. I will always be faithful My family, friends, and fellow parishioners disappoint me. Observations, Benefits, and Suggestions One common thread throughout the above ten exam-ples is God's promise "I will be with you always"-even (or especially) in difficult situations. Jesus Christ is our Savior not just through his death and resurrection, but also in everyday situations where we need healing and hope. As with our forebears in ancient and modem times, God chooses to be present with saving grace through a whole spectrum of love: from comfort to confrontation. Some people wonder if this kind of dialogue with God comes just from an overactive imagination. If we are truly open to God, the answers we get are Truth try-ing to intersect with our confusion or our suffering. We have a God of communication. How else would the patri-archs and prophets have heard God's voice? How else would apostles and martyrs, foundresses and laypersons, have known God's will? Of course, we can be mistaken in our listening. Discernment is always needed. Many of us were trained to start the day with the Morning Offering. In it we offer to God not only our 63.3 2004 Nienaber ¯ Not for the Faint of Heart prayers, works, and joys, but also our sufferings. Do we offer them to God? Life sometimes deals us a bad hand of cards, and some people easily say that God does it for a reason. If this is true, maybe the reason is so that we will not live on the surface, but take the risk of going deeply into prayer and into the mind of God. Only the truth sets us free. Thus, praying through our sufferings can give more peace, insight, and freedom than we have ever known. Honest prayer can lead us more deeply into the paschal mystery. Once we face and embrace our dark-ness, we can be more open to the light, the resurrections within us. St. Paul writes in 2 Corinthians 6:4-10 that he does not regret his struggles. He embraces both sides of the mystery of Jesus in his own body: "punished, but not put to death; sorrowful, though we are always rejoic-ing; poor, yet we enrich many." Praying honestly can help us, like Paul, to hold in reverence both the light and darkness of our life. Once people have had a few experiences of getting insight from God in difficult situations, they are encour-aged to continue as the need arises. In case pray-ers would like to journal in this way but do not know how to get started, the following suggestions are offered: God, what can I learn from this anger? What can this loneliness teach me? What do you want to say to me in my insomnia? How might I have handled my frustration differ-ently? How can I deal with this feeling of jealousy? Why do I have to put up with all of this #o~o&-'.':~÷? Why am I so afraid? I really resent J because. I am sensing a deep loneliness because. I am feeling out of relationship with. I am in touch with one of my deepest wounds. Review for Religious Liturgical-minded people often use the readings of the day for their inspiration in prayer. Sometimes, how-ever, the events of our lives need to supersede those read-ings. In such cases, the text of our lives becomes the stuff of our prayer. It is unfair not to deal with our anger and frustration. The ten examples given above involve real issues which, if not dealt with in a healthy way, will spurt outwards or inwards in unhealthy ways. Our caring God wants to help us with such issues as our frustration, for-giveness, anger, disappointments, loneliness. God wants to give light, truth, and insights that are both consoling and challenging, if only we accede. With Peter we can ask, "Lord, to whom shall we go?" (Jn 6:68). In the Monastery Gardens Like the order, they have shrunk From golden reaches of summer sweetcorn Swelling the ear for hungering novices, Have shrunk from pumpkin-puddled swatches Of green and gold serpentining to half An acre of tomatoes all to be stored Against monastic winters. Borders of pines And windbreaks now do not enclose a pleasant Land of hefty cabbages and prickled okra; What is left is gardened for subsistence By stooping backs, gnarled hands, a cane Or two supporting a search for what then Had been Father Leo's prized asparagus. A fox Like Satan circumambulates the margins Where once the chickens found their forage. Not an Eden, never an Eden, but at evening Still walks a Presence serenely pleased to be At home in limitless gardens of the stars, Or gardens shrunken to an order's humbled knees. Nancy G. Westerfield 63.3 2004 J. THOMAS HAMEL A Hidden Treasure of the Ignatian Exercises p~ayer is about getting involved with God by hook by crook and is well worth the effort. Whether by rolling up their sleeves or getting on their knees, by waiting quietly or singing loudly, people manage to find a way of getting involved with God. But what if prayer is not primarily any of these activities? What if prayer is primarily a matter of looking? St. Bernard has a striking response to this question. In his sixty-ninth sermon on the Song of Songs he says: I must bring this sermon to an end, but I will say one thing to the spiritual among you, a strange thing, but true. The soul that looks on God sees him as though she alone were lboked on by him. It is in this confi-dence that she says he is concerned for her, and she for him, and she sees noflaing but herself and him. How good you are, Lord, to the soul who seeks you. You come to meet her, you embrace her, you acknowledge yourself to be her bridegroom, you who are the Lord, God blessed forever above all things.1 ~ J. Thomas Hamel SJ continues to reside at College of the Holy Cross; ¯ , ~ , 1 College Street; Worcester. Massachusetts 01610. Review for Religio~ts Echoes of this passage from St. Bernard are found in the Spiritual Exercises of St. Ignatius Loyola, devoted as he is to the activity of seeing2 For Ignatius the actual begin-ning of prayer has everything to do with looking rather than listening. Along with his own "modesty" or "cus-tody" of the eyes in dealing with others, he seems to exult unrestrainedly in being looked at by God. In his Exercises Ignatius says, "For the space of an Our Father, with mind and heart raised up, consider how God ourLord looks at me" (§75).2 The "vulgate" Latin text adds a nuance: "Picture my Lord Jesus as present and looking at what I am on the point of doing."3 Getting involved with God turns around to mean God getting involved with the one who comes to pray. Ignatian spirituality has much to do with seeking and finding, with looking and listening, with self-offering and receiving. But the precise first step is not so much looking as being looked at, not so much seeing as being seen, being locked in the gaze of God, For Ignatius, prayer begins with the gift of God's attentiveness to me, keeping me in sight, and so a kind of hidden dynamic is at work in the rest of my prayer, including the colloquy: "Imagining Christ our Lord before me on the cross, make a colloquy" (§53). Seeing our Lord on the cross gradually becomes a larger picture. Under Christ's gaze one's whole past comes into focus, and so does what one is doing for Christ here and now, and also his awareness of what one will do. The Redeemer and Savior can con-template one's past, present, and future. In the following Weeks of the Spiritual Exercises, one is invited to be contemplative of the present and future of our eternal Lord's earthly journey. Does contemplation begin in the eyes? During his recuperation in the Loyola family castle after the battle of Pamplona, Ignatius would spend hours imagining what he would do in the service of a certain lady. Had she 63.3 2004 Hamel * A Hidden Treasure of the Ignatian F_.vercises one day looked at him--whoever she was? On another occasion Ignatius "saw clearly a likeness of our Lady with the Holy Child Jesus, at the sight of which he received a very extraordinary consolation."4 Did this extraordinary consolation include the gaze of Mother and Child on him? In Manresa he was mesmerized by the dazzling sight of a serpent: "Somehow it seemed to him that it had the shape of a serpent, and it had many things which shone like eyes, though they weren't eyes. He used to take much delight and be consoled by seeing this thing."s In addition Ignatius would speak of his "interior eyes." He saw with his interior eyes "some things like white:rays which were coming from above. ¯ . He saw clearly with his understanding how Jesus Christ our Lord was present in that most holy sacra-ment. Often, and for a long time, as he was in prayer, he used to see with his interior eyes the humanity of Christ. ¯. Were he to say twenty or forty times, he wouldn't be so bold as to judge that this was a lie . Our Lady too he has seen in a similar form, without distinguishing the parts."6 From such sublime visions, it is typical of Ignatius to bring himself back to earth. "At this time God was dealing with him in the same way as a schoolteacher deals with a child, teaching him . His clear judgment [is] that God was dealing with him in this way.''7 What kind of teachei- other than God allows one to see with one's interior eyes? From schoolboy to errant knight "full of shame and confusion" was not a giant step for Ignatius. In the First Week of the Exercises, Ignatius can readily suppose a person of his culture would feel the disgrace of "being looked upon by his king and all in the court" with disdain, if not repugnance (§74). An even, deeper experience of the hatefulness of sin comes about as a gift of the Father and Son and of our Lady (§~63-64). To receive this gift Review for Religious is to be looked upon by each of them, one after the other. The cosmic gaze of the risen Jesus introduces the Second Week. Everyone and everything is present to the eternal Lord of all. "From the place where he dwells, he gazes on all the inhabitants of the world" (Ps 33:13-14). Before each disciple the eternal Lord pauses, looks, then calls. Whoever responds will be seated at his table, be dressed in clothes similar to his, and be seen with him in the night watches. Such imagery of being a knight beloved of his king personalizes the dream of serving an ideal leader and kingmto be fulfilled only in the company of the shepherd king, the risen Lord of all. Those who respond with full-hearted affection see themselves belong-ing to the world in altogether new ways: interreligious dia-logues, speaking new languages, adapting to new cul-tures, discovering sisters and brothers worldwide. They may also translate Iguatius's much-loved-knight imagery into their own experience, like sharing the food of their Lord--which is doing the will of the Father who sent him, being clothed with his virtues (§93). Prayer from then on occurs in one's own journey and in Christ's. A friendship grows, reverence deepens. Service no longer knows of "shoulds," but is the deed of love welling up from silence and verbal exchange, from spiritual insight, and from special moments of feeling that one is under God's loving gaze. To visit Nazareth, find one's way to Bethlehem, come to the River Jordan, ascend Mount Tabor, enter Jerusalem--wherever, with all that looking in wonder and being looked at, who is to find words or have need of words? Does one need words when con- Service no longer knows of "shoulds," but is the deed of love welling up from silence and verbal exchange. 63.3 2004 Hamel ¯ A Hidden Treasure of the Ignatian F~cercise$ templating the Infant lying in the manger and looking back at you? It would not be difficult to imagine that, when Jesus is leaving Nazareth and you with him, our Lady would be looking at you as well. When present with Jesus in the waters of the Jordan, would not you too be looked at by the Father? (§273). When speaking to his beloved dis-ciples about the beatitudes, how striking that Jesus exhorts them to use their talents, letting their "light shine before people so that they may see your good deeds and gl6rify your Father" (§278). Would you too be caught in that smile of his? On Mount Tabor Christ our Lord became transfigured, and his face shone like the sun and his clothing like snow (§284). Did Peter, James, and John know who was looking at them? When the woman who showed "great love" heard Jesus saying "Your faith has saved you, go in peace," was she not being looked at with love? (§282). St. Peter denied him, but later, after Jesus looked at him, went outside and wept bitterly (§292). Pilate took Jesus and had him flogged; they struck him blows in the face (§295). Were his eyes closed against the blows? And when on the cross he commended St. John to his mother and his mother to St. John, what kind of look was he giving them at that moment? (§297). In his first appearance on the day of the resurrection, the very silence of the .Gospels already suggests that Jesus' and Mary's wordless looking at each other was enough. "The way friends are accustomed to console one another" is often a matter of exchanging heartfelt looks (§224). Ignatius stresses that the risen Jesus appeared many times to the disciples and spoke with them (§311). How often were those "words" simply looks? Even at table eating, Ignatius contemplates. "While eating one should imagine that one is seeing Christ our Lord eating with his apostles, considering the way he Review for Religious drinks, the way he looks around, and the way he talks" (§214). Is there any end to the breadth and lerigth and height of when Christ our Lord looks at you contem-plating all his mysteries? All the seeking and finding, the asking and receiving, all the knowing and loving blend into being looked upon, gazed upon, endlessly, so it seems, in a d!scipleship of friend to friend. Is it merely a coincidence that in Igna~ius's Exercises the final mystery to be contemplated presents Jesus' dis-ciples still looking? "Men of Galilee, why do you stand looking up toward heaven? This Jesus who has been taken from you will come in the same way as you saw him go to heaven" (§312, Acts 1:11). Were the angels subtly inviting the disciples to find their risen Lord look-ing at them in and through his sisters and brothers? Ignatius's long-standing desire to be placed with the Son surely reflects repeated visions of being looked at by the Lord. To be placed with the Son is to be under his gaze forever. This school of contemplation, if it may be so called, takes place on the run. One is being taught while on a journey. In the full thirty-day Exercises, the introduc-tory exercise of prayer is repeated four or five times daily. Before a word is exchanged, the Teacher is simply look-ing, and thereby teaching contemplation, teaching peo-ple to see what the Lord sees, to see ourselves as the Lord sees us, to see others as the Lord sees them. Then, when somewhere along the journey our Lord looks upon us, that look is a reflection of ourselves, like an imitation in reverse. What we see is Christ our Lord being where we find ourselves, aware of what is going on in us and making it known to us. The journey is not quite the same any more; we are in new territory with the Lord. Ignatius alludes to this kind of experience when he recalls the surreptitious visit he made to the Mount of Olives: 63.3 2004 Hamel ¯ A Hidden Treasure of the Igr~ti~ Exercises When they found out in the monastery that he had gone off like this without a guide, the friars took vig-orous s~teps to look for him. So, as he was coming down from the Mount of Olives, he came upon a Christian of the cincture, who was a servant in the monastery. He had a big staff, and with a show of great anger was gesturing as if really to give it to him, and coming up to him he grabbed him roughly by the arm. He let himself be taken readily, but the good man never let him go. And, as he went along this path in this fashion, grabbed by the Christian of the cincture, he had great consolation from our Lord, in that it seemed to him he was seeing Christ always over him. And, until he arrived at the monastery, this lasted all the time in great abundance,s Although this was not by any means the first time Ignatius saw Christ our Lord, it is worth noting how his language catches a different, if not new, experience. Ignatius does not say Christ appeared to him, but he sees Christ "always over him," as if hovering over him, as though walking with him down the path from Bethphage into Jerusalem. It is also worth noting how Ignatius names the consolation. His consolation occurs in what he sees: "seeing Christ always over him." Was Ignatius see-ing Christ in his passion along the Via Dolorosa, but reflecting his own experience of being bound and led into Jerusalem? This had been the city of his dreams, but, after the Franciscan superior told him he had to leave it, it became the place of his own passion. In Ignatius's Spiritual Diary we are let in on similar experiences. As if a new mutuality is being revealed, Jesus accompanies Ignatius before the Father. On Monday, 2 5 February, the feast of St. Matthias, Ignatius is celebrat-ing Mass alone: I entered into the Mass with great devotion, warmth, and tears, at times losing the power of speech. During the prayers to the Father, it seemed that Jesus was presenting them, or accompanied those that I was say- Review for Religious ing, before the Father; and I felt or saw in a way that cannot be explained in those terms? Two days later, on the first day of Lent, Ignatius was in the chapel praying. He writes: I entered the chapel and while praying felt, or to put it more exactly, I saw, not by natural power, the Blessed Trinity and also Jesus who was representing me, or placing me before the Trinity or acting as medi-ator close to the Blessed Trinity, that I might com-municate in that intellectual vision. On feeling and seeing in this way I was covered in tears and love but with Jesus as the object; and toward the Blessed Trinity, a respect of submission more like a reverential love than anything else. Later I felt in a similar way that Jesus was performing the same task when I thought of praying to the Father, for it seemed and I could feel within me that he was doing everything before the Father and the Blessed Trinity.1° Jesus, the Mediator par excellence, so identifies with Ignatius that, in presenting Ignatius to the Father, it seems that Jesus is presenting himself to the Father. On the other hand, when Ignatius humbles himself before the Blessed Trinity, not out of fear but with a reverential love, it seems that he has entered into the very senti-ments of Jesus himself. What happened to Moses springs to mind: he talked to God face to face (Ex 33:11). In the beginning, however, "Moses hid his face from God, for he was afraid to look at God" (Ex 3:6). The sight of the burning bush was only a beginning, but a journey begun leads to other beginnings. Seeing and being seen are wondrous beginnings in themselves, but others follow: not only sight but also sound, not only sound but also silence. Memories long buried may come into view; new and hardly namable feelings may arise. Contemplation is a new and mostly unspoken language that may come more and more into play on the journey. To see in this way the language spoken by our Savior's eyes--to learn 63.3 2004 Hamel * A Hidden Treasure of the lgnatian Exercises it and respond in it--is to be seen by the Father, to see him as he is, and to become like him. Perhaps this would be the ultimate grace, the hidden treasure, of the Spiritual Exercises. Notes i Bernard of Clairvaux, "On the Song of Songs," Vol. 4, trans. Irene Edmonds (Kalamazoo: Cistercian Publications, 1980), p. 35. 2 St. Ignatius of Loyola: Personal Writings, trans. Joseph A. Munitiz and Philip Endean (London: Penguin Books, 1996), p. 300. 3 A new translation from the "vulgate" Latin text, The Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius, trans. Pierre Wolff (Liguori, Missouri: Triumph, 1997), p. 25, §75. 4 Personal Writings, Reminiscences, p. 16 (=Autobiography, § 10). s Reminiscences, p. 21 (=Autobiography, §19). 6 Reminiscences, p. 26 (=Autobiography, §29). 7 Reminiscences, p. 25 (=Autobiography, §27). s Reminiscences, p. 35 (=Autobiography, §48). 9 Personal Writings, p. 86 (=Spiritual Diary, §24). 1o Personal Writings, p. 87 (=Spiritual Diary, §26). Review for Religious SEAN SAMMON Fidelity and Commitment: Letter to a Young Marist Brother Dear Zebulun, After our general chapter I decided to write to our young brothers. You number more than eight hundred, and I was eager to get in touch with you to offer a word of encouragement. Zebulun, you and our other young brothers give me and many more older brothers great hope that a new day is dawning for our Marist life and mission throughout the world. So many of you tell me how eager you are to embrace and live fully the five calls found in our general chapter message. "Center your lives in Jesus," the delegates wrote, "for upon this foundation our life is built. Be sowers of hope: by means of new and renewed initiatives in evangelization, education, and solidarity, draw closer to the poorest and most marginalized of young people. Join efforts Se~in Sammon FMS, now superior general of the Marist Brothers, wrote for us in 1992 and 1993. His address is Fratelli Maristi delle Scuole; C.P. 10250; 00144 Roma, Italy. 63.3 2004 Sammon ¯ Fidelity and Commitment with our lay parmers to clarify more fully their identity and ours and to collaborate more closely in mission, spirituality, formation. Build communities where forgiveness is a habit and reconciliation no stranger. Do all things in Mary's way." A challenging agenda, but one that many of you appear eager to implement! You have come to religious life during a turbulent period in its history. The world in which you grew up is also very different from the one in which many of us began our Marist life. We look to benefit from your experience with young people and your understanding of their joys and preoccupations. We are eager to hear from you what young people need from us who are cormnitted to sharing the Good News of Jesus Christ with them. Never cease to challenge us with your hopes and dreams, and do not hesitate to share with us your fears and concerns as well. I write as your brother, recalling my own years as a young brother and remembering the energy and the distracting preoccupations that often marked those years~ I remember a sense of adventure, but also sometimes feeling that a word of encouragement or some clarifying light would have been very welcome indeed. Today I seek to cast some light on fidelity and commitment. If this seems an unusual topic with which to begin, it is nevertheless one that has come from conversations with young brothers. It is a topic on the minds of a good many of them. With this letter I attempt to respond to their questions and concerns--but without forgetting my chief purpose: getting in contact with you and bringing some encouragement. Why This Concern with Fidelity. and Commitment? During my visit with a group of young brothers in Bolivia, I was asked: "Why do you think so many young Review for Religious brothers are leaving our congregation?" The question was direct and needed an answer, for it represented the mind of many in the room. I offered a few words in response, but I knew my reply was not adequate. So the question stayed with me. It remains with me still. Some may insist that responsibility for leaving the institute lies with the various individuals, but that explanation is too facile for me. Over the years some dear friends of mine have left. Good and honest men, on fire with a love of Jesus Christ and a desire to make a difference in the lives of poor kids, they have decided to steer their life in a different direction from our Marist brotherhood. Each time I found myself asking: "For what reasons is he leaving?" and "What makes me stay?" Others may think and say that those who request dispensation from their vows do so because they have grown lukewarm and found themselves unable to cope with the disappointments that are the part of any life commitment lived well. Here again the explanation seems too facile. After all, haven't most of us from time to time thought about leaving? Aren't we all sometimes lukewarm? If we are human, we all experience occasional problems with one or several of these important dimensions of our lives: relationships, sexuality, faith, cormnunity life, our ministry, and even the priorities that the members of our province may establish. Zebulun, I believe that you and I will find an answer to the question put to me in Bolivia if we can deepen our Fidelity helps us remain true to what we have pledged despite the contradictory values that we might encounter on life's journey. -2-85- 63.3 2004 Sammon ¯ Fidelity and Commitment understanding of the nature of fidelity. After all, isn't it the virtue that helps people like us overcome feelings of staleness that sometimes threaten our life commitments? Fidelity helps us remain true to what we have pledged despite the contradictory values that we might encounter on life's journey. God is faithful to us. Keeping that fact in mind, let us take a look at that time in life when the dream that God has in mind for each of us began to take shape. Can you remember the earliest time when people asked you what you were going to do with your life? Whatever our responses were, they were influenced by our experiences, our culture, our personality and natural gifts, the expectations that others had for us, and of course God. The word vocation sometimes describes our response to this very same question: we feel called. Before Vatican Council 17, however, vocation was commonly used only for people who entered a seminary or a religious congregation. Thankfully, the present-day understanding of vocation is much broader. Everyone is called by God to something and therefore has a vocation. A religious vocation is one type Of vocation, but all who respond to God,s dream for them are living out a vocation. God's Dream for Me and the Mystery of Election At the center of your vocation and mine lies the mystery of "election." The second chapter of our Marist Constitutions and Statutes says it well: God called you and me by name. God led us into the desert and spoke to our hearts. God sent us out on mission. Simply put, God has a dream for each of us and is eager to share it and lead us into it. But he uses very human means to get the message across. Our awareness of God's dream for ourselves can often be traced back to our answer to the question with which we began this section: What am I going to do with my life? Review for Religious Our answer usually began as a fluid vision of the kind of person I am, of who I was becoming in the world. Often enough I modeled myself after adults I admired. When I think back to my own teenage years, I remember that the brothers who taught me in secondary school made quite an impression on me. I wanted to be like them. They were effective in their ministry and obviously enjoyed working with young people. Most of all, they were happy--happy, not in the sense of hilarity, but happy because of their deep sense of purpose, their dedication. So strong was the impression that these brothers made on me that I went to the juniorate at age fifteen. God got his message across to me through a group of---as I later realized---all-too-human men nevertheless doing something that would be worth the gift of my life. Over timeI learned that my early-adolescent dream, too, contained illusions of its own. Maybe you had the same experience. Sometimes I thought of myself as larger than life. During the years since, I have often wondered whether-I considered this inflated view of myself necessary for doing all the things I believed others expected me to do. Eventually I learned another important lesson: The reasons that brought me to religious life are not the reasons that kept me from leaving. That's right. As your vocation or mine matures, we understand the deeper reasons behind our choice to be a brother. We understand ourselves and our way of life as Marist brothers better than when we were first attracted to it. God leads us to a deeper experience of his love for each of us. A vocation, consequently, is not a once-and-for-all call that comes sometime during adolescence. Rather, it is a daily and lifelong conversation with God. For you and me to be faithful to our vocation as Marist brothers, then, we will have to do a great, deal more than refresh our 63.3 2004 Sammon * Fidelity and Commitment memories of an invitation that came early in life. Instead, we will need to practice what Marcellin Champagnat called the presence of God. God's Dream and. the Rich Young Man Before moving on, let us look at another question. What happens if I fail to follow God's dream for me? After all, this dream of God's is something freely offered; I do not have to accept it. Permit me to respond with a story. Several years ago, during the course of a workshop at the English College in Rome, I met a young man there whom I will call Stephen. This Roman seminary prepares priests for all the dioceses of Great Britain, and Stephen was a third-year student. Before entering the college and formation for priesthood, he had been a successful businessman. During breakfast one morning I asked him what had brought him to the seminary. His response was disarming: "I don't think I have a vocation to ;priesthood, but apparendy God does!" He said that with the passage of time he was just beginning to feel at home with that notion. In its early days a religious vocation is not always welcomed with joy! So God's dream for you and for me is freely offered and can be accepted or put aside. In putting it aside, however, we run a risk. Though we may live a life that is happy and fulfilling, and envied by others, at some deep level .we may sense that an important part of our life is missing. All three synoptic Gospels tell of a rich young man who came to Jesus and asked what he had to do to possess eternal life. Jesus said, "Keep the commandments." The man said he had always kept them. Jesus, looking beyond this young man's lifelong conscientiousness, saw what his practice of religion could be: something much better than keeping his heart to himself and taking pride in observing the Law and avoiding mistakes. And so, looking on him with love, Review for Religious Jesus said: "There is still one thing you lack. Sell everything that you own and distribute the money to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven; then come, follow me." The rich young man was faced now with having to choose one of two life directions. One would include God's dream for him, and the other would not. We know the end of the story well. This rich young man failed to accept the Lord's invitation, and he went away sad. Zebulun, I wonder if you sometimes feel like this rich young man, as I do. As life unfolds, we discover that every commitment lived well demands sacrifice, allowing others to have a claim over our time, talents, and energies. The Lord invites us to take up certain tasks, not because we want to, but because our presence and efforts are necessary. Some of us are perennially slow learners, and so it is only on arriving at the end of our thirties that we discover and admit that we have long been straying from what God has had in mind for us. At that point we face a choice much like the rich young man's. Midlife provides the opportunity, once again, to move our life more in the direction of God's dream for us. Our twentieth general chapter, with its theme of vitality, offered us a similar opportunity. Those who participated in that gathering and our lay consultants did not produce an elaborate pastoral plan, nor send us a message that included many details. No, their final communiqu6 was very simple. What it asked of us today as.Marist brothers is a revolution of the heart. Simply put, we must fall in love with God, once again. Vocations and Risk and Times of Change In making any permanent commitment, you and I must surrender ourselves to someone who is beyond our control. Every vocation, therefore, has an element of risk; 63.3 2004 Sammon ¯ Fidelity and Commitment it is a leap into the unknown. We are called upon to take a chance with our lives, to take a risk, to go beyond the information we have on hand. Some people prefer to wait until they have all the information necessary to make the best possible decision, but this course of action has its own danger. If you or I wait to be absolutely sure of ourselves before taking action, then we will be dead before we do anything meaningful. So let us keep our vocations alive and lively by taking risks again, and again, and again. Most of us admit to having "second thoughts" from time to time about the important commitments we have made in life. My own questions and doubts occurred during my late twenties and then again in my early forties. I mentioned earlier that I went to the juniorate at age fifteen. Ten to fifteen years later I was asking myself whether I chose too soon. I had the notion that waiting several more years before making a definitive choice about my life would have spared me the burden I felt at age twenty-eight. The truth of the matter, however, is that none of us escapes consequences. Had I delayed making a life commitment, I would have suffered a different set of consequences. God saw fit to invite me to make a move at fifteen; he invites others at eighteen, or twenty-two, or thirty. Some people point out that the doubts we all experience about our vocation often occur during times of transition. In people's lives, periods of change and turmoil alternate with stable periods. The latter run about six or seven years and are often marked by productivity and a sense of well-being. People have their sights set on the future, on building a life for themselves. In contrast, transitions are times when people look back and have second thoughts. These periods may last four or five years and may begin with an ending. Many brothers feel it deeply and at length when a parent dies, Review for Religious or when they leave one ministry for another, or move from one community to another. Or they may fall in love, fail at a task, have a spiritual awakening, become involved in a renewal program or advanced study, or turn a certain age. No matter what precipitates them, changes do occur and bring some kind of ending to what has gone before. Most of us believe that new beginnings take place quickly. Life's transitions, however, manage to surprise us by bringing an extended period of uncertainty during which we feel "up in the air" or "lost at sea." About all we are sure of is that we cannot go back to the world we once knew. Eventually transitions comes to a close when new beginnings get well underway. We cannot, however, speed them up. They happen in their own good time. Renewal programs, counseling and spiritual direction, and talking with community members, friends, and confidants can help us reap greater benefit from any time of transition. Frank discussion about our situa-tlon with a person or persons whom we trust is one of the best ways to profit from a period of transition, but these conversations will not make the transition happen faster. Well used, though, periods of transition will reward us. Times of transition are times of grace. These are the desert experiences during which God speaks to our hearts. They are marked by some common feelings. We find ourselves disillusioned, or disengaged from our community or other people. The roles that we fill in life often do not make much sense anymore. Though these periods may frighten and disturb us, leave us resdess and uncertain, they are times of purification, of deepening our understanding, of opportunity to rework our life Times of transition are times of grace. 63.3 2004 Sammon ¯ Fidelity and Commitment commitments and come to love them more deeply. Single people, married people, priests, and men and women religious all go through times of transition. We need not be alarmed when they come, but we should handle them intelligently, and seek advice in doing so. One Person's Story Here is an example of one person's life transition. Several years ago, while I was visiting a province, a young brother whom I will call Michael came to speak with me. He was heavy of heart and told of being in love with a young woman, a religious sister whom he had met while taking some classes. He was heavy of heart because he felt divided between loving this young woman and having an equal love for our Marist brotherhood and mission. He asked me for my reaction to his situation. I said, "Michael, it sounds like Christmas morning!" Looking surprised, he asked what I meant. I said that the relationship he described sounded wonderful, but that, as he probably realized, he faced some difficult decisions. He could not live for any length of time divided between this new relationship and his love of Marist life and mission. Eventually he would have to answer a question that all of us face in life: On whom or what do I set my heart? This spiritual question lies within every life transition. None of us can live for long with a divided heart. Eventually we must decide where we stand in life and what we hold dear. These major life commitments, then, become over time the touchstone for many of the other important decisions we must make in life. And what about this young brother today, several years later? Michael took his life situation in hand, as did the young sister. Both began to meet with spiritual directors, and he met with a counselor as well--and he began talking more honestly with the members of his community. Eventually Michael and his friend realized Review for Religious that the relationship they shared was an important source of support to their respective vocations. Today he finds his commitment to our congregation and mission stronger and deeper than in the past, and the young sister has a similar experience. Over time both realized that their community-life commitments and the values they hold dear are a steady compass helping them make the right choices in life. This young brother showed a great deal of courage. He could have avoided discussing his relationship, or deceived himself by minimizing its importance in his life. Instead, he accepted the grace that God gave him and found himself growing more aware of God's dream for him and accepting all that that dream required of him. Commitments and Freedom What is a commitment? To begin with, every. commitment involves a call. By one means or another, Jesus Christ gets our attention and invites us into a loving relationship with him. The mystery of election obviously plays an important role in the process. The relationship that we have with Jesus is the foundation upon which our religious vocations are built. Every commitment calls for a choice. And you and I both know that the choices we make in life help to define us. If your provincial asks you to decide between preparing to be a formator or working on a master's degree in mathematics, you quickly realize that the choice you make will affect the structure of your life at least for the immediate future, and probably also during the years to come. Finally, every commitment involves a promise. A promise is a particular kind of choice because it describes something that we intend to do in the future. For example, when you and I made our commitment in our Marist brotherhood to be poor, chaste, and obedient, we 63.3 2004 Sammon ¯ Fidelity and Commitment Freedom refers to our capacity to be self-determining. were not merely making a prediction about our future or reporting on our present state of mind. We were stating a firm intention and binding ourselves to a future course of action. So what is the advantage of making any type of commitment? To make a promise is the surest way for any of us to determine the direction of our life rather than to have it set for us. At first glance, freedom and commitment appear incompatible. Many of us have been led to believe that our happiness in life is related directly to the number of options that we have available. And conventional wisdom insists that to increase our freedom we need only increase our capacity for having our own way. This line of argument is aimed at convincing us that any life commitment is best put off, because it will only limit us, rein us in, make us less free. Life experience, though, reveals the flaw in this thinking. Zebulun, I think you and I both realize that a failure to commit ourselves does not ensure greater freedom. Freedom, after all, refers to our capacity to be self-determining. In promising to live out a particular way of life or to be a partner in a lifelong relationship, people choose freely to grow in one direction and not in another. Yes, it is important to be an adolescent for a while, to explore and experience different options for living, but it is equally important not to be an adolescent for a lifetime. All of us continue to explore throughout the course of life, but those among us who are perpetually adolescent use exploration to avoid ever making a gift of our lives, In the end we do not live life, we dabble in it. In making a commitment, then, we do not surrender freedom--most often we enhance it. Any of us, in Review for Religious committing ourselves fully to our life as brothers, will likely find that our potential for spiritual, apostolic, and emotional growth is enhanced. We become more focused and have greater intimacy with God and with others. By trying to keep all our options open, by refusing to make choices and commitments, we would eventually lose our freedom. Over time our life would be determined by forces beyond our control. What about Permanent Commitments? Most of us do not have much of a problem with the idea of commitments. Some of us, however, have a problem with the notion of permanence. I would suggest, though, that there is an intrinsic connection between "forever" and some life commitments. Every day all over the world people express their love for each other through marriage vows, saying "until death do us part." They do not just pledge themselves to persevere as long as all goes well, but rather they aspire to remain together no matter what obstacles stand in their way. Never mistake "forever" with stagnation or a lack of growth. The notion of "temporary commitment" makes me uncomfortable. It apparently comes from the tawdry "everything is disposable" attitude in contemporary culture, and, besides, the words temporary and commitment somehow do not seem to go together. If you or I want to give five years of our lives to a project, why call that gift of rime and talent a commitment. Wouldn't some word like agreement or arrangement better convey what we mean? What justifies a permanent commitment? Something quite simple: no better soil for human gro~vtb has yet been found. A permanent commitment, though, must always be judged by the fruit it bears. If any of us becomes bored, indifferent, and resentful in his permanent commitment, people wonder what it contributes to the 63.3 2004 Sammon * Fidelity and Commitment vitality of the group. They know that making our vows does not signal the journey's end. Rather it heralds a journey well begun. Perseverance is not necessarily a good measure of fidelity. Haven't some of us lived and worked with brothers who appeared so unhappy in our way of life and ministry that we had to ask 6urselves why he stays. Surely God did not plan for him to be so miserable in our way of life and our ministry to poor children and young people! Today, however, we face a phenomenon more visible than in the past and best described as the "breaking of commitments." You and I have known brothers, good men, who early in the course of their lives committed themselves generously to God and to others and who, over time, strove to live out faithfully the commitment they made. Then, as the years passed and their relationships with God, themselves, and others unfolded, these very same men came. to question the promises they had made in good faith so many years ago. Is Perseverance Always a Sign of Fidelity? In the enthusiasm that marked their early years of Marist life, they had made vows intending them to be permanent. With the passage of time, however, they found that, no matter how hard they tried, they could not live them out fully. During times of life transition--and for a number of us these changes occur when we are about thirty years old and then again during our early forties--many seek an answer to this question: Is it fidelity when someone clings to a vowed commitment and rigidly perseveres without facing honestly the .dull performance and lack of life that appear to be its fruit? ¯ Fidelity is at times exercised in change as well as in stability. For most of us~ our commitment to Jesus as Marist brothers reflects~ the deepest currents in our lives and significant aspects of our.personality. To some of our Review for Religious brothers, however, time reveals that more than anything else their commitment merely serves their need for security or provides a place to be of service to people. For a few other brothers, there is a growing realization that important elements of their commitment have died. For these last groups, the task at midlife is not simply to understand more fully the "mixed motives" that draw them to one vocation or another. Rather, it is to see that they have been living their life on a deficient grasp of some important truths or that their once cherished dream is in pieces. Moments of profound sadness, loss, and confusion accompany their growing awareness that sometimes fidelity to God, to oneself, and to others may be exercised in acknowledging that somehow a com-mitment has died or should be treated that way. We must, however, not use this line of reasoning to put aside a life commitment too easily. Whenever any of us are confronted with serious questions and doubts about our commitment as brothers, we must do no less than commit ourselves to a careful d

Issue 57.3 of the Review for Religious, May/June 1998. ; f,or relig i ous C~sfian Heritages and Cont~empora~ Living MAY-JUNE 1998 ¯ VOLUME 57 ¯ NUMBER 3 Review for Religious is a forum for shared reflection on the lived experience of all wl~o find that the church's rich ¯ heritages of spirituality support their personal and apostolic Christian lives. The articles in the journal are meant to be informative, practical, historical, or inspirational, written from a tbeological or spiritual or sometimes canonical point of view. Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393. Telephone: 314-977-7363 ¯ Fax: 314-977-7362 E-Mail: FOPPEMA@SLU.EDU Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondeuce with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ° St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP 1150 Cedar Cove Road ¯ Henderson, NC 27536 POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Periodical postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©1998 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any material (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Editorial Staff Advisory Board David L. Fleming $3 Philip C. Fischer SJ Regina Siegfried ASC Elizabeth McDonough°OP Mary Ann Foppe Tracy Gramm Jean Read James and Joan Felling Kathryn Richards FSP Joel Rippinger OSB Bishop Carlos A. Sevilla sJ David Werthmann CSSR Patricia Wittberg SC Chr~s6an Heritages and Contemporary L~v~ng MAY-JUNE 1998 ¯ VOLUME 57 ¯ NUMBER 3 contents 230 247 responding to the spirit Journey Inward, Journey Outward: ATheology of Call Gregory J. Polan OSB brings together personal experience and patterned scriptural examples in discussing the mystery of vocation. An Itinerant Approach to Theological Updating Marie Chiodo DW and Mary Irving SSND set forth a four-stage process used in one province's theological updating. 26O 275 celibacy and sexuality Calling Forth a Healthy Chaste Life Donald J. Goergen OP considers various aspects of sexuality and celibacy that contribute to a healthily centered religious life. Skills Needed for Celibacy Martin Pable OFMCap focuses on celibacy as a set of behavioral skills by which people can assess their own (and candidates') actual living of the charism. Review for Religious 286 299 finding God The Books That Led Ignatius to God Joseph N. Tylenda SJ presents Ignatius Loyola as an example of spiritual reading bringing about a lifelong conversion. The Desert as Spiritual Landscape Dennis J. Billy CSSR finds in a desert sojourn risk, humbling reality, and whispers of hope. 304 report Women Religious and Sexual Trauma Paul N. Duckro, John T. Chibnall, and M. Ann Wolf present summary data from their extensive survey on this sdrious and sensitive topic and offer some pertinent reflections. departments 228 Prisms 314 Canonical Counsel: The Evangelical Counsel of Poverty 320 Book Reviews ~Ylay-June 1998 The Spirit is God's mark of ownership on you. le on a recent visit to South Africa, I noticed how often automobiles have distinguishing num-bers, letters, or symbols painted boldly on their doors and even on their rooftops. I came to realize that these signs are not just expressions of beauty or individuality, but they provide a visible way of claiming ownership and discour-aging carjacking or thievery. St. Paul exhorted the members of his Christian com-munities to rejoice because the Spirit is God's mark of ownership over them. As we celebrate Pentecost in this year dedicated to the Holy Spirit, we may have a certain longing for tongues of fire as a vivid experience of the Spirit's presence and power in our lives. But I wonder whether today we in the Christian community seize the opportunity to welcome the gripping--though common-place-- idea of the Spirit as God's ownership. We own things, but we do not like to think of ourselves as being owned, even by God. We want to think of ourselves as autonomous, free, in charge of our own fate. Sometimes, though, we may admit to ourselves how much we have bought into (or, perhaps more correctly, "been bought by") the values of our culture, the prejudices of our eth-nic groups, and the political assumptions of our times. We are likely owned in many more ways than we care to discover--and we may show it by the way we live! Perhaps, then, we need to work at making our lives belong more visibly to God. Our Pentecost experience may not include rushing wind or fiery tongues, but the presence of the Spirit in our lives is still meant to be--as in Paul's communities-- the mark of God's ownership. Sometimes we too facilely identify the church as a hierarchical church or, more in Review for Religious vogue today, a church of the laity. But the truest reality is that the church is one people assembled, all belonging to the Spirit, marked with God's ownership. Living this reality consciously is part of our personal efforts in preparing for the millennium. Our personal witnessing of this reality is central to our evangelizing efforts, more necessary in the secularizing trends of our times than in Paul's Roman Empire days. What does God's ownership mean for us? God's ownership of us, marked by the presence of the Spirit in our lives, is meant to shine out in our way of acting. The traditional expression is "giving glory to God." Giving glory means that we become trans-parent enough that God and God's life and God's love can shine out through us. For example--to draw from the everyday behav-iors suggested by St. Paul--the way we talk. St. Paul stresses that a person marked by the Spirit speaks only helpful words, words that build up and provide for what is needed. It is how Jesus speaks. What we say should do good for those who hear us. Beyond our words, what can distinguish our dealings with peo-ple- the occasions for God's glory to shine out in us--is our kind-ness and our readiness to forgive. It is how Jesus acted. At a time in our world when massacres of Christians by Christians take place in Rwanda and Burundi, when fellow Christians seek revenge for age-old wrongs in Northern Ireland, when Orthodox, Catholic, and Muslim (all believers in the one God) slaughter one another in ethnic feuds, we can rightly won-der about our welcoming God's Spirit as a mark of God's ownership over us. But let us look into our own mirrors. When everyday human interaction includes ourselves as automobile drivers whose road rage leads us to endanger others, when we "good people" con-tinue to flee from neighborhoods that are in the process of racial integration, when we find ourselves hardened to the reality of abor-tion and assisted suicide, we can question whether we as individu-als and as communities have allowed the Spirit enough welcome to dwell within us, whether God's ownership of us shines out. In an engaging childlike way, St. Paul exhorted the early Christians not to make the Spirit sad. As we celebrate this year specially dedicated to the Spirit, we need to assess whether our Christian living shows forth God's ownership. Or do we make the Spirit sad? David L. Fleming SJ May-June 1998 229 GREGORY J. POLAN Journey Inward, Journey Outward: A Theology of Call 230 As someone who has studied the Scriptures for a number of years, I find reflection on a theology of call particu-larly interesting for several reasons. First, there is much to be said from the perspective of the Scriptures, from Abraham and Moses in the Hebrew Scriptures to Mary and Paul in the Christian Scriptures. Second, as rector of a college seminary for almost a decade, as spiritual direc-tor to both men and women religious over the years, and now as abbot of a Benedictine community, I have been privileged to hear stories of divine in-breaking in the lives of many people--stories as varied as the people who revealed them and as similar as the human nature we all have. The beauty and sacredness of these accounts tell of divine and human communion struggling to express itself in words, yet unable to relate its richness fully. And, third, something within me longs to continue the search for a deeper understanding of my own call and its meaning, past, present, and future. Those who help others discern their call should know well, understand fully, and discover anew the source of their own calling. The vocational story of each person is sacred; it is rich in faith. Our growth in faith should enable Gregory J. Polan OSB, the abbot of Conception Abbey, teaches courses in Scripture at Conception Seminary College and serves on the editorial board of The Bible Today. His mailing address is Conception Abbey; Conception, Missouri 64433. Review for Religious us to see with new eyes what God was choreographing in our first encounters .with the divine. The episodes of divine in-breaking in our own lives should say more to us now than they did thirty, twenty, or ten years ago or maybe just a year ago. The mystery of God's plan in our lives can be a source of strength and hope, of deepened faith and commitment, of renewed zeal and joyful response, of serious reflection and lighthearted humor for us and for others. Thus, the experience of renewing our call can be both a journey inward and a journey outward. I would like to consider some of the major call narratives of the Scriptures from a form-critical perspective, then move to a consideration of their meaning in our own lives by reflecting on their theological significance, and, finally, consider their rele-vance in the lives of candidates who come to us in our roles as vocation directors or directors of formation. Though these remarks are directed primarily to those who help candidates dis-cern a vocation to the ordained ministry or religious life, they may also help all who seek to rediscover the roots of their calling and to discern God's will in their lives. A Form-Critical View of Biblical Call Narratives For at least ten years, biblical scholars have been challeng-ing the practices of the historical-critical method of scriptural exegesis and showing its limitations. Solid scholarship has warned us about paying too much homage to historical criticism. It is not dead; it is just not the god some had made it out to be. Bringing different questions to the text for our topic at hand, I have found form criticism particularly helpful. Form criticism considers the oral transmission of a tradition and attempts to discover the life situation from which it arose. One aspect of form criticism has been neglected: its potential for revealing a theological message in a text. One effort of form crit-ics is to see a common pattern of thought among texts. Such a pattern reveals the manner in which a text unfolds in a topical, nearly thematic, presentation. For example, in laments of the Psalter, the thought pattern is rather consistent: The speaker (1) makes a plea for divine assistance, (2) describes the situation that causes distress and (3) tells God why divine assistance is needed, (4) then expresses a certain trust that God will heed the request, and, finally, (5) makes a promise to God or acknowledges deliv- May-June 1998 Polan ¯ Journey Inward, Journey Outward There are significant repercussions not only for the one being called, but for others as well. erance from other distressing situations. With remarkable con-sistency this pattern runs through the laments of the Psalter. But discovering the pattern is not the place to stop. There is more to be said, particularly on a theological level. What is the theological significance? How is it that our ances-tors in the faith followed such a pattern to express their need for divine assistance? Is there something in the human spirit that rec-ognizes these elements as essential when a person comes before God in a time of need? I suggest that, more than simple ancient conventions, the elements reveal to us something deep in the experience of the human-divine dialogue. The pattern is a perceptive sketch of the mystery of faith found in a particular kind of human expe-rience. "The Form and Significance of the Call Narrad;ces," a 1965 article by Norman Habel of Concordia Seminary in St. Louis, distinguishes a pattern found in several call narratives of the Old Testament: ~ 1. The divine confrontation. God or a divine messenger enters the scene. It is clear that a divine encounter is to take place. 2. The introductory word. A particular preparatory or explana-tory statement sets the scene further. It can be a greeting or a few clarifying words. 3. The commission. Next the person receives a direct command or imperative relating the task that lies ahead. 4. The objection. Invariably, there is a negative. The person shrinks from what seems to be an overwhelming task. 5. The reassurance. God (or the messenger) responds immedi-ately, assuring the person that the task will not have to be accom-plished alone; divine assistance will be on hand. 6. The sign. Though not every call narrative includes a sign, several do. In a sense, the sign continues the assurance of number 5 by guaranteeing that the promise God has made will be carried out. The divine word is faithful. I would like to illustrate the elements of this pattern, first revisiting biblical scenes and then relating them to our own sense of call and our work with candidates for the seminary and religious life.2 Review for Religious The Divine Confrontation (Scene 1) The biblical scene. Key to the significance of the opening scene is that God is breaking into ordinary life in an extraordinary way. The cattle-herder Amos tells of "being snatched away" from car-ing for his herd and being told to "go and prophesy" to neighbors who are at civil war with his own people (Am 7:15). In some mys-terious way the person being called knows that a divine encounter has taken place. The prophet Ezekiel is sitting by the river Chebar in Babylon when he encounters God. He comments, "The hand of the Lord was upon me" (Ezk 1:3). God enters the human scene. A visible manifestation of the divine presence has taken place. Scholars suggest that insistence on direct contact with the divine was seen as necessary for one who stood as mediator between God and other mortal beings) Consistently, the person being called "sees" God or something divine. Isaiah sees "the Lord sit-ting on a throne, high and lofty" (Is 6:1). Jeremiah tells of his experience in "the council of the Lord" (Jr 23:18). When the priests and prophets of the temple say Jeremiah deserves death for his harsh condemnation of the temple, he responds, "The Lord sent me to prophesy against this house and this city all the words you have heard . As for me,here I am in your hands. Do with me as seems good and right to you" (Jr 26:12, 14). The words are not Jeremiah's. He is a mouthpiece for God. What is important for our reflectiofi is that the call scene is of divine origin. And in each case, because God is acting, there are significant repercussions not only for the one being called, but for others as well. The divine confrontation situates an event of great importance for those who hear or read about the one called. Consider the divine confrontation in the call of Mary of Nazareth. At a critical moment in the history of salvation, God enters the scene through an angelic messenger--the divine presence is essen-tial. It signals a turning point, not only for the person receiving the call, but also for others--here, the whole human race. To support the significance of the divine origin and its impact, we need only ask how the Book of Jeremiah ever came to enter the canon of Scriptures. Its message from beginning to end (with rare moments of hope) is gloom and doom, suffering and pain. Why would such a message be reverenced as a measuring rod of the faith of Israel and the church? I suggest it was because of the con-viction that the prophet was visited by God, and the message he Mlay-June 1998 Polan ¯ ~ourney Inward, Journey Outward delivered, harsh and biting as it was, was true. The community of faith deemed it authentic, of divine origin. For the vocation director. Divine intervention is sometimes dif-ficult for us to express in words. Yet it is an important, even essen-tial, experience for each of us to examine. I dare say God is never more clearly God than when we experience divine presence and know we have been called. For Isaiah it was being in the pres-ence of the wholly/Holy Other (Is 6:35). While it need not be a "bolt of lightning," an encounter of "otherness" reveals divine in-breaking. And, if we take the Scriptures as our norm, it is the wholly/Holy Other who has called us. What remains is to dig deep within, to recover the moment or moments, to claim them as sacred, and to struggle to wrap words around what will never be adequately expressed. One of my favorite spiritual writers, Maria Boulding, speaks of divine encounter with eloquence and simplicity: "We live very close to a mysterious presence. God is 'nearer to me than I am to myself,' as St. Augustine put it, but we do not see or understand him. God is utterly mysterious, and strangely gentle. When he makes himself known we are confounded, yet at the heart of our bewilderment there is a sense of recognizing something we have always known. There is nothing else quite like it in our whole experience."4 It has been important for me to return to the moments of my call and see them in their stark simplicity. This return has awak-ened in me both a sense of the seriousness of the divine call in my life and a daily awareness of the divine presence steering me toward fuller, more joyful and faithful responses to everything around me. I have come to see how it was that God called me in my utter weakness, in my fears, in my doubts, in my naivet~, in my immaturity, and even in my sinfulness. God called me beyond those self-absorbing concerns and into new life. And as I con-tinue to return to themoments of God's call, an understanding of the meaning of divine visitation becomes fuller, brighter, and deeper. For the candidate. In A Touch of G~d, Dom Philip Jebb tells a personal story of an experience early in his religious life. It speaks to this point rather well: After a period of almost delirious joy in my praying, I had an experience of annihilation: I felt that I was being sucked into a "black hole." It was a positive experience of noth- Review for Religious ingness. It was the most horrific experience I have ever had: I seemed to be teetering on the edge of becoming nothing. This was not physical, it was not precisely in the mind, it was in the spirit, in the very roots of my being. I went to Dom Leander in a real terror, feeling that at any moment I was going not only out of my mind, but out of existence. And, when I told him of it in words of panic and despera-tion, he replied, "This is marvelous! The best thing that could happen to you; I only wish I were there with you in this." And I said, "If you can say that, then you have no comprehension of what I am talking about." He assured me that he did, and that I was experiencing the infinity and total otherness of God. In prayer we keep making concepts or ideas of God, and then making these into God, but, as we remain faithful to God and God to us, he has to break out of everything that appears to contain him, the bottom has to drop out of the world and the effect appears to be one of annihilation . It was at this time that I wrote a poem which begins, "Wonder is so sudden a gift.''s More than a few times in my experience as spiritual director, as seminary rector, and even now as abbot, someone has come to me in tears with a story similar in its horror but unique in its description. It is important that we be alert to the circuitous and mysterious paths God takes in human experience. Though so often it is God who provides the tender and gentle reminder of divine compassion amidst the assaults on our spirit, here it is the human director who responsively and kindly helps the struggling person understand that encounters with the divine often entail a night like Jacob's--who was afterward renamed Israel (Gn 32:22- 32). But, unless our own experience of the divine is close at hand, we risk missing the signs of a turning point, a moment of grace, a transition, an experience of conversion in the life of the candi-date. The Introductory Word (Scene 2) The biblical scene. The introductory word is important because it establishes a relationship between the human person and God. Here the person's importance before God is made clear. The word to the great unknown prophet of Second Isaiah was a promise of a covenant renewed in comfort and forgiveness (Is 40:1-3). For Mary of Nazareth, God's own delight in her is expressed: you are the "favored one; the Lord is with you" (Lk 1:28). Mary is indeed May-June 1998 Polan ¯ Journey Inward, Journey Outward special among God's people. Jeremiah is told that, before he was formed in his mother's womb, he was set apart to share in a divine mission (Jr 1:5). The introductory word makes the person receptive to the divine word that will come. It says that the divine choice is pre-ceded by divine love.6 The election to a special vocation comes, not because of talent or giftedness first, but out of divine love. Divine delight impels God to call the person to share in the salvific and redemptive plan. Here the word of God informs the person that he or she has a relationship with God that has been and is touched by blessing. Like God's constant and watchful love for Israel through desert wanderings and times of infidelity is the same divine love ever accompanying the recipient of God's call. The divine word is present in fidelity, in the assurance that God's justice--that is, right relationship--has inaugurated communion even before the commission is announced. For the vocation director. Whatever we hear in the Scriptures, even in the most obscure passages, tells us "who we are in rela-tionship to God." As with the introductory word of our call-nar-rative pattern, so the Scriptures constantly tell how God chooses to become one with us in all ages and times. Even in the harsh judgments given to Jeremiah to proclaim, we are reminded that God knows Israel's destruction is a prelude to its being rebuilt and renewed (Jr 1:10). In Hosea's suffering with his unfaithful wife, we are reminded not so much of human infidelity as of God's desire for healing and the restoration of a relationship of mutual intimacy and communion (Ho 2:21-2 3; NRSV). The introductory word or the call narrative is a sacrament of the divine word, the whole of Scripture. It is the font of truth and wisdom that reveals our truest identity. For those of us who are involved in the work of formation and discernment, God's word carl be the surest source of daily nourishment, satisfying and building up an inner vitality. For us who have experienced a call and responded to it, the divine word unfolds an ever deepening realization of "who we are" and "what we are to become" before God. By our attentive listening to the word of God, our awareness of God's voice in our daily lives is heightened and sensitized. A favorite passage of mine which strongly witnesses to such attentive listening comes at the end of the Book of Deuteronomy. As the people stand ready to cross over the .Jordan, their leader Moses says, as part of his final words to them: "This commandment that I enjoin on you today is not too Review for Religious hard for you, nor is it too far away. It is not in heaven, that you should say, 'Who will go up to heaven for us and get it for us that we may hear it and observe it?' Neither is it beyond the sea, that you should say, 'Who will cross to the other side of the sea for us and get it for us, so that we may hear it and observe it?' No, the word is very near to you; it is in your mouth and in your heart; you have only to carry it out" (Dt 30:11-14). If we choose to be a people of the word, the word will trans-form us by its inherent power. In that power we will come to the deepest sense of our own identity and, importantly, the rich identity of every per-son created by God. For the candidate. In recent years I have been struck by the pastoral sensitivity of one of the members of the hierarchy, Cardinal Carlo Maria Martini sJ. In 1979 he was appointed archbishop of Milan. Before that, he had been rector of the Pontifical Biblical Institute (1969-1978) and of the Gregorian University (1978- 1979) in Rome. He is a man of interna-tional reputation as a biblical scholar, a text critic to be exact. He was a member of a team of five text critics (and the only Catholic) that prepared the most up-to-date critical edition of the Greek New Testament, In Milan he inaugurated a program of spiritual renewal for the young adults of the city. He met with them weekly to read and discuss the Scriptures, dealing with a particular book of the Bible or a biblical theme.7 Martini always began with a brief explanation of the texts under consideration; but after this presentation it was time for the young adults to talk, to ask ques-tions, and to pray from the Scriptures--to be formed according to the word of God. I would like to suggest that, in this era after the Second Vatican Council, we use the Scriptures with ever greater convic-tion as our document of faith in the work of formation. From cover to cover the Bible tells us time and time again what I con-sider essential for the experience of formation: (1) our identity in relationship to God, the divine-human relationship moving toward communion; (2) the continuous call to conversion, the need for the sinner to return to God; and (3) the meaning of the paschal mystery, our union with Christ in the experience of suf- The introductory word or the call narrative is a sacrament of the whole of Scripture. 2Vlay-June 1998 Polan ¯ Journey Inward, Journey Outward fering, dying, and rising to new life. In a time when our candidates suffer deprivation of Catholic culture, we can use the divine word to get them rooted in the reality of God's steadfast love for them and aware of the offer of redemption which is theirs and ours each day. The Commission and the Objection (Scenes 3 and 4) The biblical scene. At the moment when God gives the imper-ative, there is a sharp demarcation between the past and future of the one being called. A new course is being charted. The com-mission from God encapsulates the task that lies ahead. There is a clear sense that the one being commissioned goes in the name of God, as a kind of ambassador--not to give his or her own word, his or her own decision, but God's. The mission is a divine one; and, fittingly, it is the challenge of a lifetime. For Moses, slow of speech, it was to deliver God's command to release the Hebrew slaves. For Amos it was to enter the territory of his enemies and there deliver a condemnatory message. For Isaiah it was to con-tinue speaking God's word, to make the hearts of the people even more sluggish than they were. Mary, the fianc6e of Joseph, was told that she would bear a son who would assume the Davidic throne; she was to be the mother of the Messiah. At this point the narrative moves into a moment of tension. Clearly, the task is beyond the person's immediate or native capa-bilities. The task is so different that the commission becomes life-altering. The cattle-herder Amos will become an orator. The tender of flocks, Moses, is to be a political mediator. The priest Ezekiel will assume the role of a prophet. Because of this mis-sion, life will no longer be as it was. By their words and their lives, those being commissioned will witness to God's inteiwention in the history of their people. It is no exaggeration to say that the commission informs the persons that the call has an impact beyond their own life and will touch the lives of the people to whom they belong. It has an impact on the history of God's peo-ple. These people will be living reminders of what God is doing at what appears to be "the turn of the ages." Two scenes that tell of the impact of the commission on the lives of the prophets stand out in my mind. Isaiah had two sons. Each was given a symbolic name to tell the people what God intended to do. One son was called Shear-yashub (Is 7:3), which Review for Religious means "a remnant shall remain." The other son was called Maher-shalal- hash-baz (Is 8:1), which means "quick the spoil, speedy the plunder." Both names tell of an impending doom. In the Scriptures, names are linked to people's identity and mission. The sons of Isaiah reminded him that he was to tell the nation of Judah, "You are damned"--so life-altering was the call to Isaiah! A second scene comes from the confessions of the prophet Jeremiah. In the prophetic literature we rarely glimpse the prophetic experience; what we are given is the words, the utter-ances of the prophets, In the confessions of Jeremiah, however, we have a rare insight into the challenge this prophet faced. Consider this passage: "O Lord, you have enticed me, and I was enticed; you have overpowered me, and you have prevailed. I have become a laughingstock all day long; everyone mocks me. For whenever I speak I must cry out, I must shout, 'Violence and destruction!' For the word of the Lord has become for me a reproach and deri-sion all day long. If I say, 'I will not mention him, or speak any more in his name,' Then within me there is something like a burning fire shut up within my bones; I am weary with holding it in, and I cannot" (Jr 20:7-9). Jeremiah says that the mission entrusted to him has brought him nothing but rejection, hatred, and mockery. So he resolves not to speak the words God gives him. But then that very word becomes a raging fire within him; he cannot but utter the message God has given him. He is impelled and driven to accomplish the mission given to him. Both of these passages supplement the com-mission given to the prophet in the call narrative and help us bet-ter appreciate the demands of God's task. Not surprisingly, the person receiving the commission always shrinks from so enormous a challenge. It is difficult to say with certainty where the objection stems from. Some suggest that humility or a sense of inadequacy is the reason: Who would not shrink from the duty of being God's agent?8 The examples drawn from Isaiah and Jeremiah are, in psychological terms, occasions when a person submerges his or her own ego in order to repre-sent or live for another. We may classify such behavior as some-thing unhealthy and odious, but it nevertheless emerges from the biblical text as an example of the personal dynamics involved in the commission and the subsequent objection. Furthermore, it tells us something of what our ancestors in the faith realized when God made total claim upon their lives. May-June 1998 Polan ¯ Journey Inward, Journey Outward For the vocation director. Most of us could tell a compelling story of how the experience of call or the living-out of that call yanked us from something comfortable into something challeng-ing and new. And yet such life-seasoning in the priesthood or religious life has probably brought us considerable blessing to balance the challenge. But there is another aspect of the commis-sion- objection experience we sometimes take for granted: how the response of one has an impact on the destiny of many. We can, at times, become so caught up in what we are doing or how we are responding that we fail to realize that God is in the midst of our activity and that our work for the gospel is having an effect far more sweeping than we can see or realize. We call this phe-nomenon corporate personality from the perspective of the Hebrew Scriptures, and Body of Christ in the Christian Scriptures. We are more intimately bound to one another than we can com-prehend. As the sin of one affects others, so also does the good-ness of one have a ripple effect. And the Scriptures tell us powerfully how the destinies of many are affected by the response in obedience to God's invitation. In Genesis 12:1 God calls Abram to go from his country, his relatives, and his immediate family to a land that will be pointed out to him. Then in Genesis 12:4 the terse description of his response is potent: "So Abram went as the Lord had told him." The text is concise, not because there was nothing to say about the experience, but because the obedi-ence of one with an unknown future was to be the very founda-tion of a people yet to be created--but it started here. The fiat of Mary is another powerful example: theyes of an unassuming young woman set in motion the final eschatological age, the inaugura-tion of the end times. Reflection on such experience in our own lives reveals how our "journey inward" w!ll direct our "journey outward." Consistently in the Scriptures we see how a call by God sends a person on that inward search to respond, to assess the situation, to weigh the daunting challenge. An affirmative response then sets off another dynamic movement. The inward journey then--by divine design, I believe--attaches a person ever more closely to the human fam-ily, to the faith community, to yet unknown persons who will be touched by a faith-filled fiat. In ways mysterious, we become agents of the divine, touching the lives of others by following the call we have received. For the candidate. Some time ago I was struck by the promo- Review for Religious tion materials of a college seminary which promised its students all kinds of benefits: numerous majors from which to choose, big-city life with its hustle and bustle, and high-tech opportunities. Is this what should attract a candidate to the seminary or a religious community? What occurs to me is that, if we are assisting adult men and women in their discernment of God's call, our biblical tradition tells us that we had better be honest in telling them what the divine in-breaking in their lives will bring. Certainly there are rich benefits in responding to the call. There are joys in God's service that cannot be purchased--they are of divine giving. But real challenges lie ahead demanding personal sacrifice of con-siderable magnitude. Further, there are the "nuts and bolts" of what we mean by vocation, by being called. I have to distinguish between my vocation and my career. In essence, as a Benedictine monk I am called to live under a Rule and an abbot, to live in community and where I witness to the meaning of the paschal mystery. This is my vocation. My pre-vious work as rector of a seminary, as teacher, and other things I do are secondary; they are, for want of a better word, my career. And the works of my community are secondary to the essence of our life together. For those who belong to religious communi-ties, getting back to our roots, understanding our charisms, and witnessing to the reasons why we followed the call of God are essential. Those who come to stay with us as they discern God's call will see who we are from only one perspective, from a limited view. They need to receive honest answers to their questions about religious life. We must not promise them anything other than what the gospel promises. Are they in love with the Word they are called to preach and teach and live? Can they happily encourage all to realize their potential in the community of faith, and so assist in building a church of living stones? Every Christian is called into the paschal mystery. But the call to priesthood or religious life is a unique entry into that mys-tery- not better, but special because of its demands. As a novice, I remember, I had a certain fascination with the person of Dietrich Bonhoeffer and an appreciation for his writings, especially those from the time of his imprisonment and his personal struggle to return to his native land. In Life Together Bonhoeffer writes of the call each baptized Christian receives: "When Christ calls a person, he bids that individual, 'Come and die.'''9 Those three words, "Come and die," are a mighty challenge. In my experi- May-June 1998 Polan ¯ Journey Inward, Journey Outward ence of working with college-age candidates for the priesthood and monastic life, I see within them the desire to be challenged to live life more generously, more radically, and more distinctively. VChat we have to do is capture their zeal, help them direct it in a positive and healthy way, and challenge them to selfless service. The Reassurance and the Sign (Scenes 5 and 6) The biblical scene. The reassurance is integral to the develop-ment of the pattern in the call narratives, and important as a response to the objection which has been given. Notice that the divine response is particular to the protest, emphasizing that God will be dynamically present in the situation and intimately involved in the endeavor. There is something distinctly symbolic in the way objections are answered in God's call to Gideon, Moses, and Jeremiah. When the negative reaction comes with an excuse explaining why they cannot respond affirmatively, God simply says, "I am indeed with you." In this response we see a hint of the divine name YHWH, "I am," that is to say, "I stake my name on it." In the biblica'l tradition, personal names are intimately tied up with identity and mission. A person receives a new name, and with that change comes a shift in both identity and mission. For example, the name Abram means "exalted father"; the name Abraham means "father of a host of nations." The word of reas-surance from God links the divine identity with the human mis-sion, forging a bond of divine commitment to this human person and the task at hand. Of further importance here is the under-standing that, in the divine reassurance, the person who has received God's call is now impelled, not by feeling, not by self-direction, but by the power of the divine word. God has given to the one who has been called not only a word to establish rela-tionship, not only a commission, but also a word of reassurance. On equal footing with the word of commission is the word of reassurance. Sometimes there is a further elaboration to heighten the prominence of the reassurance, namely, a sign. Sometimes a sign is asked for, as in the case of Gideon. At other times, God gives a sign--to Moses, for example, in the form of wonders he per-forms before Pharaoh, Mary was told that her kinswoman Elizabeth, even in her old age, had conceived a son; the one thought to be barren was now in her sixth month. The sign is a Review for Religious complement to the divine word and brings to light the full assur-ance that God will be true to the promise already given. For the vocation director. One of the things which the call nar-ratives do not tell us is how it all worked out in the end. We know nothing of the final days of some who received calls, like Amos and Ezekiel. However, there are a few glimpses of successes and failures in prophetic voca-tions. Isaiah's word of advice to Hezekiah saved the people when the threat of Assyria's armies foretold ultimate doom (Is 36-39). The wrenching vocation of Hosea found confirmation in the healing of a bro-ken marriage bond. But the vocation of Jeremiah brought him to gaze on the ruin of Jerusalem as he was carried off against his will to Egypt (Jr 40:13-43:7); where Israel had been a slave, Jeremiah was now a captive. The life of Jeremiah came to symbolize the broken and fragmented experience of Israel's history. Somehow, in the mystery of both successes and failures, there is the belief that God's mission is being accomplished and the call was authentic. Our work in vocation ministry embraces the joys of seeing candidates move into community life or become productive ordained ministers, the sorrows of seeing a call declined, and the anxieties about individuals' uncertain futures whether in respond-ing to God's calls or in rejecting them. How important it is for us to realize that our work as vocation directors is part of a larger vocation, a broader calling that is still unfolding. I am reminded of another autobiographical sketch from A Touch of God that speaks to the mystery of vocation. Maria Boulding recalls her appoint-ment to work in formation: At about the time the Second Vatican Council ended, I was appointed novice mistress and held the job for nine years. It was a complex experience. In some ways it was joy: there was all the dynamism of the council; I had a feeling of being fully used, of being in a job where I could give all I had to give; there was the work with people, and some lasting friendships were established. But there was also, especially in the later years, a sharp sense of personal inadequacy for the work. I helped a few people, but others not at all, and I ended up with a general sense of failure. I am heartily Somehow, in the mystery of both successes and failures, there is the belief that God's mission is being accomplished. 2Ylay-~ne 1998 glad that I was taken off the job, although at the time it was wrench, a little death . At the same time I had another experience of great significance. This was the work of the English Benedictine Congregation's theological com-mission, on which I served for years in the production of Consider Your Call and in other enterprises which grew from that. This whole experience has been one of the most enriching of my entire monastic life . The result of all this experience has been that in those years and subsequently the greatest friendships of my life have flowered. I have found a capacity for friendship with many people both inside and outside my own community, gained confidence in my ability to love and to dare a little more to let myself be loved and known. Even when everything seems primed for a perfect way of living out one's call, the blessing we experience is often not the one we anticipated. And when one door seems to close in our face with a shocking slam, another opens on untold blessings, if we will enter it. In our own calling we are invited to live in the faith of the assurance that was once given to us. What lies at the core of that promise is my willingness to live fully, not in my career, but in my vocation, in my calling. This is not to say that the two are not intimately connected; they are, but they are also separate. In our assignments we live part of our "journey outward" by being of service to others. As vocation directors we give of ourselves by offering our wisdom, by letting our story be known, and by direct-ing others as best we can. In whatever we do, when we live out of our calling, our vocation, we give witness to the ground of our committed life. And there we can enrich the lives of others in ways we do not know, for by living in the power of God's word to us we are able to accomplish much. For ibe. candidate. One great challenge in working with voca-tion prospects is the difficulty they have making a commitment. At times I have asked myself: Do I know more students who have committed themselves to trying the seminary, or do I know more who are "sitting, on the fence"? It is a phenomenon of our society and our age that young adults are making commitments later in life. Our own seminarians gasp when I tell them that I entered the novitiate at age twenty. And yet psychologists tell us that our twenties are the years most formative of the pattern of life we live as adults. What can we do? What should we do? To share with our candidates the reassurances and signs of God in our own experiences could be one of the greatest gifts we Review for Religious offer them. Here we speak from a faith that has been tested and proven to be one of our greatest treasures. If we can help our candidates to view life through the lens of faith, they will see an essential ingredient in living their religious or ordained life. Especially in their youth we need to capitalize on their zeal and enthusiasm for trying new ways and seeing from new perspec-tives. I have been pleasantly surprised to discover only later that the times I have challenged seminarians and spiritual advisees to a deeper faith have been the moments that have stuck with them, even haunted them. Our candidates need the experiences we share with them. Allowing others to hear of our circuitous journeys inward and our journey~ outward may be more formative for our candidates than we realize. What the Scriptures tell us of a theology of vocation has roots in personal experiences of God, experiences that are life-altering. Many of us grew up in a time when priests and religious did not talk much about their experience of call. But, when they did, even the slightest glimpse of their response to God's call set us on fire with zeal, enthusiasm, and the desire to follow their example. That the Scriptures reveal the call narratives in a recognizable literary form tells us that our ancestors in the faith saw such stories as deeply formative, not only for the persons called, but for the whole community of faith. They remind us how sacred our own jour-neys of faith are, not only for ourselves, but for others as well. Reflecting on "call" stories continues our own formation and our development of a theology of vocation. When we discover even mere bits of our own story in the pages of the Bible, we give to others a living theology of vocation. And, when we see our lives reflected on the pages of Scripture, we are strengthened to bring that written word to bear on our own lives. What we have come to consider, then,-is that a theology of vocation unites the journey inward, where we discbver the divine resources given us, and the journey outward, where we live selflessly in accord with the divine word that summoned us. Notes l N. Habel, "The Form and Significance of the Call Narratives," ZAW 77 (1965): 297-323. z The following are the classical call narratives in the Scriptures: Moses (Ex 3:1 - 12); Gideon (Jg 6:1-40); Isaiah (Is 6:1-13); Deutero-Isaiah (Is 40:3-8); Jeremiah (Jr 1:4-10); Ezekiel (Ezk 1 : 1-3:11); Hosea (Ho 1-3); Amos (Am 7:10-17); Mary (Lk 1:26-37). Others that can be considered call May-J~ote 1998 scenes but do not follow the usual pattern include: Abraham (Gn 12:1-4); Samuel (1 S 3:1-4:1); Elisha (1 K 19:19-21); Paul (Ga 1:11-24; Acts 9:1- 19; 22:3-16; 26:2-18); Peter (Mt 4:18-22; Mk 1:16-22; Lk 5:1-11); Matthew (Mt 9:9-13). 3 Habel, "The Form," p. 317. 4 Maria Boulding, The Coming of God (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1982), p. 125. s Philip Jebb, "Wonder Is So Sudden a Gift," in A Touch of God: Eight Monastic Journeys, ed. Maria Boulding (London: SPCK, 1982), p. 7. 6 Gerard Meagher, "The Prophetic Call Narrative," Irish Theological Quarterly 39, no, 2 (1972): 17. 7 A number of these conferences given by Carlo Martini to the young adults of Milan have been translated and published in several volumes; see Carlo Maria Martini, The Joy of the Gospel, trans. James McGrath (Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1994). s Habel, "The Form," p. 319. 9 Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Life Together (New York: Harper and Row, Publishers, 1954), p. 8. ,0 Maria Boulding, "A Tapestry, from the Wrong Side," in A Touch of God, pp. 33-35. Antiphon in the Style of Hildegard 0 You who made the sharp shinned hawk with red eyes rend the singing sparrows with the silent slice of death, who fill the sunset sky with roses and crows, who paint the breast of the warbler with flashes of your Spirit and crown the finger small kinglet with your blood, bless me with wonder at the paradox of your plans. Like birds, may my heart's croaks and arias praise You. Anne Higgins DC Review for Religious MARIE CHIODO AND MARY IRVING An Itinerant Approach to Theological Updating As an introduction to their book Toward a Human Worm Order, Gerald and Pat Mische recount a parable, "The Coat That Got Too Small." An outsider had met on a strange planet about a hundred fifty gasping and groaning people with contorted faces. Their coats "were much too small. Buttons and zippers were being strained to the limit and seams threatened to tear at the sides. Their bodies bulged against the overstretched fabric as if the contents had been stuffed in with tremendous effort." In talking with one of the women in the group, the out-sider pointed out: "It's your coat . It's too tight . Maybe you should get a new one that fits you better. It looks like this one has served you in the past, but now it is more like a straitjacket than a coat.". After considerable time., she started, between gasps, to tell me their story. They had had these coats since they were young, she said. It seemed to be the fashion. No one ever questioned it before. Marie Chiodo DW, a member of the provincial board of the United States province of the Daughters of Wisdom and an organizational con-sultant, does facilitation and process and program design with religious congregations and other nonprofit groups. Her address is 416 Branch Drive; Silver Spring, Maryland 20901. E-mail: mchiodo53@aol.com Mary Irving SSND, DMin, served as the itinerant theologian for the Daughters of Wisdom theological renewal process. A consultant in spir-ituality for religious communities, she also teaches and offers retreats and spiritual direction. Her address is 2202 Westview Drive; Silver Spring, Maryland 20910. E-mail: mirvingssnd@juno.com . May-finite 1998 Cbiodo and Irving * Theological Updating "But surely you have grown very much since then," I said incredulously, trying to constrain myself. "But what else is there?" She strained, but went on whenever she could get enough breath to say that she liked this coat. It had, after all, been hers for a very long time. 'Tm used to it now. It makes me feel . " She searched for a long time, looking for breath and for the right word. "Secure," she puffed out at last.I The coats help us picture an individual's or a community's unnecessarily limited theological understanding of self and oth-ers, the world, and God. Christian tradition is passed on through time with the in~ent of bringing Jesus Christ's transforming action to each generation of believers. Yet each era brings new cultural and historical settings. The new experiences and new questions about God and the self, others, and the world that arise in these new settings must be brought into a dialogue with the ancient traditions of the faith. From the 15th century to the 19th, new questions about evan-gelization and the education of the poor were raised by many European Christians, including women who were concerned about the care of the sick poor and the education of poor girls. The result was the establishment of numerous "apostolic" religious congregations, a category unknown till then. Vatican Council II's Gaudium et spes, the Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World, explicitly addressed the new questions and atti-tudes with which the church needed to engage that world, which had been viewed more as an opponent than a friend. If the Christian tradition and contemporary experience do not regu-larly engage in such dialogue, an individual's or a community's "coat" becomes strained and stretched. This article reviews the efforts of women religious to be free of unnecessarily constrictive theological coats, tells of one province's theological updating, and then offers reflections on these matters. An Historical Perspective on Theological Updating The impetus toward theological updating for United States women religious in the late 1990s is the most recent manifestation of a recurring pattern of the past fifty years. Three major moments will illustrate the pattern. The first moment was the expansion of the Catholic school system in the United States. The need for sisters to teach in the Review for Religious many schools often meant that young women religious were sent out to teach with little if any academic preparation. The 1941 doctoral research of Sister Bertrande Myers DC revealed grave inadequacies in the academic and theological preparation of many United States sisters in the first four decades of the 20th cen-tury. A 1949 presentation to the National Catholic Educational Association on the education of young religious sisters by Sister Madeleva Wolff CSC brought this problem to a wider audience. By 1953 the Sister Formation Conference, led by Sister Mary Emil Penet IHM, had been established to initiate a major project: seeing that new members received college degrees before entering the classroom. This effort was fash-ioned from the beginning with an integrated vision: theological, spiritual, and profes-sional elements were to be present simu.lta-neously in the curriculum. The sisters who were sent for master's and doctoral degrees and the young sisters who benefited from their teaching were the first recipients of updated thinking in both theology and pro-fessional fields,z As this integrated profes-sional, theological, and spiritual formation became standard at the undergraduate level, many sisters went on for degrees in higher education in their fields, but their contin-uing theological and spiritual updating was often overlooked. The second historical moment was brought about by the teachings of the Vatican Council in the 1960s. The Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (Lumen gentium) brought long-for-gotten biblical and sacramental images of the church into focus. The juridical emphasis of the past four hundred years was expanded and deepened by the new prominence given to the bib-lical image of the people of God; the baptismal holiness of the laity was proclaimed once again. The Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World transformed centuries of dichotomy between the church and the world into reverent and realistic openness. These and many other documents--for exam-ple, those on liturgy, religious freedom, and revelation--demon-strated the universal church's own desire to let out theological coats, some of which had remained unchanged for centuries. A pervasive if nebulous spiritual hunger discloses itself in the United States culture generally and in the members of many faith traditions. Cbiodo and Irving ¯ Theological Updating Countless short- and longer-term initiatives surfaced in a variety of, congregational, parish, and educational settings, providing necessary biblical and theological.updating for many sisters. Now, thirty years .after the council, a third moment has arrived. The imminence of the millennium heightens in many congregations an awareness of the need for new theological and spiritual coats for these times. Theology expands and deepens in every area. The modern era in culture has yielded to a postmod-ern one. Scientific discoveries at the micro, macro, planetary, and cosmic levels challenge both theology and spirituality. Societies worldwide move increasingly into an awareness of their inter-connectedness and interdependence. A pervasive if nebulous spir-itual hunger discloses itself in the United States culture generally and in the members of many faith traditions. Women religious, too, find theological and spiritual challenges in this new world as well as in the diminishment of their numbers. Many apostolic congregations of women intuit with faith and hope the need for renewal that will enable them to minister better to today's church and society. Some have already initiated such a process. Looking at this spirit-hungry world, other congregations, chapters, and assemblies are recognizing the need for both theological and spir-itual updating for their members. For many, apostolic work of a theological kind provides the initial impetus. But with this moti-vation comes the realization that a sister's own integrity requires that she look to her own theological and spiritual updating if she is to be credible to others. One Province's Story The United States province of the international congrega-tion of the Daughters of Wisdom responded to the mandate of their general and provincial chapters "to deepen the spirituality of the congregation, in order to allow ourselves to be transformed by Wisdom, so as to live according to Her ways and to reveal Her." Responsibility for the implementation that would lead to theo-logical updating about Wisdom was shared by the leadership team and the membership. Leadership saw its role as, first, to initiate the conversations that would identify and articulate the theolog-ical needs among the sisters and then to put in place the structures to respond to those needs. Together sisters, associates, and lay collaborators would take a good look at their theological coats. Review for Reli~ous They would do so in the light of their personal spiritual experi-ence of the charism, contemporary writers and theologians, and the shared wisdom of the community. The leadership team fash-ioned a process that would engage a planning committee, cluster conveners in several geographic areas, and sisters and laypersons in the search for Wisdom. The province numbers approximately a hundred fifty sisters, mostly on the East Coast. Their diverse ministries include edu-cation, healthcare, religious education, retreat work, and social services. For four years the sisters had participated in faith-shar-ing groups called wisdom circles where they had pursued Wisdom spirituality with associates and other laypersons through books, articles, and prayer together. Threads for refashioning theologi-cal coats were already being spun. Yet the sisters wanted more. Though all of them sought Wisdom, there were conflicting views that involved cherished convictions about God and prayer, Christology, the emerging Sophia/Wisdom spirituality, and fem-inist theologizing. A Theological Education Process A four-stage theological education process was developed that would involve sisters, associates, and ministry colleagues in study, reflection, and dialogue on contemporary theology, church tra-dition, and present world realities. The four stages werd: (1) a think tank, (2) an itinerant theologian, (3) a province gathering, and (4) a year of itinerancy. The Think Tank. Twelve sisters with widely differing approaches to God, prayer, and spirituality were invited to be part of a think tank. Their role was twofold: to find out what the operative theologies were among the sisters and to engage in a weekend of discernment focused on the Wisdom charism. The twelve who agreed to participate in the think tank were given several articles for their study and were asked to interview five randomly chosen sisters in the province about their rela-tionship with God. Interview questions were devised for each to use. In the interviews, conducted by phone or face-to-face, the think-tank participants explored who God has been to the sister, how her ideas of God had or had not changed,.and what she still yearned for in her relationship with God. The interviewers took notes from these interactions and formulated their response to May-June 1998 Cbiodo and Irving ¯ Theological Updating this question: From your interviews, what did you learn about the transformation by Wisdom in the life of our sisters? The twelve expressed awe at what took place during these interviews. Sisters spoke candidly and with deep wisdom about their life journeys. One recurring comment was, "No one has ever asked me these questions in the community." Excitement was generated in the province, such that the discernment week-end was not just for an elite twelve. It would now bear the imprint of the spiritual search of all the sisters. The responses collated from the interviews formed the start-ing point of the work on the weekend. In the course of the two days, the twelve sisters and the leadership team prayed and dia-logued as they struggled with the differing and often conflicting theological understandings among themselves. But most notable was the effort to hear and have a reverence for what others cher-ished in the tradition. The vision statement that emerged from the weekend articulated both our commonly held understanding of Wisdom and the theological diversity regarding Wisdom as Sophia/Wisdom and as the Christ: We are united in our desire for the fullness of God's trans-forming love. Consistent with our Congregational tradi-tion, we see ourselves as seekers of God as Wisdom. We acknowledge and accept that we hold diverse understandings of Wisdom: for example, Eternal and Incarnate Wisdom, Jesus, Christ/Sophia, Sophia. As we seek Wisdom, we remain mutually receptive. It is through dialogue and faith sharing that we claim our own individual experience, cherish the experience of others, and in that engagement enrich each other. In so doing, we com-mit ourselves to the process of transformation by Wisdom. This transformation by Wisdom impels us to active involve-ment in our fractured world. Equally important was the emergence of identifiable theo-logical areas that the community needed to explore together in more depth: Christology, feminist spirituality, Wisdom/Sophia. Finding an Itinerant Theologian. The planning included having one theologian walk with the province for an extended period of time. This would provide consistency in content and process. The term itinerant theologian was thus coined. The theological task was clear: to provide exposure to both traditional and contem-porary theology around the areas identified by the think tank. It was also clear that this was to occur in a climate of reverence for Review for Religious diverse theological positions and of openness to understand posi-tions different from one's own. The leadership team proceeded to identify what it sought in a theologian who would walk with the province over the next eighteen months. Criteria indicated some-one who would engage the province in theological reflection on their experience of God/Wisdom; on someone with breadth of knowledge and vision in regard to traditional and contemporary Christology and Wisdom theology; on someone who would respect the differing positions while inviting all to grow in new understandings of Wisdom; on someone who could integrate theology with spirituality. A tall order indeed! But a necessary one if the province was to continue together the retailoring of its theo-logical coats. The leadership team found a person with the theological education and experience in spiritu-ality. What is more, they found a person who knew how to place the contemporary in the heart of the tradition of the church. The retailoring would involve weaving new threads into appropriate ample fabrics, The province--sisters, associates, and other laypersons--would weave various strands together at the province gathering. The Province Gathering. The theme ~elected was "Touching the Textures of Wisdom." A planning .committee was put in place to work with the results of the think-tank weekend and with the itinerant theologian. They developed a design for the four days of the gathering, with particular attention given to content, process, and ritual around the three themes of Christology, Wisdom, and Women. In the months before the gathering, sisters received the results of the think tank and articles in each of these areas for their study and reflection. The gathering itself provided time for reflection on one's own experience, time for input and ritualizing, time to process its meaning, and time to dialogue with one another and with the itinerant theologian about emerging understandings. The atmo-sphere was conducive to forming new insights about God and Wisdom in such a way that sisters did not feel coerced to change We acknowledge and accept that we hold diverse understandings of Wisdom: for example, Eternal and Incarnate Wisdom, Jesus, Christ/Sophia, Sophia. 253 . iYlay-June 1998 Cbiodo and Irving ¯ Theological U.p~,__tin~ the way they approached God. Yet many said they saw both God and Wisdom with new eyes. The consistency, between traditional and contemporary insights regarding Wisdom wove new theo-logical fabrics for many. These fabrics had patterns of theologi-cal themes which the sisters wanted to examine more closely in the itinerant year. The themes were: ¯ Wisdom Christology in the New Testament ¯ Wisdom and Contemplation of God's Creation ¯ Lady Wisdom in the Old Testament ¯ Sophia Theology ¯ Feminist Theology ¯Julian of Norwich ¯ Liberation Theology. This large group of themes needed to be reduced to a man-ageable number. In the end there were three. "Wisdom in the New Testament" was a top choice of four of the six groups. "Sophia Theology" would involve looking at the emerging under-standing of the Trinity from feminist perspectives on Wisdom. "Creation, Women, and God" was to explore theologies of cre-ation emerging from feminist and ecological perspectives. The six cluster groups were scheduled for the fall of 1996 and the spring of 1997. The year began in St. Agatha, Maine, traveled to Islip, New York, Litchfield, Connecticut, and Portsmouth, Virginia, and concluded in Islip. The Year of Itinerancy. The cluster weekends were open to sisters and to invited lay people. Sisters indicated their first and second choices of topics, and attempts were made to honor choices. Sisters in each geographic area were invited to be cluster conveners. This involved their being in contact with the itinerant theologian, seeing to preparation of prayer and ritual, and basically organizing travel and hospitality for sisters and lay people. Several months before their cluster weekend, sisters received articles and materials for their study and reflection. The itinerant theologian traveled to the various sites to conduct the weekend in much the manner of her work at the province gathering: reflection on experience, theolog-ical input, and time for reflection, interaction, and ritual. The Itinerant Theologian's Reflection on the Year The interrelated themes of charism and community serve as pivotal points around which to structure these reflections. Review for Religious Charism. The charism of seeking after Wisdom, of hunger-ing and thirsting for her, is vibrant in the Daughters of Wisdom. For three hundred years the members have been nourished by St. Louis Marie de Montfort's profound biblical and theological book titled The Love of Eternal Wisdom. The province's participa-tion in wisdom circles was apparent in the July gathering and intensified in the cluster groups. Many biblical passages on Wisdom were old familiar friends. Some sisters had broken ground with new research on Wisdom/Sophia; others continued to find richness in Montfort's articulation of Christ as Eternal Wisdom. All were eager to deepen what they knew, to make con-nections, and to move to the unfamiliar, even when risky. This was as true of the women in their seventies, eighties, and nineties as it was of the newest members. The charism was evident in the prayers developed for the opening of both days of each work-shop. Local sisters prepared and led these prayers with remarkable originality, incorporating Scripture, ritual, guided meditations, and dialogue. The prayers' power each time reinforced the truth that the cluster workshops reverenced both the biblical theology that was being presented and the praying community as equal sources of Wisdom. Community. A community is, at any given historical moment, the living incarnation of its charism. In this time of new scholar-ship on biblical Wisdom, more diversity has surfaced than in pre-vious years. Province members struggled to be faithful to the tradition of Wisdom as it continues to develop theologically and spiritually. Since such struggles intimately involve community, two interrelated goals become central for the entire updating pro-cess: to assist each member to recognize her own Wisdom spiri-tuality and to respect the diverse Wisdom spiritualities of others. The cluster weekends with their smalle~ numbers (averaging twenty sisters and lay participants) allowed a more intensive use of the dynamics of the process. Three components promoted the goals: (1) a historical perspective, (2) theology and spirituality working together, and (3) religious and lay solidarity through baptism. History. A central conviction shaped the presentations in the province gathering and in the cluster workshops: to know history is to grow in freedom. Thusl history was a key factor in the clus-ter workshops. Only recently have biblical studies made possible a coherent look at the Old Testament Wisdom literature and at the May-June 1998 Cbiodo and Irving * Theological Updating Theology assists believers in speaking about the God they believe in; their experience of God's invitation and the response they make is what we call spirituality. influence of Wisdom categories on the New Testament under-standing of Jesus Christ. Only recently has feminist theology explored Wisdom/Sophia as a help in rethinking Christology and Trinitarian theology. Even more recently, Sophia theology is becoming a source for ecological theology. Over and over, the participants expressed gratitude for the historical, biblical, and theological perspectives that allowed them to place their own charism and spirituality in context. Overall, the province gathering and the cluster workshops provided a uni-fying and freeing focus for all mem-bers of the province as they participated in events with a common historical perspective and a common set of biblical, theological, and spiri-tual experiences. The members can now speak across geographical bound-aries with a language which all under-stand. Theology/Spirituality. As charism and community are strands in the reweaving, of our theological coats, so are theologyand spirituality. Theology assists believers in speaking about the God they believe in; their experience of God's invitation and the response they make in their individual and community lives is what we call spirituality. In the gathering and in the cluster work-shops, the act of clarifying historical and contemporary speech about Christ, Wisdom, and women's relationship to God allowed the members of the province to distinguish between speaking about God in theological terms and reflecting on their own and others' experience of and response to God. This crucial clarifi-cation reduced conflict and enhanced the goals of helping each member to understand her own Wisdom spirituality better and to respect the diverse Wisdom spirituality of others. The refash-ioning of theological coats allowed people to breathe more com-fortably in. their own spirituality and their community relationships and to achieve what improved breathing provides: a renewed and healthier life. Unity through Baptism. Most cluster workshops contained pro-fessed sisters, former sisters, associates, .and "Friends of Wisdom": Review for Religious ministry colleagues and others interested in Wisdom. Careful guidelines were developed for invitation. The inviting sister-- after describing, to those who showed interest, the content and proceedings of the July province gathering--distributed the mate-rial to be read and later reflected on in the cluster group. This ori-entation provided a common ground for the cluster experience. Despite differences in life experiences, sisters and laypersons were able to relate to questions and issues that had emerged from the province gathering--this was the reading matter for use in the cluster groups. The energy and richness of the different per-spectives provided a model of an ecclesial community of women where historically rigid boundaries between laywomen and women religious could be reshaped. Their unity as baptized Christians became the pattern of deftly woven fabrics suitable for retailoring theological coats of Wisdom. Learnings. How can this concrete and particularized account of one province's experience of theological updating serve oth-ers who may be embarking on a similar project? What general movements can be gleaned for the benefit of all? How can the theological coats be let out to fit without harming the cloth? Six components of this process contributed to the careful alterations of this province's theological coats. First, this project demonstrated the value of a solid founda-tion. The general chapter's directives provided such a founda-tion. Other groups would need something similar. Second, the project combined clear provincial leadership with respectful attention to the members' theological and spiritual experience. The leadership wisely recognized that it was dealing with adults whose experience (gleaned through the interviews) had indispensable contributions to make to the planning process. This continued as the members of the gathering chose their pre-ferred areas of concentration for the cluster groups. Third, the leadership's commitment to a program that would have a reflective theological/spiritual style allowed participants to pause and deepen what they had learned, rather than over-powering them with more knowledge than they could assimilate; and music and poetry provided powerful alternative ways to inte-grate the material. In all the workshops, the opening prayers set the atmosphere in which the biblical and theological presenta-tions could resonate deeply and reach the whole person. The time provided for dialogue and personal reflection in each cluster group' 2.Y7 . May-ff~une 1998 Chiodo and Irving ¯ Theological Updating helped the participants to integrate the material both personally and communally. Fourth, the mission to spread knowledge and love of Wisdom beyond the congregation is vibrant in this community. The work-shops provided models for the sisters to keep in mind as they dis-cern how to communicate to others their own new appreciation of Wisdom. Fifth, the Daughters of Wisdom have nourished their partic-ular charism for three centuries. It is clear, compelling, and solidly grounded. Many congregations, founded in the 19th-century era of apostolic expansion, lack such clarity. Preliminary tasks for them will include reviewing their Vatican II renewal of their charism in the light, not only of the continuing experience of their members, but also of present theological, spiritual, and apos-tolic conditions. The preliminary time spent in such reformula-tion would be well spent. Finally, this small province chose an itinerant theologian in order to provide unity in presentation and spirit. This decision fit their group and may fit others. Larger congregations and those with different needs and hopes may make other choices. Planning that is attentive to the uniqueness of each group will enable the careful refashioning of theological coats so that members can breathe more freely as they move into the future. Outcomes. What came of all these efforts by one province to update itself theologically and spiritually around its charism? There seemed to be both a personal and a communal response to this question. Many spoke of their wanting to pursue Wisdom/Sophia spir-ituality more deeply in their personal prayer. One lay colleague said, "I have never in all my thirty-five years of knowing the Daughters felt so close to them and so personally enriched." One sister said it was wonderful to "see the interconnectedness between the Scriptures and the Wisdom theology as it developed in the tradition"; another said, "Sophia/Wisdom finally made sense to me." One cluster convener wanted to know what'we would do com-munally to continue the education we had begun. Some want to see more Montfortian.aspects in an ongoing study of Wisdom. One sister on holiday in the states reflected on what she had been hearing from the sisters about the province gathering and the cluster weekends: "Sisters from whom I would never expect it Review for Religious have told me of their deeply moving experiences with Wisdom/Sophia. One 82-year-old said she now prays to Sophia." Our theological coats have been stretched and refashioned with added cloth woven of threads newly spun from prayerful experience and theology and even our worldly surroundings. We have not finished. We bring our renewal in Wisdom spirituality to bear on ministry with the poorest of the poor. What differ-ence will our spiritual search and enlightenment make in terms of how and with whom we will minister? The spinning and the weav-ing and the careful alterations go on! Questions for Your Story. United States women religious have a history in this century of recognizing and responding to the need for theological updating among their members. The few remaining years of this centur~z may provide congregations with opportunities to consider whether they need to refashion their members' theological coats and therefore need some careful plan-ning that reflects their charism, ministry, and spirituality. This article has described one province's effort. As you reflect on it, you may inquire about the implications for your own con-gregation: What are the religious, spiritual, and cultural contexts within which you live today? What do you need to do to prepare yourselves to respond to them? What is your situation? What is the condition of your theological/spiritual coats? Are they need-lessly tight? Beginning to tear? Can you breathe freely? Do they restrict your apostolic effectiveness? These are the questions asked by foundresses centuries ago and by members of United States religious congregations earlier in this century. We who are pres-ent- day members find ourselves with the same questions as we look toward the dawn of a new millennium. The answers we give to the questions are important. Notes 1 Gerald and Patricia Mische, Toward a Human World Order (New York: Paulist Press, 1977), pp. 1-3. 2 Lora Ann Quifionez CDP and Mary Daniel Turner SNDdeN, The Transformation of American Sister~ (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992), documents this first "moment" in the firstchapter, "Changing Times," pp. 3-30. May-June 1998 DONALD J. GOERGEN 260 Calling Forth a Healthy Chaste Life We often hear about being centered and about centering prayer; we hear, too, about wholeness. Centeredness and wholeness go together. Thus we cannot talk properly about how chastity and sexuality are integrated into the entire human person without first having a sense of our center. Otherwise we are off to a false start. As a sage once said, "There's no point in going fast if you're headed in the wrong direction." We want to be sure we are headed in the right direction. Provinces and congregations are concerned about mission statements and vision statements because they give us a focus and clarity about ourselves. Centering likewise gives u~ focus and clarity. Centering is not simply something that we do for our-selves personally, but something that we do for our com-munity or congregation as well. Centering is one of the main tasks of leadership. Without it, how could we know we are l~eaded in the right direction, no matter how pro-fessionally we might be equipping ourselves for the jour-ney? And so I ask: What is the center of your community or province's life? What or who is my center? Our center? What or who are we? We have to answer that, or be aware of it, before any talk about chastity, because a healthy chastity is a properly Donald J. Goergen OP, formerly the provincial of the Midwest Province of Dominicans, presented this paper, here somewhat revised, to the Conference of Major Superiors of Men in August 1997. He teaches theology at Aquinas Institute, where he may be addressed: 3642 Lindell Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63108. Review for Religious centered or focused sexuality. A sexuality lacking a proper center, or falsely centered, is a distorted sexuality. It is as simple as that-- not as easy as that, but as simple. Now, however we phrase it, given our traditions and charism, we are God-centered people, followers of Jesus, called by Jesus, men and women who have turned our lives over to the gospel. If someone says to me, "Don, do you really believe in celibacy, really see any human value in it?" my response must begin with "Do you believe in God?" For indeed how do I talk about the meaning of chastity as I understand it with someone whose cen-ter in life is altogether different from my own? If the person were to respond, "Yes, I do believe," then my next question might be, "Do you believe in the God of Abraham and Sarah, in a God who calls people forth, calls people to be who they can be and to be servants of humanity?" If they again say yes, we then have some common ground on which to discuss our call and its celibate char-acter. Otherwise we are at a disadvantage in describing what a healthy Christian chastity is all about. When we call to mind who our center is, the One on whom our mission and vision are focused, we realize that this puts us at odds with the society in which we find ourselves. Many of the struggles with sexuality have to do with false attempts to adjust our happiness to the ways or perspectives of today's post-Christian world. Some of the struggles, however, are simply human, and to those we will turn later. Here it is important to differentiate the two. Is the struggle of some member of the province a futile effort to give allegiance to two masters, to try to live out of two centers, to live a continuously divided life? Or is it simply the struggle to be more deeply human as the vulnerable creatures we are? Thus, just as there is a need for us corporately to be God-- or Christ--or Spirit-centered, so there is a need for us not to be centered in our culture or society. In it, yes; centered in it, no. Ministering to it, yes; coopted by it, no. Seeing value in it, signs of God's presence there, yes; blindly idolizing it, no. Any healthy sexuality must begin with being a properly centered sexuality, which is rarely the sexual understanding provided by our secular culture, and often not the sexual understanding provided by rep-resentatives of our church. Being centered, then, also means being countercultural, in this area as in every other area of our reli-gious lives; not going out of our way to find fault with our soci-9£1 May-ff~tne 1998 Goergen ¯ Calling Forth a Healthy Chaste L~ It does us no good to be countercuttural in one area of life alone. ety and culture, but not making them the object of our primary allegiance either. If being healthy and chaste implies a countercultural approach to our sexuality, it also implies being countercultural in all areas of our living. Too often we attempt to shore up a rationale for celibacy by dragging in the countercultural justification. But it does us no good to be countercultural in one area of life alone. This is where poverty, chastity, obedience, community, prayer, mission, and servanthood form a whole tapestry. Is our approach to our sexuality consistent with our approach to life as a whole? What good does it do to be sexually abstinent if we are addicted to work, are first-rate consumers, and enjoy almost all the comforts our society offers us? Can we truly say, then, that our center is in a spir-itual or "evangelical" way of life? The chal-lenge is not how to be both healthy and chaste, but how to be both healthy and countercultural. Does health imply adjust-ment to our sociocultural context? From where or whom do we derive our understanding of a healthy life? Could true health imply "unable to adjust to the demands of a secular world"? What does it mean to be "at home" in a society that is not "at home" with religious values? Now, I am not suggesting that Christianity and secularity are at irreconcilable odds with each other. Indeed, we search for seeds of sacrality in the soil of secularity. Yet secularity in the West does imply a neutrality toward religion that becomes an indiffer-ence to it, often even a hostility or a lack of respect--certainly towards religion as central or essential to social and human life. Secularized living neither values nor structurally supports reli-gion. It may give lip service to spirituality, but more often it favors spiritualities as marketable commodities. We ought :not be naive. And so I return to the question: What is the center, corner-stone, focus of my life and ministry? Of yours? Of your congre-gation or community or province? We must first be healthily centered and go from there. Another way of putting it is to ask: What is the ethos of your community, its atmosphere, character, sense of values? What does it structurally support? Is our way of being sexual consistent with that ethos? Is it sexuality that gets dis- Review for Religious torted, or does our sexuality simply manifest a deeper distortion in our lives: the loss of our center? To what does our congregation give witness? If we merrily go along with consumer society, defend capitalism at all costs, tolerate machismo, smugly see Western civilization as superior to others, and are sexually abstinent, then that is what we give witness to. In that context, sexual abstinence is hardly mean-ingful. One of the responsibilities of leadership is to cultivate a cli-mate, help develop an ethos, sketch out the vision, focus the mem-bership. In what sort of environment is it most likely that the men or women of the community will reach healthy maturity as chaste celibates? What threats are there to such an environment? The Credibility of the Gospel In our search for a healthy celibacy, a chaste sexuality, we must feel deeply that there is something important at stake, some value that gives our way of life meaning. We might each express that differently, but I will call this core value the gospel. I do not mean as such the four Gospels, but the gospel at the heart of the Gospels, the gospel of God that formed the center value in Jesus' own life and mission. Like Paul, we live "for the sake of the gospel" (1 Co 9:23).1 Thus a primary, urgent, felt concern in my own life is the credibility of the gospel, which is nothing other than the credi-bility of the God whom I preach. My witness helps to make it credible; it makes my life credible. This is the rationale for a healthy, culturally contextualized (even if countercultural) chastity. The gospel makes sense of my celibacy, and my celibacy must help to make sense of that gospel in our world, my world, at this period of its history. The gospel itself, of course, does not require celibacy, nor does ordained ministry in itself necessitate celibacy. But religious life does see celibacy as essential to its way of being in the world. As religious we freely choose to be celibate as one dimension of our way of living the gospel. This freely chosen celibacy for the sake of the gospel, then, cannot be taken lightly. It is central to who I am as a witness to the gospel, as a witness of the risen Lord, of the presence and power of the risen Christ and his Spirit in my life. The risen Christ and the Holy Spirit are the source of my May-June 1998 Goergen ¯ Calling Forth a Healthy Chaste Life celibacy, and I at least desire, even in my weakened humanity, to live what I believe. One of the most poignant questions raised by Pope Paul VI in his still unsurpassed apostolic exhortation on evangelization-- which so emphasized witness as the primary form of preaching-- was the question: Do you live what you believe? In fact he raised three questions: It is often said nowadays that the present century thirsts for authenticity. Especially in regard to young people it is said that they have a horror of the artificial or false and that they are searching above all for truth and honesty. These "signs of the times" should find us vigilant. Either tacidy or aloud--but always forcefully--we are being asked: Do you really believe what you are proclaiming? Do you live what you believe? Do you really preach what you live? The witness of life has become more than ever an essential condition for real effectiveness in preaching.' My faith in the resurrection, in the risen Jesus, my own human experiences of the risen Jesus, Jesus' self-presentation to me inviting me to follow him and my response of trust and faith, all these reconstruct me, reorient me, as a human being into being a witness to that grace which has been granted me. By that grace I trust God and God places trust in me. A witness is who I am. I desire never to betray that responsibility, any more than I would wish to betray th.e. most profound friendship given me in life. My witness includes a call to celibacy that I find in my own human experience of God as present to me in this world, Celibacy by itself does not witness to anything. But celibates are witnesses. And so the question is: To what do I give witness? If I am racist, sexist, consumerist, clericalist, arrogant, ambitious, greedy, and sexually abstinent, what I give witness to is racism, greed, male privilege, and sexual abstinence. Celibacy does not give witness, but Francis of Assisi did, and Mother Teresa did, and Cardinal Bernardin did, because the totality of their lives gave witness. Their celibacy made sense only in the context of their lives. And Francis of Assisi's celibacy did not make sense in the context of his world. By merely rational norms any generation would judge him a fool, but Francis's life made sense in the con-text of the gospel. That is the only context that makes sense of our own celibate lives. We are evangelists, not because we are some-how superhuman or something other than human, but because we are convinced that living the gospel is for us a better way to be Review for Religious human. My celibacy is a part of my own humanity and makes me more truly human. It is not necessary for being human, nor nec-essary for living a gospel-centered life, but it does make me to be the human being I am. Without a perspective such as this, there can be no healthy chastity, no freedom, no desire, only fear, only obligation. This is to say, not that living chastely and cslibately is easy, but that it is the only humane way for me to live. Becoming Human Together Beyond the sexuality promoted by the secular culture in which we find ourselves, there is another whole side: mature adult Christian sexuality understood in the context of our total human-ity, with its aspirations, its limitations, its vulnerabilities, its dis-appointments, its joys. We are vulnerable human beings through and through. In my own experience of leader-ship, I learned both how talented and how frag-ile my brothers are. Fragility is not just a matter of misplacing our center, of failing to live from within the depths of our souls, but it is also a matter of what chastity asks of us even when we are centered. It is not easy to be human. A friend of mine likes to say that we are not human beings struggling to be holy, but holy peo-ple struggling to be human. Achieving the deli-cate balance in our lives between the consoling compassionate gentleness of the gospel and its radical challenging demands is not easy, and never achieved or given once and for all. Our vision should be clear, expectations should be high, but our capacity for understanding deep. When there are failures in keeping the vow, the common good makes its demands, but so does the good of the individual human person created and loved by God. Leaders need to be able to distinguish between, on the one hand, some-one who manipulates us, exploits the fraternity or sisterhood or religious family, disregards the reputation of the community, or has been seduced by the false philosophy of our unliberated soci-ety and, on the other hand, the brother or sister who falls short, needs forgiveness, is moving toward deeper integration, and is genuinely caught up with the gospel of Jesus Christ. Here only the one without sin can cast a stone. Does the brother or sister have genuine affection for the com- Celibacy by itself does not witness to anything. May-June 1998 Goergen * Calling Forth a Healthy Chaste Life munity? Are we the source of his or her deepest identity? If so, then the one who is not against us is for us (Lk 9:50), and we give him or her the benefit of the doubt. Chastity is there, and growth in love and commitment to the gospel. If not, we are being used. If someone is stuck in some rationalized disregard for truth, then the one who is not with me is against me (Lk 11:23). Is the per-son genuinely "in the Spirit" or not? I would trust and help any-one grounded in the Spirit. I would help but not trust those who are grounded in their own agenda. Healthy chastity in a sexually saturated, religiously indifferent society is asking for heroism. Unfortunately, to be heroic is the only way we can go. Areas of Specific Concern. There are several areas of particular concern that have an impact on our living a chaste life. I comment on them only briefly here, but they can well be pursued further in community discus-sions. I have one hesitancy. Several years ago I spent several months in India. One thing I learned about India at that time is this: Regarding anything I might say, the opposite is equally true. Accordingly, I am mindful here that I can only raise or emphasize certain points that naturally leave many other points left unsaid. Gender and Individuality There are many reasons, feminist thinking among them, why gender receives much attention today. We have become accus-tomed to distinguishing between sex and gender, sex referring more to the biological aspects of sexual identity, and gender more to the pyschosocial and sociocultural aspects. I want to stress here, however, that individual differences are as important as differ-ences of gender, or even more so. One of the criticisms of Euro-American feminism by third-world feminists is our assumption that such a thing as "women's experience" can speak for all women. Culture, race, and class deeply affect who we are, So does our individuality. I am not speaking here of individuality individualistically understood, but of each one's unique personhood. When dealing with people, we must remember the significance of these individual differences. Men are not all alike. Gay men are not all alike. Black men are not all alike. A major fallacy in many gender studies may be to assume the insignificance of individual differences. Gender is to Review for Religious be understood not so much as two abstract categories into which we place people, but rather as people first of all, whose gender is secondary. Gender must accommodate itself to persons, rather than persons being made to conform to gender stereotypes. There is more than one way to be human, more than one way to be a man, more than one way to be a woman, more than one way to be gay or straight. The question behind gender is not what I am, but who I am. Along with this, let me include my hesitancy--simply a cau-tion- about topics like masculine spirituality, men's groups, and getting in touch with our maleness. Although there can be value in this movement, I am suspicious that it might buy into a misunderstanding of gender wherein my sexual identity becomes dependent upon group consciousness. I am very hesitant to use the word masculinity and give it precise con-tent. How are groups understanding it? With respect to the men's movement, who are the men we are talking about? What is it they have in com-mon? Maleness only? What is the underlying con-cept of masculinity operative in men's groups? Can one deviate from it? How flexible is it? Is there any stereotyping of femininity in such groups? I am not suggesting that there is no value in a men's movement, or in a gathering of males, but I am suggesting that critique is necessary if there is an underlying assumption that all men experience themselves as sexual beings in a common way. If men come together to interact around issues of "soul" and how soul or spirit manifests itself in our sexualities, that is clearly good. If coming together reinforces a sense of "us men," it perpetuates a false understanding of gender. The question behind gender is not what I am, but who I am. Homosexuality There is no question today but that homosexuality plays a significant role in discussions of celibate sexuality. To some degree this is the influence of our social context, of the gay liberation movement on both society and religion. HIV and the tragedy of AIDS also enter into the discussion. Again my comments here are necessarily brief. There is a place for homosexual or gay and lesbian people in religious life. They can be very creative, pastorally compassion-ate, and spiritually sensitive. Homosexuality is not accepted May-June 1998 socially, however, as of equal value to heterosexuality, although it is fairly well acknowledged psychologically that it is not intrinsi-cally pathological. The challenge for us, however, is not only how to screen in order to accept only healthy homosexual men or women and what our expectations of them should be as regards living a chaste life, but also how to clarify for ourselves whether all healthy homosexual or gay people are capable of living a celi-bate communal life. For our purposes here, I will make some distinctions, risky distinctions, but they can clarify discussion. (I refer here specifi-cally to communities of men.) I distinguish between gay men, homosexual men, and closeted men. Religious communities do not benefit from closeted homo-sextiality. I do not mean that men need to be public about their sexuality, a notion that seems to be an odd bane of our period of history. By closeted homosexuals I mean men who are closeted as regards their own selves. That is, they are significantly out of contact with their sexuality and thus unable to accept the degree or kind of homosexuality present in them; as a result, they are men who live in denial and fear and self-hatred. For homosexual men to live in religious communities, they need to be comfortable enough to be unafraid of their homosexuality, and they certainly need to be able to acknowledge who they are to trusted friends. The deeper issue is the distinction I make, for our purposes, between homosexual men and gay men. This is a distinction not ordinarily made in the gay community. There you are either gay or in the closet. But this has led people to make some mistakes, for the word gay is ambiguous and certainly not univocal. It can refer to gay culture or cultures, to people, to styles of life, even to an ethos, a set of beliefs, a movement~ When so .used, it is unhelp-ful for our purposes of discernment or our witness to the gospel. Although a particular "gay" person may very well be called to religious life and ministry, not everything that is gay is compati-ble with religious life. Many styles .of gay life, dimensions of gay cultures, even cofiamonly held assumptions among many gay men, all these may be quite incompatible with our call and our life. Religious life itself is a particular style of life, a particular sub-culture, grounded on certain convictions held in common. Thus I will here use the word homosexual to describe someone whose sexual orientation is predominantly homosexual, but whose deep-est source of identity is not his sexuality but his faith and its Review for Religious accompanying required way of life. A gay person's deepest iden-tity is frequently his sexual identity, or at least his sexual identity has for him a high level of significance. In other words, while it is possible for homosexual men to live and contribute immensely to religious life, the same cannot be naively said of all gay men or even all healthy gay men. If the network of significant relationships that a man feels he must main-tain for the sake of his identity and health is a gay network, then his heart and soul may lie more with the gay community than with a religious community, no matter how many gay men there may be in a religious community. The defining characteristic of a gay community is its sexuality, for a religious community its spirituality. A gay man can be deeply spiritual, and I place here no judgment on the realities of the gay worlds. I am simply saying that, whereas homosexuality is capable of integration into reli-gious life, gay life is not. Where does one's deepest commitment, heart, and soul lie? If one needs to express one's gay identity in the ways encouraged by secular gay life, so be it, but in religious life this cannot be one's defining identity. What I have said should in no way whatsoever be taken as legitimating homophobia or prejudice against homosexual people in religious life or gay and lesbian people in the society at large. Nor is it meant to disparage the legitimate struggles that people encounter as they attempt to mature sexually in religious life. This article is an effort to clarify who we are as religious commu-nities. We are not and never can be communities of gay men, no matter how many homosexual members there may be. We are and must be religious communities. Affectivity I want to underscore the importance of our affective lives. Among men in particular, this can be left undeveloped or its importance minimized. Although, as I said above, Ihave ques-tions about "the men's movement," I think it important that'men find affective support for themselves among their brethren in community and among women religious and other women too. Affective bonds not only sustain us in our lives and ministries. They also help us live the spiritual life deeply. Affective prayer is deeper than reflective prayer, and contemplative prayer even deeper than affective prayer. Affect ordinarily opens up for us deeper recesses of our being and thus allows us to live life more fully, May-June 1998 Goergen ¯ Calling Forth a Healthy Chaste Life beyond dull routine, addictiveness to work, and human bonding that is merely cerebral. If nothing else, our lives must be seen by others as loving, perhaps especially by prospective members. There is both a role for affection and a human need for it. The challenge is to live a balanced, integrated, wholesome life. And balance is not something achieved once and for all, but something regained daily. Life implies movement; perpetual sta-bility is death. Integration implies integrity, which is inner freedom graced by God and constant in pursuit of a worthy quest. There are individual and cultural differences in our affective lives, but the world to which we witness, the brothers and sisters to whom we are joined by profession, are asking us: Do you care? Do you feel? We need examples of affecdve maturity among us. Affective growth has a sexual component to it. Among the major reasons for pur-suing sexual maturity among us are the affective maturity that accompanies it and the increased spiritual maturity as well. Hope and Forgiveness I cannot here go into the complexities, difficulties, and vari-ations of sexual misconduct that we have had to confront in the past ten or fifteen years. I do not want anything I say here to minimize the seriousness of these issues or to lead us to excuse ourselves. Our concerns are for the good of our own members, the common good of our communities, along with our primary con-cern for the victims of abuse at the hands of community members who were occupying positions of trust. For the pastoral care of our members in crisis situations such as these and also for the future health of victims and of perpetrators as well, two things are impor-tant: hope and forgiveness. Whatever one's situation in life and whatever the condition of one's life, we cannot allow it to confine us to living without hope. At least three things can contribute to a healthy even if "non-normal" life for perpetrators, victims, and all of us: (1) personal support and clearly defined boundaries, (2) a deepening of one's spiritual life, and (3) personal involvement with available thera-peutic programs. We can all ask ourselves how woundedness in some cases gets transformed into the making of a wounded healer and how in other situations wounds end up in a cycle of wound-ing others. How are wounds "healed" even if never "cured"? Whatever the path we must take, hope is essential to recovery. This much I have learned from my own walking with perpetrators Review for Religious as well as victims: Never let anyone destroy your hope. Strangely, as I was revising this article, I saw the obituary of Viktor Frankl in the New York Times (4 September 1997). Certainly his three-year experience in a concentration camp contained every justifi-cation for giving up hope along with confirming him in the conviction that one's attitude in the face of suffering is essential to well-being. Every one of our brothers, whether a pedophile or a perpe-trator of some other abuse or one of our outstanding members, needs hope. People cannot survive much less thrive without it. All people, as brothers and sisters, need to experience forgive-ness from others in their lives if they are to move beyond various large or small crises towards healing; also, for this same healing, they may need to do some forgiving of their own. To live a whole human life, we must learn to forgive and to be forgiven. This ought not be precipitous. Perpetrators of abuse need to own their guilt and responsibility, go through cognitive restruc-turing, acknowledge their genuine need for reconciliation with victims, their community, and their God. When the way has been prepared, however, forgiveness and understanding need to be there for them if they are to have hope of being restored to their own lives. This does not predetermine how forgiveness happens. Acceptance, forgiveness, and love can be mediated, and must be, from somewhere within the perpetrators' network of relation-ships, from their Christian community. As with all of us, both perpetrators and victims must eventually feel God's presence in their struggle to remake their lives. Health is never a heart of stone. Even though victims cannot take risks and need to protect their increased vulnerability, the goal is not to be limited to resigned anger. It lies in learning a painful compassion. Of course, much more needs to be said here about our mem-bers who have violated the sacred trust placed in them. There has to be an owning of responsibility on their part; they have to have a genuine desire to reform their lives; there must be coop-eration with the congregation or province and its leadership. One thing all of us can learn from these crises is how important for our communities hope and forgiveness are When it comes to the vul-nerabilities in our lives, especially vulnerabilities in our sexual-ity, and most especially when these vulnerabilities become public. We need to learn forgiveness, to forgive and be forgiven, and to May-ffune 1998 Goergen ¯ Calling Forth a Healthy Chaste Life have hope. These two are at the heart of the Christian gospel to which we have given our lives. They are also pertinent to a healthy attitude toward sexuality. After formulating these reflections of my own, I found Sogyal Rinpoche's Tibetan Book of Living and Dying saying the same thing: "I would like to single out two points in giving spiritual help to the dying: giving hope, and finding for-giveness." 3 Common Fraternal Life Summ.ing up, I must say that the best way to promote a healthy sexuality and chastity among us is to promote healthy community life. The fraternity, sisterhood, or community itself is a significant formative context for us.4 How deep is the bond that unites us? Can the communal context of our living both chal-lenge us and enrich us? Does it come from that deeper spiritual desire, that deep spring, from which our lives and ministries ought to flow? Perhaps common life has suffered assault more than any-thing else during the past twenty-five years; the fraternal charac-ter of that common life has perhaps been too long neglected. If our community is not a deeply spiritual and humanly healthy con-text for the workings of the Holy Spirit, individuals find it a lonely struggle to live the heroic lives we are called upon to live, lives of selflessness in a society that rationalizes greed, arrogance, and exploitive forms of power for which obedience, poverty, and chastity are the only antidotes. And so, what do I ask of present-day leadership in this quest called religious life? --Call us to center ourselves; help us to remember who we truly are; challenge us to be our. best selves. Few things in life, very few things, are truly important. Help us to remember that. --Create a climate, an ethos, for healthy living, for open discussion, but also for the freedom to be spiritual and holy men and women and to give religious witness as well. --Respect and trust the brothers and sisters unless someone clearly manifests that such trust is unde-served. --Trust yourself, seek advice, and be human. --Keep an inner balance, keep your eye on extremes and help us to avoid them. Review for Religious --Be aware that there is a rhythm in our personal lives for all of us, like inhaling and exhaling, a time to plant and a time to reap. Do not supervise our personal growth. --Keep our focus on the charism, and keep our expec-tations clear. --Affirm the importance of sexuality in our lives, but help us to put it in perspective. It is not the be-all and end-all of life. --Call us to lives of integrity, but respect our wound-edness and be aware of how vulnerable we are. Help us to be caring, loving men and women. Teach us to pray. --Have a sense of humor. Life is a way of the cross, but help us to look at that cross from the vantage point of the resurrection. Give us hope. I close with some poetic reflections from a Protestant Brazilian liberation writer, Rubem Alves: What is hope? It is a presentiment that imagination is more real and reality less real than it looks. It is the hunch that the overwhelming brutality of facts that oppress and repress is not the last word. It is a suspicion that reality is more complex than realism wants us to believe and that the frontiers of the possible are not determined by the limits of the actual and that in a miraculous and unexpected way life is preparing the creative events which will open the way to freedom and resurrection. The two, suffering and hope, live from each other. Suffering without hope produces resentment and despair, hope without suffering creates illusions, naivet~, and drunkenness. Let us plant dates even though those who plant them will never eat them. We must live by the love of what we will never see. This is the secret discipline. It is a refusal to let the creative act be dissolved in immediate sense experience. It is a stubborn commitment to the future of our grandchildren. 273 --- May-June 1998 Goergen * Calling Forth a Healthy Chaste Life Such disciplined love is what has given the prophets, revolutionaries, and saints the courage to die for the future they envisaged. They make their own bodies the seed of their highest hope.5 Notes l On this point see letter 20, "Religious Life and the Gospel," in my Letters to My Brothers and Sisters (Dublin: Dominican Publications, 1996), pp. 137-142. Available through Dominican Central Province Office; 1909 South Ashland Avenue; Chicago, Illinois 60608. 2 Evangelii nuntiandi, §76. 3 The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying (San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1992), p. 212. A highly recommended spiritual book. 4 See letter 11, "On Community Life," pp. 75-79, and letter 17, "The Continuing Nature of Formation," pp. 115-121, in my Letters to My Brothers and Sisters. s Rubem A. Alves, Hijos del Magana (Salamanca: Ediciones Sigueme, 1976). The above lines have been gathered together from Alves's reflec-tions on pages 219-231. Morning Ear "Morning after morning, he opens my ear." --Isaiah I want to keep my ear wide open like a door foldingout to the sun, ready to receive all that the ball of fire spills across the threshold. I want the Word to trickle through the long canal to the heart and find a place to stretch out in a dream, then expand through my senses to some form in reality. I want it to grow sturdy like a tree that dances in every emotion of the wind, hearing music even when there is only silence. Patricia G. Rourke IHM Review for Religious MARTIN PABLE Skills Needed for Celibacy ~chonaset cIr aotfefde rc hisa sntoitty a, nboirb dlioc aIl e oxrp tlohreeo iltosg sipciarli truaatli oonr amley sf-or tical significance. Such reflections have in recent decades been put forth in masterful fashion by other writers. My purpose is different. Assuming that readers of this journal already have an understanding and appreciation of the value of religious chastity, I focus on this question: What skills ar.e required in order to live out this commitment in a faithful and life-giving manner? I was prompted toward offering an answer to this question by reading a couple of years ago Father Raymond Carey's "Psychosexuality and the Development of Celibacy Skills." As many readers may know, Carey favors a strongly behavioral approach to the assessment of candidates' fitness for priesthood or religious life. Instead of relying on someone's verbalizations about the value of celibacy (which may be impressively lofty and elo-quent without being grounded in lived experience) or even on psychological testing, Carey bases his assessment on the person's life history. The underlying principle is that the best predictor of future behavior is past behavior. In assessing people's capacity to live the vow of chastity, the key question would be: Is the can-didate for religious life developing the skills needed for celibate living? Martin Pable OFMCap has a doctorate in pastoral counseling, has taught courses in it, and has done extensive counseling. Besides giving retreats and workshops, he directs a wellness program for his order and does evangelization ministry. His address is House of Peace Community Center; P.O. Box 05656; M!lwaukee, Wisconsin 53205. 275 . May-3~une 1998 Pable * Skills Needed for Celibacy Carey went on to name--very briefly--twenty-seven such skills. I found his list a bit overwhelming, but I selected a few of the skills and worked out a retreat conference for religious who were already in final vows. The retreatants later encouraged me to put my talk into written form. That is the genesis of this arti-cle. I will follow Carey's distinction between intrapersonal skills (needed to manage internal conscious states) and interpersonal skills (for dealing with other persons), but sometimes my naming of the skills will differ from his. Intrapersonal Skills Self-knowledge Dr. William Menninger once noted that the first meaning of intimacy is "that which constitutes one's own inner self." This . implies, he said, that we must become intimate with ourselves-- know ourselves--before we can hope to be intimate with others. "Know thyself" is a well-known axiom of the ancients. St. Teresa of Avila used to say, "Almost all problems in the spiritual life stem from lack of self-knowledge." Why is self-knowledge so founda-tional? Because it is the precondition for freedom of choice. If I know when I am feeling sad or inadequate or confident or resent-ful or contented or discouraged, I will have important data for making better decisions; whereas, if I am unaware of these inter-nal states, I will likely fall or be driven into choices without really intending them. Then come the regrets: "Why in the world did I do that?" The same dynamics apply to my awareness--or lack of it--of long-standing patterns of people-pleasing or compulsive activity or competitiveness or demanding my own way. Without self-knowledge, change and conversion are not possible. Such self-knowledge is especially crucial in matters of chastity. I need to know what is driving me: my erotic feelings and desires? my tendency to seek companionship to feed my vanity or soothe my bruised ego? my need to feel important to at least one person so as to compensate for my sense of failure in my ministry? None of these necessarily precludes honest celibate living, but I need to be aware of them if I am to manage them. The skill here consists in the ability to tune in to and correctly identify these internal feelings and tendencies. How do we grow in self-knowledge? The basic tool is inter-nal reflection, such as the process described by Father George Review for Religious Aschenbrenner in his famous article "Consciousness Examen" (Review for Religious 31, no. 1 [January-February 1972]). Instruments such as the Myers-Briggs or the enneagram can be helpful in coming to know ourselves. So can the regular practice of journaling and the time-tested practice of spiritual direction. Enjoyment of One's Own Company We have all seen the opposite of this: people who seemingly cannot stand to be alone. This does not come naturally for those who are extroverts. Still, most extroverts do develop the capacity for solitude as they grow older; it is one of the tasks of midlife. Also, we find religious who always have to be busy doing something; they seem unable to just be still or engage in quiet reflection. One has to wonder: What are they avoiding or running away from? Perhaps it is some inner voice that keeps chiding, "You will never be good enough, will never measure up." In any case, celibates need to develop the ability to be alone, to enjoy their own company. This is simply a demand of reality. Having chosen not to marry, we can-not expect that someone will always be there for us. Even in the best of religious communities, there will be times when no one is around. It is the same in ministry, even in these days of collaboration. Much of our time may be spent alone--in our office, our cubicle, our car. The skill lies in the ability to accept that reality and deal with it creatively. Some religious may need therapy to help them understand and manage those inner voices and restless feelings that drive them to avoid solitude. But ordinarily the skill is acquired with time and practice. We begin to actually enjoy quiet time for read-ing, walking, listening to good music. To do that well, though, perhaps most of us will lneed a reasonably comfortable room or office and some degree of pleasant surroundings. It would be well to include here what Carey calls "skills to mon-itor fantasy." This would obviously exclude behavior such as indulging in sexually stimulating reading or viewing, but it would also exclude allowing oneself to fantasize about "what might have been" (or still could be) in terms of romantic/sexual relationships. It is certainly appropriate to do the necessary grieving over such renunciations, but not to keep revisiting them in one's imagination. Celibates need to develop the ability to be alone, to enjoy their own company. '277 May-June 1998 Pable * Skill~ Needed for Celibacy~ One of the instructive stories from the life of St. Francis of Assisi is related by St. Bonaventure. One night, when Francis was severely tempted by lust, he ran out into the snow and formed several snow figures. Then he said to himself, "Look, Francis, the larger one there is your wife and the others are your chil-dren. Now hurry up and find clothes and food for them--they are cold and hungry. But, if all the trouble it takes to look after them is too much for you, then keep your services for God alone." The story is a stark reminder of how chastity sometimes requires a hard dose of "reality therapy" to iolt us out of our dreamy fan-tasies. The "greener grass" on the other side can turn into a cold night and a hungry family. ~ Being grounded in the love of God, I recognize that this is not so much a skill as an attitude or conviction. But it needs to be acquired and strengthened through behavior. Initially, probably most of us accepted celibacy as part of the "package deal" of reli-gious life, or celibacy made sense because it gave us greater free-dom to be of service. But over the long haul that will not be enough to hold us in our commitment to chastity. Something more profound, more soul-inspiring is needed. Stephen Rossetti has called it "the celibacy experience" (Review for Religious 41, no. 5 [September-October 1982]). Rossetti quotes psychologist Ignace Lepp as saying that the chastity of those consecrated to Christ must be "counterbalanced by a genuinely mystical life." There must be, then, a necessary connection between celibacy and mysticism. Rossetti uses Karl Rahner's definition of mysticism as "a genuine though mediated experience of encounter and communication with the personal God." It is this personal experience of being held in the uncondi-tional embrace of God's love that protects religious chastity. It is not something that happens once and for all, but is a chain of real encounters that renew and strengthen the individual's surrender to God. Rossetti says: "It is this experience and the resulting vision which grounds the celibate's apostolate. The celibacy experience, which eventually grows into a total response to the radical question 'Do you love me?' provides the charter and gives life to his or her ministry. Without this growing intimacy with Christ, the celibate's ministry is without an anchor and will drift with every theological and psychological breeze that comes along" (p. 676). The skill required here, it seems to me, is to make oneself available to this experience and to foster it. In the concrete, this Review for Religious means regular, personal prayer. If celibacy is grounded in my per-sonal relationship with the living God embracing me with uncon-ditional love, that relationship can grow and be sustained only by communication, by opening myself to that Mystery, by allow-ing the risen Christ to address me as "friend." Psychotherapist A.W. Richard Sipe puts it very clearly: "Prayer is indispensable and fundamental for the celibate life, for there is no other effective way to confront God-Self-Other within the core of celibate reality. ¯ . All other relationships and friendships are grounded in this core or, in the end, they will fail from the point of view of celibacy or celibate love. In studying religious celibacy for thirty-five years, I have never found one exception to this fundamental rule: prayer is necessary to maintain the celibate process." Skill to Prize One's Sexuality Prizing one's sexuality involves at least two elements: first, appreciating one's sexuality as a positive life energy. In my recent book The Quest for the Male Soul, I note that one of the Hebrew words for "man" in the Bible is zakar, which literally refers to the male phallus. The rite of circumcision had deep spiritual sig-nificance for the Hebrew male: it was a sign of his covenant with God as well as of his ethnic identity. Therefore, every time he looked at or used his phallus he was reminded: "I am a Hebrew. I belong to God's chosen people. I am dedicated to God.'.' What a contrast with our own socialization into sexuality. There is no sacred ritual to help us to prize our sexuality. The culture around us tends to idolize it, while our religious training tends to make it an object of shame. It is crucial that celibates come to value their sexual energy as a positive gift of God that needs to be channeled toward nongenital forms of love and cre-ativity. Second, this skill involves coming to a peaceful sense of own-ership of one's sexual orientation¯ Thankfully, as the wider soci-ety is becoming more open about homosexuality, religious life is likewise becoming more open. It is now widely acknowledged that there are homosexual and bisexual brothers and sisters in our communities who are spiritually deep, ministerially effective, and faithfully celibate, just as there are heterosexual religious who embody these same qualities¯ We salute them all. Hopefully, we are growing to the point where we can say: (1) We will not tolerate or cover up deliberate violations of celibate chastity; (2) we will279 . ~Vlay-June 1998 Pable ¯ Skil~ Needed for Celiba not tolerate any discrimination against any brother or sister because of his or her sexual orientation; (3) we will not demand perfection in matters of chastity--only that each of us try to grow, even by our mistakes and sins, toward faithful and loving celibacy for the sake of the kingdom of God. Interpersonal Skills Most celibate religious eventually learn to control their gen-ital sexual drive--through common sense ("monitoring fantasy"), self-discipline, prayer, and the grace of God. What is often more difficult, however, is to deal with longings for emotional inti-macy: the experience of closeness, sharing, and exchange of affec-tion with at least one other person as a kind of healing for the sense of loneliness. Celibates know they are called to love the people entrusted to them, though this is often a one-way love with little reciprocity. Moreover, celibates can and do have good friendships marked by true mutuality. But the vow of chastity does require them to renounce the desire for "that one special

Issue 49.1 of the Review for Religious, January/February 1990. ; R~\'u!w ~:~R Rt~u~aot!s ( ISSN OO34-639X ) is published bi-monlhly ai St. La~uis University by the Mis-souri Provinc¢ Edu~.'ational Inslilulc of the Soci,.Zly of.lcsus: Editorial Office; 36OI Lind¢ll Blvd. Rm. 4214: St. Louis. MO 63 IOg-3393. S¢cond-class postage2 paid at St. U~uis MO. Single copies $3.50. Subscriptions: United Stal¢.~ $15.00 I'or one .,,'ear: $2g.00 for two years. Olher countries: US $20.00 for on~ .vear~ if airmail. US $35.00 per )'car. For subscription orders or chan~¢ of address. write: Rl~\'ll~\V i:tm R~il.l(i~vs; F'.O. Box riO'70; Duluth. MN 55gO6. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to R~:\'l~:w vor R~:l.~{:l~nls; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, MN 55806. I)avid L. Fleming, S.J. Iris Ann Ledden, S.S.N.D. Richard A. Hill, S.,J. ,Jean Read Mary Ann Foppe Editor Associate Editor Contrib.ting Editor Advisor\" Board David J. Hassel, S.J. Sean Sammon, F.M.S. Mary Margaret Johanning, S.S.N.D. Wendy Wright, Ph.D. Suzanne Zuercher, O.S.B. Jan.ar\'lFebrttarv 1990 Volume 49 N.mber I Manuscripts, Imoks fiw review and correspondence with the editor sho(dd be sent to w~a R~:u~;~o~s: 361)1 I,indell Blvd.: St. I,ouis. MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the deparlmenl "Canonical Connsel'" should he addressed to Rich-ard A. Hill, S.J.; J.S.°I:B.: 1735 I,eRoy Ave.: Berkeley, CA 94709-1193. Back issues and reprints should be ordered from RF:\'u~w voa RF:L~;~US; 3601 I,indell Blvd.; St. I,ouis, MO 63108-3393. "'O1.11 of prinl" issues are availahle from University Microfilms International; 300 N. Zeeb Rd.: Ann Arbor. MI 481116, A major portion of each issne is also availahle on cassette recordings as a service for Ihe visually impaired. \\'rile Io the Xavier Sociely hw Ihe Blind; 154 Easl 23rd Street: New York, NY I0010. Review for Religious Volume 49, 1990 Editorial Offices 3601 Lindell Boulevard, Room 428 Saint Louis. Missouri 63108-3393 David L. Fleming, S.J. Iris Ann Ledden, S.S.N.D. Richard A. Hill, S.J. Jean Read Mary Ann Foppe Editor Associate Editor Contributing Editor Assistant Editors " REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is published in January, March, May, July, Septem-ber, and November on the twentieth of the month. It is indexed in the Catholic Periodical and Literature Index and in Book Review Index. A microfilm edition of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is available from University Mi-crofilms International; Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106. Copyright© 1990 by REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. A major portion of each issue of REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS is also regu-larly available on cassette recordings as a service for the visually im-paired. Write to the Xavier Society for the Blind; 154 East 23rd Street; New York, NY 10010. PRISMS. As we begin our forty-ninth volume, there are some additional names found on our inside cover editorial masthead. Although our readers may be familiar with the members of our Advisory Board from their writings or from conferences or workshops, I want to take this opportunity to intro-duce each one of them. Father David Hassel, S.J., with his doctorate in philosophy from St. Louis University, has taught university courses in the philosophy of hu-man nature, God, Augustine, and secularization for twenty-seven years. He has written four books on prayer (Paulist Press) and two on Chris-tian philosophy of education and of love (Loyola University Press), along with some nine articles for REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS. He currently is a writer-in- residence at Loyola University in Chicago, Illinois. Sister Mary Margaret Johanning, S.S.N.D., is presently chancellor of the Jefferson City, Missouri diocese. From 1977 to 1987, she served in Rome as general superior of the School Sisters of Notre Dame, and from 1971 to 1977 as provincial councilor of the St. Louis province. With her doctorate in theology from Marquette University, she has lec-tured on topics of theology and spirituality, and has been involved in giv-ing retreats and spiritual direction. Brother Sean D. Sammon, F.M.S., is provincial of the Poughkeep-sie Province of the Marist Brothers and also serves as president of the Conference of Major Superiors of Men. He worked for nine years at the House of Affirmation, serving most recently as Clinical Director. With three books and a number of articles published, his most recent contri-bution is Alcoholism's Children: ACoAs in Priesthood and Religious Life (Alba House). With his doctorate in psychology from Fordham Univer-sity, he lectures on topics of adult development among religious and priests, sexuality and intimacy, and addictive behavior. Wendy M. Wright, with her doctorate in theology from the Gradu-ate Theological Union in Berkeley, currently teaches theology at Creighton University. She has taught at University of California at Santa Barbara, Weston School of Theology in Cambridge, and Univeisity of Nebraska at Omaha in the fields of history of Christian spirituality, his-tory of religions, and family spirituality. Among her publications are Sa-cred Dwelling: A Spirituality of Family Life; Francis de Sales and Jane de Chantah Letters of Spiritual Direction (with Joseph F. Power); and 3 4 / Review for Religious, January-February 1990 Bond of Perfection: Jane de Chantal and Francis de Sales. She and her husband, Roger Bergman, who is director of New Covenant Justice and Peace Center, have three children and live in Omaha, Nebraska. Sister Suzanne Zuercher, O.S.B., holds a master's degree in clini-cal psychology from Loyola University of Chicago and is a licensed psy-chologist in the state of Illinois. She has worked as a school psycholo-gist, university campus minister, and for twelve years as staff member and co-director of the Institute of Spiritual Leadership of Loyola Univer-sity, an international program training men and women for spiritual lead-ership as companions for those on the spiritual journey. She has offered workshops throughout the United States and Canada as well as in Japan, Hong Kong, and Indonesia. As a member of the Benedictine Sisters of St. Scholastica Priory, Chicago, she has served as first councilor and is presently community secretary and formation directress, a position she also held for six years in the 1970s. As editor, I am delighted to welcome these members of our Advi-sory Board. With their broad experience, learning, and publishing skills, they give promise of providing Rzvmw FOR Rzt.~c~ot~s with future direc-tion and creative imagination as we look toward the Church of the third millennium. David L. Fleming, S.J. Challenges Facing Active Religious Today Sally A. Kenel, D.W. Sister Sally Kenel, D.W., can be addressed at St. John's University; 300 Howard Avenue; Staten Island, New York 10301. Iduring the summer of 1988 I participated in the General Chapter of the congregation to which I belong, the Daughters of Wisdom. Since we are an international group with our generalate in Rome, the meeting was held at a large house specially equipped for chapters in the lake district out-side of Rome. There were many adjustments to make: some as basic as climate, language, and food. However, it was only after we had been meeting for about a week that I realized that even more significant than these was the overall adjustment in lifestyle. We followed a strict schedule which centered around our Eucharis-tic celebration and our Marian prayer in common. The casa at which we met was quite far from the nearest town. Moreover, the doors of the house as well as the gates of the property were locked at 9:30 P.M. and reopened at 8:00 A.M. On the several occasions I absented myself from the common meals, questions about the state of my health indicated that I had been "missed." In my initial processing of this experience, I com-pared being at the general chapter to being in the novitiate. However, as our discussions at the chapter centered on the mission of the congregation and the lifestyle of a religious today, I realized that even as we talked about community life in an active religious congrega-tion, we were living a monastic lifestyle. This insight served as the cata-lyst for this article in that it stimulated my reflections on the active as opposed to monastic lifestyle, and the challenges facing post-Vatican II active religious. Review for Religious, January-February 1990 The Active Religious Life Almost twenty five years ago, the Second Vatican Council in its "De-cree on the Appropriate Renewal of Religious Life," stated that such a renewal involved two simultaneous processes: "(1) a continuous return to the sources of all Christian life and to the original inspiration behind a given community and (2) an adjustment of the community to the changed conditions of the times."~ In the years which followed, our con-gregation, like so many others, took these words of Vatican II to heart and with much prayer, soul searching, discussion, and, at times, painful confrontation, engaged in the renewal of our congregation. The result of our efforts was the declaration that for us mission is primary. In other words, on the continuum which runs from contemplative to active relig-ious lifel we clearly situated ourselves near the latter. In so placing ourselves, we joined with other congregations in liv-ing religious life in a way that George Aschenbrenner has distinguished from contemplative life in six main ways. (!) Ministry is the primary de-termining influence for the community. This being the case, then (2) a certain flexibility is necessary in order to be able to deal with the de-mands' of ministerial activities. However, such a life may become scat-tered; therefore, (3) discernment is needed if religious are to find, be with, and serve God through their works. Since the purpose of the con-gregation is to be sent in mission, (4) mobility and availability are key elements of an active spirituality, and correspondingly (5) an apostolic form of prayer should characterize active religious. Finally, (6) the com-munity must be marked by a unity which goes beyond physical presence to a unity of mind and heart.2 Although active congregations have done much to make these char-acteristics vital dimensions of their lives, certain of these areas continue to challenge. Frequently the challenge they offer is a subtle one. While religious are engaged in evaluating their ministries and strategizing to in-culturate the gospel message and values, other aspects of active religious life may be neglected. It is these areas which continue to challenge re-ligious, and at times provide the fodder for those who endorse a return to a more traditional lifestyle. Assuming that participation in the mission of the Church is primary for active religious, and that our efforts at renewal in this area are con-stant, a whole variety of questions arise. For example, when we focus our efforts on mission what happens to community? Does it remain one of the marks of religious life, or do we abandon it and become secular institutes? As our communities become smaller and our works less insti- Challenges Facing Religious Life / 7 tutionalized what happens to "local superiors"? If they are no longer needed as administrators, who fills the mentoring roles which they tra-ditionally held? What is an apostolic prayer life? Can unity of heart and mind extend beyond the borders of a particular country or culture to form an international bond? The fact that these questions are spin-offs from the primary question of ministry in no way diminishes our responsibility to respond. As ac-tive religious we need to grapple with these issues to see where the Spirit is leading us today. It is to reflection on these questions that we now turn. The Challenge of Community Living The Vatican document, "Essential Elements in the Church's Teach-ing. on Religious Life," states that: The style of community life itself will relate to the form of apostolate for which the members have responsibility and to the culture and soci-ety in which this responsibility is accepted. The form of apostolate may well decide the size and location of a community, its particular needs, its standards of living.3 This statement clearly indicates that a community lifestyle is the norm for religious, and recognizes that local communities can and must take a form appropriate to the needs of the apostolate. As simple as this may seem, any one who tries to live in community with people who engage in a variety of ministries knows that the reality is quite complex. People come to community with a variety of expectations. Some use the family as the model for community life. Although the sharing of re-sources that community life demands may well be similar to that of a fam-ily, there are also differences. Some people expect to find in community the security of a parent-child relationship where they may relax in de-pendence or dominance depending on their personalities. Others ap-proach community as a sorority or fraternity and expect that community will provide them with a group of congenial companions with whom they may spend their free time. Others look on community as a shelter, a place to come home to after a hard day's work. Sitting quietly in front of the TV is their idea of a pleasant evening together. For still others, a "bed and breakfast" model of community is the ideal. Ministerial ob-ligations, dinners with friends, shopping, visits to a health club, and so forth, indiscriminately keep a person busy every evening. By so limit-ing the time spent with the group, a person is able to avoid the give-and-take which life in community ordinarily demands. At least in part, all these expectations show a response to the com~ Review for Religious, January-February 1990 mon life that was the norm for religious communities prior to Vatican II. At that point in time, a good community was one whose main attrib-utes were regularity, order, and discipline. Vestiges of this ideal remain and constitute the basis for the expectations of some religious today. On the other hand, there are religious whose expectations of community have their roots in reactions against a common life. The result is a ten-sion which is expressed by clusters of people around the pole of group orientation in opposition to clusters of people around the pole of indi-vidual orientation. Attempts to address such tension on the practical level has led to such practices as interviewing prospective members of a local community in order to examine mutual compatibility. Although such testing may lead to a more peaceful life together, it fails to address the basic issue of the value of community itself. Why do active religious live in community? One way to respond to this question is rooted in Johannes Metz's understanding of religious congregations as "the institutionalized form of a dangerous memory within the Church."4 The community life of an active religious congregation, then, recalls the enthusiastic union of the early Christians described in the Acts of the Apostles: "The community of believers was of one heart and mind, and no one claimed that any of his possessions was his own, but they had everything in common" (Ac 3:32). These early Christians had grasped the notion that God is community, the Trinity, and gave witness to this belief through their life together. Thus, the community life of active re-ligious today serves as a protest against the excessive individualism in today's society and bears witness to the fact that to be is to be in rela-tionship. Reflection on the value of community does not immediately solve all the problems connected with the living of community today. However, it does provide the context in which religious can explore the particulars of community life. By locating the value of community in witness, the notion of community for the mission of the Church is reaffirmed. Thus, the challenge for active religious is to find ways of being together in com-munity which facilitate the ministries of each member, and at the same time proclaim the interdependence of all people. The Challenge o1' Mentoring Several years ago when I was a member of our community's forma-tion team we spent a great deal of time reflecting on where to send our ne~,ly professed sisters. Although ministerial opportunity was our pri-mary consideration, we quickly became involved in the question of vi-able community situations. Where were there sisters who would be open Challenges Facing Religious Life to sharing their lives with the temporary professed whose experiences were so different? Where were there sisters who could and would serve as mentors for these women? In general, we found a reluctance on the part of older sisters to become involved in a mentoring relationship. In pre-Vatican II days this problem did not exist. The local superior was responsible for all the sisters in her house, and she was expected to pay particular attention to the integration of the temporary professed into the community. Thus, the formation begun in the postulate, novitiate, and juniorate was continued by the superior in the house to which a sis-ter was assigned. In addition, regular personal meetings with the supe-rior often served as spiritual direction. Today active communities are smaller and less structured. Often, the group is not uniformly involved in a particular ministry. Joined to the emphasis on the personal respon-sibi! ity of each member, these factors have contributed to the demise of the role of local superior. In their place we find the "communicator" or "contact person," that is, someone within the group who accepts re-sponsibility for communication with the provincial leadership, and so forth. However successful such communication may be, this redefinition of task may leave the mentoring role which the superior formerly filled empty. Such a lack not only deprives new members of receiving the tra-ditions of the community, but also raises the question of whether the adult crisis which Erikson describes as Generativity vs. Stagnation is be-ing successfully negotiated. Although some may claim that their minis-try outside the congregation commits them to involvement in establish-ing and guiding the next generation of Christians, the responsibility of passing on the charism of their particular group cannot be ignored. However, some will argue that the religious life of today bears little resemblance to the life to which they committed themselves. They con-tend that they cannot be expected to pass on the tradition because they themselves do not know what has happened to it. Take daily Eucharist, for example. They consider it a must, and yet newer members of the com-munity do not share the depth of their commitment in this area. How can they be expected to pass on the tradition to those whose values are judged not only different but inferior? What these people fail to realize is that generativity demands the pass-ing on of the tradition, in this case the charism, and not one particular time bound expression of it. Their nostalgic reminiscences of the "good old days" when community members did everything together are but signs of their own stagnation. The challenge for active religious is to re- Review for Religious, January-February 1990 alize that the process of renewal set in motion by Vatican II is an ongo-ing one. It demands the frequent return to the charism, and the contin-ual search for appropriate expressions of the charism. The refusal of men-toring roles in a congregation may indicate that it is time to examine the charism again with the hope of identifying its core values so that these values in turn may be passed on. It may also be time to view the charism as a gift to the whole Church, not merely to a particular congregation. This opens ihe way to redefining membership to include associate mem-bership and other forms of affiliation with a congregation. These new forms of membership in turn raise anew the challenge of mentorship. The Challenge of an Apostolic Prayer Life The need for prayer in the life of a religious is often likened to a car's need for gasoline. Unless one gets the tank filled periodically, the car will not continue to run. One immediately makes the connection with the need for religious to take time to become filled with God. Today's re-ligious seem very much aware of the need for periodic retreats and pro-longed periods of prayer. However, another automobile analogy can be made. It is not only gasoline in the engine that keeps a car running. While the car is going the battery must be constantly recharged by the ¯ alternator or else the car cannot continue to run. Thus, besides setting aside more extended periods for prayer, an apostolic prayer life calls for continual prayer in the midst of activity. But, how does one "pray always?" (Lk 18: I). The temptation is to claim that one's work is prayer. However, in such a simple equation, both work and prayer lose something. A brief reflection on Eucharist may help to bring the relationship between prayer and work into sharper focus for the active religious. Eucharist involves three basic movements: thanksgiving, memorial, and invocation. At Eucharist we give thanks to God in Jesus' name for all the good things--be they as general as creation, and redemption, or as particular as specific moments of grace. We remember the death and resurrection of Jesus, the "dangerous memory" par excellence, a mem-ory which promises freedom for all. We implore the Holy Spirit to make our gifts holy and to transform ourselves as well. Notice, however, that this is not the prayer of an individual, but rather we thank; we remem-ber; we invoke. The Eucharist teaches us that prayer is not merely a dia-logue between a person and God, but rather that Christian prayer is com-munal. Moreover, Eucharist does not end when one leaves the church. As the poe~n by R. Voight makes clear, in our work we do Eucharist. Con- Challenges Facing Religious Life sider, one verse: He was old, tired, and sweaty, pushing his homemade cart down the alley, stopping now and then to poke around in somebody's garbage. I wanted to tell him about Eucharist But the look in his eyes the despair on his face, the hopelessness of somebody else's life in his cart, Told me to forget it. So I smiled, said "Hi"--and gave him Eucharist.5 This brief reflection on Eucharist points to the dynamic relation be-tween prayer and work in the life of the active religious. Prayer as en-gagement in contemplation is not an individual activity, but rather, no matter how personal, is also communal. Our communion with Christ is a communion with the Body of Christ as well. This sense of communion finds expression in prayer not only as the context out of which one prays but also in the form of prayers of petition, and through such expression communion is enhanced. In turn, this sense of unity with others demands expression in our ministry. Our union with Christ urges us to a life of service. Thus, an apostolic prayer life does not exist alone, but only in conjunction with a prayerful apostolate. The challenge of an apostolic prayer life is to develop a prayerful approach to ministry so that prayer and work are viewed as different forms which our efforts towards true communion take. The Challenge of Internationality We live in a time when distances between places have been reduced drastically by improved means of communication and transportation. We live in a time when the condition of the very planet on which we live challenges us to recognize our interdepeiadence. Simultaneously, how-ever, today's religious are encouraged to adapt their style of life to the demands of their specific apostolates and to the culture in which they live. In trying to make such adaptations, religious tend to emphasize the needs and demands of the local church and the local community. Al-though such a focus is important, at times it can be isolating, and can raise the question of what it means to belong to a larger group, be it prov-ince or international congregation. In other words, if we have more in common with other religiou~ living and working in similar situations than we have with other members of our own congregation, why belong to Review for Religious, January-February 1990 an international congregation? Responses to questions such as these hang on the value which one places on the charism of a congregation. Is the charism an adequate ground on which bonds strong enough to extend across continents yet flex-ible enough to allow for cultural diversity can be built? Or to put it an-other way, does sharing the past, being a community of memory, so ori-ent us that we engage in the here and now not only with enthusiasm, but with the realization that our here and now is but a part of the total pres-ent reality? Moreover, does being a community of memory so orient us towards the future that we face it with hope not only for ourselves, but for all people, for the world? The potential of the charism of a congregation to enable bonding needs to be developed and made concrete. In recent years such develop-ment of the charism in active congregations often has taken the form of a mission statement. However, the mission statement itself can remain purely theoretical unless we begin to share the stories of how this state-ment is enfleshed in the specific ministries of religious in different cul-tures. Without such interpersonal and self-disclosing communication, true bonding within the congregation will not occur~ and the potential for challenge and affirmation on an international level will remain unde-veloped. International bonding built on the principles of interpersonal and self-disclosing communication stands in stark contrast to a hierarchical model of bonding. In the former, the general administration is charged with fa-cilitating such communication as opposed to serving as the bond of unity in the congregation. Each member shares the responsibility of preserv-ing and strengthening the bonds of congregational unity. Furthermore, each member shares the responsibility for creating new bonds through her sharing of the concrete form the charism takes in her life and minis-try. In other words, the local community and the local church need not become less important to the individual religious, but each one must come to the recognition that there are other local communities and other local churches where needs and attempts to meet these needs are quite different from one's own. Moreover, the full meaning of one's local church and local community can be found only in relationship to the uni-versal Church and the congregation. A religious congregation as a visible, identifiable group of people within the Church serves as a model of the Church. A non-hierarchical understanding of the internationality of a congregation can function as a symbol of grace for the larger community. As such it refuses to allow Challenges Facing Religious Life the universal Church to be understood as the Vatican, but recalls the Pauline understanding of universal Church as the communion of local churches. At the same time, the internationality of a congregation refuses to allow a local church to consider itself an autonomous subdivision of the universal Church. The internationality of a religious congregation calls the Church to recognize that it is at once local and universal. However, a religious congregation can function as a symbol of grace for the Church in this way only if it itself is truly international. In other words, the challenge of internationality for a religious congregation is much the same as it is for the Church--to realize that it is at once local and universal. On the practical level, this becomes the challenge of es-tablishing, maintaining, and enhancing personal, self-disclosing commu-nications. Conclusions If the chosen priority of a religious congregation is the mission of the Church, then this priority will have ramifications on all of life. The challenges facing active religious today flow from this primary commit-ment to ministry. Moreover, the challenges which we examined in this article all seem to have a common thread--that of recognizing oneself as living in relationship. Whether one examines the quality of local com-munity life, the continuation of a congregation and its values through men-toring, apostolic prayer, or internationality, the central challenge is to a life of interdependence. In other words, the ideal of the "rugged indi-vidual" has no place in active religious life. Since many of us have cul-tivated this ideal in order to survive the past two decades in religious life, the challenge to live interdependently is one that strikes at the heart of our hard won "freedom." On the other hand, interdependent living and dependent living are not synonymous. Interdependency demands that we take responsibility for our own lives and at the same time realize that we are part of an intricate web of relationships. Insofar as religious are able to meet the challenges of interdepend-ent living, they in turn will become challenges to others--to the Church, to the nationalistic spirit of governments, to a consumerism which has no regard for non-human life, or the environment. In this way, active religious will serve as symbols of grace, reflecting to all the community of God. NOTES "Decree on the Appropriate Renewal of Religious Life," in The Documents of Vati- Review for Religious, January-February 1990 can H, ed. Walter M, Abbott, S.J., p. 468, no. 2. 2 See "Active and Monastic: Two Apostolic Lifestyles," REVIEW FOR RELIGIOUS Wol. 45 (1986): pp. 653-668. 3 Origins 13 (1983) p. 136, no. 21. 4 Followers of Christ (New York: Paulist Press, 1978), p. 12. 5 As quoted in Morton T. Kelsey, The Other Side of Silence (Paulist Press, 1976), pp. 276-278. The Challenge God, can you wrap your arms around me, hold me tight and tell me that you love me? Jesus, as my lover, can you really do that? Spirit, can you fulfill the need I feel . . . to be touched, squeezed, loved? Make love to me, God, can you do that? Whisper in my ear, Jesus, can you? Tell me You want me as well, Spirit, is that possible? Am I not to be human anymore? Am I not to feel desire? Am I not to remember or imagine? I imagine his pain as the nail broke through his flesh. I remember the words he screamed at his death. My heart is full of desire for him. I am human--so was he. He came to gather us for his Father. He wants me. He whispers to me everyday and makes love to me with every breath I take. He touches me, squeezes me, loves me. Yes, Lord. My God. I believe. I feel your arms engulf me-- Hold me tighter, Lord. I love you, too. Elaine Laws A.S.C. Affiliate Lay Volunteer Liberia, W. Africa Enlarging Perspectives for the Future of Religious Life Shaun McCarty, S.T. Father Shaun McCarty, S.T., teaches in the Washington Theological Union and is a staff member of the Shalem Institute for Spiritual Formation. His address is Holy Trinity Mission Seminary; 9001 New Hampshire Avenue; Silver Spring, Maryland 20903. ~l~s we approach the last decade of this century, religious find themselves deeply concerned with and uncertain about the future. The crisis facing religious (mainly in the United States and in western Europe) is marked by a decrease in vocations, an increase in median age, and a growing com-plexity of ministerial needs. Many are experiencing either sadness, fear, anger, helplessness, hopelessness, or some combination of the above! The causality (which I would not pursue at length here) is complex. In addition to a history of change that has marked the evolution of reli-gious life, there are theological reasons for the present crisis such as Vati-can II's accent on the universal call to holiness; pastoral ones such as ex-panding possibilities for dedicated service for laity; and cultural ones such as delayed maturation leading to difficulties for young people in mak-ing lasting commitments. People have different ways of dealing with crisis. One can choose (a) to deny or ignore it with a cockeyed optimism; (b) to blame it on the wrong causes or people; (c) to hanker after "the good old days" (that are yet to come!); (d) to become immobilized and depressed by a fatalis-tic cynicism; (e) to engage in narcissistic introspection and breast-beating; (f) myopically to limit one's perspective or to focus on the wrong issues. None of these alternatives is constructive. My contention is that religious life is in transition and that we need 15 Review for Religious, January-February 1990 a strategy for living in a transitional period. As a first step in developing such a strategy, I would suggest enlarging one's perspectives so as to face the future with hope. By "perspective" I mean the scope or hori-zon of a person's or a group's vision whereby one is enabled to perceive context, allowing for a sense of proportion and within which one can fo-cus attention and energy. Context enables one to see something in its re-lationship rather than in isolation. This, in turn, allows it to be seen in proportion to its real significance. Within proper context, one can then choose to focus on the right issues. It is also my contention that, though painful, crisis bears potential for growth. "Crisis" literally means being presented with a situation de-manding decision. The word for discernment in Greek is diakrisis, that is, "a sorting out." It is that "sorting out" that I would like to address. As all Christians, religious have a responsibility to discern the signs of the times in the process of making decisions for the future in a spirit of hope for the coming of the kingdom. So the question is: What help is available in reading the signs of the times that are pertinent to what has always been a changing shape of religious life? My task is to try to provide some perspectives that might enable a hopeful reflection on what we can expect and prudent decisions about what we can do to help shape the future. I will attempt neither to predict nor will I presume to play the prophet. Rather, I will explore some mean-ings and pose some questions that might hopefully expand and deepen perspectives in sharing responsibility for the future. Some Meaning to Broaden Perspectives I would suggest five key areas where broader and deeper perspec-tives might be profitably pursued. They include: (I) the primacy of the kingdom (or reign) of God; (2) a mature grasp of and love for the Church as "Catholic"; (3) membership in interdependent religious community; (4) different approaches to and notions of the future; (5) the cultivation of a mature sense of Christian hope and trust. The Primacy of the Kingdom (or Reign) of God Kingdom (or reign~ of God is a symbol used to convey the mystery of the corporate vision or dream for the future that energizes Christians for involvement in the present. It is the large perspective that embraces all the others. It summarizes the mission of Christ now shared by all. God's reign is already breaking through and manifest by those liv-ing the beatitudes which results in fruits of the Spirit such as peace, jus-tice, mercy, forgiveness, reconciliation, unity, and love. Obviously these Enlarging Perspectives values of the kingdom are not the exclusive property of any group within the Church or even of the Church itself. A Mature Grasp of and Love for the Church as "Catholic" The Church, though not co-terminus with the kingdom, is a commu-nity of disciples called together in Christ to be a visible body united in belief, discipline and worship in service of the kingdom. It is important to remember that the beginnings of the Church (which we continue to remember) were marked by "upper room experiences" where Jesus washed feet as a prelude to Eucharist and where the Holy Spirit descended upon disciples who had gathered in fear and confusion to be empowered for the mission of proclaiming the Good News of the kingdom. "Catholic" is a designation that indicates the universality of the Church's scope; its quest for unity, yet respect for differences; its inclu-siveness of peoples and cultures; and its ability to recognize and to re-spect kingdom values wherever they are found. The term "Catholic" is opposed to insular, parochial, provincial, or sectarian attitudes. A mature love for the Church means accepting her in both her graced and flawed condition; being faithful to her in attempting to personalize the institution as others experience Church in our ministry to them; and working prophetically from within the perennial tasks of renewal (begin-ning with ourselves!). Membership in Interdependent Religious Community Religious life is an ecclesial way of living a vowed Christian life in community for the sake of the kingdom. It is both charism and institu-tion. As charism, it is a gift of the Spirit to the Church through the in-spiration of a founder. As institution, it is structured according to a rule of life or constitution approved by the Church. Though both charism and institution are important elements to be kept in poised tension, I would suggest that sharing in the charism is morevital to membership than par-ticipation in its institutional structures. It is even a deeper bond than af-fective ties with other members. By membership I mean how, where, and when one experiences a sense of bel6nging to or connectedness within a group. I would also suggest that today, more than ever before, members and communities are called to greater interdependence both within the com-munity and with other groups. By "interdependence," I mean mutual dependency in co-responsible fashion as opposed to an unhealthy inde-pendence or dependence. Review for Religious, January-February 1990 Different Approaches to and Attitudes towards the Future "Future" refers to that aspect of human history not yet fully here except in seed and about which little can be known with certainty, but for which there is responsibility for human choices in the present. There are different attitudes about the future. Some hold that history continues to repeat itself and that managing the future means knowing the past. Others think changes are going to be so radically different in the future that it is senseless to look at the past. There are others still who feel that, as the present has emerged in continuity with the past, so the future will be both creative and new, but will emerge in continuity with the past and present. I believe the latter is more in keeping with the notion of Divine Provi-dence. As a matter of fact, the Latin root of "providence" is "pro vid-ere" which means literally "to see with" or "to see for"--implying the use of dynamic memory in looking at the past, creative imagination in looking at the future, and collaborative action in the pres.ent. Thus Di-vine Providence may be viewed, as God calling creatures to be co-responsible for and to collaborate with the Spirit in shaping the future. There are different kinds of futures including: (a) possible, that is, what could happen limited only by the scope of imagination; (b) prob-able, that is, given current trends, what is likely to happen; (c) prefer-able, that is, what should happen determined by a value system; and (d) plausible, that is, what can happen by attending carefully to the other kinds of futures. I would suggest that, in helping to shape the future, we need to explore the possible, assess the probable, assert the preferable, and attempt the plausible. The Cultivation of a Mature Sense of Hope and Trust By hope I mean trustful expectation for the future, born of faith in promises of the more to come. Just as with faith, I believe there is a first and second naivete of hope. In faith development, what begins initially as an unquestioning and naive faith, after a period of doubt and questioning, can grow into a more critical and mature faith marked by a second naivete. A similar develop-ment can happen in regard to a naix, e hope. An Eden-like expectation of absolute assurance can be shattered by an act of betrayal (real or sup-posed, conscious or unconscious). If the person thus "betrayed" can for-give and effect reconciliation with the event of betrayal, then that per-son can grow to a more mature trust (second naivete) which includes the possibility and risk of further betrayal. I would submit that people can experience corporate as well as individual betrayals, that is, betrayal by Enlarging Perspectives a renewed Church or changed religious community. Some Questions to Enlarge Perspectives (1) Perspectives of kingdom and Church Are we "catholic" enough in our notion of Church? How much do we perceive Church in the first person plural? Do we view both institu-tional and charismatic elements in the Church as interdependent, minis-tering in mutual dependency rather than as competitors or adversaries? As different (and often differing!) individuals and groups in the Church, can we transcend personal and intramural agenda by focusing on king-dom priorities? Does our grasp of Church embrace a missionary dimen-sion as necessary to its fullness? In carrying forth the mission, do we see evangelization as a two-way street, a dialogue in which we need to lis-ten to learn as well as to proclaim to teach kingdom values? Do we value quality of personal evangelization (especially our own !) over quantity of religious practices? In evangelizing, are we able to distinguish Gospel from cultural values? Are we developing a mature love for that Church? Does such love imply placing a priority on our personal relationship with Jesus and com-mitment to the Gospel proclaiming his kingdom as realities that relativ-ize Church membership? In realizing that discipleship is prior to apostleship? In seeing code, creed, and cult as important, but secondary to our experience of God in Christ? Does a mature love for the Church call for recognizing and embracing the flawed as well as the the graced condition not only of ourselves and other individuals, but of the Church itself? Does it mean reverencing the person and opinions of others who disagree with us? Being able to forgive those who wound us? Does ma-ture love prefer invitation to control by refusing to resort to power poli-tics to win the day, even for a worthy cause? Does it include making pref-erential, yet not exclusive options for the poor? Does it call for building bridges between those who have and those who have not? Do we foster mature love of Church by exercising a truly servant leadership that is ready to wash feet? To share Eucharist in life as well as sacrament? To discern the Spirit of God in experiences of life? To recognize, affirm, and enable the use of different gifts for ministry in the Church? Does ma-ture love lead us to avoid elitism and to shun seeking privilege? Are we comfortable enough in our Catholic identity so as to engage in genuine dialogue (in which we listen as well as speak) with other Christians and non-Christians energized by a passion for unity in love as well as truth? Do we acknowledge goodness wherever or in whomever we find it, in-side or outside the Church? Do we acknowledge kingdom values wher- Review for Religious, January-February 1990 ever we find them? (2) Perspectives of religious life: So as to establish a proper context, rather than asking in isolation "What is happening to religious life?", should we be asking, "What is happening in the Church?" And what is happening in the global Church--in Africa, Latin America, Asia, and elsewhere? Not just in the local Church in a given diocese, nation, or culture. Within respective religious communities, do we need to shift focus and to widen horizons? To shift the focus of membership in community from local living to the larger religious community sharing a charism within a context of Church and kingdom? As religious, is there any higher obedience we owe the Church than fidelity to the charism of our community? And, in fact, is that charism the exclusive possession of any given canonical group? Can that same charism be shared by men as well as women? By laity as well as by religious? by non-Catholics as well as by Catholics? If the charism is susceptible of wider appropriation, then is there a responsibility for religious to share and foster it with others out-side their own canonical groups? Could it be that the charism will out-live present structures that embody it? What can we do to discover or to create the conditions for"upper room experiences" so that community gatherings might become energiz-ing and enabling rather than enervating and obstructive? What would they look like in terms of participation? Prayerful mode? Respect for dif-ferent gifts for ministry? Though responsibly planned, with a readiness for kairos moments in which we can be surprised by the Spirit? Agenda with priority on the needs of those we serve over internal concern? Lis-tening with open hearts? How are we dealing with the fear and confu-sion of crisis? How and in what areas can we work in mutual dependence with oth-ers who share our concerns? Where is there redundancy, competition, or unhealthy independence or dependence? Between religious communities? Between men and women? Between religious and laity? Between parish priests and religious or lay associates? Between Catholic and non- Catholic sponsored programs? What kind of support do we need from and can we give to one another? (3) Perspectives of the future and hope for it: Can we resist being victimized by "prophets of doom" proclaim-ing the probable? Are we ready to share responsibility for shaping the future by reading the signs of the times and by making discerned choices for the preferable and plausible futures? Have we grown in a mature Enlarging Perspectives sense of hope and trust? Have we survived real or supposed "betrayal" within communities and/or the Church? How have we reacted or re-sponded? With bitterness? Anger? Resentment? Cynicism? or with for-giveness and reconciliation? With the readiness to enter a more real world? With greater awareness and acceptance of human limitation? With a more mature love of Church? With the willingness to risk in trust-ing again? With the firm belief that, though Jesus has ceased to be vis-ible, he has never ceased to be present? Conclusion Perhaps a fitting paradigm for this time of transition would be the Exodus event? Many, lured by promises, never reached the Promised Land themselyes, but lived and worked that others might? As Sam Goldwyn used to remark at meetings. "For your informa-tion, I have come to ask a few questions!" Perhaps this is a time for hav-ing more disturbing questions than comforting answers. It was Rilke who said the important thing was to love the questions and perhaps someday we would live ourselves into the answers! There might be the germ in that for a strategy of survival for religious during an era of transition: to love and live the questions to~e'ther in hope! Towards A Trinitarian Model of Religious Life John J. Markey, O.P. Father John Markey, O.P., is a member of the Southern Dominican Province. His address is De Porres House; 495 Merritt Avenue; Oakland, California 94610. The authors of the landmark book, Habits of the Heart, present a clear challenge to traditional religious communities which claim to want to "transform" the dominant cultural ethos. ~ It is ultimately up to the vari-ous churches to provide a morally coherent alternative to the radically myopic individualism that has come to so characterize and inform Ameri-can culture. But religion itself has often been both systematically co-opted by this culture, and has reinforced it by providing a rationale for its most insipid implications. It is, therefore, increasingly evident that the churches must begin any wider prophetic role by questioning and re-imagining their own communal life, and the place of the valid insights of individualism within this context. Within the Roman Catholic tradi-tion it is clear that those in religious life have a particularly urgent man-date and rich resources in this regard. There is a growing awareness that any genuine Christian community must be both inculturated and prophetic. This means that the community must define itself within a certain cultural context; it must take seriously and even incarnate the valid insights and thought-forms of the culture. But the community will also necessarily have a countercuitural dimen-sion to it. It will be characterized by a lifestyle that explicitly contradicts some cultural themes and attitudes that are seen to be irreconcilable with gos-pel values. A thorough analysis of American culture would reveal many myths 22 A Trinitarian Model. of Religious Life / 23 and values that need to be challenged and transvalued by the gospel, but no single aspect of American life is as pervasive and dominant as radi-cal individualism. It is fair to say that Western liberal thought revolves around this theme, and that it informs every strain of American cultural life. The deifica~tion of this cultural value has had a destructive impact on American life by creating an ethos where commitment is often unin-telligible, fragmentation and disintegration of family life is unavoidable, and personal isolation is the norm. This is not to say that individualism in itself is the problem. On the contrary, there are many positive and valuable insights attached to this thought-form. Some of the fundamental values derived from individual-ism that religious communities should incarnate are: the emphasis on the value and dignity of each person and the role of the community in en-hancing this dignity; the primacy of the personal, relational, and experi-ential dimension of the community life over against the institutional and structural dimension; and the absolute need for personal manifestation and self-appropriation of community identity, decisions, and goals. Any North American religious community must take the valuable insights of individualism seriously if it truly wants to be both inculturated and pro-phetic. But the community must, at the same time, develop a lifestyle that puts this phenomenon in the fuller perspective of the gospel. Proposal for an lnculturated North American Model of Religious Life Given both the major cultural themes and the major cultural needs and problems, I propose that community should be the rubric around which we redefine our understanding and praxis of religious life at this time. I think that it is this element of religious life which, if properly un-derstood, best encompasses and incorporates the relational, personal, and experiential values that we learn from our culture. It is also community which most clearly responds to the desperate need in our time for a sig-nificant countercultural alternative to radical individualism. It is clear, however, that we must come to a new and meaningful understanding of community, particularly in a Christian and Catholic context, if we are going to develop the coherent alternative we seek. We must rethink tra-ditional understandings of community and communal life in terms that can both express the new insights of the culture while at the same time remaining faithful to the spirit of both the gospel and the broader tradi-tion in regard to community. Along these lines, then, I propose that we consider the Trinity to be the model of authentic Christian community, and therefore the context Review for Religious, January-February 1990 in which we redefine community and community life. I hope to make it clear that a trinitarian model and trinitarian terminology are ultimately more helpful for the task previously laid out than the Christological model on which much of religious life is currently based. Furthermore, I propose that we adopt a modern (though traditionally informed) social understanding of the Trinity that explains the Trinity in experiential terms. Here I am essentially assuming that there are two traditional theo-logical interpretations of the Trinity, that while related are finally dis-tinct. 2 I will try to explain the two lines of development below and then show some of the implications of taking one as our model of commu-nity. It is important to see that the fundamental advantage of this option is that it provides a model of community based on the very life of God as we understand it. In this sense the religious community is defined as an icon of the Trinity, which means that its self-understanding must ul-timately be shaped by its most deeply held theological assertions. Two Approaches to Understanding the Trinity I) Substantial Identity In the West after Augustine, the primary approach to Trinity was to begin with the divine "substantia," the single and simple essence or sub-stance of the Godhead, and then try to explain (generally using a very schematic psychological model) how this single substance could be triper-sonal. So the main focus of this line of development was the attempt to show how the three persons could relate to one common divine sub-stance, which necessarily precluded any multiplicity, while at the same time maintaining a real distinction of persons. This approach was suc-cessful in describing the unity of the Godhead, but ultimately found it difficult to give an adequate account of the relation of persons within this unity. For this reason articulations of this approach often ended in either modalism or quaternity. H)Vital Identity and Mutual Inexistence In the East, following the lead of the Cappadocian Fathers, there was a tendency to begin with the reality of the three persons and then to ar-gue to the unity of the Godhead. In essence, the task of this approach was to show how three persons could be one (rather than how one could be three). Along these lines there were two critical developments. First, Victorinus proposed that the unity of God be described as a "vital iden-tity" of life and action rather than as a "substantia."3 God then was not to be understood as some static essence, but as vitally and dynamically A Trinitarian Model of Religious Life / 95 alive. The three persons, therefore, do not share a common substance so much as a common identity of life. Secondly, John of Damascus proposed the concept of mutual inex-istence (perichoresis) as the best way to describe the unity of the three persons.4 This meant that the three indwell in one another and compene-trate with one another, as the flame of three wicks can burn as one. This mutual indwelling or inexistence of the divine persons is not a conse-quence of their unity, but the equivalent of it. It is in fact the mutual and complete compenetration of the three divine persons that comprises their essential unity. So here the divine persons literally exist in one another in a vibrant and ecstatic way. The three persons, as incorporeal and fully self-donating, experience an interpenetration and intense empathy that is ultimately a single identity of life. It is then the self-donation of the three persons that makes their unity possible. This mutual self-donation, however, does not compromise the autonomy of each divine person, but is only possible because of it. With-out autonomy no action would be possible, let alone self-donation. This perfect self-donation makes relationships unitive rather than divisive. This means that mutual self-donating relationships constitute the very re-ality of God. By beginning with the persons we come to a radically social under-standing of the Godhead that can in turn lead to a social understanding of created reality as well. God is the supreme communion of three di-vine persons, which humans are called to reflect imperfectly, but sacra-mentally, in relationships and community. If we choose community, then, as the rubric under which to rede-fine religious life, it would seem that the second approach to Trinity is the best model for human and particularly Christian community. I would contend however, that most models of religious life, and particularly the models of community within these, coming out of past paradigms in the West, are based on the "substantial identity" approach. I would like to make a short critique of the understanding of community under this model, and then begin to reinterpret some aspects of community and re-ligious life under this new model. Short Analysis of the Old Model of Community In many ways the old paradigm of religious life and particularly of community is analogous to the substantial identity approach to the Trin-ity. Traditional understandings of religious life tended to begin with the one substance, usually the institutional structure of the community, or-der or congregation, and then tried to fit individuals into this substance. Review for Religious, January-February 1990 So they began with the unity, which in this case tends to be a formal and impersonal unity, to which individual persons must relate. In this model the persons do not relate directly to one another, but instead relate to a certain "thing" called community. Personal relationships within this type of community are then either mediated or accidental. Individuality in this model means that I have my own personal and spiritual life (that should stay within certain boundaries and follow certain rubrics) and that I relate to the group in a certain structured way along the lines of func-tion. In other words, the work that I do is regulated by and somehow re-flects the group. The theological focus and justification for this understanding of com-munity tends to be narrowly Christological. As an individual I follow Christ by joining with a group of Christians who want to follow Christ along a similar pattern. In the West this pattern has often been basically informed by a military model (although it is a caricature to say that one became a "soldier for Christ," and that one joined the "Christian army," these images did seem to be present in the popular imagination of recent generations of religious). This narrowly Christological focus in turn often led to a linear and patriarchal institutional structure within which the individual must fit him-self or herself. This model also left no real room for the Holy Spirit and pneumatology because these tend to disrupt the structures (rules, consti-tutions,. traditions, and so forth) which are the source and focus of unity. In this scheme, then, unity was often equated with conformity to a set and impersonal pattern of common life. The main problem with this model is that it generally leads to one of two understandings of community and communal life, both of which are based on the assumption that there is some "thing" out there called a community that exists apart from the people that make it up. There is, for instance, a Dominican Order out there that somehow exists apart from Dominicans. This ultimately leads to understanding the community as be-ing fundamentally impersonal (which seems self-contradictory). This un-derstanding of community manifests itself in two basic forms, both of which I believe can be described in trinitarian terms. On the one hand, there is a kind of Modalism where each member of the community is just a projection of the whole group. Here each member is really interchange-able with any other member. Personal identity is subsumed in the whole so that my individual personality needs to be altered and re-formed so as to project the image of the whole. Secondly, the term Quaternity can be used to describe an understanding of community where each person A Trinitarian Model of Religious Life is seen to be a distinct member of the community, but there is always something more behind these called "the community." The community is some thing out there which each member, and all of the members as a whole, only represent but never fully embody. Religious Community Based on the Social Trinity Model Like its trinitarian paradigm, this understanding of religious commu-nity begins with the persons, and comes to understand their unity as that of persons sharing a vital identity of life based on mutual self-donation and shared vision. So the source of unity is love and its manifestation is the interpersonal bonding of the members. Although common struc-tures and institutions will arise from this unity to support it, they are not identical to this unity nor are they its source, starting point, or founda-tion. The actual starting point of this model is an understanding of per-sons as ecstatic beings who are most fully persons when they donate them-selves fully to the other in interpersonal relationships. In this sense per-sons can and do exist in one another~dwell in one another--in a way analogous to the way in which the persons of the Trinity mutually inex-ist. So this new model demands that community be understood in radi-cally personal and social terms. This approach effectively means that there is no "thing" out there called community that is essential and un-changeable and is unaffected by the persons who make it up. So there is, for instance, no Dominican order or community out there that exists apart from Dominicans. A consequence of this is that what a community is, or what the Dominican order is, is always changing and developing to some extent. The community is always dependent on the persons that make it up. So the community is always identified with the personal ex-perience of it. Although the community is always changing and developing with the people involved, it should always grow and develop along certain lines or patterns. This is because an essential part of the vital identity of the community will be an apprehension of and a resonance with the identity of the founder and the habitual tendency to live this out concretely over time. Those in community must interiorize this identity, and come to share it in common, as well as be familiar with how this identity has been lived out concretely in its shared history. Nevertheless, the present com-munity must never blindly follow one single concretization, or absolu-tize any past communal manifestation of this identity. The difference between this. and the older Christological model is that this model is profoundly pneumatological. Here to follow Christ Review for Religious, January-February 1990 means, first of all, to take on the mind of Christ, and this in turn means to be radically open to the Holy Spirit and the newness of mind that this entails. Taking on this mind leads to a radical personalization because it calls one to complete trust in the Father--which frees each person to be truly open and vulnerable to others. This mind also causes one to re-alize that mutual inexistence is not something one chooses, but is the very pattern and foundation of life (which one can choose to ignore). Be-cause the Holy Spirit is the ultimate personalizing principle, even within the Godhead, we see that the Spirit is the foundation of community.5 All of the above implies that the fundamental starting point for re-ligious community is conversion. The absolute need for the type of con-version process that allows us to take on the mind of Christ is obvious. Community is not possible without the orientation, transvaluation, and radical personalization of both initial and ongoing religious conversion. Any model of community that is not premised on both the initial and on-going need for conversion and repentance is inadequate. Community is not then finally some thing we can do; it is a gift we are given and can only receive. It is also not something we ever have as a finished product or achievement; its fulfillment always lies in the future, though the seeds of this future are already present. So these pneuma-based communities are inherently eschatological communities in that they point to and an-ticipate the fullness of communion in the future. Differences between the Old and New Models in Four Key Areas I) Formation Formation in the Old Model often meant re-formation. It often in-volved taking a person and changing him or her into a certain type of person who acted in a particular way and had a particular mind-set. For-mation in practice was usually indoctrination and incorporation into an institution. So there was a process set up that should end at a certain point with a certain type of predetermined character who could function within a defined system of life. The model of formation was most often seen to be military "boot camp," and the primary method of formation was sensory deprivation and incarceration. Under the New Model, formation would refer more-to the whole group than to the individual person. This is because with each new per-son that enters.the group, the group must re-form, as it were, and estab-lish a new unity. The model for individuals would actually be incorpo-ration, but not incorporation into a preexisting and unchangeable struc-ture. Rather, the process would be one of being drawn into a conscious A Trinitarian Model of Religious Life / 99 union of persons that entails individual and group conversion. It is a proc-ess of growth in desire and ability to donate oneself to a certain group of people, and for the group to accept and relate personally to the new person, hence redefining itself in terms of that person. The model for for-mation here would be more like the RCIA. It is a dynamic process of conversion and incorporation that challenges both the individual and the community to come to a new understanding of and commitment to oth-ers. Initial formation in a strict sense would include a process of coming to know the vital identity of the preexisting group by coming to know the identity and vision of the founder and interiorizing this vision in a way that causes the person to make decisions that in turn forms his or her character. In other words, there is a sense of taking on a new iden-tity, but this identity is always personal, and builds on the character, per-sonality, and experience of the person. It is neither a process of becom-ing someone wholly different from oneself, nor the same as others; it is coming to a fullness of autonomy and unique identity. It is a process of becoming who the person truly is. It is only this process that can facili-tate Christian community, because self-donation is ultimately based on the fullness of autonomy, not the lack of it. lrI) Vows In the Old Model the vows were generally understood to be explicit commitments to live out a certain pattern of life: This pattern was often based on the narrow, military sense of following Christ that I have al-ready mentioned. The vows were then defined as being those elements that were necessary to maintain a cohesive and successful group identity and purpose. Obedience, therefore, was often the primary vow (for Dominicans it was the only vow), and was understood in the military sense of accept-ing a certain authority structure and chain of command. How one related to the community as a whole. The authority structure tended to take the place of interpersonal responsibility to the community---following orders from legitimate authority, no matter how half-heartedly and passively, was seen to be obedience. Poverty was the commitment to be materially dependent on the whole group, and to accept the priority of the corporate needs over one's own. So one could not own anything personally (that is, neither personal bank accounts nor independent financial resources), although one might have the use of things based on need. Furthermore, this vow was gener-ally regarded as applying only to the individual's obligation in regard to Review for Religious, January-February 1990 material goods, although it was occasionally seen to impinge on the ma-terial wealth of the community as a whole. Celibacy had both a moral and an institutional basis. It was, there-fore, seen as the obligation to abstain from all sexual activity, and to avoid all exclusive relationships so as to avoid scandal to the group's repu-tation and to insure cohesive institutional structures. In the New Model there will always be two aspects to any vow: how it affects and is part of the life of the community as a whole; and how it affects and directs the life of the individual. It is important to see that the vows are primarily commitments to a certain style of life and to cer-tain values and priorities made by the whole community. The individ-ual's vows, then, are the taking on of these group commitments, and mak-ing personal decisions to facilitate these. So when the individual makes vows, she or he is vowing to enter fully into the vows of the whole com-munity, and making a commitment to come to see one's own identity in terms of the others. In one sense there is only one vow, namely the community's vow to enter into an obediential relationship to the Father after the example of Jesus, based on an unconditional trust in the providential care of the Father. This vow then will be most clearly manifest in the community's commitment to poverty. Obedience in this model is first and foremost trust in God. But be-cause of this it is experienced as a trust in and openness to the whole com-munity. In this sense, obedience means essentially "to listen" (from the Latin root), and is most fully expressed by the term integrity. For the in-dividual this means that one make the community the priority in one's life, and, therefore, the person should grow, develop, and make deci-sions in true dialogue with the whole community. It means that each per-son forms and informs his or her life by the interpersonal relationships that are experienced as community. As a group, obedience is the commitment to never let institutional structures pass for common life or take the place of true listening, dis-cernment, and consensus building. In other words, it is the commitment to an ongoing and interpersonal dialogue, which is a group commitment, out of love, to live with a certain amount of ambiguity and tension in their lives, even at the expense of efficiency and cohesiveness. The com-munity and the individual fundamentally commit themselves to be open to the Spirit, and to be fully charismatic in the truest sense. Rigid con-formity, mediocre efforts, institutional paralysis, unimaginative and un-creative problem solving, and impersonal decision-making would all be Seen as violations of this vow. Poverty is seen by the whole community as the test and sign of its A Trinitarian Model of Religious Life unconditional trust in God. This vow is based on the assumption that the radical sharing of worldly goods is the fundamental and practical test of both the individual's and community's faith. So this vow on the part of the individual is the commitment to a complete sharing of wealth and re-sources with the others in the community and with those outside of it. It is a vow to hold nothing back. Furthermore, it is the commitment to work, not so that one may accumulate wealth or find personal gratifica-tion, but so that through work one may share with others, and produce fruits to share with others. On the part of the group, poverty is likewise a commitment to a radi-cal form of hospitality that excludes no one in principle, and where pri-ority for sharing is based on need. It also means that the whole commu-nity will work as a way of sharing, and so that it will have something to share. Group "navel-gazing" that does not end in service, wasting money and service on those who do not need it, over-planning for the future security of the group, spending money for services that the group could perform for themselves, and an inability to let go of past successes are all violations of this vow. Celibacy is the vow that facilitates the radical self-donation of one-self to a number of other people, so it is first of all the vow to give one-self fully and personally to the others in the community. As such, it nec-essarily requires that the person forego any fundamentally exclusive re-lationships and the types of physical intimacy that are proper to these. This does not mean a denial of intimacy, affection, and personal rela-tionship-- one is actually committed to these in self-donation--but one chooses to find these and enter into these within the context of commu-nity. This then is the central predisposition of the trinitarian model of com-munity: the choice to seek interpersonal fulfillment in a non-exclusive but fully intense way through community with others. As a community this vow is the commitment of the whole to each person, and to the extension of hospitality to include a personal open-ness to all. So it is a commitment to be inclusive communities that offer human relationship unconditionally to all. Simply living together with a "boarding-house" mentality, refusing to reach out to and even chal-lenge the alcoholic or any dysfunctional member, passive-aggressive be-havior, and remaining separate and distant from people outside of the com-munity would all be violations of this vow. III) Common Life and Institutional Structures As alluded to earlier, in the New Model common aspects of the com-munity life (prayer, study, various practices, and so forth) and the un-derlying institutional structures which support these (constitutions, rules, 39 / Review for Religious, January-February 1990 authority structures, government apparatus) are not equivalent to the com-munity, but arise out of it and are meant to serve it. So no elements of the common life are absolute and unchangeable in principle. It is impor-tant to point out, however, that although the institutional structures in the New Model are fluid and open to change, there are some things that they must necessarily exclude. Leadership in this model of community is always a service to the whole that is exercised cautiously and humbly. Any authority structure within the community, therefore, must begin with an unequivocal rejection of a worldly view of power, particularly those models that arise out of a militaristic worldview. Furthermore, there can be no caste systems in community life--seniority, clericalism, and elitism are all worldly views of power. Everyone who has made an explicit commitment to the community has an equal share in and respon-sibility to the common life. So authority structures must always reflect this reality, and must always be open to revision and challenge. In both models the greatest threat to unity is dissent. In the Old Model, dissent was usually seen in impersonal terms, as in dissent from some aspect of common life. To disagree with a superior, to not observe a certain practice, or to disregard a certain law were all acts that were understood to be disunifying. The key in this model then was to mini-mize dissent by insisting on complete, even mindless, conformity on a very practical level to a certain core of ideas and practices. In the New Model dissent is seen in more personal terms as a break-down of the interpersonal bonding and as dysfunctionality. The main source of dissent is the attitudes of persons within the group towards one another. This type of dissent will often hide behind superficial agreement or conformity, but operates at a deeper level to poison relationships and undermine unity. The approach here though is to confront dissent as part of the ongoing need for conversion and repentance for the whole com-munity. This highlights then the absolute need for consent in this model, and particularly for an ongoing process of building consent or consen-sus. So the main emphasis is not minimizing dissent, it is maximizing consensus, which in turn requires that the community be willing to con-front and challenge dissent in a personal and constructive way. IV) Mission and Ministry In the Old Model mission and ministry were the primary focus of re-ligious life in general, and of one's individual vocation in particular. Com-munity, then, had a secondary role and was seen essentially as a means of facilitating mission. The dominant understanding of vocation was that one was called to a certain mission (namely to follow Jesus), and so one A Trinitarian Model of Religious Life / 33 was called to do certain things. One then was to choose a lifestyle that best accommodated and supported what it was that one wanted to do. One chose a community because it best enabled the work that one wanted to do. So community was formed for a certain reason or purpose, namely, because it was the most efficient and practical means to share resources, pool talents, and consolidate authority in order to get a cer-tain mission accomplished. The vows of celibacy and poverty, for in-stance, were often seen in this light: community made possible the kind of work one wanted to do. So this model generally understood mission in an individualistic sense, and mainly valued community for its func-tional role. In the New Model one does not live in community to facilitate work or mission; one lives in community and, therefore, can work and be sent on mission. Community is always primary and chosen for its own sake. Community is chosen because of the people involved; it is the decision to share one's life in a particular way with others. Here the trinitarian emphasis of this model is most helpful. The Trin-ity does not come together in order to create and go on mission. It is in-stead just because of the radical unity and self-donation of the persons to one another that they can create and be sent. The missions of Jesus and the Holy Spirit are the models here. Missions always reveal some-thing about the senders, and what the Son and Holy Spirit communicate simply is their shared life with the Father. It is precisely their shared life that they invite us into. In other words, the senders are essential; there is no mission without being sent. So it is because one lives in community, and because of the graced transformation of experience that this entails, that one feels empowered to go out. And what is shared when one is "out" is precisely the fruits of the common life. Because the Christian community is by nature a char-ismatic community, there are a variety of gifts to be shared. Furthermore, each community, because of its shared vital identity with a particular foun-der, will have a particular charism which both grows out of and shapes the development of the community life. It is then the radical self-donation conversion that sends a person out. So through conversion each person is always moving into wider circles of community. The religious community is in turn sent by the wider Christian community, and so it has a message and a mission also. Under this model, community is experientially prior to mission, and is in fact its source. In the actual life of the community, however, both will be mutually dependent and interrelated. In this sense though, very 34 / Review for Religious, January-February 1990 individualistic types of spirituality, even those that allow for some form of community, are called into question. In regard to vocation, this means that one's vocation is primarily understood as taking on the mind of Christ and thereby coming into contact with the life of God within one, and of being called by this realization into relationship with others in a new way. In the context of this new relationship one is sent out to oth-ers. The point is that for those who choose to live in religious commu-nity it is community itself which is the vocation--it is the call. The spe-cific mission or function that one takes on within this context is really the call of or from the community. This call is the claim that members of the community have on one another by virtue of their mutual self-donation. This raises the question of the place of ordination within the reli-gious community. In the Old Model a specific type of work was often seen as the primary vocation, and, therefore, the community was there to support and enhance ordination. The levels of participation within the community were generally based upon the work one did, and so the or-dained occupied a higher level in the communal structure. So ordination tended to be divisive and obscured the priority of the communal life. In the New Model interpersonal relationships are primary. The vo-cation of the religious is to community, and it is primarily the commu-nity as a whole that is sacramental. It is the community which sends the person to do a particular type of work or to function in a particular ca-pacity. Ordination, then, comes from the community and is based both on the needs which the community perceives and on the gifts of the in-dividuals within the community. Ordination, however, is not the indi-vidual's sole possession; it is proper to the whole community and is dele-gated to one or another member as circumstances require. Furthermore, ordination can never be divisive; it can never change one's status within the community; it can only change one's function. Conclusion Those who look upon God as a metaphysical monad flee society to dwell alone with the Alone. [but] those who look upon the reality of God as the perfection of interpersonal communion will discover the divine in community.6 Our vision and image of God is ultimately the matrix around which we shape our lives. Who we are and how others experience us says more about the God we believe in than all the theological discourse we can of-fer. When confronting the challenge, therefore, of redefining our lives A Trinitarian Model of Religious Life so as to be prophetic witnesses to the gospel, the most fundamental ques-tion we must ask ourselves is, "Who is our God?" Likewise, when we truly come to know this God the primary question we must ask is not "What ought I do?" It is instead "Who ought we be?" NOTES J Robert Bellah et al, Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in Ameri-can Life (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985). 2 For a more detailed discussion of the development of trinitarian doctrine see par-ticularly Jurgen Moltmann, The Trinity and the Kingdom (San Francisco: Harper & Row Publishers, 1981); Robert Jenson, The Triune Identity (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1982); and Donald Gelpi, S.J., The Divine Mother: A Trinitarian Theology of the Holy Spirit (Lanham: University of America Press, 1984). 3 Gelpi, op. cit., pp. 13 ! - 132. 4 Moltmann, op. cit., pp. 174-176; Gelpi, op. cit., p. 132. 5 For a further discussion on the role of the Holy Spirit in the Godhead see Gelpi, op. cit., particularly chapter 3. 6 lbid, p. 140. In-Depth Wisdom A tree climbs to the heights because of roots concealed; Waves break in beauty on the shores for there are depths unseen; Mountains rise in loveliness on rock, set fold on fold; Lest we forget as we grow old. Philomena Mary, S.N.J.M. 1420 Mount Royal Blvd. Outremont, Quebec, Canada H2V 2J2 Community--- A Multi-Dimensional Reality Jeanne Knoerle, S.P. Sister Jeanne Knoerle, S.P., is identified with Woods Associates, consultants to non-profit organizations in strategic planning, management, and marketing. Her address is Saint Mary-of-the-Woods; Indiana 47876. Several bits and pieces of experience have coalesced recently to tempo-rarily part some of the mists shrouding my understanding of the word and the reality of community within a religious congregation. They have con-tributed for me what our old Rational Psychology professor, Father McGinnis, would call an "intellectual aha," and I would like to share them. The first piece of experience contributing to this "aha" has grown from my confusion and unclarity about what it means to be a woman re-ligious, committed to a life lived in community. This is not a recent con-fusion. It has been with me (and I know with many others) for some years and is an ambiguity and tension that has been alternately energiz-ing and creative as well as enervating and destructive. So much so that I have come to see the word "community" as representing a reality with so many possible understandings and so many modalities of expression that it has become almost useless as a representation of a concept. Often a group of religious tries to get at its meaning by eliminating all the things it apparently is not--physical things like sharing a com-mon dwelling, sharing common work, doing things together--hoping that in identifying what it is not, they will more easily be able to move to a definition of what it is. When the group does move to trying to define what it is, they often identify it as an invisible bond which ties a group of people together 36 Community---A Multi-Dimensional Reality around shared values, seeing it as expressed not so much in physical to-getherness but in commonness of purpose, in a shared history, in a be-lief in a common tradition. In reality, however, what I find myself doing most of the time is vac-illating between those two extremes, momentarily satisfied but never fully at peace with either. One seems too dependent on a narrow con-ception which can be counted and measured and made explicit. The other seems too vague and unclear, susceptible of such a wide range of inter-pretation as to offer no possibility of an objective, shared reality. I come away with a sense that each of those extremes offers a piece of the truth, an insight into the constantly shifting dynamics of community, but that ultimately there must be some other, fuller definition that incorporates some aspects of each of them. A second bit of experience which led to these reflections has come from my further study of the Enneagram, a personality theory which iden-tifies three interior centers from which individuals draw their energy to cope with the realities of their life. These centers--the head or percep-tual center, the heart or relational center, and the gut or instinctual cen-ter- are each operative within every individual, and are each important to the development of the total human person.Yet each of us comes to favor using one of them over the other two, drawing from it the primary energy for our response to life. Dealing more deeply with this system and how it operates within the life of individuals has enabled me to more effectively step aside and ob-serve the patterns of my own and others' attitude toward life. It has given me a sense of understanding, tolerance, and acceptance of behavior that earlier I had been confused about and often judgmental of. And it has enabled me to see more clearly patterns in the motivations of individu-als and groups where before I had focused primarily on disparate actions. A major spin-off has been to provide me with a more coherent un-derstanding of the wide variations in the ways in which members of a religious community see and respond to the same stimuli. That people responded very differently was surely evident in the past. There were those who thoroughly enjoyed and anticipated the challenge of study in the summer, and those who dreaded the vei'y thought of summertime be-cause it meant they had to study. There were those who loved to volun-teer for infirmary duties and those who hated to. Those who loved most to party, and those who loved most to pray. Why they did so and why I personally responded in the way I did was not so clear. Because the Enneagram is a system built on trying to Review for Religious, January-February 1990 understand the constantly shifting dynamics of the human personality, the answers it provides to "why" we act the way we do are neither sim-ple nor clear-cut, but they do at least provide an overall pattern against which to make some judgment. The third piece of experience I bring to this moment comes from the variety of reading in theology, ecclesiology, and ethics that I have re-cently undertaken, but especially from Avery Dulles' recent book The Reshaping of Catholicism. Father Dulles' book helped to put some, though by no means all, of my frustrations into perspective. It helped sort out and clarify the mean-ing of many of the concepts and experiences which have been so much a part of Catholicism since Vatican II. But the particular insight he presented which connects to the chal-lenge I described earlier, that of defining community, I found in his chap-ter on the Extraordinary Synod of i 985. There, in explaining the themes which emerged from that synod and which were incorporated into its pub-lished Report, Dulles described three schools of thought which existed among the delegates: the neo-Augustinian school which tended to depict the Church as an island of grace in a world given over to sin; the com-munitarian school which tended to depict the Church as the human face of God on earth, in trouble now because of the failure of conservative prelates to carry out the reforms of Vatican II; and the liberation school which depicted the Church as in possession of the wisdom of God and which, therefore, must be politically involved if it is to carry out the work of the kingdom. The neo-Augustinians, putting their accent on worship and holiness, wanted a Church more committed to the cultivation of spiritual union with God. The communitarians, putting their accent on more humanis-tic issues, wanted a Church more involved in the promotion of peace and reconciliation. The liberationists, sharing neither the sacralism of the Augustinians nor the secular optimism of the communitarians, wanted a Church that was confrontational and militant. The Synod dealt with these three points of view, but the commitment of the drafters of the document was not to a presentation of varying points of view and to a clear identification of their points of disagree-ment. Rather the emphasis was on integration, on interrelationship, on allowing the variety of colors to be mixed together on the canvas like a Monet painting, rather than to be identified separately like a rainbow. Therefore, the final Report incorporated concerns of all of these groups, but with none clearly in the ascendance. Community--A Multi-Dimensional Reality/39 Dulles quotes the following marvelous sentence, artfully crafted to incorporate the ultimate wholeness which grew from the conflicting worldviews of all of those schools: "The Church as communion is the sacrament for the salvation of the world." It was that discussion about the schools of thought that existed in the Synod, and especially that sentence which seemed so beautifully to cre-ate a whole out of three disparate expressions of the truth, which began to push a pattern more insistently into the forefront of my mind. While the community of a gathering of bishops and the community of a religious congregation are certainly very different entities, and in many ways are not analagous, they do share the reality of being a group of people in relationship to one another, who share a common purpose, a common mission, and a common tradition. Theirs is a more ephem-eral relationship--they are not together often, nor with regularity, nor as a group do they have a specific, ongoing common task beyond the one they are presently fulfilling, though they do share the general task of mak-ing the word of God present in the world through their work as bishops. Nonetheless, it seems to me we can see the conflictual issues of com-munity mirrored fairly clearly in the three schools of thought which ex-isted at the Synod and which were so clearly delineated by Father Dul-les. And those schools fit with a fair amount of cohesion into the three types of centers which are basic to the theory of the Enneagram. The neo-Augustinians, like those approaching life from the head cen-ter, tend to approach things perceptually, more frequently using their in-tellect and their powers of observation to solve the problems of life, be-ing less intensely involved than those in the other centers. Hence they more clearly see the other-worldly aspects of religious life and feel less pressure to commit the community to becoming involved in the concerns of the world, and more pressure to see that it retains its sense of being an effective instrument of salvation. The communitarians, like those approaching life from the heart cen-ter, tend to approach things from the point of view of relationships, con-cerned always with how they relate to others and how others relate to one another. Without a sense of relationship they have difficulty feeling the life in them, and are, therefore, much more concerned with the world outside them than with the world within them. Hence they focus most comfortably on the human aspects of the work of the community. The liberationists, on the other hand, like those approaching life from the gut center, have an instinctual feeling about the World; they have a kind of built-in sense of knowing, the source of which is not al- 40 / Review for Religious, January-Februao, 1990 ways clear, but the force of which is powerful. Hence they have a strong belief in the responsibility of the community to bring justice into the world, to use its resources and its life to make the world more right. Let me use myself as an example. As a person whose energy comes from the heart or relational center, I am most comfortable in the com-munitarian school, concerned with how we as members of a community can better relate to one another and how our religious community can best help other human beings be better, holier, happier, more complete persons. During the last few years I have begun gradually to integrate some of the rico-Augustinian or perceptual worldview more fully into my own, however. Becoming concerned that I had put too much emphasis on the outer world of action, I have consciously attempted to develop the inner, more spiritual aspects of my person. And now I sense in-creased energy emanating from the head center as well. Where I feel least comfortable, however, is in the liberation school. I know intellectually that to become fully integrated I must learn to trust (perhaps even more fundamentally to get in touch with) my instincts. I know I must learn that to touch and release my anger will not interfere with my relationships. I know I must be better able to integrate and act out of my instinctual center, as I have begun to integrate and act out of my perceptual center. Yet I find this center most out of my range of ex-perience and significantly harder to reach. I think each of us--whatever our approach to life--has the same strug-gle. If we want to become more personally integrated, if we want ulti-mately to create a more mature community, we must perceive, then tol-erate, then understand, then fully accept the differing approaches to life which result from using the energy of each of these centers. We must attempt to identify what worldview is ours and, without imposing it as the best and only one, contribute that piece of truth to the Monet canvas of community. But we must also acknowledge what piece of truth we find hardest to accept and struggle to incorporate it more fully into our view of reality. We must acknowledge, if we operate as neo-Augustinians from the head of perceptual center, our discomfort level when the community seems to over-stress a commitmeni to human development, leaving the spiritual aspect of our lives unstressed. We must acknowledge, if we operate as communitarians from the heart or relational center, our discomfort level when we are asked to ap-prove the taking of a community stand, thereby moving to publicly sepa-rate us from others rather than to positively underscore the bonds which Community--A Multi-Dimensional Reality draw human beings together. We must acknowledge, if we operate as iiberationists from the gut or instinctual center, our discomfort level when the community stresses the eschatological, the importance of the kingdom of heaven and the life of the other world, rather than the impor!ance of confronting the evil in this world and the need to see that justice is accomplished in the present. In each case, however, if community is to mirror the full dimensions of our humanness, we must acknowledge that each approach to life does have a piece of the truth. And we must be willing to contribute our own piece of the truth, holding on to it and placing it on the canvas. Then stand back to see the full picture which we have helped to create, accept-ing the contribution of the other truths as well as our own to that full-ness. Developing the fullness of that picture is what community is all about. And since, perhaps more than at any other time in history, com-munity is a concept that is ambiguous, even anomalous, we must be will-ing, as the drafters of the synod document were of the concept of Church, to seek among us a creative and dynamic peace about how we perceive and live it. As we now live in religious communities, however,, it seems to me that we too often speak the words of power than of peace. We fail to en-ter the world of those with whom we share the reality of community, talk-ing too often instead from the protection of our own shell, not really hear-ing, not really understanding the words of those who speak from another worldview. Our primary goal is too often the imposition of our own. Let me return to the initial insight which prompted these reflections-- that the word community has come to mean so many things that it has become almost useless as the representation of a concept. I would like now to modify that insight somewhat to say rather that community is a such multifaceted concept that it can only be captured by allowing its defi-nition to be pluriform. It is perhaps most analagous, not to a Monet paint-ing, but to a hologram---offering only one specific facet to the eyes of the viewer at a given time, yet only complete When seen in its full three dimensions. Perhaps if we can come 'to see our third of the truth reflected in that hologram, together with the other dimensions of the truth we less clearly identify with, we can better allow ourselves to say yes to the varying ex-pressions of community. And at the same time we can come to agree-ment that no one expression is sufficient for the whole. To begin this process, we need to name and claim our own 49 / Review for Religious, January-February 1990 worldview, so that it becomes objectified and clear. Then we need to hear others name theirs, and accept the authenticity of their vision as well as ours. Only then can we proceed. For example, from my relational center, from my communitarian worldview, some physical togetherness, some living or working or be-ing together, seems to me to be clearly implicit in the very word com-munity. I have difficulty understanding the more ethereal co.ncept of com-munity which is sometimes outlined in the perceptual or neo-Augus~inian view--that community is a form of bondedness which need not be ex-pressed in our being i.ogether, but rather in our somehow feeling that we are together. And I have even greater difficulty with the instinctual or liberationist concept of community as being strengthened by being against something or someone else. That simply is how I perceive community. It does not mean that I believe I hold the only truth about it. It does not negate other concepts or understandings of community. It simply means that if we ultimately define community without including some aspect ofphysical together-ness I will have little ability to relate to that definition, nowhere to hang on to it. It will not fit within my worldview. I need to correct the narrowness of my vision, not by letting go of it, not by some grand gesture of surrender or denial which will ultimately lead to my feeling at the margins of community or, even worse, alien-ated from it. I need to proffer my piece of truth and then seek to broaden my vision and deepen my understanding of community by seriously study-ing the truths offered by others, ultimately respecting their view of real-ity as much as I respect my own. If we were all to do that in mutual respect for each other's view of what community is, while the resulting hologram of community might not be totally satisfying to any one of us, it could instead offer us a rich and full opportunity to explore and live out its multifaceted reality dur-ing the rest of our lives. Dyads and Triads: The Sociological Implications of Small-Group Living Arrangements Patricia Wittberg, S.C. Sister Patricia Wittberg, S.C., is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Soci-ology and Anthropolgy at Fordham University. Her address is Department of Soci-ology and Anthropology; Fordham University; Bronx, New York 10458. As the number of active members in religious congregations becomes smaller, and as these members become involved in more varied and dis-persed ministries, it is increasingly common to find religious living sin-gly or in groups of two or three. While the personal.and communal im-plications of individuals living alone have been examined to some ex-tent,~ the special social dynamics of pairs and other very small groups have been less frequently considered. Usually, groups of religious larger than one but smaller then eight or ten are treated together under the head-ing "small group living," with little consideration for the special char-acteristics which groups of two or three might have. It would, however, be a valuable exercise to examine these special characteristics, since the recent experience of many congregations has uncovered regular patterns in them. Some "pair" living arrangements--or dyads, as they are also called--have remained stable for years or even decades within a congre-gation, resisting the efforts of community leaders or of the dyadic pair themselves to add a third person. Conversely, groups of three religious (triads) are often unstable, repeatedly splitting into pair and a singleton. The stability of pair members or the frequent group-switching of thirds have sometimes been attributed by others to unhealthy tendencies in the individuals involved--immaturity, perhaps, or excessive dependency. So- 43 44/Review for Religious, January-February 1990 ciologists, however, have found that it is often the mere fact of belong-ing to a group of a given size that elicits certain behaviors from an indi-vidual, independently of his or her personal psychological character-istics. This article will summarize the writings of the German sociolo-gist Georg Simmel on the characteristics of dyads and triads, and will draw some tentative implications of these studies for religious who live in small groups. It is important to emphasize that Simmel viewed his work on the nu-merical composition of groups to be a sort of "geometry of human rela-tions." Just as the properties of a circle or a triangle remain constant whether the actual figure is made of paper or of wood, so the social dy-namics of dyads and triads are inherent in themselves, Simmel thought, regardless of the individuals involved. It is, of course, possible that the members of a particular dyad or triad can disregard the tendencies at-tached to number, especially if they are aware of them. It is also possi-ble that a common ideological commitment, such as the vows in relig-ious life, may override the effects of a given number, to some extent. But the underlying dynamics will still exist, and will result in certain com-mon patterns when many groups are examined. The Dyad A dyad, Simmel stated, is different from all other groups, in that, while outsiders may see it as a unit, from the inside each member sees only the other person, and not a supra-individual collectivity.2 If either individual should leave, the dyad would cease to exist. Each member thus feels herself and her partner to be indispensable, since "for its life the dyad needs both; for its death only one.''3 The dyad is, therefore, more conscious of the possibility of group dissolution, and feels "both endangered and irreplaceable." Dyadic relations are also characterized by greater intimacy than larger groups--it is the uniqueness of these two particular individuals that gives the dyad its special flavor and which can often become "the core value and chief matter of its existence."4 Since only one other.individual besides oneself composes a dyad, the group "does not attain that super-personal life" which the individual feels to be independent of his presence and participation.5 Dyad mem-bers are unable to delegate responsibility to "the group," to expect things from "the group," or to let "the group" get away with some-thing. In a larger group, by contrast, an individual may fail to develop ownership of group decisions, or may passively benefit from her mem-bership with a minimum of personal contributions. Dyads and Triads Dyadic Living Relationships in Religious Life There are both positive and negative implications of the dynamics of dyadic relationships in religious life. On the positive side, dyadic liv-ing encourages the personal assumption of responsibility for the quality of group living. If the house i~ dirty or if common prayer is neglected, there is no one to blame but oneself and one other individual. Dyadic living has also been a fruitful way for religious to develop their ability to achieve intimacy and individual growth,6 psychological capacities that were often stunted in the large institutional living arrangements of for-mer decades. Other aspects of dyadic interactions, however, have at least the potential for negative effects--both for the congregation as well as for the individuals involved. Since the departure of either member de-stroys a dyad, an individual religious living in such an arrangement may have to do a sort of "dual discernment" when considering a ministerial change: taking into consideration both whether it is time for himself to move on as well as whether it is a good time for his dyadic partner to have to find a new living arrangement. For this reason, dyads tend to be the most stable of small groups. Since stability, uniqueness, and intimacy are inherent in the dyadic form, the individuals living in dyads may not necessarily have psycho-logically unhealthy traits, even if they remain together longer than out-siders would deem wise. For those who do have such traits, however, dyadic living will exacerbate them. Furthermore, a mutual dependency may develop within the dyad over time, even if none existed initially. For dyad members who are or have become excessively dependent on each other, dissolution of the dyad (by death or serious illness, for ex-ample) will cause intense psychological distress. There is also evidence that dyadic living can be detrimental to the larger congregation. This is true whether the congregation is following the traditional "intentional community" model or one of the newer as-sociational forms. In an intentional community, members are bound to-gether by a common religious ideology which encourages the subordi-nation, at least in some key instances, of the individual to the larger group.7 Previous research on intentional communities has shown that dy-adic attachments often erode this group loyalty, which is the essential foundation of the communal lifestyle.8 For this reason, successful inten-tional communities have always included some mechanism either to elimi-nate dyads or to subordinate them. Sometimes the suppression of dyads has been heavy-handed and psychologically destructive, as in the at-tempts to eliminate "particular friendships" in pre-Vatican II religious 46 / Review for Religious, January-February 1990 life, and at times it has led to unusual patterns such as the forced adop-tion of "group marriage" in the Oneida community. By whatever means, however, no intentional community has ever survived that has allowed dyadic attachment to develop unhindered.9 Many religious congregations, of course, have discarded the inten-tional community model and have adopted a looser form of association. One such model which has been recently advanced is that of "mission" as the uniting principle behind a community. Religious may live and work in widely scattered situations and yet still consider themselves bound together by the shared missionary vision of their founder: Community is not the living situation. It is not all going to Great Amer-ica together, it is not dressing alike, and it is not working in the same facility. Community is the result of our bondedness around a common mission, Christ's mission, the kingdom, according to the spirit and charism of our founder or foundress as experienced in this particular group. ~0 But the very intimacy and uniqueness inherent in the dyad can often eclipse this dedication to mission and attenuate any mission-based bonds to the larger group. If this happens, the dyad will stagnate at the self-absorbed stage which Wombacher says is a danger to those individuals and groups which fail to go outside of themselves in true generative and creative service of others. ~ A dyad that has been extremely stable for a long period of time may make it very difficult for its members to sum-mon the courage to move on. There may be instances where both mem-bers attempt to move together; such endeavors are subject to the same difficulties that married professionals often face in locating two suitable jobs in the same area. This would detract from the mission-bonded con-gregation's ideal of following the leading of the Spirit into the works most needed by the People of God. To the extent that stable dyads form in religious life, therefore, the community--whether a close-knit intentional community or a mission-based association--may be less able to count on the loyalty of its mem-bers. This is especially true since other social mechanisms are simulta-neously conspiring to keep the dyad an exclusive "twosome." The fol-lowing section will consider the addition of third members to a dyad, and the reasons for the instability of this new living arrangement. The Triad There is a qualitative difference between a dyad and a triad; adding a fourth or fifth member to a group does not change it nearly as much Dyads and Triads as adding the third. ~2 For the first time, it becomes possible in a triad for each group member to have two kinds of relationships with the oth-ers: a direct (A~)C) and an indirect (A~)BtbC) one. In a triad, a majority can out vote an individual member, and it becomes possible for the indi-vidual to envision the group existing after her departure. Division be-comes possible among the members: A and B may share some experi-ence, idea, or interest that C does not, while B and C may have some-thing in common that A does not have. This may lead to shifting alli-ances or interest groups, a situation that was impossible in a dyad. Se-crets, too, become possible in triads, and one member may be excluded, to a greater or lesser extent, from group activities. Also, if the original dyadic partners were unequal in some way, adding a third disrupts the subordinate/superordinate relationship---either by increasing the distance between the superordinate and the two subordinates, or by making it pos-sible for the subordinates to combine against the superordinate. Special group roles are also possible in a triad, which could not ex-ist before. Since "there is no triad in which dissent among two of the elements does not occur from time to time," ~3 the third member may be-come a mediator, who can be impartial because she is not involved with either or also is equally involved with both. Another new role is the Ter-tius Gaudens (Rejoicing Third), who profits by maintaining a division between the other two. There are two ways of benefiting from strife among one's fellow members: one can actively pursue some otherwise forbidden interest while the others are preoccupied, or one can passively allow oneself to be showered with gifts as the contending parties com-pete for one's support. To the extent that the tertius has less personally involved in the dispute, he is in a stronger position than the other two, and it may be to his advantage to perpetuate this situation. Finally, the third member may actually employ the tactic of "divide and conquer"-- producing conflict in order to break up an incipient coalition. The dis-ruptive effects of secrets, ~he exclusion of one or another member, re-joicing thirds and divide and conquer tactics mean that, if the dyad is an especially stable group form, the triad is an especially unstable one. Dyads and Triads in Religious Life Because of the inherent dynamics of dyads and triads, two religious living together (and perhaps also working together in a common minis-try) often find it difficult to attract a third person to join them or to re-tain a newcomer who has come, even if they sincerely desire to do so. Initially, this difficulty may not depend on the personalities of the indi-viduals involved, but simply on the disruptive effects of adding a third 411 / Review for Religious, January-February 1990 to any dyad. Over time, however, the members of stable dyads also de-velop habits and customs which make it even harder for an outsider to gain entrance, or to feel comfortable once she has. This situation has ob-vious ministerial--and communal--implications. A given school or par-ish may wish to attract new religious workers, yet otherwise interested applicants may be put off by the prospect of joining a preexisting duo. Congregations whose formation programs involve sending prospective members to live on mission with other religious may have difficulty find-ing a place where the new affiliate is not liable to be excluded (however inadvertently) by a dyad or scandalized by the divisions in a triad. Fi-nally, some individuals may gain an undeserved reputation for being hard to live or work with: if a religious tries and fails to break into several successive dyads, or if two dyad members are repeatedly joined by third persons who move out after one year, others in the congregation may as-cribe their difficulties to personal defects on their part. If the failed at-tempts also involve repeated ministerial changes on the part of the per-son joining the dyad, his professional resum6 may suffer. Rapid turn-over may also be a source of scandal to outsiders--lay parishioners, for example, or parents at a school--if the new religious lives apart from the preceding two. Conclusions As religious congregations enter the last decade of the twentieth cen-tury, they will be increasingly faced by the issues which dyadic and tri-adic living arrangements raise. Some communities may wish to avoid the ministerial inflexibility that excessively stable dyads tend to create. For-mation directors may need actively to work for the preservation of larger living arrangements in order to avoid the necessity of placing a novice in a triad. After the novitiate, temporarily professed may find their tran-sition to full community membership and ministry even more stressful if they have to adjust to life with a preexisting pair. On the other hand, joining a single religious (and thus creating a dyad) may result in the young religious beginning this extremely stable living arrangement at the outset of her community life. If dyadic living tends to attenuate the group loyalty even of long-term members, it is all the more likely to do so in new arrivals. Finally, as the members of a dyad age, congregations may find it necessary to provide counseling services when death or serious illness causes the breakup of a pair that has been together for several dec-ades. The obvious solution to difficulties raised by dyad and triad living is to expand the local community to four or five members. This is not Dyads and Triads always possible, however. For one thing, the decreasing number of ac-tive members makes it likely that most ministerial situations will con-tain only a very few religious. This would be especially true in areas out-side of the large cities in the traditionally Catholic Northeast and Mid-west. The trend toward apartment living also fosters dyads and triads, since four- or five-bedroom apartments are rare. In some congregations, a substantial proportion of the members are already in dyadic living ar-rangements, and the community government may lack the tradition of authority to request or require that these grbupings be dissolved. This being the case, dyad and triad living will probably be unavoid-able in religious communities, at least to some extent. There are, how-ever, positive steps which the members of a congregation can take to ad-dress the issues which such arrangements raise. First of all, the records of a community should be investigated, in order to determine whether the abstract predictions of sociological theory about dyads and triads are, in fact, reflected in this particular congregation. Are the living arrange-ments and ministerial placements more stable thaff they were twenty years ago? What is the average size of living groups within the congre-gation? How long, on the average, have dyads been together? How long have triads? The members of larger groups? Which type of living arrange-ment appears to be increasing in frequency? Which types are decreas-ing?~ 4 Once trends have been identified, a congregation may wish to initi-ate a communal discernment process to determine what the effects of dy-ads and triads have been for its members, and whether these effects are desirable or not. The members of dyads and triads, or members who have once tried to join such a living arrangement, could be surveyed for their opinions and insights. Two- or three-person living arrangements could become a topic for chapter or pre-chapter discussion and debate among all the members, since whatever policies a congregation adopts in this regard would have to be owned by the members affected. Some of the possible follow-up actions to this community discern-ment could include the establishment or enlargement of a specific coun-seling or facilitation program to work with the members involved in dy-ads and triads. Triads may choose to make regular and frequent use of a facilitator--perhaps on a biweekly or monthly basis--to alert them-selves to and to deal with instances of divide and conquer, rejoicing thirds, or exclusive factions that may arise. Newly-formed triads-- especially those formed of a previous dyad and a singleton--would be in particular need of this service. Job counseling and placement services 50 / Review for Religious, January-February 1990 may help the members of dyads decide when to move on, and, of course, extensive counseling services would be needed for long-standing dyad members when, as will inevitably happen, illness, retirement or death dissolves their pair. The members of a congregations may decide to place a limit on the number of years that can be spent in a given dyad. Since most congregations no longer intervene so actively in the lives of their members, however, special commur~ity-wide discernment and input would be necessary before such a step would be accepted and owned, especially by the dyads involved. The congregation's leadership would also have to provide information about alternatives--both in living and in ministry--for any pair of its members who did agree to separate and move on. The physical resources available to a congregation should also be ex-amined in the light of what is learned about dyads and triads in the com-munity. In the past decade or so, for example, many parish convents have been closed and either demolished or converted to other uses. Some of these may have been of an ideal size to house a group of five or six. Congregations may wish to identify the houses of the "right size" which are still available, and make arrangements to purchase them, if they do not already own them. Any new living space which is created-- apartment buildings that may be purchased or built, large-scale quarters attached to hospitals or retirement centers that may be modified-- should be created with the effects of dyads and triads in mind. Finally, creative social arrangements may be devised to maintain ties to the larger community in the members of dyads and triads. If a con-gregation has small discussion groups as part of its government process, dyad members may be assigned to different groups. For those orders still involved largely in teaching, summer ministry or vacation opportunities can be advertised, and dyad members urged to avail themselves of dif-ferent opportunities. Dyads and triads living in the same area may be in-terfaced, and perhaps exchange members for a week or even longer. As congregations begin to explore the implications of living in groups of two and three, other practices will doubtless be devised. These should be shared with other communities. Number is not destiny. No inevitable social laws require that a dyad be excessively stable, or that a triad dissolve in acrimony and misunder-standing. As the members of small groups become aware of the tenden-cies involved in their living arrangements, they may be able, with some help from the larger congregation, to deal with the problems that arise. It is hoped that this article will be a first step in the process by which Dyads and Triads religious communities harness the dynamics of dyads and triads and con-vert them to truly life-giving forces for the religious life of the future. NOTES ~ See Sandra Schneider, New Wineskins:Re-imagining Religious Life Today (New York: Paulist Press, 1986), pp. 252-255. 2 Georg Simmel, The Sociology ofGeorg Simmel, trans. Kurt H. Wolff, (New York: Free Press, 1950), p. 123. 3 lbid, p. 124. '~ lbid, p. 126. 5 Ibid, p. 123. 6 Ibid, p. 137. 7 Patricia Wittberg, "Transformation in Religious Commitment," REVIEW FOR RELm~OUS 1985, Vol. 44, pp. 161-167. 8 Benjamin Zablocki, The Joyful Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), pp. 116-120. 9 Benjamin Zablocki, Alienation and Charisma (New York: Free Press, 1980), p. 289. ~0 Kristin Wombacher O.P., (n.d.) "American Religious Life Since Vatican II: Change and Continuity." Unpublished paper, p. 245. ~ lbid, p. 235. ~2 Simmel, op cit, p. 139. ~3 lbid, p. 148. 14 Please note that this article does not predict that there will be no stable triads in a congregation, merely that these will be relatively few compared to the number of stable dyads. Large, institutional groups of religious may also remain essentially un-changed over the years. This large group stability would be due, however, not to the abstract effects of number, but to the personal inability of the individual mem-bers to move on, whether because of age, psychological inflexibility, or the simple belief that a given congregational work would not survive were they to leave it. Evaluating Religious Community Costs David E. Meier, S.J. Fr. David Meier, S.J., serves as a financial consultor for the Detroit Province of the Society of Jesus. He is also the treasurer of the Jesuit Community at the University of Detroit. His address is Jesuit Community; Lansing-Reilly Hall; University of De-troit; 4001 W. McNichols; Detroit, Michigan 48221-9987. Point of view is a factor in literary evaluation, an element of artistic per-spective, and a determinant of political affiliation. Point of view is equally an essential criterion for determining what is meaningful in any financial assessment. A number of conditions can be identified which affect the financial data being analyzed. Some of these conditions merely color the data, so that a simple new cast of mind, like the addition of a filter on a camera lens, will provide an improved impression. Another condition may be rather like a fun-house mirror, which distorts the data, often so beyond one's normal frame of mind that the data loses all cogency. 1. Point of View--a Perspective When religious superiors are mystified because they do not find mean-ingful comparisons between per member costs of living in their local com-munities, their point of view is frequently at the heart of their mystery. Failure to advert to their perspective is what leads them to ask, "Why can't we get reliable comparisons between the per member costs at St. Agatha and St. Theresa?" Concern for lifestyle quickly introduces estimates for the amounts of money needed for community support under varied assumptions about a standard of living. Often enough the "common sense" expectations 52 Evaluating Religious Community Costs about a reduction in per diems are contradicted in the reality. Later in this article a number of conditions which merely color data will be examined. These should not be allowed to distract religious su-periors from a key condition which actually distorts the data which enter into their decisions. 2. Full CostDMarginai Cost Distinction Religious superiors should be conversant with the economic distinc-tion between full cost and marginal cost. This is the key condition for avoiding distortion in comparing per member costs for various commu-nity sizes. The effect of this distinction is especially significant when deal-ing with small numbers, say three to forty, which is representative of the size of most local religious communities. This distinction brings eco-nomic discernment down from the clouds to the refectory and the com-mon room. Consider, for example, an education community of thirty members which devotes hours of discussion trying to decide whether it is economi-cally preferable to have ten retired members rive apart in a separate com-munity from the twenty active teachers. Another study tries to make economic sense out of establishing a new community for a few retired members in a parish facility which has more room than is needed by the parish personnel. .The approach to these economic determinations will most often be reduced to measuring the per member cost. And here is where the dis-tortion can arise! Are the per member costs to be measured as full cost or marginal cost units? The difference can be of surprising magnitude. 3. Marginal Cost Marginal cost begins at the very edge of full cost. Whatever is the total cost of providing for the housing, food, personal, institutional, and automobile expenses of a 30 member community constitutes the commu

Issue 33.1 of the Review for Religious, 1974. ; Review ]or Religious is edited by faculty members of the School of Divinity of St. Louis University, the editorial offices being located at 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. It is owned by the Missouri Province Educational Institute; St. Louis, Missouri. Published bimonthly and copy-right (~) 1974 by Review ]or Religious. Composed, printed, and manufactured in U.S.A. Second class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri. Single copies: $1.75. Sub-scription U.S.A. and Canada: $6.00 a year; $11.00 for two years; other countries, $7.00 a year, $13.00 for two years. Orders should indicate whether they are for new or renewal subscriptions and should be .accompanied by check or money order payable to Review ]or Religious in U.S.A. currency only. Pay no money to persons claiming to represent Review ]or Religious. Change of address requests should include former address. R. F. Smith, S.J. Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Editor Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor January 1974 Volume 33 Number 1 Renewals, new subscriptions, and changes of address should be sent to Review for Religious; P.O. Box 6070; Duluth, Minnesota 55802. Correspondence with the editor and the associate editor together with manuscripts, books for review, and materials for "Subject Bibliography for Religious" should be sent to Review for Religious; 612 Humboldt Building; 539 North Grand Boulevard; St. Louis, Missouri 63103. Questions for answering should be sent to Joseph F. Gallen, S.J.; St. Joseph's Church; 321 Willings Alley; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19106. Review for Religious Volume 33, 1974 Editorial Offices 539 North Grand Boulevard Saint Louis, Missouri 63103 R. F. Smith, S.J. Everett A. Diederich, S.J. Joseph F. Gallen, S.J. Editor " Associate Editor Questions and Answers Editor Review ]or Religious is published in January, March, May, July, September, and November on the fifteenth of the month. It is indexed in the Catholic Periodical and Literature Index and in Book Review Index. A microfilm edi-tion of Review ]or Religious is available from University Microfilm; Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106. Copyright (~ 1974 by Review for Religious. Documents concerning Religious The following are seven recent documents concerning religious given here in chronologi-cal order and in the English translation provided by the weekly English edition of L' osservatore romano. LETTER TO THE GENERAL OF THE JESUITS To Our Beloved Son PETER ARRUPE Superior General of the Society of Jesus On the solemn occasion of Easter last year you intimated to Us that you were thinking of calling a general congregation of your Society in the year 1974, whose task it would be to explore the most apt ways for the Society to per-form its work in the Church and in the world of today. Importance of the Congregation Our Venerable Brother, the Cardinal Secretary of State, replying in Our behalf,~sent you Our best wishes. Now that you have publicly annoUnced the general congregation, and the provincial congregations are soon to be held for the election of delega.tes and for the preparation of postulata to be proposed to the general congregation, We Ourselves because of the love We bear the Society wish to address Ourselves through this letter to you and your companions to encourage you and to send you Our best wishes for a happy outcome of the congrega.tion. For we are well aware of the great im-portance of convoking it at this time, which could be an hour of decision, so to speak, for the Society of Jesus, for its future destiny and for its task in Church, as it is also for other religious families. 4 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 This meeting is a sign--and We are happy to say so--that the Society of Jesus is making a great effort, in accordance with the aims of its institute, to adapt its life and its apostolate to the needs of today's world, which is so constantly and rapidly changing. The Mind ot Vatican II Your desire, in fact, corresponds with the norms of the Second Vatican Council, the proper and careful implementation of which We Ourselves are strenuously trying to attain. Indeed, the congregation is in accord with the opinion of the Council fathers who said: "Effective renewal and proper adap-tation cannot be achieved except with the cooperation of all the members of the institute" (Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 4). However, if that universal Synod was looking for renewal fitting the needs of the present, it did not want this to be brought about through a hazardous experimentation that might be alien to the very character of the religious family, or lead to an abandonment of the primary values of a life consecrated to God. No, it was the mind of that Synod that the common elements of religious life should be confirmed and that they should be allowed to grow and develop. These are: a following and imitation of Christ, "as proposed in the Gospel" (ibid., 2); a renuncia-tion of worldly things so that the religious might live for God alone and for the building up of the Church; a practice of all the human and Christian vir-tues, best achieved by a joyful and constant observance of the vows (cf. ibid., 5), which should lead to the heights of the spiritual life where sublime contemplation is joined with magnanimous action. In Our apostolic exhorta-tion "Evangelica testificatio," which We published later, We explained all this in more detail and dealt with it more fully, using it as a paternal invita-tion to all religious that "they might shed light among men, so that, when they see the good you do, they might give praise to the Father in heaven" (cf. Mt 5:16). The Society of Jesus, especially called to walk in the path of the follow-ing of Christ, should feel itself particularly impelled to review its style of life, testing it constantly in the light of the Gospel, according to the exhortations contained in the words and example of St. Ignatius. Let this be undertaken with a view to actually effecting the renewal begun at the instance of the Council, taking into account new circumstances and needs. This should be done, however, in accordance with the spirit of the Society of Jesus, that is, in fidelity to its tradition which is based on .Christ, on the Church, on St. Ignatius. Hence, that the preparation for the coming General Congregation may not be limited to organizational matters, but give to all the members of the Society of Jesus a proper orientation and win their full commitment to it, they will have to rehearse with penetrating insight, a clear grasp of reality, and a profound sense of duty those principles of the spiritual and apostolic life which for centuries formed, as it were, the very structure that held the Documents concerning Religious / 5 Society together, and which made it a most serviceable instrument for a pastoral, missionary, and educational apostolate involving cultural forma-tion of" the highest excellence. Those responsible for this accomplishment were a large group of men distinguished for holiness of life and love of neighbor. Sources of Strength The foundations of religious formation which were laid in the past should today, even under changed conditions, still be the source of strength of the Society of Jesus. They are: a diligent dedication to prayer, which "has its origin in the authentic sources of Christian spirituality" (cf. Decr. Per- [ectae caritatis, 6); an austerity of life, preventing a person from easily adopting that frame of mind which, casting aside that which is sacred, pre-vails in so many forms of contemporary life and practice; supernatural strength by which apostolic effectiveness is increased, and in the absence of which no action, no matter how excellent on the surface, can yield lasting fruit for the transformation of the human conscience; complete observance of the vows, especially obedience, which is peculiar to the Society and a condi-tion of its religious discipline by which its vigor was always preserved. Hence, there must be no attempt to introduce new methods of deliberation and deci-. sion-making that not only undermine the very notion of obedience, but alter the nature itself of the Society of Jesus. Finally, the ascetical value of com-munity life and the advantages it offers for the formation of character should be kept in mind. To these weighty principles We would also add in a very special manner the fidelity to the Apostolic See, whether in the area of studies and education of young scholastics, who are the hope of your order, or of the students at-tending the great number of schools and universities entrusted to the Society, or in the production and publication of writings aimed at a wide circle of readers, or in the exercise of the direct apostolate. Dangers to Essential Structure of the Order Nor are We ignorant of the fact that over the past few years in several parts of the Society--and it is by no means absent either from the life of the Church in general--certain tendencies have arisen of an intellectual and dis-ciplinary nature which, if fostered and given support, could lead to serious and possibly irreparable changes in the essential structure itself of your So-ciety. As you know, Beloved Son, we have through Our closest collaborators called your attention more than once to these matters, while expressing the hope that the expected renewal will be brought about securely and smoothly. Therefore, on the occasion of the announcement of the gen-eral congregation We express once again Our desire, indeed Our demand, that the Society of Jesus should adapt its life and apostolate to today's con-ditions and needs in such a way that confirmation be given to its characteris- 6 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 tics as a religious, apostolic, priestly Order, linked to the Roman Pontiff by a special bond of love and service, as ratified in the "Formula of the Institute" or fundamental rule of this same Society, approved and repeatedly confirmed by Our predecessors. In the adaptation of which We .speak, experience will be your teacher. It will show what concrete forms of life and action have now become irrelevant and outdated, and what new needs and opportunities pre-sent themselves of work to be undertaken or directed according to the mind of Christ and the nature of the apostolate. We also hope that in the preparation for the general congregation, and later when it is in session, all the religious will be intent on the good of the Society, united in that charity required by your Founder, whose voice can still somehow be heard, in your Constitutions: "Union and agreement among all ought to be sought with great care, and the opposite ought not to be per-mitted; in order that, being united among themselves by the bond of fraternal charity, they may be able better and more efficaciously to apply themselves in the service of God and the aid of their fellowmen" (P.III, c.l, n.18). Final Thoughts~ and Suggestions These,, then, are Our wishes; that they may be heeded we pray to ,the Virgin Mother of God, Queen and Mother of the Society of Jesus; may she support it with counsel, strengthening goodwill, stirring up hearts, and in-spiring all the religious to ever more zealously imitate the Divine Savior in their task of constantly and courageously establishing His reign. What we have written should show you and your companions what is ex-pected of you by Us, who know well what influence the Society of Jesus has, what the task is that it has to fulfill, what confidence it enjoys; all this must be carefully considered, both with respect to the Society itself and with respect to the Church. We wish you to inform your collaborators and all the members of the Society of Jesus of this message, so that each one may see the witness of Our paternal benevolence and of the concern We have for the future destiny of the same Society. For We are convinced that the more faithfully the sons of St. ignatius conserve the Ignatian charism as it appears in the principle docu-ments of the institute, the more effectively will they pursue the glorious work of evangelizing today's world according to their God-given vocation, emulat-ing the example of so many Jesuits who consistently tried-~--and We use the words of St. Ignatius--"to distinguish themselves in the total service of their eternal King and universal Lord" (Spit. Ex., II week). Having made known in writing what is in Our heart, We gladly impart to you and to the whole Society of Jesus the Apostolic Blessing as an'augury of the divine assistance. ~ " From the Vatican, the fifteenth of September, 1973, the eleventh year of Our Pontificate. PAUL VI Documents concerning Religious "/ 7 LETTER ON ST. BRIDGET OF SWEDEN To Our Venerable Brother JOHN E. TAYLOR Bishop of Stockholm In this year marking the sixth centenary of her death, honor is rightly paid to St: Bridget, Flowei" of the North, and rightly are the faithful exhorted to direct their thoughts, with fresh° enthusiasm, so to speak, to the spiritual beauty of this heavenly one, as her memory is being solemnly recalled to mind. This chosen woman had a double fatherland: Sweden, where she was born at the beginning of the 14th century and Rome, where she spent nearly 20 years, and where after her return from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, she de-parted ripe for heaven, to the eternal Jerusalem, on the 23rd day of July, in the year 1373. ~ In that northern region to which the devout mind turns with heightened eagerness on this occasion, the ecclesiastical life was at that time in a fluorishing state, particularly because the Cistercian monks and after them the mendicant orders had introduced a piety that was well adapted to the people. For nurturing this piety, devout pilgrimages, to which Christians were much given, proved very effective. And' when the Scandinavians ad-venturously and with devotion and enthusiasm betook themselves to the holy places:in distant parts of the world, they, as it were,°exchanged spiritual riches with other brethren in Christ whom they met and also experienced in a vital way the unity.of the body of the Church. Wife and Mother Such were the times in which Bridget grew to womanhood. Although she desired to consecrate her virginity to God, she was thwarted in her desire of a Divine Spouse. In,submission to the will of her father, she married Ulf Gudmarsson, an excellent man. As wife and mother she was a shining ex-ample; she lived united to her husband by the bond of Christian love andsh~ reared her' eight 6hildren with discerning wisdom; that is to say, she wished them to grow up to be not only good citizens of their fatherland, but also servants and children of God. And so it came about that the seeds of religious vocation came?to flower among her offspring. Indeed, her second daughter, Catherine, with the aid ofdivine grace reached the heights of sancity. Nor may ewe neglect to mention the charity of St. Bridget lavished on the mem-bers of Christ suffering from poverty or other distress. Following a pious pilgrimage they had made together to the Shrine of St. James at Compostella, Bridget's husband entered a Cistercian monas-tery and soon after he died there. Whereupon Bridget, having set her domes-tic affairs in order, devoted herself entirely to the ascetical life and prepared for her own flights to God, by whom she wa~ richly favored with mystical 8 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 gifts. During the two years in which she lived in a retired place near the monastery where her husband Ulf had withdrawn from the world, she was inspired by Christ with the resolve to found a new Order to be named for our Divine Savior, in honor of Mary the Virgin Mother of God. There would be double monasteries housing in separate buildings men and women who had,freed themselves for divine pursuits, but they would constitute onecom-munity, as it were, gathered together in God's name. This order, whose rule Our Predecessor Urban V approved in 1370, began with the foundation called Vadstena. Spiritual Writings There is cause for rejoicing indeed in the fact that this religious family, which almost disappeared at the time when the seamless garment of the Church was pitiably rent, began to flourish again at the beginning of this present century, insofar as its branch of consecrated women is concerned; and a house was established at the Campo dei Fiori, where the mother foundress had formerly lived. That this institute may prosper with a happy increase in this anniversary celebration honoring St. Bridget is the object of our earnest desire. Deservedly extolled also are those works which are entitled "Revela-tions," and which set forth the mystical graces bestowed on St. Bridget. They are records valued besides for their wealth of sacred doctrine, treating of her cult of our Savior's humanity, of His sacred passion, of the Blessed Virgin, St. Joseph, and the angels. The spiritual writings and religious art of the 15th and 16th centuries reflect the strong impact of these works. Solicitude for the Church Broadening the range of her concern, however, St. Bridget, like another Catherine of Siena, extended her great and zealous solicitude to the Church and the Apostolic See in that troubled period. As a devoted daughter she sought the reformation of the Church, ihe Mother of all, which, as Vatican Council II says, "is summoned by Christ, as she goes her pilgrim way, to that continual reformation, of which she always has need, insofar as she is an institution of men here on earth" (Decree on Ecumenism, Unitat& redinte-gratio, 6). Like the "valiant woman" she was, Bridget entreated Clement VI, lingering in Avignon, to return to Rome and urged the proclamation of the jubilee year of 1350. This woman, then, who by her life and work united so admirably and beneficially in the one Church her illustrious native land of the North and the See of Peter, corroborates, so to speak, as a citizen of heaven, the gener-ous efforts of those who after a prolonged and lamentable severance are now striving to restore Christian unity. Indeed, Our predecessor Boniface IX ap-pears in some way to have foretold this when in an apostolic letter dated under his seal, 7 October 1391 he said that he declared Blessed Bridget of Documents concerning Religious / 9 happy memory to be a saint "for the unity of the faith and of the Ch'urch" (Bullarium Priv. ac Dipl. Pont., III, Rome, 1741, p. 391 ). Tolally Dedicated Again, we rightly commemorate this singular and exemplary woman be-cause, although she was totally dedicated to God, she was not estranged from her own people. More than this, animated by a Christian love of her native land, she labored for its true progress. Her own family gave 'to Sweden for almost a hundred years kings, among them St. Eric, who were intent upon the good of their people and social justice. And although occupied with household cares, St. Bridget often served as an instructress in royal duties at court and was like a watchful mother to King Eric the Great (or Erikson) and his wife. She gave them a Swedish translation of the Holy Bible, and for this and for her writings mentioned above, she obtained a place in the literary history of her country. May her light shine radiantly, therefore, a light recognized also by those who are not of the Catholic communion. May this extraordinary woman in-tercede with God that He may graciously bestow on the Church the gifts of peace and unity. These obtained, may the faithful of Christ in Sweden and the adjoining northern regions come to recognize that he who is placed over the Catholic Church and exercises the highest apostolic ministry testifies to a singular esteem and brotherly love for them. May the example of this devout pilgrimage ot~ olden days kindle the hearts of those who come to this City in the forthcoming Holy Year, so that sincere repentance and desire for the interior life may bring about a spiritual renewal that will benefit not only in-dividuals but the Church also and civil society. This then is Our message to you in observance of the sixth centenary of th~ death of St. Bridget. In conclusion, We affectionately impart to you and to the faithful under your care the Apostolic Blessing as a token of spiritual strength and joy. This Blessing we desire to extend also to the Abbess Gen-eral and the Sisters of St. Bridget, the Order of our Divine Savior. From the Vatican Palace, on the 19th day of September, in the year 1973, the eleventh of our Pontificate. PAUL VI ADDRESS TO BENEDICTINE ABBOTS The following address was given October 1, 1973, to 270 abbots and con-ventual priors of the Benedictine Confederation led by the Abbot Primate, Dom Rembert Weakland. Also present for the audience were three Orthodox monks and three Protestant monks. From the heart we greet you, representatives of the whole Order of St. Benedict, who, in St. Cyprian's words, have come "to the Chair of Peter and the primatial church, the source of priestly unity" (Ep. 12, 14; PL 3,844-5). You have desired also to pay a visit to us, the successor in the apostolic min- Review for Religious,. Volume 33, 1974/1 istry to that same blessed Peter, in the long intervening line of Pontiffs. We greet also the Priors here present ot~ monasteries located for the most partin Africa and in Latin America, in which areas, with laudable spontaneity you devote your energies to missionary work; that is to say, "you are diligently engaged in implanting there the very rich tradition of your Order" (see Conc. Vat. II, Decr. Ad gentes divinitus, 18). Experiencing God We welcome in addition, recognizing at the same time the high prestige they enjoy, the observers, who, though not full participants in the Catholic communion, are yet striving to follow in the footsteps of St. Benedict. Fi-nally, we receive paternally the abbesses of monasteries and th~ mothers general here present of congregations that adhere to the spirit of this Patri-arch and are called by his name. We know that you are now holding a meeting on a subject of no small consequence; namely, on the mode of experiencing God in monastic life. This topic has various facets, as it were, whether it is considered according to Biblical doctrine, to sacred liturgy, to history, to the conditions and exigen-cies of the present day. We regard this subject as serviceable indeed, if this troubled age of ours is really to return to the great and fundamental reflec-tions that concern human existence itself. For there is danger today that men may banish the sacred from their minds and from their condu& and even presume they can do without God, at least in the use they make'of thoii" lives. Sometimes even those who have given themselves to the divine service and are dedicated to the pastoral ministry can be infected with this secular view. You, however, as monks in appearance, dress, and way of life affirm or should affirm that you belong to the number of those who do not rely upon the vain and passing things of this world, but seek wholeheartedly Him who is the Absolute: whom alone we ca.ll God, God our Highest Good, God Eternal. Here there shines before the eyes of the mind the true concept of religion, whereby man becomes intimately aware that he is ordered to God, Creator, Ruler, Last End, and Author of Salvation, to whom he owes in-terior and exterior worship. Such religion, therefore, encompasses the entire man and obliges him to devote himself to God in wholehearted service. Hence, you who "have chosen the best part" (see Luke 10:42), inasmuch as "your main task is to render the Divine majesty a service at once sim-ple and noble within the monastic confines" (see Conc. Vat. II, Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 9), dembnstrate the excelling power of the interior life for opposing that secular propensity whereby men are induced to abandon their own true center, as it were, and surrender themselves to exterior things. Liturgy of the Hours It should be your concern, then, to be religious who are truly, called so, Documents concerning Religious under a unique title, since you strive to ascend to God, to whom you have been consecrated by the profession of the evangelical counsels, through liv-ing the contemplative life, which you nourish by daily effort. Merely in doing this you express your protest against the neglect of God and against the profane way of life which pervades the world in these times. From our brief exposition, the excellence of prayer to be directed to God is already manifest. Indeed, all the sons of the Church, as you well know, are to adore the Father "in spirit and in truth" (see John 4:23). But since in the world of today prayer is beset by so many snares and threatened by so many perils, to you, who enjoy a more fortunate position, is entrusted the special task of directing your study and efforts to the end that the Church may really appear as the Ecclesia Orans. We are cognizant of the zeal with which you have studied the liturgical aspect in this meeting. We rejoice greatly in your diligence and your ardent desire to make that venerable tradition of yours flourish among you and to preserve that which constitutes the essential part of your spiritual life and which in the course of the centuries has ever enhanced the life of the Church itself. We know also of your solicitude for the vital force, the profound sig-nificance and the benefits which have been derived from the renewal of the liturgy that you brought to pass. Joined to this solicitude of y_ours is appre-hension lest these same benefits be not rightly and duly recognized, the more so because differing inclinations of soul in the great family of- St. Benedict have become evident with regard to the order to be observed in the Liturgy of the Hours; that is, whether this order should be uniform in the various monasteries or particular to each one. Need to Study and Weigh This is a very important question, whether as pertaining to your con-sistent historical and spiritual tradition or to your monastic cohesion which is no longer supported by only one form of sacred liturgy, but is expressed through several different voices, so that in celebrating the praise of God you are no longer "speaking with one voice." Consequently, this question should be studied in such a way as to embrace all its aspects in accordance with the vows made by you, before appropriate norms with the force of precept are laid down. Nevertheless, we wish to state that the difficulties which have arisen should be so weighed, and due account taken of the benefits already ac-cruing, while with joint effort you strive to offer a testimony of fervent and ardent prayer to the world of today with its secular outlook. Assuring you therefore of our fatherly concern for the welfare of your monastic communities, we strongly affirm that we shall take under our eager and careful consideration the outcome and result of the work you have begun on this question, and already at this stage we acknowledge our Review [or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 high esteem for the manner in which, with your wonted wisdom, you are addressing yourselves to this task. However, you are obliged to fulfill not only the duty of liturgical prayer, immensely important as this is, but also that of private prayer. On this sub-ject the Second Vatican Council has given a wise reminder (see Const. Sacrosanctum Concilium, 12), and St. Benedict himself is considered to treat of this point in his Rule, in the section headed. "De reverentia ora-tionis": "Supplication should be made to the Lord God of the universe with all humility and pure devotion" (cap. 20; see P. Delatte, Commentaire sur le R~gle de Saint Beno~t, Paris, p. 217). The exhortations of your founder are by no means inappropriate to this age, in which things progress and change with such rapidity. Just as in former times, so also now, you are to establish "a school of the Lord's ser-vice" (Reg. prol.); in other words, your monasteries should be so struc-tured that those who enter therein learn how to serve God and how to be continuously employed in His service. Such service, however, chiefly com-prises divine worship, by which the virtue of religion is exercised, as we have indicated above, and also holiness. With reference to worship we should like to bring out a special point: in celebrating the sacred liturgy with diligence and piety, as it behooves you to do, let. the sweet voice of the singing Church sound forth and never cease to sound forth in your churches. For men of today also feel the in-effable power of song that uplifts the soul and with gentle modulation gives expression to feelings of adoration, praise, penitence, and petition. Specially Chosen As regards holiness, this thought of St. Augustine should be deeply meditated: "Let not your voice only sound forth the praises of God, but let your deeds be in harmony with your voice" (Enarr. in Ps. 166, 2; PL 37, 1899). Although you have withdrawn from the world, to be occupied with the Lord, you have nonetheless "been specially chosen to preach the good news" (Rom l:l). May that hidden apostolic fruitfulness of which the Council speaks (see Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 7) flow out therefore from your mon-asteries upon the Church and society. May the yeast be prepared in them whereby, through the operation of divine power, the world may be renewed. This holiness, moreover, pertains not only to the life of the soul, but also to what you are doing for the cultivation of natural gifts, inasmuch as, to mention some examples, you devote yourselves to liturgical, Biblical, and historical studies for the common benefit, or, you engage in work, especially manual labor. Indeed, this last, may I add, enables you to go to the assist-ance of those who are suffering from poverty and other hardships, in keep-ing, of course, with the practices of the monastic life. This is in accord with the mind of the Council fathers who exhorted religious "to contribute to the Documents concerning Religious / 13 support of the poor, whom all should love with the tenderness of Christ" (see Decr. Per[ectae caritatis, 13; Const. Gaudium et spes, 42). Finally, not only your own individual life, but the life of the community as a whole, whereby you are joined one to another with the sweet bond of charity, should be adorned by this mark of holiness: that through the fel-lowship of community life directed to God, each individual is assisted in carrying out his service to the Lord, is incited to work for his brethren, is protected from dangers. Thus you will truly bear witness before the world to the holiness of the Church. In short, a community such as this, like a kind of novitiate, prepares religious during their lifetime for the everlasting day. Not without reason did St. Bernard reckon among the aids to good works: "to desire eternal life with all spiritual avidity" (Reg. cap. 4). ~ Example and Exhortation Of all these practices let the abbot give the example and exhort thereto the brethren entrusted to his care. Although the office of governing is ren-dered more difficult at the present time, yet he who "is believed to hold the place of Christ in the monastery" (Reg. cap. 2) should make the utmost effort that the vigor of spiritual life and of monastic discipline be strength-ened, increased, and, if need be, restored. To this end the abbot should en-deavor to maintain an unimpaired union with the magisterium of the Church, like a channel through which living water is drawn off for himself and for the brethren placed in his charge. The foregoing is what we have had affectionately in mind to say to you, and we do not doubt you will strive that your Order may aid the building up of the Church with spiritual forces, also in these times, to the needs of which it should prudently adapt itself. The announced Holy Year should offer you further incentive, since as you know we wish it to be a time of interior renewal. Lastly, as a pledge of heavenly gifts and as testimony of our assured affection, we impart the Apostolic Blessing to you who are here present and to all the members of your families in the Lord. ADDRESS TO THE LITTLE SISTERS OF JESUS The following address was given to the Little Sisters of Jesus at an audience of October 3, 1973. Dear Little Sisters of Jesus, last Friday we had the very sweet joy of meeting you at Tre Fontane, in the eloquent simplicity of your houses and in an impressive atmosphere of evangelical serenity and happiness. Your participation in this audience is like a return feast, for you and for us like-wise. To the thirty-seven Little Sisters who have just made their vows of per- 14 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 petual consecration at St. Peter's tomb, we address our best wishes for fervent faithfulness. But our brief words are also addressed to their families, who have in many cases come from very far away to be present at their de-finitive commitment "because of Jesus and the Gospel." They are addressed likewise to the two hundred Little Sisters at present attending a session of spiritual formation under the direction of dear Father Voillaume. We entrust to you our heart's most ardent desire. We would like you to take all over the world the conviction that a religious profession com-mits at such a profound level that changes of structures and activities have only a relative importance, even if one suffers from them. The essential thing is to keep a very keen awareness of the call of Christ who chooses His friends Himself (see Jn 15:15.) Is not Fr~re Charles de J6sus an example of this faithfulness deepened through different, if not contradictory, situ-ations? It is clear, however, that his mysterious route finds its coherence and its unity in passionate imitation of Jesus Christ, the One Model. Fr~re Charles de J6sus appears as one of the most perfect types of this deep faith-fulness of a human freedom to the freedom and faithfulness of God, who took him far beyond his expectations and hopes. Dear Little Sisters of Jesus, be confiden!! To be faithful does not con-sist in becoming tense over one's promises, but in relying on the Lord to ensure our ~faithfulness. That is why the long hours spent~with Christ in the Holy Eucharist will always be the primary and indispensable source of the friendship, the evangelical testimony you have promised to give in the Church and in the world today. It is with these sentiments that we renew our affectionate Apostolic Blessing to you and to your relatives and to your whole religious family. ADDRESS TO REDEMPTORISTS On October 6, 1973, the Pope gave the following talk to the members of the general chapter of the Redemptorists. Beloved Sons, To you assembled in the General Chapter of your Congre-gation of the Most Holy Redeemer and engaged in deliberations of great importance to the life of your religious family, We extend our affectionate greeting. We desire, moreover, to welcome expressly the new superior gen-eral, who is charged with the office and the burden of guiding your congre-gation through the difficulties of our times--neither few nor inconsiderable --and of conducting it to "green pastures" (see Ps 22:2). Purpose of Chapters A general chapter provides an excellent opportunity--offered to every institute--to 'reflect once more upon the true nature and end set for the institute and to hold discussions that will have a salutary effect on the life of the members. For the responsibility of a general chapter is not discharged Documents concerning Religious / 15 by holding elections and. legislating; .the chapter must also promote the spiritual and apostolic vitality of the whole body (see Litterae Ap. Ecclesiae sanctae, motu proprio, I, 2). Therefore, in a meeting of this kind, the entire family is gathered together in the presence of God to hear His voice and take counsel with regard to its renewal which, as also for the whole Church, "essentially consists in an increase of fidelity to its own calling" (see Conc. Vat. II Decr. Unitatis redintegratio, 6). Your congregation was founded by that most devout Doctor of the Church, St. Alphonsus, in order that its members might sanctify them-selves by an assiduous and faithful imitation of Christ and also engage in apostolic works, above all that special care of souls involving salutary con-tact with the most abandoned. Servants of God Beloved Sons, you are servants of God in the true and primary sense of the word; for "by your vows you are totally dedicated to God through an act of supreme Love" (see Const. Lumen gentium, 44). To be dedi-cated means to be given over to another as his property and possession. You should be followers of Christ as the Universal Synod advised all re-ligious (see Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 2a), corroborating, as it were, and realizing more completely the desire of your Father Founder. Hence each of you must endeavor to order his life to a certain unity and seek Christ daily with a sincere and generous heart. Daily you should put on Christ, an effort which is the beginning and the end and the whole of your life, whether as individual religious or as communities. Thus you truly make Christ present in the world, which is in many instances utterly alienated from Him, its Redeemer. Then those who see you, who speak to you or liave dealings with you may experience a certain mysterious power emanating from our Savior. Thus also you manifest the holiness of the Church, to the world which especially demands holiness in her sons. Life of Charity This daily effort to put on the likeness of Christ constitutes, however, a life lived in charity and motivated by charity. For religious thus "impelled ¯ . . live ever increasingly for Christ and for His body the Church" (Decr. Perfectae caritatis, 1 ). But love truly and properly so called is not for a limited time, is not hedged by conditions, is not rendered less ardent by difficulties, and knows no end. Justly did the Second Vatican Council address to every religious the following exhortation to fidelity: "Let all who have been called to the profession of the vows take painstaking care to persevere and excel increasingly in the vocation to which God has summoned them" (Const. Lumen gentium, 47). The life in which one dedicates himself to God with an undivided heart 16 / Review Jor Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 becomes a means to show forth the love of God for men. Just as God "loved the world so much that he gave his only son" (Jn 3:16), so too a religious who strives to attain the fullness of his vocation is a kind of gift bestowed upon the world. For an apostolate that is enlivened by continual prayer, liturgical and private, by ascetical zeal and the practice of the vir-tues, transfuses the divine life into men and constitutes in its truest sense the service of one's brothers in Christ. Beloved members of the Congregation of the Most Holy Redeemer, you have illumined the Church by the sanctity of certain of your brethren, of whom We are pleased to recall to mind the Saints, Alphonsus Mary de'Liguorl, your founder, Clement Hofbauer, Gerard Majella, Blessed John Nepomucene Neumann. By your apostolic labors you have brought the light of divine grace to so many souls. On the occasion of this general chapter, persevere with renewed alacrity in your noble purpose, and if need be give fresh impetus to your zeal and redouble your efforts that the Church of God may reap benefit from you now and in the future as in times past. In fatherly encouragement to you in all these efforts, we lovingly im-part the.Apostolic Blessing .~o you who are present here and to all your members. ADDRESS TO MISSIONARIES OF THE SACRED HEART At the general audience of October 10, 1973, the Holy Father gave the follow-ing talk to jubilarian Missionaries of the Sacred Heart who were present at the audience. Venerable Brothers and Dear Sons in Christ, It is a joy for us to receive you on this occasion which marks the anniversary of your sacerdotal ordi-nation. For forty years you have exercised the ministry of the priesthood, having been called by the Lord Himself and sent out by the Church to preach "Christ crucified" (1 Cor 1:23) and to assist in giving witness to His Resurrection (see Acts 4:33). We can well imagine how many graces the Lord has offered you over the years and how many helps your ministry has brought to those whom you have served with fidelity and sacrifice. On this happy occasion we are glad to offer you our blessing, our felicitations, and our encouragement. We see you as part of a vast number of our brother priests who have been conscious of their responsibility and calling and who have endeavored with God's grace to perform their ministry, in the spirit of St. Paul, as one "worthy of God's approval, a workman who has no cause to be ashamed" (2 Tim 2:15). Today we wish, at this point in your lives, to confirm you in the faith, which you have received and preached, and in the priestly vo-cation that has been your precious gift, high dignity, and important obliga-tion. We urge you at this time to keep alive your hope and to maintain to the end that confidence with which you began (see Heb 3:6,14). To each Documents concerning Religious / 17 of you we say with the Apostle: "God . . . will not forget your work and the .love you have shown him by your service, past and present, to his holy people" (Heb 6:,10). May Christ fill all of you with joy and keep you in his love. On our part we cordially give your our special Apostolic Blessing. Our special greeting of grace and peace in the Lord go to the members of the General Conference of the Congregation of the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart, gathered together to consider questions of religious life and missionary activity. As we assure you of our paternal affection and en-couragement, we pray that Christ Jesus will make you apt instruments of preaching His gospel with ever greater effectiveness. We pray that you may indeed draw copiously from the riches of His love so as to be able to com-municate this same love in all its fullness "to the praise of his glori6hs grace" (Eph 1:6). Our Apostolic Blessing accompanies you in your im-portant responsibilities. ADDRESS TO THE CLARETIAN CHAPTER On October 25, 1973, Paul VI gave an audience to the members of the Claretian general chapter during which he delivered the following address. Beloved Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary! We express to you our deep pleasure at th!s vi.s.!t you pay us at the con-clusion of the meetings of your general chfi~ter. We hope that the work you have carried out these days will be fruitful. We hope that the dedicated service of the superior general and of the other members elected to form part of his council, will be effective and helpful for the purposes of your religious family. ~ We cannot overlook a particularly, iIluhainating circumstance, ,.which makes this joyful meeting more attractive: yesterday we celebrated the liturgical feast of St. Antonio Maria Claret. You yourselves made known for this reason your desire to visit Peter's Successor. We thank you for this gesture of support, in which we see a testimony of ekquisite spiritual affinity with your founder. How could we fail to recall before his sons the deep de-votion' he felt for the Vicar of Christ? And how could we fail to,venerate his memory in view of his eloquent and moving 'profession of faith in papal infallibility at the I Vatican Council? All that obliges us gratefully to open our mind to you in confidence, so that. you know that it is in perfect har-mony of religious sentiments with your own. THE CLARETIAN IMAGE We are sure that, during these days of your chapter, the protecting and guiding presence of St. Antonio Maria became more intense and exacting among you. And we like to think too that, when tracing the lines of re-newal, you took as your fixed point of reference the most genuine faithful- 18 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 ness to the origins of your institute and to the teachings on the consecrated life that the II Vatican Council proposed .and we ourself have repeatedly in-culcated. Allow us to savour with what purity of characteristic features the image of the Claretian presented itself to the contemplation of St. Antonio Maria. We read it yesterday during the lesson: "I tell myself: a Son of the Immaculate .Heart~ of Mary is a man burning with charity who sets fire wherever he passes. Nothing disheartens him; he takes pleasure in priva-tions, meets difficulties, delights in slander, and rejoices 0in torments. He thinks of nothing except how to follow and imitate Jesus Christ, in working, suffering and struggling always and only for the greater glory .of God and the salvation of souls" (El celo, c. I, BAC 188 [1959], p. 777). o See here, projected towards you, a whole program of holiness, based on religious renunciation of oneself, the fruit of its fertile evangelical vitality. It points out to you clearly,, with expressions of clear Pauline dynamism the good to which your personal and community life must aspire: the following and imitation of Christ in impulses of a charity that is always operative. BEARERS OF VALUES If to this program of interior life we add the very special cult of the Blessed Virgin h~ inculcated in you together with the~rimary dedication to the ministry of the Word, ,we have the complete picture of the Claretian vocation and spirituality. These and no others were the motives that gave life and ,meaning to the irrepressible zeal of the son of Sallent. And none other was the stamp of religious austerity that he imposed on himself to make his ministry more worthy of credit and more in conformity with the demands of the divine call. To proclaim the Good News to the point of sacrificing oneself for the good of one's brothers, to teach men the ever new languagel of;charity, characterized his overwhelming pastoral,task as Arch-bishop of Santiago in Cuba. Rightly could~we say of him, as of the Apostle of the Gentiles, that his vigor as '.'herald and teacher in faith and truth" (see 1 Tim 2:7) suffered no decrease in the midst of difficulties. On the contrary, his pastoral cares, his missionary anxiety found a way to express themselves continually in new ministerial initiatives, at home and abroad, inspired and nourished by the spirit of faithful service to the Church. Beloved sons, .appreciate this spiritual patrimony of yours;, spare no effort in tending its roots, if you really wish to be a tree always young and flourishing, able to adapt itself to the environment, to the changing require-ments of the times in order to continue to give ripe fruit to the Church, as it did in the past and continues to do at present, through its most illustrious sons. , At the chapter you have just held you have been able to convince your-selves that you are bearers of certain values that do not grow old because they .are a select part of the heritage and the universal vocation of the Documents concerning Religious /o 19 Church. The Christian community itself asks you for faithfulness and dis-cretion, generosity and disinterestedness in order to accept you and recog-nize you as the living and united sign of its human and spiritual aspirations. We do not wish to expatiate at greater length. Entrusting these thoughts to you, we wish to encourage you in your aspirations to holiness with our prayers to the Immaculate Heart of Mary so that, with the help of her motherly intercession, you may be exemplary sons of the Church. As con-firmation of these desires and as a testimony of particular benevolence we warmly impart the Apostolic Blessing to you and to the whole Claretian family. First Penance and First Communion Sacred Congregation [or the Discipline of the Sacraments and Sacred Congregation for the Clergy The Supreme Pontiff Pius X, relying on the prescription of Canon 21 of the Fourth Lateran Council, decided by the Decree "Quam singulari" issued on August 8th 1910 (AAS 1910, pp. 577-583), that children, once they had reached the age of discretion, should receive the sacraments of penance and Eucharist. That decision, having been put into operation throughout the universal Church, has produced and continues to produce very many fruits of Christian life and spiritual perfection. The "Addendum" to the General Catechetical Directory issued on the 1 lth April, 1971, by the Sacred Congregation for the Clergy (AAS 1972 pp. 97-176) confirms the custom of children receiving the sacrament of penance before Communion: "Having weighed all these points, and keeping in mind the common and general practice which per se cannot be derogated without the approval of the Apostolic See, and also having heard the Con-ferences of Bishops, the Holy See judges it fitting that the practice now in force in the Church of putting confession ahead of first Communion should be retained." The same "Addendum" took into consideration the fact that in certain regions in the Church some new practices had been introduced allowing children to be admitted to first Communion without first receiving the sacra-ment of penance. It allowed such practices to be continued for a time, pro-vided there was "prior communication with the Apostolic See and., they [the Conferences of Bishops] are at one mind with it." Having now carefully considered the matter and having taken into con-sideration the wishes of the bishops, the Sacred Congregations for the Dis-cipline of the Sacrament~ and for the Clergy, by virtue of this present docu-ment, and with the approval of the Supreme Pontiff, Paul VI, now that the 2O First Penance a~nd First Communion two years have passed, declare that these experiments should be brought to an end with the conclusion of the school year 1972-73 and that, there-fore, the Decree "Quam singulari" is to be obeyed by all everywhere. Given at Rome 24 May 1973. ANTONIUS Card. SAMORI~ Praef . JOHANNES Card. WRIGHT Praef . A Note on Intercommunion Secretariat [or the Union of Christians The following text is an explanatory note concerning the "Instruction on Intercom-munion" issued by the Secretariat for the Union of Christians on June 1, 1972; the text of the 1972 "Instruction" was given in Review ]or Religious, January 1973, pp. 12-8. 1. After the publication of the "Instruction concerning Particular Cases When Other Christians May Be Admitted to Eucharistic Communion in the Catholic Church," on June 1, 1972, various interpretations of it were given, some of which depart from the letter and the spirit of the document. To pre-vent the spread of such inaccurate interpretations and their consequences, we think it useful to recall to mind a few points. 2. With this instruction, pastoral in character, the Secretariat for Pro-moting Christian Unity had no intention of changing the rules laid down by the Vatican Council's decree on ecumenism and further explained by the Directorium Oecumenicum. The intenti6n was to explain that the existing discipline derives from the requirements of the faith and so retains its full vigour. 3. The basic principles of the instruction are: a) There is an indissoluble link between the mystery of the Church and the mystery of the Eucharist or between ecclesial and Eucharistic com-munion; the celebration of the Eucharist of itself signifies the fullness of pro-fession of faith and ecclesial communion (cf. Instruction, par. 2, a, b, c). b) The Eucharist is for the baptized a spiritual food which enables them to live with Christ's own life, to be incorporated more profoundly in Him, and to share more intensely in the whole economy of the mystery of Christ (cf. Instruction, par. 3). 4. Within the full communion of faith, Eucharistic Communion is the .4 Note on lntercommunion / 23 expression of this full communion and, therefore of the unity of .the faithful; at the same time it is the means of maintaining and reinforcing this unity. But Eucharistic Communion practiced by those ,who are not in full ecclesial communion with each other cannot be the expression of that full unity which the Eucharist of its nature signifies and which in this case does not exist; for this reason such Communion,cannot be regarded as a means to be used to lead to full ecclesial communion. 5. All the same, both the Directorium Oecumenicurn and th~ '~Instruc-tion," on,the,strength of what has already been said in the Vatican Council,s decree on ecumenism, allow the possibility of exceptions insofar as the Eucharist is necessary spiritual nour!shment for the Christian life. 6. It is the local ordinary's responsibility to examine these exceptional cases and make concr&e decisions. The instruction (no. 6.) recalls that the Directorium Oecumenicum gives the episcopal authority power, to decide whether in these r~re cases the required conditions are present or not. The episcopal authority's faculty of examining and deciding is governed by criteria laid down in the Directorium Oecumenicum (no. 55) and further explained in the instruction (no. 4 b),:. ". admission to Carbolic'Eucha-ristic Communion is confined to particular cases of those Christians who have a faith in the sacrament in conformity with that of the-Church, who experience a serious spiritual need for the Eucharistic sustenance, who for a prolonged period are unable to have recourse to a minister of their own community °and who ask for the sacrament of their own accord; all' this provided that they have proper dispositions~ and lead lives worthy of a Christian." ~. This criterion is observed if,,ail the required conditions .are verified. An object.ire, pastorally responsible examination,does not allow any vof,the con-ditions to be ignored. . ~. ~ ~ It must also be noted that the instruction speaks of particular cases, which are to be examined individually. Hence-a general regulation.cannot be~ issued which makes a catego.ry .o.ut of an exce.ptional case, nor is it possibles.to legitimate on the basis:of, epikei.a by turning this latter into a general rule. Nevertheless, the bishops can in tiae various situations decide what are theneeds that make exceptions applicable, that is to say, what constitutes a special case, and they can determine the manner of verifying whether all the required conditions are fulfilled in such a particular case. When par-ticular cases presen.t themselves fairly often in one region, following a re-current pattern, episcopal conferences can issue some guiding principles for ascertaining that al!,the conditions are verified in particular cases. Normally however it will be within the competence of the local ordinary to judge such cases. 7. For other Christians to be admitted to the Eucharist in the Catholic Church the instruction requires that they manifest a faith in the sacrament Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 in conformity with that of the Catholic Church. This faith is not limited to a mere affirmation of the "real presence" in the Eucharist, but implies the doctrine of the Eucharist as taught in the Catholic Church. 8, It is to be noted that the instruction (no. 5) calls to mind the fact that the Directorium Oecumenicum (par. 34-54) provides for the Orientals not in full communion with the Catholic Church rules different from those regarding other Christians (par. 55-63)o For example, (a) Since they belong to a community whose Eucharistic faith is in con-formity with that of the Catholic Church, a personal declaration of faith in the sacrament will not be required of them when they are admitted: in an Orthodox this faith is taken for granted; (b) since the Orthodox Churches have true sacraments and, above all, by virtue of apostolic succession, the priesthood and the Eucharist, conces-sions for sacramental communion must take account of legitimate reciprocity (no. 43); (c) Justifiable reasons for advising sacramental sharing are considerably more extensive. 9. The question of reciprocity arises only with those Churches which have preserved the substance of the Eucharist, the sacrament of orders, and apostolic succession. Hence a Catholic cannot ask for the Eucharist except from a minister who has been validly ordained (Directorium Oecumenicum, no. 55). 10. The desire to share the Eucharist fundamentally expresses the desire of the perfect ecclesial unity of all Christians which Christ willed. Intercon-fessional dialogue on the theology of the Eucharist (as sacrament and sacrifice), on the theology of ministry and of the Church is pursuing its course within the ambit of the ecumenical movement, supported by the promises and prayer of our Lord; it is stimulated and enlivened by the charity, poured into our hearts by the Holy Spirit who has been given to us. We express the hope that the ecumenical movement will lead to a common profession of faith among Christians and so allow us to celebrate the Eucharist in ecclesial unity, giving fulfillment to the words, "Because there is one bread, we who are many are one body" ( 1 Cor 10: 17). This note has been approved by the Holy Father, who has authorized its publication. 17 October 1973 JOHN CardinaF WILLEBRANDS President CHARLES MOELLER Secretary Decree on the Holy Year Indulgence Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary A DECREE WHICH DETERMINES WHAT SPIRITUAL WORKS ARE NECESSARY TO GAIN "THE GIFT OF THE INDULGENCE" IN THE VARIOUS LOCAL CHURCHES ON THE OCCASION OF THE HOLY YEAR The Cardinal President of the Central Committee for the Holy Year has asked this Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary to determine what spiritual works are necessary to gain "the gift of the Indulgence," which the Holy Father has promised to reinforce the spirit of reconciliation and renewal which are the characteristics of this Holy Year. Charged by the Sovereign Pontiff, the Sacred Penitentiary grants that, from the 1st Sunday of Advent of this year, until the day when the Holy Year is solemnly initiated in Rome, the faithful of the individual local Churches can gain: 1. The Plenary Indulgence, in the times to be decided by the Episcopal Conferences, if they go on a. pious pilgrimage to the cathedral church, or also to o~her churches determined by the local Ordinary, in which a solemn community function is held; 2. The Plenary Indulgence, likewise in the times to be decided by the Episcopal Conferences, if gathered in groups (for example, families, school pupils, workers, employees and professional workers, pious associations), they visit the cathedral or other churches designated by the Ordinary, and remain there in pious meditation for a suitable time, concluding the visit with the recitation or singing of the Lord's Prayer and the Creed and with the invocation to the Blessed Virgin; 3. The Plenary Indulgence if, prevented by sickness or any other serious 25 26 / Review fo.r. Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 cause, they join spiritually in the pious pilgrimage, offering God their prayers and sufferings. As regards the diocese of Rome, which should rightly be in this matter an example and stimulus for other ecclesial communities, the same Sacred Penitentiary decrees that the times and ways to gain the aforesaid Plenary Indulgence shall be determined by the Cardinal Vicar General of Rome. Notwithstanding any provisions to the contrary. Rome, from the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary, 24 September 1973. G. SESSOLO Regent G. CARD. PAUP1NI Grand Penitentiary COMMENTARY ON THE HOLY YEAR INDULGENCE The following commentary on the preceding document appeared in L'osser-vatore romano, November 29, 1973, page 6. 1. By order ~f the Holy Father, the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary issued, on 24 September 1973, a decree confirming and clarifying what had already been said with regard to the Jubilee indulgence during this first phase of the Holy Year. It establishes::the so-called "work" or "pious practice" to be carried out by the faithful, at given times and places, to acquire the Jubilee indulgence. ~ .' The "work" prescribed is a "pilgrimage" to a designated church, con-cl'~ ding witl~ barticipation in a solemn community servic~ or at le.ast with the i'ecitatign 'of some prayers. Summarizing the decree of 24 September 1973 and keeping in mind both the norms for indulgences and the Holy Father's Letter of 31 May 1973, to Cardinal Maximilian de Ftirstenberg, President of the Central Committee for the Ho!y Year, the following points.may be r~oted. The faithful who, duly,dispoged, approach the sacraments of confession affd communion and pray acco~:ding to the intentions of the Holy Father and the Episcopal C~ollege, are granted, in conformity with the norms in fbrce, the gift of the i91enary indulgence, at the time~'to be determined by the respective Episcopal Conference, beginning from 2 December 1973: (a) if they'take part in a pilgrimage to the cathedral church or to another church #esignated by the local Bishop and participate in solemn comrriunity serVice there; (b) if they go in groups (for example ram!lies, "sc3ools, professignal @orkers, associations) to one of the afpresaid chur'~hes and devote the, m-s'elves for ~/suitable space bf time to pious considerations, concluding them with the recitation or the singing of the Ou{ Fath~" and the Creed and with an invocation to the Blessed Virgifi; (c) if, being unable to take part in'tli~ pilgrimage of their comn~unity (ecclesial, family, or social), because they are pi'evented by illness or any ~Decree on the Holy Year Indulgence / 27 .o, ther serious cause, they join in it .spiritually by offering their prayers and sufferings. 2. We spoke above of the faithful being ."duly disposed." This is a reminder that the '.'gift of. t, he indulgence" must .be merited by fervent prep-aration; it is bestowed to reward° and "strengthen"--as we readAn the re-cent d.e~cree--the spirit of renewal and reconciliation that must characterize the Hgly Year. , For this reason the simple practices that are required to gain the Jubilee indulgence must not be separated from the work of preparation, on which s9 much stress has rightly been laid. The practices themselves are, as ~it were, the point of arrival°and ,tOe exte_r.na_l sign of deep renewal of the spirit and reinvigorated love for God and one's brethren. . No.w, ,,the work of renewal and fervor is 'the most valuable part of the Holy Year, because, great as is the value of the indulgence that remits the te.mporal pen,alty in the case of, those who are disposed, the value of the works proposed when their fulfillment leads,to an increase of charity is in-comparably greater (St. Thomas, Supplement to the Theological Summa, q. 25~ 2, 2 and q. 27, 2, 2). ,. 3. We mentioned above--in addition to the proper disposition and the "work" prescribed~what are commonly called "conditions" for gaining the Jubilee indulgence, namely:sacramental confession, eucharistic,communion, and prayer for the intentions of the Holy Father and the Episcopal College. The three "conditions" mentioned above are also required for every other plenary indulgence, with the only difference that the prayer, according to the general norms, is said for the intentions of the Holy Father, while in this circumstance the Holy Father himself (cf. Letter to Cardinal de Ftirs-tenberg, quoted above) has wished to associate the intentions of the Bishops with his own. For the fulfillment of the conditions (cf. Norms, nn. 27, 28 and 29), the following should be noted: " (a) Communion and prayer for the intentions of the Holy Father and of the Episcopal College should be on the same day on which the pilgrimage is made, but they may be before or afterwards. (b) To fulfill the condition of prayer for the intentions of the Holy Father and the Bishops, the faithful may recite a prayer of their own choice. (c) As for sacramental confession, in order to be able to make it un-hurriedly, it can be made even twenty days before or after the pilgrimage. It should also be remembered that confession must be made even by those who do not feel any serious guilt on their conscience; that it is required on the occasion of any plenary indulgence, but even more so for the Jubilee indulgence because of the particular commitment of purification and re-newal that the Holy Year entails. The confession, in fact, if the penitent so desires and the confessor con-s~ ders ~t useful, may ~nclude not only the s~ns since the last good confession, Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 but also the sins of a longer period of time to facilitate a deeper renewal of life. Furtherra~ore, to facilitate the faithful in making their individual con-fession, the recommendation that there should be confessors available "on the days and at the hours established for the convenience of the faithful" (cf. Normae~ pastorales of the S0 Congr. of the Doctrine of the Faith. 16 June 1972, AAS 64, 1972, page 513), is especially applicable for the Holy Year. (d) During .the Holy Year it is also ct~stomary to grant confessors special faculties in order that, if necessary, they"can absolve penitents in some cases, usually "reserved" to higher authority, without the obligation of re-course to the Bishop or to other competent Superior or to the Holy See. During the first phase of the Holy Year, which is celebrated in the vari-ous local Churches, the Bishops can make provision in this regard by grant-ing, at least to the more experienced confessors, the ample faculties at their disposal (cf. M.P. Pastorale munus of 30 November 1963, n. 14: AAS 56, 1964, p. 8). 4. Mention was also made above, in a generic way, of the "norms in force." It will be sufficient to recall here expressly the following two: (a) Every indulgence can" be applied to the dead by way of suffrage (norm 4). (b) The plenary indulgence can be acquired only once a day (norm 24, 1). Religious Life: Style or Culture? Vincent P. Branick, S.M. Father Vincent P. Branick, S.M., teaches Scripture and philosophy at Chaminade College of Honolulu; 3140 Waialae Avenue; Honolulu, Hawaii 96816. Paradoxically, loneliness has appeared most intensely in communities which have accepted in full seriousness the needs of the individual to express and communicate his unique personality. Groups which have sacrificed rich traditions to avoid the suffocation of their members in a mass of impersonal structures, congregations which have radically reformed their rules in quest of a truly personalized life have found their members suffering an over-whelming sense of isolation and lack of social maturity, to the extent of a serious weakening or even destruction of~their religious vocation. The Loss of Religious Culture Obviously, the ideals of personalism governing these reforms are not false. The evident validity of these ideals has led administrators to hold to the reforms in the face of their congregations' equally evident devitaliza-tion and even extinction. The mistake lies not in the ideals but in an un-recognized consequence resulting from an oversimplified pursuit of these ideals, namely, in the loss of religious culture. Many young people who came to religious life with a profound desire to be religious are leaving for the lack of a religious culture in which they could live. Many older religous are retreating into a comfortable bachelorhood for want of a religious cul-ture in which they could grow. What is this missing culture? Culture in General In its fundamental sense, a culture is a milieu or atmosphere in which 29 30 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 the human person can express his heartfelt values and through which he can communicate with others about these values. A culture is a consistent pat-tern of practices and manners which specify a shared approach to life, a familiar environment in which an individual finds himself, in which he can feel "at home." This fundamental sense of culture appears most strikingly in the cele-bration of a folk-festival. A nation celebrating itself gathers up its heritage, dances, and contests as a reminder of all that its members have in common. The songs a people sings are truly its songs. These are the songs which its ancestors sang and which likewise catalyzed its ancestors' sense of identity. Through these traditioned customs a nation can celebrate its solidarity in the present and its link to its past. Thus, a folk-festival is not a celebration separated from daily life, but rather an intensification of elements active in a lesser way throughout the daily life of a people, binding a people together. The stranger can visit and enjoy the celebration, but he can never fully par-ti~ ipate in it. He is not of the same culture. Culture as a Social Reality In its more common meaning as a complex of refinements and sensi-bilities, culture is likewise basically a social concept. The "cultivated" per-son is one whose sensibilities have been refined to perceive the beauty of the art and customs of a nation, to understand and use the language and literature that bind a people together, ultimately to understand the languages and customs that bind all men together. The use of such refinement as a device for. mere self-display produces a grotesque caricature, confusing cul-ture. with snobbery. True culture is essentially a social reality. The cultivated person is one who has mastered.the symbols of a society, the symbols which are the means of communication within that scciety. As a social reality, culture is an extension of the human body's ability to symbolize the soul to others. It is an extension produced by a consistent use of many details of life, perhaps insignificant in themselves but very sig-nificant in the pattern they form together. This extension is accomplished with other persons, who together create a circle of common gestures, lan-guage, dress, and other customs, a circle in which each individual feels at home, in which he can express himself and be confident,of understanding, since he is communicating with others in a familiar medium. The N~ed of Every Man for a Culture Every man needs such a culture in which to grow. The man in society needs to feel a certain rhythm about him which he knows and which he can use as a sounding board for his inner life, allowing him to concretize and control that inner life and, above all, to share it with others. Even the her-mit has taken with him his language and his manners which remain at least an unconscious reminder of the people he knows and which .allow him to Religious Li]e: Style or Culture? / 31 express to himself the life he is leading. The man without a culture is the barbarian, the one incapable of using the symbols of communication, the conventions of sharing; thus he is reduced to grunting his basic needs. Far from suppressing individual persons and ideas, the discipline of a culture provides a man with the means of expressing and developing his individuality. The great poets expressed their genius not by creating new and private languages, but by mastering their mother tongues. Perhaps the great attraction of the "hippy culture" was its success in mediating a solidarity and communication among its members. The pattern of the many external, insignificant details permitted one member to talk to another. The long, slightly matted hair, the beard, the colorful but bleached clothes, necessarily frayed at the edges, the beads, and above all, the vocabulary--these details, insignificant in themselves, formed a culture within which one hippy could understand another. The apparent contradic-tion between the hippy ideal of freedom in personal expression, on the one hand, and the strict conformity in dress and hair, on the other, can be un-derstood in the light of the enormous importance such details have when taken together to form a culture. Religious Culture In the same way the person who enters religious life needs a culture, The person who wishes to live his Christian life in intense simplicity and poverty, the person who seeks a prolonged meditative prayer needs a pat-tern of bodily symbols to concretize his aspirations, a sounding board against which he can objectify his ideals. Furthermore, he needs others who share his spiritual values and with whom he can communicate. He thus needs an atmosphere or pattern in which he can develop this life and communicate with others about this life. He needs a religious culture. It is not surprising to find at the historical origin of religious life the practice of spiritual di-rection, the practice of communicating profound religious insights and val-ues, oa practice which gradually of itself expanded into a pattern of religious customs, into a complete religious culture. Loss ~f Culture by Focus on Style Many communities .today have lost this sense of religious culture 'by focusing rather on the question of style. The emphasis on personal style in religious life has had the value of underlining the individual differences in a community, differences which enrich a.community. Yet, in fact, this same emphasis on personal style has broken down much of the consistent re-ligious patterns and symbols in congregationsland, as a result, much of the communication among the members. Diverse individuals and groups, each absorbed in its preferred style, became isolated from each other. Frequently one religious no longer knew if.another possessed the same spiritual sensi-bilities, the same interests, the same background on which communication Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 could be based. The least common denominator in a particular community became less and less. As religious life became a "life style," attention shifted from "life" to "style," and individuals charted their courses alone, away from each other. Presupposed in this pluralistic approach was the belief that each mem-ber of a community could work out his style of life by himself. The man who wished austerity could rise early by himself, eat frugally by himself, and by himself develop a contemplative form of prayer. Supposedly, the others in the same community who did not wish to share this desert could avail themselves of more bourgois amusements. This presupposition, however, neglects man's need for a culture. In effect, this emphasis on style has led to the introduction into the con-gregations of diversities normally holding among congregations. A particu-lar community could find itself composed of austere Trappists, Christian hippies, and mere professional bachelors, each with his own spirituality, each with his own style. Sharing the same province or even living under the same roof, members of communities began to look like strangers to each other. The fundamental element of religious life, spiritual direction, be-came impossible. Prayer life broke down, not through laziness, but through loneliness, through the inability to communicate with others about one's prayer. Formation of recruits became an impossible task, often involving a series of contradictory instructions as a young person passed from the recruiting community, to the novice master, and on through the stages of formation. Rebuilding Religious Culture At present most attempts to rebuild the bond among the members of a community tend in two distinct ways.', the one "theoretical," the other "recreational." The first consists of an attempt to find and concentrate on "the essen-tials." In the face of a bewildering variety of life styles, many communities have sought to articulate the essence of their life, the core reality that every-one could accept, on which everyone could concentrate, allowing then the accidentals to vary according to individual preferences. The theologians were asked to present in clear terms the essence of religious life. General chapters met and held their breath, waiting for this description of the essence. They will probably continue to wait for some time, because the task of articulating the essence of such a concrete and mysterious reality as re-ligious life appears as an impossible job. Whatever "essential trait" is sei~ed upon, whether some particular vow, the three vows, or community life, there appears in history or in the present some obviously religious form of life that flourished or is presently flourishing without it. The appeal to ca-nonical definitions likewise fails to point out an essence of the life, since Religious Li]e: Style or Culture? / 33 these definitions appear more as descriptions after the fact, more as arti-ficially clear and distinct deliniations required for the legal functioning of the Church than as theological penetrations into the fundamental structure of the life. Like peeling away the successive skins to find the onion, the-ologians peeled away the "accidents" but found little left to identify as an essence. The second method of rebuilding the bond among the members of a community is far more down to earth and consists on stressing "the com-mon fun." While awaiting the perfect theology of religious life, people can do something practical. They can recreate together and in that recreation seek to build a community. Such suggestions as "Let's fire the cook and make our own meals together!" or "Everybody in the club room tonight for cocktails!" often clothe desperate attempts to build community. Certainly this effort has served well by focusing on the real need for sim-ple friendliness in communities (to say nothing of the marvelous cooks pro-duced). Yet the idea of common life meant more to the ancients than our attempts at common fun. Such a shallow basis of life does not attract dedi-cated young people. If all they see is this recreational aspect of our lives, they will hardly be convinced to sacrifice spouse and children for a con-viviality that can never approximate the intensity and warmth of a natural family. The community recreation is important, but it can never form the basis of religious common life. The Need to Reestablish a Religious Culture The isolation and loneliness vitiating communities can be overcome only by reestablishing a whole religious culture, a consistent and relatively stable milieu in which religious can feel at home as religious, a pattern of con-crete practices through which one religious can express his deep spiritual values to another. The precise culture will vary with each congregation. Any form, how-ever, will demand certain general lines. First, a religious culture demands an attention to a multitude of accidental details, many of which when taken alone may appear insignificant and even superficial. Neither the cut of the clothes, nor the simplicity in a house, nor the hour of rising appears worthy of an intense crusade. It is useless to seek a rationale directly behind such details, and the temptation exists to peel them away one by one, to peel them away as though from some essential core. Yet insofar as it is a cul-ture, the essence of religious life may be inseparable from the sum total of the "accidents." A religious culture does not stand or fall with any particu-lar detail, but the simple removal of each accidental reduces by that much the identifiability of that culture. Second, any religious culture is necessarily built around the form of prayer of the community, more specifically, around the degree of con-templation a community chooses to practice. A particular type of prayer 34 / Review for Religious, l/olume 33, 1974/1 often requires an ambience, a degree of calm, a type of simplicity regulat-ing the details of the whole day. Conversely, a particular form of contempla-tive prayer colors all else: personal service, the celebration of the Eucharist, professional work. The type and degree of mental prayer is thus a key ele-ment in any religious culture. Third, religious culture, like any culture, requires a willingness of the members to sacrifice personal preferences for the consistency of a com-munity atmosphere, to place a social culture before a personal style. This is not to say that the culture must take the form of some immobile mass of customs. Customs must evolve. As practices no longer serve to communicate the spiritual inspiration of a community, as gestures lose their symbolic values, they should disappear. However, a culture must change as a culture. It must evolve on,the basis of other more stable elements, not on the basis of members darting off in their own directions, according to the demands of personal style. ¯ Within the context of such a religious culture, the search for the essence of religious life can continue, guided not simply by an abstract analysis, but, .more importantly, by a lived contact with the reality. Since religious life is received by man as gift, not produced by him as invention, since the life is fundamentally beyond his natural powers, he will probably never attain that clear insight into the nature of the life that results in a precise defini-tion. Our speech about religious life will probably always be dominated more by poetic intuition than by abstract concept, a poetic intuition that feels at home with small details and operates from a position within the object spoken of. Likewise, the efforts to improve community recreation should have an important part in the building of religious culture. The simple kindness and conviviality of a community recreation can be a powerful expression of the fundamental value of fraternal love, if this expression is part of a greater milieu. Culture and Personal Development Where the individual religious finds a living and consistent culture, there he will find the medium in which to express his unique individuality. In the expressed solidarity of a group, a member has the means of developing a truly personalized life. There he has the means of expressing for himself and for others his unique riches. A culture which involves even many small details will not stifle individuality. As the expression of the spirit, a culture will function as a guide and an agent of personal development. Only a vibrant culture in religious life will dispel the present loneliness. Size and the Cohesiveness of Groups of Religious Sister Jane Marie Kerns, S.H.C.J. Sister Jane Marie is a faculty member of West Catholic Girls High School and,lives at the Convent of the Holy Child Jesus; 4724 Cedar Avenue; Philadelphia, Pennsyl-vania 19143. ~ Six years have passed since the CMSW undertook the monumental study known as the Sisters Survey in an attempt to delve into the thinking and feelings of the religious who participated. Prescinding from the reported findings, one can suspect that even the launching of such a study had value simply as a consciousness-raising device. Foremost among the areas of re-ligious life that came under scrutiny was the, dynamics of group living that we call community life. Explosive--because it is inescapably personal-- and sacrosanct--because it is integral to religious traditions and the essence of religious life as we understand it, the whole topic of group living by re-ligious is subject to biased interpretations. Why? Perhaps just because celibates need so much from community life. Perhaps just because we de, pend so much on life in community to underwrite the whole structure of the social apostolates in which we engage. Perhaps just because an ideal form of community life promises to make tangible and present the kingdom of God toward which we daily strive. Size and Cohesiveness Whatever the reason, there can be no doubt that community is a prime concern among religious and that size as related to cohesion is a pivotal area. In order to bring empirical objectivity into an issue clouded with un-conscious and often conflicting biases, the author undertook a research 35 36 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 project designed to investigate the effects of size on the cohesiveness of groups of religious living together in local communities. By devising a method to quantify the degree of cohesion exhibited through the affective choices made by members of several large and small communities, it was possible to make a comparison based on evidence more objective than opinion and more concrete than theory. Background The CMSW Survey in 1967 showed that 59.7% of the 125,000 sisters who responded to it felt that there was an optimal size of community groups beyond which it would be impossible for members living together to become a community. (Though the Survey did not define the term com-munity, it is patent from much of the literature of the day that sisters under-stand some special sense of fraternity and solidarity or cohesiveness that should be characteristic of the shared life of religious who live together.) Among the Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus, who were the subjects of the research project on which this article is based, an even greater majority-- 78.2%--concurred in the opinion expressed on the CMSW Survey instru-ment. In subsequent years a plethora of literature praising small group living has led to a general belief among religious in the therapeutic value of the small local community as the preventative for malformation of personality and as a booster shot for personal fulfillment through the healthy human interaction indispensable for strong ego-building? The impetus for the renewal of religious life given by Vatican II in-corporated much that flowed from the best developments of social psy-chology. In this context the drive to revivify the apostolate of the Church required that religious orders of men and women march in tune with the personalism of the culture of which they are a part. Definition of the Problem From this two-pronged incentive of development in the social sciences and updating in the Church, there arose interest in the applicability of many facets of small group research to religious communities. Focusing on the i~ssumptions that in a given group (1) more frequent interaction conse-quent on smaller nfimbers of members tends to produce more cohesive groups and (2) members of a small cohesive group will experience more strong satisfying interpersonal relationships than members of a larger group, the author undertook an empirical study of eleven groups of re-ligious sisters for the purpose of developing an index of cohesiveness that would enable comparisons to be made between larger and smaller groups, 1Gabriel Moran and Maria Harris, Experiences in Community (New York: Herder and Herder, 1968). This is one of many possible examples. Size and the Cohesiveness of Groups of Religious and thus promise an objective test of the hypotheses involved. In brief, those hypotheses state that community size will have a signifi-cant effect both on the number of members with whom one can have good positive relationships and also on the proportionate number of people in community with whom one can have such relationships. Definilion of Key Words Certain key words must be defined in accordance with their use in this ¯ study in order to provide a common working base. The following appear to be most important: 1. cohesion 2. good, positive relationship 3. group--small, large Because of characteristics peculiar to religious orders, the task of defining terms is more complicated than simply borrowing from highly quoted au-thors in the field. A method of definition by distillation was employed in areas where circumstances required. A prime example was the term cohesion. In consulting authors,~ one is confronted with a notion of forces constraining members to remain in the group. But there is nothing in the literature that seems to correspond to the force of perpetual vows which bind the religious to membership in the re-ligious institute and to residence in specific local communities according to the directives from authorities in the order. Two levels of "force" are in-herent in the situation of the religious. One revolves around the strength of his commitment to the religious life itself and the second around the de-gree of commitment with which he engages in the affairs of the local house in which he lives--a commitment arising basically from a sense of duty toward an ideal based outside of the group in which he lives. A third force, distinct from the levels mentioned above, yet probably to some extent conditioned by his whole approach to religious life, is the at-traction that the local community holds for the religious by reason of the rapport he feels with particular members of that given group at any one time. Since all the groups used in this study operate under the same two forces resulting from religious profession in the order, it appears that the third type of force is more germane to our purposes here. Therefore, cohe-sion in this study denoted ". the degree of attachment (involvement, be-longingness, importance) that members have for the group.":' In this con-text then cohesion refers to the obvious capacity of the group to satisfy the ~The writings of men like Cartwright and Zander or Festinger, Schachter, and Back are typical. :~Clovis R. Shepherd, Small Groups: Some Sociological Perspectives (San Francisco: Chandler, 1964), p. 25. 311 / Review [or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 personal needs of its members. It is this connotation that is meant by "strong, satisfying, interpersonal relationships" referred to in the second assumption; and this is the definition of good, positive relationships used in this work. (Though use of the word "friendship" might be a more graceful way of ex-pressing these ideas, its use is being purposefully avoided to.allow for a more open-ended definition of friendship to be employed later in the pre-sentation. ) By small groups, we shall mean groups of between 6 and 11 members and the large groups used in the study ranged from 12 to 29. Procedure The procedure used in the research involved a sociogram-like type of questionnaire in which the respondents were asked to list any number of sisters with whom they had lived during the last year and with whom they would enjoy engaging in a series of activities ranging from purely recrea-tional, to work related, to deeper, more intimate sharing on the religious plane. In every situation the emphasis was on the natural affectivity of one sister for her companions and not any exercise of supernatural charity? Approximately 91% of the sisters responded thus providing the researcher with excellent material from which to construct four measures of cohesion. Three of these stemmed from analysis of who chose whom and how often. By diagrammatically presenting the chain of relationships resulting from tracing the choices of the most frequently chosen individuals as they re-lated to the others in. community, a distance factor was developed. Finally, a study was made of the average number of "good friends" that the sisters INDEX OF COHESION AS DEVELOPED THROUGH THIS STUDY Community z-score corrected distance use of per- average size order ranking z-scores factor sonality votes rank " A 1 1 1 1 1 B 3 2 2 2 2 C 8 3 5 6 6 D 2 5 4 4 3 E 4 7 3 5 4 F 5 6 9 9 7 G 6 4 7 3 5 H 9 10 8 8 l0 I ll 11 6 7 8.5 J 7 8 10 10 8.5 K 10 9 11 11 I1 4For a complete exposition of the steps involved in the research readers are referred to the original work by the author, Sister Jane Marie Kerns, A Quantitative Analysis o[ Size and Cohesion (unpublished M.A. thesis, St. Louis University, 1973). Size and the Cohesiveness oI Groups of Religious / 39 in each house claimed. In this phase of the project each respondent was permitted to define the phrase "good friend" in any way that she felt was adequate and then she was asked to tell how many such "good friends" she had in the~ community in which she lived. Analysis of this section revolved around both the absolute number of good friends claimed and the number proportionate to the size of the community. Interpretation of Results A word of caution is in order here. Before any interpretation of the results can be presented, it must be remembered that this study was de-signed to measure relative cohesion only. It cannot be stretched to comment on disunity, on morale, or on working efficiency of the groups involved; and it must be seen as a measure of natural affectivity--a factor which cannot be assumed to be the dominant motive force for most of the group's activity. This caution is necessary both to maintain a scientific discipline and also to prevent our losing sight of the supernatural aspects of community life that cannot have been explored in this kind of work. Be that as it may, it is still remarkable to notice that the study revealed the presence of no isolates--persons not chosen by any other members of a group--in any of the eleven communities totaling 141 religious. Not only are there no iso-lates, but in actual count there is no, member of any community who was not chosen by at /east 21% of the members of the community who re-plied--- by no fewer than 50% of the members in 7 out of the 1! com-munities. Therefore, it can be insisted that we are justified only in conclud-ing to relatively more or less cohesion but not to any implication of disunity or disaffection. Size as a Significant Factor It can be stated unequivocally that the empirical evidence presented points to size as a significant factor in the study of cohesion. There is every reason to conclude that the smaller, the group, the more the members demonstrate stronger natural choices for a wider segment of the group. But hidden within this general overall conclusion are several important considerations that must be brought to light. Whereas the techniques used here demonstrated the validity of the commonly held belief that small groups tend to be more cohesive, the ques-tion dealing with friendship upset the commonly held expectation that more good friendships are found within small groups and that theoexistence of such friendships is the reason for greater cohesion. From our study the results indicated that such a line o[ r~easoning is faulty. In the first place, smaller houses reported neither a greater number of friendships absolutely nor a greater number proportionately speaking. Hence, friendship and co-hesion are not synonymous nor are they positively related. Rather, it might be concluded that they are alternatives within the group process. 40 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 Two possible lines of thought might be adduced to explain the seeming contradictions posed by the fifth stage of the investigation. First, by de-veloping and combining some of the thought of Simmel~ and of Mancur Olson'~ with regard to small groups, a synthesis can be arrived at which sheds light on the subject. Simmel's contribution springs from his conten-tions that smaller groups have qualities, including types of interaction among their members, which inevitably disappear when the groups grow larger. Olson points to a major difference between large and small groups when he formulates as a principle: ". the larger the group, the less it will further its common interests." Second, by appropriating some of the insights of Sister Joan Michele Rake7 and blending them with the thought of Simmel and Olson, the contradiction of fewer friendships in more cohesive groups is dissolved. Sister Joan Michele draws the boundaries between "engulf-ment" by the community and self-development of the healthy religious who makes good use of the structures of community. Hers is not so much a study of the effect of size but rather a clarification of issues on some of the dynamics at work in any group. The Specifics of Small Groups Consider the relative investment that members of a small group must make in order to obtain the benefits of membership and conversely the mag-nitude of the slack that must be taken up by the remaining members if one member fails to carry his own weight. More specifically, consider the num-ber of functions that must bc performed smoothly if life in the house is to be mutually beneficial. Since the small group enables not only face-to-face rela-tionships but even more importantly, person-to-person contact and consul-tation, many of the decisions reached and the functions implicit in the religious life lived in community are arrived at and disseminated tacitly. For example, each one knows from personal experience that does not need explicitation that communal worship can only be consummated if the com-munity is present and each one knows that in a small house her absence is both noticed and keenly felt. The differential involved is not merely a quan-titative one, but actually a qualitative one. There is a certain unspecified number below which communal worship declines into merely a collection of individuals attending the same liturgical function. And it is this height-ened sense of awareness of the qualitative contribution made by personal participation of each that typifies the small group. Person-to-person contact makes possible agreement--implicit or ex-plicit-- on common goals of a more specific nature than can be formulated '~Kurt H. Wolff, The Sociology o] Georg Simmel (Glencoe: Free Press, 1950), p. 87. ~;Mancur Olson, The Logic o] Collective Action (New York: Schocken, 1968), p. 36. rSister Joan Michele Rake, Friendship in Religious Li]e (unpublished M.A. thesis, Duquesne University, 1969), Chap. 7. Size and the Cohesiveness of Groups o]. Religious / 41 when a larger number of individuals is involved. And converSely, devia-tion from the commonly accepted ideas is more obvious and therefore re-quires more of an expenditure of psychic energy for continued adherence on the part of the deviant and more of an effort on the part of the group as a whole to combat either by modifying the idea or by converting the deviant member. Whether we speak of positive elements that tend to unite or of negative elements that tend to threaten the group's solidarity, there is more immediate response required, a greater expenditure of personal effort on the part of each member in the small group, and a return in the way of benefits of group membership commensurate with the effort expended. The Specifics of Large Groups In the large group the sahae level of return is expected, but the level of expectation of individual participation is lower. Since person-to-person com-munication on. :every issue and between every set of persons is too time-consuming and too indeterminate in the process of seeking consensus, cer-tain abstractions in the form of community mechanisms, offices, and so forth must be established and these become looked upon as the expression of group cohesion that can no longer be immediately and obviously attained. The areas of shared ideas becom6 somewhat more general and, therefore, more readily acceptable to the total group in spite of the greater variety of opinions. In turn these more abstract expressions of relations and more general types of agreements require less commitment on the part of the individual. Though the ideas themselves may be less "radical," less basically rooted in the peculiar characteristics of the group, more generalized, ad-herence to the ideas becomes more radical, more a bare minimum that can-not be sacrificed if group unity is to be maintaini~d. A full complement of the members is not required to constitute a "com-munity presence." Absenteeism is not as noticeable--certainly not as per-tains to the particular individual who is absent, since her personal contribu-tion has in some ways become distanced or formalized in the large group setting. Differences between Small and Large Groups Wha~t results from the above discussion is an argument to the effect that the demonstrably greater cohesion among the small group members results more from a heightened sense of personal investment and personal con-cern, a greater consciousness of the personal element in the affairs of the house, a greater consonance between the individual's own approach to life since his personality enters more fully into the determination of group atti-tudes, a greater sense of the interdependence of the persons in the com-munity in all its affairs---especially because they answer directly to and for each other. In the larger group some degree of personalism is lost as the sheer force of numbers demands some degree of abstraction and the substi- Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 tution of shared symbols that can be immediately present to all when the person-to-person common search for common understanding is not practi-cal, The sense of interdependence is therefore "once removed" with the result that the individual who has to expend less of herself in contributing to and in conforming to more general ideas is then .freer to develop inde-pendently of the group in more areas. Not only is there in larger groups more room for individualism to fluorish and a greater variety of personality types emerging (assuming of course the absence of any rigorous pressure to conform in all respects), but this sharper differentiation among component personalities enables stronger, more particularized dyadic relationships to de-velop out of the shared responses. Hence, we see the application of Simmel's principle that the quantitative increase in size of a group leads to a qualitative differentiation ~on the part of the individuals.8 Simmel holds that an individual tends to maintain a certain balance between the social and the individual aspects of his life. When he is involvi~d in a small group with a high profile for cohesiveness or for strong identity as a group, he has little opportunity to express his own individuality--and little need to do so since there is satisfaction offered in the group. But when he is involved in a larger group with a less ~iell-defined profile, °one that is less consonant with his unique personality since it is necessarily more generalized, he then finds scope--indeed he must--to express his individuality. As the group gains in individuality ~(a situation that pertains to small groups), the individual loses and vice versa. The Question of Friendship Sister Joan Michele believes that wherever the "corporate mentality" is strong among religious--that is, a tendency to look on the group life as an exercise in efficiency--it will be more difficult for 'real friendships to grow. If friendship is ". an encounter between two persons. [which] results in an enduring nonexclusive relation which is lived as a gift of affinity and affection and occasions the autonomous growth of the persons involved,''~ it can only flourish where there is a real encounter of unique personalities --personalities well-developed, mature, sharing a common ground in .their search for truth, and coming, as it were, by chance upoh an unconscious, mysterious affinity that raises comrades, colleagues, and companions. above those levels of association to a new plane that is by no means the necessary consequence of living in community. Precisely what dynamics are generated by the presence of more or fewer dyadic relationships could not be explored in this project since the identity of "good friends" was not revealed; but it has been necessary to digress into these areas ever so slightly, simply to make the point that the cfn-~ 8Wolff, The Sociology o! Simmel, p. 87. '~Rake, Friendship, p. 52. Size and the Cohesiveness of Groups of Religious / 43 clusions reached in this research are quite validly and integrally consistent with the general direction of small group theory. Yet there is real danger that they may lend themselves to simplistic interpretations that do not con-vey the whole picture. The research has confirmed the theory that (1) community size does have a significant effect on the number of members with whom one can have good, positive relationships---both the absolute number and the proportionate number of members; and that (2) the smaller size communities are the ones that exhibit these good, posi-tive relationships more frequently. Equally important, however, are the findings resulting from the question on friendship; namely, the members living in larger groups tend to report both a greater number of "good friends" and to consider a greater proportion of members of the com-munity in the category of "good friends." The above statement when coupled with the theory of writers like Van Kaam, Sister Joan Michele, and even classical authors such as Simmel indi-cates there are ways in which the more cohesive small groups are at the same time more restricted in opportunities for developing friendship and that friendship might actually exist as an alternative to cohesiveness, not as a concomitant element. Practical Conclusions Taking a step beyond the scientifically validated conclusions of the study itself and addressing the practical value of all this for the present-day religious community, there are perhaps two major points to be considered. The first point of practical concern for religious is the importance of the absence of isolates from the communities studied and the commentary this is on the ability of religious who share the overall goals of the religious institute to assimilate members into a community even when religious have no voice in choosing where or with whom they will live. Though this point cannot be pushed beyond the limits mentioned earlier, it can be cited as evidence that the freedom in assigning personnel that has been a plus factor enabling religious groups to function efficiently in the apostolate is not in and of itself incompatible with the desire to provide living condi-tions that foster good interpersonal relationships. The second point to be made is that decisions regarding community size (where circumstances allow for either possibility) might reasonably be made in favor of smaller community groups at a time when the call to re-newal emphasizes our need to search together for a more radical commit-ment to the essence of religious life. If sociologists and psychologists are correct in their assessment of the differential in ability of various size groups to reach consensus at various levels of abstraction, certainly religious would do well to make use of this knowledge in their efforts to re-create 44 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 in the Spirit the shared faith that brought their institutes into being. Further-more, if the members of congregations are appraised of what can and cannot be achieved in groups of various sizes, realistic expectations can constitute solid foundations auguring well for solid progress. Structures of themselves will never cure. But they can facilitate if used wisely, and they can hinder if used poorly or ignored. Size is not of itself a panacea, nor a Pandora's box. Perhaps we have mistakenly held in the past that the same quality of religious life can exist with six or sixty in the community. As we eschew past folly, let us not perpetuate new foolishness by assuming that small size will do more than facilitate the emergence of a faith sharing which will depend for its quality, not on numbers but on the grace of God realized in the lives of those who grow together toward the fulfillment of their covenant with both God and His People. The Liturgy of the Hours in Religious Communities John Allyn Melloh, S.M. Father John Allyn Melloh, S.M., a member of the School of Divinity of St. Louis University, lives at the Marianist Residence; 4528 Maryland Avenue; St. Louis, Missouri 63108. The Liturgy of the Hours should not be looked on as a beautiful monument of a past age, to be preserved almost unchanged in order to excite our admira-tion. On the contrary, it should come to life again with new meaning and grow to become once more the sign of a living community.--The General Instruc-tion on the Liturgy of the Hours, paragraph 273 Reform, renewal, restoration of the liturgy is always one of the paramount concerns of any ecumenical council; Vatican II was no exception. Desirous of "imparting an ever increasing vigor to the Christian life of the faithful" (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 1), the Council fathers placed liturgical reform top on the list of their priorities. If the liturgical celebrations of the People of God were to be a "foretaste of that heavenly liturgy which is celebrated in the holy city of Jerusalem toward which we journey as pilgrims" (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 8), then much renewal was needed, lest the pilgrim people of Yahweh seek a new city-~one where celebration was indeed a reality! Restoration of Eucharistic praxis, as well as an updating of other sacra-mental ritual celebrations, was essential for the nourishment of Christian piety and the mediation of the salvific graces to all mankind (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 1 !). Equally important for the liturgical life of the ekklesia was the restoration of the Divine Office, the Liturgy of the Hours, the "public prayer of the Church" (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 90). In the age of aggiornamento, this "wonderful song 45 46 / Review for Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 of praise" (Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 84), which had all but entirely disappeared, had to be revived; and a genuine "revival" was needed for the "voice of the bride addressed to her bridegroom" (Constitu-tion on the Sacred Liturgy, paragraph 83) had become mute. This "very prayer which Christ himself, together with his body, addresses to the Father," had become, over the ages, a prayer which Christ, along with a few isolated members--becoming fewer day by day--of His Church addressed to the Father. The opus Dei had become the onus Dei.t General Instruction on the Liturgy of the Hours Almost ten years later, in February 1971, the Sacred Congregation of Divine Worship issued the General Instruction on the Liturgy of the Hours. In five chapters, full of good solid Christology, ecclesiology, and spirituality, this document speaks of the Liturgy of the Hours as a viable prayer form for the Church--even in 1973! Perhaps one of the most significant Roman documents issued of late, and certainly the longest and most theological document ever issued on the topic of the Divine Office, the General Instruc-tion makes clear that the intent is the restoration and revitalization of the Liturgy of the Hours. The "ptiblic and communal prayer of the people of God is rightly considered among the first duties of the Church" (General Instruction, paragraph 1), for the ekklesia is most itself, achieves its own special identity, and fulfills its mission when the assembly is together at prayer, especially at liturgical prayer. Vatican II has consciously and firmly asked that~the Liturgy of the Hours once again be prayed, that this prayer form once again be given life by the living People of God--that it may become a living prayer and that the entire Church may "offer praise to God . . . in singing that canticle of praise which is sung throughout all ages in the halls of heaven" (General Instruction, paragraph 16). The New Book of the Liturgy of the Hours A day to be hailed in litui'gical circles was 23 June, 1971, for on that day, L'osservatore romano published Laudis canticum, officially promulgat-ing the new book of the Liturgy of the Hours. The work of Vatican II and its liturgical commission had borne fruit. The new edition of that book once called the "Breviary" had been arranged and prepared in such a way as to encourage the faithful to celebrate the hours. Once again, this necessary complement to Eucharistic worship and sacramental practice was restored so that it would become "the prayer of the whole people of God" (Laudis canticum, L'osservatore romano, page 1 ). At least now there was a chance that should one of the faithful stumble across the Prayer of Christians he might recognize it! In the new edition--albeit interim--of the Liturgy of the Hours genuine reforms were made. Structure of the hours was modified, the cycle of Psalmody changed, intercessor3/prayer introduced--all with a view to pub- The Liturgy of the Hours in Religious Communities / 47 lic celebration of the Hours of Prayer. In its restored form, the Divine Office was to be a "font of piety and nourishment for personal prayer" (Laudis canticum, L'osservatore romano, page 1 ). Toward a Revitalized Celebration The documents of Vatican II, the General Instruction on the Liturgy of the Hours, Laudis canticum--all ask that the prayer of Christ be con-tinued by the members of His Body; earnestly they request that this prayer of Jesus be continued in the revitalized celebration of the Liturgy of the Hour's. It is in our spatio-temporal matrix that groups of praying men and women can continue this prayer of the Lord who lives ever making inter-cession for us (Heb 7:25). Communal prayer will once again take root in the Church at large, replacing, in part, private prayer, especially that form of private recitation of the Office which is a liturgical anomaly. Once again the Church-united may celebrate the prayer of the Hours "to give Him glorious praise" (Ps 66:2). The General Instruction on the Litu.rgy of the Hours, despite the wealth of genuine theological principles and very fine material for meditative re-flection, is rather weak in detailing how the Liturgy of the Hours may "be celebrated in communities--"celebrated" as opposed to "recited," "said," or "read." In the following pages, it is my intent to ,describe how the Liturgy of the Hours is celebrated in our Marianist community in St.Louis, Missouri; likewise, since Evensong was celebrated each evening at St. Mary's University in San Antonio, Texas, during the. 1973 summer session, using the same format of celebration, I would like to include comments from those who participated in those liturgical celebrations. Morning Praise Matins consecrates to God the first movements of our minds and hearts; no other care should engage us before we have been moved with the thought of God, as it is written, "I thought of God and sighed" (Ps 76:4), nor should the body undertake any work before we have done what is said, "I say this prayer to you, Lord, for at daybreak you listen for my voice; and at dawn I hold myself in readiness for you, I watch for you" (Ps 5:4-5).--The General Instruction on the Liturgy o] the Hours, paragraph 38; quotation from St. Basil Morning itself conveys the notion of rebirth and renewal; the gift of God--a new day to be lived out in Christ--stirs the soul of the Christian to prais.e and to supplicationl The character of the Morning Office quite naturally becomes an act of dedication, of preparation, of offering the first fruits of the day's labor to the Lord, in the hope that the entire day will be pleasing in His sight. As Morning Praise is celebrated in our community, a vested celebrant enters the chapel and greets the community after reverencing the altar. A Morning Hymn is sung; this hymn thematically recalls the symbol of God who is light (1 Jn 1:5) and of Christ who is the Sun of Justice (Mal 4:2). Review for Religious, I"olume 33, 1974/1 Praise and thanksgiving for light--both natural and supernatural-colors the sung praise of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. A redeemed people, brought from darkness to the kingdom of God's beloved Son (Col l:13), from darkness of idolatry to the light of the Gospel, we praise our God for crea-tion, for redemption--for the light of day and the light of Christ. A brief penitential rite--an offering of incense--follows the hymn. During the incensation of the standing community, Psalm 51 or 63 is sung. St. Basil explains: "When day is breaking, all together, as from one heart, sing the Psalm of confession [Ps 51] to the Lord, each one making his own these words of repentance." John Chrysostom points out that Psalm 63, an ardent cry of longing for the Lord, is also a Psalm of purification, giving voice to the Christian's awareness of his weakness and need for the loving mercy of the Lord. A collect concludes this brief prayer for purification and readies the community for the celebration of the Word of God. The community is seated during the singing of the morning Psalmody. Psalms of praise, especially the traditional morning Psalms 148 through 150, are used. Ordinarily, only one Psalm is sung and the usual mode of singing is responsorial. Psalms are chosen according to themes well suited for a morning prayer. A significant pause for silent prayer follows the singing of the Psalmody. An appropriate Psalter collect, stressing praise of the beneficent God, concludes the sung Psalmody. An adequate rhythm of community prayer is enhanced through the use of lectio continua in Morning Praise. Especially appropriate are Old Testa-ment selections; since the Epistles and Gospels are proclaimed during the celebration of Evensong or the Eucharist. The choice of readings varies with the Church year. After a period of silence of several minutes, all stand for the singing of the Gospel Canticle of Zachary, which accompanies the offering of incense. As a symbol of intercessory prayer "going up" in the Lord's sight (Rev 8:3-4)--a survival of the Temple usages described in Exodus 29 and 30-- the offering of incense is made at the altar, which is then incensed. Intercessory prayer is generally a brief morning litany which concen-trates on themes of renewal, dedication for the work of the day, prayer for God's continual blessing throughout the day. Usually the prayer is sung; and on penitential days the community kneels for this prayer, which is con-cluded by an appropriate collect. The Lord's Prayer, which Tertullian has called the "epitome of the Gospel itself," that eschatological prayer which stresses the primacy of the kingdom and the life of those living in it, can be considered the climax of the Office. The prayer is always sung and the congregation prays it in the usual orans position. A blessing concludes the Morning Office--the prayer of praise of God, of thanksgiving for creation and redemption, and of ardent desire for the life of the Kingdom. The Liturgy of the Hours in Religious Communities / 49 Evensong Our fathers did not think it right to receive the blessing of evening light in silence. Rather, the moment it appeared, they would praise and thank God for it.--St. Basil, Treatise on the Holy Spirit As day is drawing to a close and the evening is upon us, the Christian community gathers to give thanks "for what has been given us during the day, or for the things we have done well during it" (St. Basil, Regulae fusius tractatae, Resp. 37, 3; PG 31, 1015). With an evening light service, the celebration of Evensong commences. To the proclamation: Jesus Christ is the Light of the world! intoned by a vested deacon, the congregation responds: A Light that no darkness can extinguish! During the ceremonial illumination of the church, the lighting of the candles and the lighting of the chapel lights, an evening hymn is sung. Ordinarily the Phos Hilaron is sung in one of its several settings, or another appropriate evening hymn, stressing the theme of Christ our Light, is sung. A diaconal proclamation, an act of thanksgiving for the blessings of light and an act of praise of God, concludes the light service. An evening act of contrition, an offering of incense, follows; and Psalm 141, "The Psalm at the kindling of lights," accompanies the liberal incensa-tion of the community. This offering of incense, an atonement symbol (Num 17:11-3), is a purificatory action. It should help the Christian com-munity recall the "sweet odor of Jesus Christ" (2 Cor 2:14-6) and be a symbol expressive of that saving blood of the Lamb who ever lives to make intercession for us (Heb 7:25). An appropriate Psalter collect is a conclu-sion to this ritual action. Evening Psalmody is sung responsorially. Ordinarily only one Psalm, in addition to Psalm 141, is sung in the evening. Evening themes of thanks-giving for the blessings of the day and repentance for inevitable daily failings can be found in the Psalter. Such Psalms are appropriate for the evening Office. A period of meditative silence of significant length follows the sing-ing, and this period of prayer is concluded with the praying of a collect. The reading from Scripture is taken from the cycle of readings in the new lectionary. Customarily, Epistle and/or Gospel readings are used in the evening. A homily is preached when Evensong is celebrated immediately preceding the community evening dinner. The period of meditative silence is broken by the singing of the Gospel Canticle of the Virgin Mary which accompanies the offering of incense. In line with the use of incense as a symbol of intercessory prayer, the altar is honored with incense to affirm our belief and real participation in the com-munion of saints (Rev 8:3-4). Gospel Canticles, reverenced as the good news of salvation, are always sung standing. A fundamental part of Christian prayer, intercession for the universal needs of the Church and the world, is offered, following the urgings of Paul (1 Tim 2:1-4). The traditional Byzantine Litany of Peace is often 50 / Review ]or Religious, Volume 33, 1974/1 sung as one form of intercessory prayer. Other litanies are also used. One of the most famous and popular of the Eastern hymns is the Tri-sagion, which came into wide usage after the Council of Chalcedon in the fifth century. A hymn of Trinitarian praise and thanksgiving as used with the doxology, it is a fitting introduction to the prayer given us by Jesus. It is essentially of the same prayer style of praise and thanksgiving as we find in the prayer given by Jesus and as such it is a beautiful sung introduc-tion. Expressing an ardent desire for the coming of the kingdom and a solemn plea for the forgiveness of sin and genuine fraternal reconciliation, the Lord's Prayer is a most fitting conclusion to the Christian Office. A solemn blessing, most often tripartite in form, is the dismissal of the community, an invocation of the power of God upon the assembly and a petition for the mercy and loving kindness of the Almighty Lord in whose name we have gathered. At times, the Kiss of Peace is exchanged at the conclusion of Evensong, as a symbol of the peace of the kingdom, that peace which alone can be given by the Lord of that dominion. ' Resurrection Vigil of the Lord's Day Come,O faithful: let us drink a new drink, produced miraculously not from a barren rock, but springing from the tomb which is a fountain of immortality: the tomb of Christ by which we are strengthened. Glory to your holy resurrection, O Lord! Today the whole creation, he~iven and earth and the deepest abysses of the earth are filled with joy. Let the whole universe celebrate the resurrection by which we are strengthened. Glory to your holy resurrection, O Lord! Yesterday I was buried with You, O Christ! Today I rise with You in your resurrection. Yesterday I was crucified with you: glorify me with you in your kingdom. Glory to your holy resurrection, O Lord! Christ is risen from the dead! He has crushed death by his death and bestowed life upon those who lay in the tomb. Glory to your holy resurrection, O Lord! Jesus is risen indeed, as He had foretold: He has given us eternal life and abundant mercy.--Third Ode, Easter Canon of John of Damascus Byzantine Daily Worship, Easter Sunday, page 849 These words contain the spirit of unrestrained joy of the Christian who encounters the Paschal Mystery of the Lord Jesus. The sense of triumph, of joy, of exultation, and of hope permeate this entire text. While the vigil of the Easter celebration of the resurrection is truly "Mother of all Vigils," nevertheless a weekly commemoration of the Pascha of the Lord is in the mainline tradition of the Church. The celebration of the Resurrection vigil of the Lord's Day, which takes place at eleven o'clock Saturday evening, is a wonderful preparation for the Eucharistic Banquet of the Lord's Day. It is a rich and deep experi-ence of the mystery of the passion, death, and resurrection of our Lord and The Liturgy o] the Hours in Religious Communities / 51 Savior Jesus Christ, celebrated communally with hymnody, Psalmody, and readings. The Night Watch, that time when we gather as a community, to recall the resurrection of Jesus and to pray for His glorious return, is a service of the Word celebrated with grandeur. The chapel is in darkness awaiting the appearance of the New Light. A vested presbyter and vested deacon enter, bearing the lighted Paschal Candle. The diaconal proclamation of Christ as the Light of the World begins the celebration, and the ceremonial illumina-tion of the church is accompanied by the singing of the Phos Hilaron. A Byzantine setting of Radiant Light, arranged for three-part singing, is a magnificent hymn of light praising Father,' Son, and Holy Spirit. The Paschal Candle is honored with incense during the singing. The deacon sings Hip-polytus' Easter Hymn or the Paschal Praeconium, giving voice to the joyful thanksgiving of the Christian assembly. The singing of Psalm 141, with its accompanying offering of incense, is polyphonic. While this ritual action is an evening act of contrition, it is nevertheless a joy-filled, because confident, plea for the loving kindness of the Lord who always awaits with eagerness the return of those who have been unfaithful. Concluding this action of repentance is an appropriate collect. At times the singing of Psalm 141 is omitted in favor of using a differ-ent Psalm, one with Paschal overtones. The second Psalm, sung respon-sorially, takes on a Paschal character through the use of alleluia antiphons. The great cry "Alleluia" re-echoes in the hearts of those who have experi-enced the risen Lord and Psalms of praise express the gratitude of the as-sembly for the Great Passage of the Lord. One of the charismatic speeches recorded in Acts with a sung respon-sorial Psalm or an appropriate patristic reading is the First Lesson, followed by a distinct pause for reflection on and assimilation of the text. The Gospel Alleluia is intoned as the Book of Gbspels is incensed. The account of the Resurrection is sung by the d