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The proposed study is based on a multidisciplinary approach combining archeology, history, art history and epigraphy. It defines funerary monuments as sculptures signaling the location of graves and / or celebrating the dead's memory. The sarcophagi, as well as roughly hewn blocks that sometimes mark the medieval burials, as undecorated items, are therefore excluded from this classification. In the diocese of Limoges, the medieval funerary monuments include a heterogeneous set of shapes (slabs, recumbent, saddleback tombstones, steles.) and materials (stone, metal). The corpus analyzed includes 148 elements dated with certainty from the eleventh to the thirteenth century, and 135 that can potentially be attributed to that period. The first chapter is devoted to methodological aspects. It opens with a typological description, put in perspective by a reflection on the hazards of conservation. The biological phenomenons are quickly reviewed to dwell specifically on human destruction, most particularly during the two historical periods generally incriminated: the Wars of Religion and the French Revolution. Alongside the logic at work within the destruction, one can not overlook the major role in the transmission of reused gravestones. As for heritage safeguard measures, they are not limited to material conservation of objects, but also extend to different inventory work. This is an opportunity to highlight a rich regional historiography on the subject, but also to remind the unrecognized government missions in the field. The inventory implementation strategy, data collection, computer processing and structuring in the catalog records regarding this particular study are then detailled. Against common habits, a special effort was made on the analysis of the dating methods, those being a major issue in the analysis of medieval tombstones. Finally, the criticism of the sources once completed, a historiographical overview on medieval funerary monuments puts into perspective the problems developed for the Limousin's corpus.The second chapter focuses on the mechanisms at work during the production of the monuments. A sociological analysis of the deads represented on the monuments provides first answers by highlighting, not only the expected time lag between clergy and laity, but also differences between the secular clergy and regular clergy. The recipients are sometimes responsible for purchasing their funerary sculpture, but the order and cost of the monument is more often supported by family, whether carnal or spiritual. Little is known regarding the work of craftsmen, but it nevertheless deserves to be presented. After two chapters contextualizing the object of study, a third chapter summarizes the interpretation of the subject, from symbolic to practical aspects. The funerary monuments of the diocese of Limoges give to see the dead through the prism of their devotion and their integration in medieval society. Such memorial choices go along with a new form of spiritualization, that culminates through the use of architectural metaphors to represent some faithful as the "living stones of the Church." The ones most directly mentioned are represented by a portrait that does not stop with their earthly life, and extends to the afterlife. By the location of their grave, they are both present here and beyond. The funeral monument can therefore be considered as a staging that transforms the memory associated with the dead and the devotion of the living. Limousin's corpus indeed implies all the members of the Christian community, united in the caritas that is the dogma of the communion of saints. The mechanisms of the heavenly intercession and prayers of the passer-by, but also what they should get away with pious education. ; L'étude proposée repose sur une approche pluridisciplinaire associant archéologie, histoire, histoire de l'art et épigraphie. Elle définit les monuments funéraires comme des sculptures signalant l'emplacement de tombes et/ou célébrant la mémoire de défunts. Les sarcophages, de même que les blocs plus ou moins équarris qui marquent parfois les sépultures médiévales sont donc exclus de cette classification, car il s'agit d'éléments non décorés. Dans le diocèse de Limoges, les monuments funéraires médiévaux regroupent un ensemble hétérogène de formes (dalles funéraires, gisants, pierres tombales en bâtière, stèles…) et de matériaux (pierres, métaux). Le corpus analysé compte 148 éléments datés avec certitude des XIe-XIIIe siècle, et 135 potentiellement attribuables à cette période. Le premier chapitre est consacré aux aspects méthodologiques. Il s'ouvre par une description typologique, immédiatement mise en perspective par une réflexion sur les biais de conservation. Les causes biologiques sont rapidement passées en revue pour s'attarder plus précisément sur les destructions humaines, avec une réflexion sur les deux périodes historiques généralement incriminées : les guerres de Religion et la Révolution française. Parallèlement aux logiques à l'œuvre dans les destructions, on ne saurait négliger le rôle majeur des remplois dans la transmission des pierres tombales. Quant aux mesures de sauvegarde du patrimoine, elles ne se limitent pas à la préservation matérielle des objets, mais s'étendent également aux différents travaux d'inventaire. C'est l'occasion de mettre en lumière une riche historiographie régionale sur le sujet, mais aussi de rappeler les missions méconnues de l'État en la matière. Le propos est ensuite resserré sur la présente étude : il explicite la stratégie d'inventaire mise en place, la collecte des données, leur traitement informatique et leur structuration dans les notices du catalogue. À rebours des habitudes, un effort particulier est également porté sur l'analyse des méthodes de datation car elles constituent un enjeu majeur – tant par sa difficulté que par son importance – de l'analyse des monuments funéraires médiévaux. Enfin, une fois la critique des sources achevée, un bilan historiographique sur les monuments funéraires médiévaux met en perspectives les problématiques développées pour le corpus limousin. Le deuxième chapitre est centré sur les mécanismes à l'œuvre lors de la production. L'analyse sociologique des défunts représentés sur les monuments funéraires offre déjà de premiers éléments de réponse en mettant en évidence non seulement un décalage chronologique attendu entre clercs et laïcs, mais aussi des différences entre clergé séculier et clergé régulier. Ces destinataires sont parfois à l'origine de l'achat de leur sculpture funéraire, mais celle-ci est plus fréquemment prise en charge par la famille, qu'elle soit charnelle ou spirituelle. Du travail des artisans, on ne sait que peu de choses mais elles méritent toutefois d'être présentées. Après deux chapitres contextualisant l'objet d'étude, le troisième synthétise l'interprétation du sujet en partant de la symbolique pour cheminer jusqu'à la pratique. Les monuments funéraires du diocèse de Limoges donnent à voir les défunts par le prisme de leur dévotion et de leur intégration dans la société médiévale. On voit avec ces choix mémoriels s'amorcer une spiritualisation qui culmine avec le recours à des métaphores architecturales pour représenter certains fidèles en « pierres vivantes de l'Église ». Ceux qui sont évoqués plus directement sont également sublimés par un portrait qui ne s'arrête pas à leur vie terrestre et qui se prolonge au contraire pour intégrer leur devenir céleste. Par la localisation de leur tombe, ils sont à la fois présents ici-bas et au-delà. Cette mise en scène par les monuments funéraires transforme à la fois le souvenir associé aux défunts concernés et la dévotion des vivants. Le corpus limousin implique en effet l'ensemble des membres de la communauté chrétienne, unie dans la caritas qu'est le dogme de la communion des saints. Les mécanismes de l'intercession céleste et des prières des passants, mais aussi ce que ces derniers devaient en tirer comme pieux enseignement.

Roadway inventory databases are continuously being applied in two main areas, first in the design, construction and maintenance of new and existing roads and secondly in the specific areas of intelligent transport systems such as driver assistance and mobile information systems. The initial development, storage and management of the database have therefore become the responsibility of the various road agencies around the world, which ascertain that this is done in accordance with the respective road policies and design standards in the respective states or regions. The roadway inventory database has been estimated to comprise of about 49 possible collectible categories of roadway inventory data elements such as the horizontal curve elements, the vertical alignment elements, drainage, the number of lanes and the traffic signs among others. As a result of the rapidly changing roadway environment, the challenge therefore is the up-dating of the roadway inventory database using relatively accurate and cost-effective techniques, as opposed to the mobile mapping systems usually employed in their initial development. This calls for investigation into other low-cost data collection and processing methods and devices. The aim of this study is therefore to develop a methodology for extracting the geometric road design elements from position time series derived from a set of low-cost sensors, and to assess the accuracy potential of such sensors. The report begins with a review of the basics of road design and the formulations used in the estimation of the geometric road design elements as well as a brief mention of the road design standards and guidelines. The various sensors and systems for land based positioning and navigation, with emphasis on their costs and sources of error, are discussed. An overview of the theory of curve fitting functions and criteria with specific interest in splines and their properties is also presented. The investigations, tests and data analyses carried out are based on computer simulated data as well as on field measured data collected in the vicinity of the city of Stuttgart. A set of spline-based algorithms is developed and tested for the extraction of geometric road design elements for the purpose of updating the roadway inventory database. Furthermore, a set of low-cost navigation sensors, comprising of wheel speed sensors, a single-axis micro electro-mechanical systems accelerometer and a single-axis micro electro-mechanical systems gyroscope, was built up and utilised for the acquisition of vehicle track positions. The methodologies and formulations used in the synchronisation of the measurements and the calibration of the sensors, the integration of the sensors' data based on a Kalman filter algorithm, the estimation of curvature and recovery of the geometric road design elements are presented. In summary, the tests and data analyses illustrate that - the developed spline-based algorithms successfully extract the geometric road design elements based on the assumption that the road geometry consist of straight lines, circular and transitional curves, as demonstrated by the analysis of simulated data. - the field calibration procedure of the wheel speed sensors employing a Kalman filtering process achieve an accuracy of +0.04 m in distance increments. The derived heading differences have a final cumulative deviation of +3° or a drift of about 0.0025 °/s. - the proposed set of low-cost sensors can be a viable solution as a short duration georeferencing device for mobile mapping systems in the recovery of the geometric shape of the road track, as long as (i) the vehicle is driven at low speed (about 36km/h or 10m/s) but certainly above the threshold speed of the wheel sensors, (ii) the random errors in the measurements are characterized and reduced and (iii) the pitch angle and gravitation effect are compensated for in the measured data. - the random and the systematic errors in the measured vehicle track position time series are a serious predicament to curvature estimation, which however can be reduced by the use of smoothing splines and by calibration of the measuring devices, respectively. Based on the above tests and analyses, the low-cost sensors together with the developed algorithms generated sufficiently accurate geometric road design elements for updating roadway inventory databases especially those intended for intelligent transport system applications whose accuracies are specified in metres to sub-meter. However, the recovered geometric road design elements may not be sufficiently accurate for roadway inventory databases used for road design and construction because here the accuracy requirements are in centimetre level. ; Die erfassten Streckendatenbanken werden laufend in zwei Hauptbereichen angewandt, erstens bei der Ausführung, Bauweise und Instandhaltung von neuen als auch der schon bestehenden Strecken und zweitens in bestimmten Bereichen intelligenter Transportsysteme, wie z. B. die mobile Informationssysteme. Infolgedessen tragen die verschiedenen Organisationen für Straßen und Verkehrswesen rund um die Welt die Verantwortung für die Anfangsentwicklung, die Archivierung und den Betrieb der Datenbanken und dafür, dass dies in Einklang mit der jeweiligen Straßenbaupolitik und dem Ausführungsstandard des jeweiligen Landes oder der jeweiligen Region bewerkstelligt wird. Die erfassten Streckendatenbanken enthalten schätzungsweise 49 mögliche erfassbare Streckendatenkategorien, wie z. B. horizontale Kurvenelemente, vertikale Anpassungselemente, Abflusskanäle, die Anzahl der Straßen und Straßenschilder. Die schnell wechselnde Streckenumgebung stellt deswegen eine Herausforderung für die Aktualisierung der erfassten Steckendatenbanken dar, wobei relativ genaue und kostengünstige Verfahren verwendet werden im Gegensatz zu dem kinematischen Vermessungssystem, das ursprünglich für die Entwicklung der Streckendatenbanken verwendet wurde. Dies fordert eine Untersuchung von anderen preiswerten Datenerfassungs- und Verarbeitungsmethoden sowie der jeweiligen Geräte. Die Zielsetzung dieser Untersuchung ist infolgedessen die Entwicklung einer Methode zur Extrahierung geometrischer Straßenbauelemente aus einer Zeitreihe von Positionen, die von einem Satz preiswerter Sensoren abgeleitet werded und die Einschätzung des Genauigkeitspotentials solcher Sensoren. Der Bericht beginnt mit einem Überblick über die Grundlagen der Streckenausführung und den Formulierungen, die im Schätzverfahren der geometrischen Straßenbauelemente verwendet wurden und einer kurzen Übersicht der Straßenausführungsstandards und –richtlinien. Weiterhin werden noch die verschiedenen Sensoren und bodengestützten Positionierungs- und Navigationssysteme erwähnt, wobei auf deren Kosten und Fehlerquellen besonderen Wert gelegt wird. Außerdem enthält der Bericht eine Übersicht über die Theorie der Kurvenanpassungsfunktionen und –kriterien, mit einem besonderen Augenmerk auf Splines und ihre Eigenschaften. Die ausgeführten Untersuchungen, Tests und Datenanalysen stützen sich sowohl auf computersimulierte Daten als auch auf Feldmessdaten, die in der Umgebung der Stadt Stuttgart erfasst wurden. Ein Satz splinebasierter Algorithmen zur Extrahierung geometrischer Straßenbauelemente wurde entwickelt und getestet, um die erfassten Streckendatenbanken zu aktualisieren. Des Weiteren wurde ein Satz den preisgünstigen Navigationssensoren gebaut, das aus Radsensoren, einem einachsigen mikro-elektro-mechanischen Systeme (MEMS) Beschleunigungsmesser und einem einachsigen mikro-elektro-mechanischen Systeme (MEMS) Gyroskop zusammengesetzt ist. Dieser Prototyp wurde zur Akquisition von Fahrzeugwegpositionen verwendet. Es wird des Weiteren folgendes aufgezeigt: die Methodik und die Formulierungen, die bei der Synchronisation der Messungen und der Kalibrierung der Sensoren verwendet wurden, die Integration der Daten mittels der Kalman-Filter-Algorithmen und die Bewertung von Krümmungen bzw. die Extrahierung geometrischer Straßenbauelemente. Kurz gefasst zeigen die Tests und Datenanalysen folgendes: - die entwickelten splinebasierten Algorithmen extrahieren erfolgreich die geometrischen Straßenbauelemente ausgehend von der Annahme, dass die Streckengeometrie aus Gerade, Kreis- und Übergangsbogen besteht, wie aus der Analyse der simulierten Daten hervorgeht. - das Feldkalibrierungsverfahren der Radsensoren, die ein Kalman Filter Verfahren verwenden, erzielen eine Entfernungsinkrementgenauigkeit von +0.04 m. Die abgeleitete Richtungsänderung hat eine endgültige kumulative Abweichung von +3° oder eine Richtungsverschiebung von etwa 0.0025 °/s. - die vorgeschlagenen preisgünstigen Sensoren sind eine praktikable Lösung für ein Georeferenzierungsgerät mit ausreichender Relatiogenauigkeit für mobile Meßsysteme in der Rückgewinnung der geometrischen Form der Strecke, solange das Fahrzeug sich mit einer niedrigen Geschwindigkeit (etwa 36km/h oder 10m/s), jedoch über der Grenzgeschwindigkeit der Radsensoren bewegt; (ii) die statistischer Fehler der Messungen werden charakterisiert und verringert (iii) wobei der Nickwinkel und der Gravitationseffekt in den gemessenen Daten berücksichtigt werden. - die zufälligen und die systematischen Fehler der gemessenen Zeitreihe von Positionen sind ein Hindernis in der Bestimmung der Krümmungen, das jedoch durch die Verwendung von glättenden Splines und durch Kalibrierung der Messgeräte umgangen werden kann. Durch die oben genannten Tests und Analysen wird gezeigt, dass die preisgünstigen Sensoren mit den entwickelten Algorithmen genügend genaue geometrische Straßenbauelemente zur Aktualisierung der erfassten Streckendatenbanken, insbesondere solche für intelligente Transportsysteme, deren Abweichungen in Metern gemessen werden, erstellt haben. Trotzdem könnten die erstellten geometrischen Straßenbauelemente nicht genau genug sein für die in der Straßenausführung und dem Straßenbau erfassten Streckendatenbanken, weil hier die Genauigkeit im Zentimeterbereich liegt.

La thèse s'appuie sur l'étude du système symbolique pour montrer la place centrale du cheval, à la frontière entre chasse et élevage, chez les Iakoutes de Sibérie extrême-orientale ; In the North-East of Siberia, the Yakuts, who arrived from the Baikal region less than seven centuries ago, raise horses and cattle in the alaas, in the valleys and the taiga on the lower course of the Lena river. The bibliography in Russian language concerning this people is rich and includes narratives by travellers, accounts by administrators as well as analyses and descriptions by ethnographers prior to 1917, but dating as well of the communist period and of the post-soviet years. The theoretical analysis was fed by Western sources, including the works of Evelyne Lot-Falck, Laurence Delaby and Roberte Hamayon about the peoples of Siberia as well as those of Jean-Pierre Digard about the horse and its domestication. Cousins of the horse-riding Turkic and Mongolian peoples of Central Asia, the Yakuts are aware of their belonging to that ensemble while putting forward their originality. Conceiving their horse more like an animal of the forest than like ordinary cattle, they breed it while preserving its "wild" character. Inside a domestication system that does not try to submit the animal, this one finds a place, as well in the facts as through the symbols, between the domesticated animal and the wild beast. For the Yakuts, who have a binary economy, the equilibrium of which between hunting and cattle breeding has fluctuated according to the history of the society and the natural restraints, the horse is representative of a significant animal. In a system of thinking articulated between hunting and breeding shamanism, the stallion chief of the herd, with its fiery and independent temperament, represents for the shaman as well a way of transportation as a symbolic double during the rituals. It is as well the best exchanging object in the relation that the humans think to have with the horse giving spirits, specially during the kyjdaa ritual that began in the eighteenth century according to narratives. It was a historical period of troubles during which rich peoples legitimated their status thanks to the installation on the territory of the administration of the Tsarist Empire. Progressively, the exchange with the spirits, that occurred according to the equalitarian mode of the hunting shamanism, becomes vertical and takes the shape of a symbolical dependence of the spirits, no longer animals but ancestors givers of cattle, of whose one needs to implore the benefits. In parallel to this phenomenon appears aside the character of the Ürüŋ Ajyy Tojon spirit, that the Yakuts put on the top of their Pantheon, the one of the Terrible D'öhögöj, the protector of humans and horses, the gifts of whom are welcomed and the anger is feared. Before the policy of collectivisation that occurred in the 1920-1930 years, the horse had acquired an incontestable utilitarian importance and its symbolic role was already sung by epic singers, who were praising the Heroes who founded lineages. Nowadays, the horse is no longer a part of the daily life of every Yakut : more often eaten that ridden, it acquires a symbolic signification inversely proportional to its disappearing from the landscape. So the National reconstruction process that took place after the fall of the Soviet Union raised the horse to the status of an emblem for the Sakha Republic (Yakutia), so as to-day the Yakuts call their people and their horse as the "sons of the D'öhögöj spirit". The Yakut example shows the importance of the horse figure in the system of thinking of a hunting and breeding people of Siberia, as well as the parallelism between the shrinking of the utilitarian function of an artefact and the reinforcing of the symbolism of which it is the support. ; Au nord-est de la Sibérie, les Iakoutes, venus de la région du Baïkal il y a moins de sept siècles, élèvent chevaux et bovins sur les alaas, dans les vallées et la taïga sur le cours inférieur du fleuve Léna. La bibliographie en russe concernant ce peuple est riche et comprend des récits de voyageurs, des comptes rendus d'administrateurs et des analyses et descriptions d'ethnographes d'avant 1917, de la période communiste et des années post-soviétiques. L'analyse théorique est alimentée par les sources occidentales, parmi lesquelles les travaux d'Evelyne Lot-Falck, de Laurence Delaby et de Roberte Hamayon sur les peuples de Sibérie ainsi que ceux de Jean-Pierre Digard sur le cheval et la domestication. Cousins des peuples cavaliers turco-mongols d'Asie centrale, ils affirment leur appartenance à cet ensemble tout en mettant en avant leur originalité. Concevant leur cheval davantage comme un animal de la forêt que comme du simple bétail, ils en pratiquent à l'élevage tout en préservant le caractère « sauvage » de l'animal. Dans un système domesticatoire qui ne tente pas de soumettre l'animal, celui-ci ci conserve, aussi bien dans les faits qu'à travers les symboles, une place entre animal domestique et bête sauvage. Pour les Iakoutes à l'économie binaire, dont l'équilibre entre chasse et élevage a fluctué en fonction de l'histoire de la société et des contraintes naturelles, le cheval représente un animal idéal. Dans un système de pensée, articulé entre chamanisme cynégétique et pastoral, l'étalon chef de harde, au tempérament fougueux et indépendant, est à la fois un moyen de transport et un double symboliques du chamane lors des rituels. Par ailleurs, il constitue le meilleur objet d'échange dans la relation que les humains pensent entretenir avec des esprits donateurs de chevaux, notamment au cours du rite du kyjdaa, dont les récits font remonter la pratique au XVIIIe siècle, période mouvementée de l'histoire où les riches légitimèrent leur statut grâce à l'installation sur le territoire de l'administration de l'empire tsariste. Progressivement, l'échange avec les esprits, qui se déroulait sur le mode égalitaire du chamanisme cynégétique, se verticalise et prend la forme d'une dépendance symbolique envers des esprits, non plus animaux mais ancêtres pourvoyeurs de bétail, dont il faut implorer les bienfaits. Parallèlement à ce phénomène, émerge à côté de la figure de l'esprit Ürüŋ Ajyy Tojon, que les Iakoutes placent à la cime de leur panthéon, celle du Terrible D'öhögöj, protecteur des hommes et des chevaux, dont les dons sont bienvenus et la colère crainte. Avant la politique de collectivisation en vigueur dans les années 1920-1930, le cheval était doté d'une importance utilitaire incontestable et son rôle symbolique était déjà chanté par les conteurs d'épopées, qui faisaient l'apologie des héros fondateurs de lignées. A présent, l'équidé ne fait plus partie de la vie quotidienne de tous les Iakoutes : plus mangé que monté, il acquiert une signification symbolique inversement proportionnelle à sa disparition du paysage. Ainsi, le processus de reconstruction nationale qui a suivi la chute de l'Union Soviétique a érigé le cheval au statut d'emblème de la République Sakha (Iakoutie), de sorte qu'aujourd'hui les Iakoutes désignent à la fois leur peuple et leur cheval comme les « fils de l'esprit D'öhögöj ». L'exemple iakoute démontre l'importance de la figure du cheval dans le système de pensée d'un peuple chasseur et éleveur de Sibérie, ainsi que le parallélisme entre l'amoindrissement de la fonction utilitaire d'un artefact et le renforcement de la symbolique dont il est le support.

�쓽�븰怨�/諛뺤궗 ; [�븳湲�] [�쁺臾�] The origin of leprosy is lost in antiquity. Although the term is used freely in translation of the Old Testament, most leprologists do not belive the Hebrew word "zaraeth'" has been correctly interpreted. Certainly some of the lesions described by Moses do not suggest leprosy as it is known today. Greek records of about 500 B.C. indicate a knowledge of the disease which was called "elephantiasis graecorum." Various historian would consider India as being the cradle of leprosy. From the shores of the Indus, this dermatosis, according to tradition, spread itself out by the earth to entire Asia and to Egypt, whence, through the sea, Phenicians brought it to almost all countries of Occident. Hippocrates (460 B.C.), the Father of Medicine, studied it and named it "Phoenicians" disease. The earliest record of leprosy in Korea gose back to around the end of 13th century. By the end of World War�뀫, under the Japanese administration, about 8,000 leprosy patients were institutionalized under the concept of segregation. By 1968, a total of known, registered leprosy cases in Korea sums 37,571, among which 7,479 are institutionalized and 30,092 are being treated as domiciliary patients either at home or in settlement and in resettlement villages. The modern western medicine was introduced to this country in early 20th century. In 1909 Rev. Drs. W.H. Forsythe and R.M. Wilson founded the first private leprosarium in Kwangju and this was the very beginning of introduction of modern medicine into the treatment of leprosy patients in this country. Dating the past two and a half decades, many significant progresses have been made in the treatment of leprosy. The greatest advances was the discovery that sulfone drugs were effective in leprosy. The sulfone drugs were introduced in this country in 1953. Since significant progresses have been attained in recent year in Korea. In 1955, a leprosy out-patient clinic, and in 1957, a leprosy mobile clinic were started. In 1963, the over-all compulsory segregation law abolished, and this resulted in a great shift from the previous compulsory institutionization of the patients, and leprosy out-patient akin clinics and University hospitals have been engaged in the treatment of domiciliary patients. Following the initiation of leprosy mobile service by Catholic Mission in 1955, additional government or voluntary mobile teams have been established and these haute been actively participating incase finding, treatment of home-patients and publicity campaign in rural areas. In response to sudden increase in the number of beggar leprosy canes appeared on the streets from hiding, due to loose administrative control in 1946, after the end of the World War�뀫, the Korean Leprosy Prevention Association, the forerunner of the present-day Korean Leprosy Association, was organized in 1947 by enthusiastic, volunteers, J. Lew, S.W. Bang and their collegues. This laid the fomndation social rehabilitation of cured ex-leprosy cases in this country. By 1968, Government and Korean Leprosy Association have rehabilitated a total of 10,865 ex-leprosy cases in 68 resettlement or settlement villages. By 1968, there existed six leprosy institutions, i.e., three of national leprosarium with 5,800 patients and three of private cripple institutions with 1,779 patients throughout the nation. In this study, a series of studies i.e., extensive review on historical background of leprosy in Korea, analyses of the leprosy control and evaluation of clinical epidemiology and socio-economical aspects and the trends of leprosy in Korea for the past 21 years, i.e., soon after the liberation of this nation in 1948 up to the 1968 were carried out in order to define the future plan of operation and policy for control of leprosy in Korea. Materials and Methoeds A. Analyses of the leprosy control based on the governmental organization, policy making, budgetary allocation and effectiveness, governmental and private leprosy institutions and changing their status, activities by out-patient clinics and mobile teams and rehabilitation of cured exleprosy cases. B. Analyses of clinical epidemiology and the trends of the leprosy on the basis of data obtained from total number of known, registered cases, classification of type of disease, bacteriology, lepromatous rate, positive rate, present age and the age of the onset of the disease and relapse rate during the period of full 21 years from 1948 to 1968. Results and Summary With these extensive review on historical background of leprosy in Korea, author attempted to can out a series of analyses of the leprosy control, evaluation of clinical epidemiological survey and socio-economical aspects of leprosy in Korea during the period of full 21 years from soon after the liberation of this nation in 1948 to 1968 in this studies and hoped to clarify the recent trends in the epidemiology and to reevaluate the previous reports and to uncover some of hitherto unknown aspects in epidemics of leprosy in Korea. The control of leprosy, there existed five national and three private leprosy hospitals until 1967, but two of national leprosariums were transformed into resettlement villages in 1968 and number of in-patients also reduced. There were 18,307 patients in leprosariums and colonies by the end of 1961, but only 7,479 patients remained in the leprosy hospital in 1968, 10,894 negative cured ex-leprosy cases have keen resettled in 62 villages during the past year. The leprosy mobile teams, out-patient skin clinic and local health centers have been actively engaged in the case finding and treatment of domiciliary patients, thus economically more efficient and will have no problem of social rehabilitation and 19,092 cases are receiving domiciliary treatment in 1968. Reconstructive surgery have been performed since 1962, and total 863 cases have received corrective surgery for deformities in leprosy. Since 1960, the gradual and significant increases in the number of new leprosy patients are detected and registered to the authorities. This increses in the number of cases indicated that the public understanding on leprosy itself has been greatly promoted year by year. The epidemiological studies, the classification of the disease types revealed that the lepromatous type occupied predominantly 80.5%: tuberculoid, 18.7% and indeterminate group, 0.8% in 1968. The number of patients of lepromatous type leprosy has increased year by year and has become greater than that of tuberculoid type of leprosy. Bacteriological examination of the in-patients showed that 15.2% positive in 1968. This fact is interpreted as that the epidemicity of leprosy in Korea has been decreasing, and that the effectiveness of chemotherapy and general immunity in community against leprosy has been lowered. Survey on the age of the onset of the disease established that the peak shows between 15 and 19 years of age, also peak of present age group shows between 50 and 54 years of age. The peak of these delay will certainly provide a significant progress in the control of leprosy in Korea. Throughout the studies, the leprosy problem in Korea is under controlled and it became more evident that early diagnosis and treatment of early cartes at the out-patient clinics and leprosy mobile teams are distinctly effective in the control of leprosy in Korea. ; restriction

More than 100 years have elapsed since the discovery of the Japod necropolises in the Una valley, south of Bihać. The Jezerine and Ribić necropolises were excavated in the late 19th century (K. Kovačević, P. Mirković 1890: 330-337; V. Radimsky 1892: 301-310) and another, smaller necropolis in Golubić was systematically excavated in the 1960s (I. Čremošnik 1956: 126-138; B. Raunig 1968: 81-98). The third necropolis is not dealt with here, since the amber artifacts are identical to those from Jezerine. A total of 553 graves were excavated in Jezerine, of which 228 contained skeletons, 298 cinerary urns, 28 cremated remains without urns, and two containing cinerary urns in which the skull of the deceased was laid over the lid. The pre-Roman and early Roman necropolis in Ribić had only six graves with skeletons, 296 containing cinerary urns, and one containing crematedremains with no urn. V. Radimski (V. Radimsky 1982:301-310; 1893: 37-92; 237-308; 369-466; 575-623) and V. Ćurčić (V.Ćurčić 1898: 625-656) have written about the findings of the excavations of the Japod necropolises in the Una valley, and many archaeologists have been engaged in analyzing the archaeological material. The fullest scientific treatment is that of Z. Marić,dating from the 1960s, (Z. Marić 1968: 5-79) while more recently the issue has been seriously addressed by B. Raunig (B. Raunig 2004), while B. Tessmann deals with the Jezerine burial ground as part of her doctoral thesis with new absolute chronological.There is no doubt that Z. Marić has produced the most complete chronological and cultural definition to date of the archaeological material from these necropolises while, in so doing, stressing that the chronology of the Japod region is a problem not easily solved, given the great many specific features of local significance. Quite simply, Japod material does not readily fit into the formative cultural circles of neighbouring regions, and is characterized by a very pronouncedconservatism, as a result of which some forms survive for a decade or more, or even as much as a century. Despite these remarks by Z. Marić, in this paper we adhere to his relative chronology, while taking a more relaxed position in regard to the absolute chronology, as the author recommends. We have not given a detailed overview of all the archaeological artifactsmade of amber, but have selected those that are typical of certain stages of the burials in the necropolises; these artifacts also vividly illustrate the aesthetic needs and economic strength of the Japod population of the Una valley. By analyzing and tracing these artifacts, century by century, from the distant past right up to the arrival of the Romans in this part of the world, wehave obtained a clear picture of the distinctiveness of the culture, art and religion of the prehistoric world in the Una valley. Japod art is highly diverse in both content and expression, though it belongs almost solely to the applied arts, with the majority of its products consisting of jewellery or associated with clothing (B. Raunig 2004). An overall consideration of the jewelleryin the graves reveals that these are heavy, solid artifacts, even in the case of fine material such as amber: amber beads in necklaces, or combined with bronze in fibulae, have a diameter of 4-5 cm or even more. It can fairly be said that one of the principal features of Japod jewellery is the abundance and diversity of the application of amber. Amber beads, usually leftrough or very simply finished, were used mainly for necklaces and fibulae, but also for bracelets, earrings and pendants. Fibulae were the most common and, for Japod costumes, the most important decorativecum- utilitarian artifacts. This type of jewellery was favoured by the Japods in the Una valley more than anywhere else, and thus came in a wide range of designs;the Japods wore them as part of their folk costume right up to the time they lost their independence, and even in the first century CE, under Roman rule (R. Drechsler-Bižić 1987). The general characteristics of the amber grave offeringsin the Una valley can be reduced to a few basic observations. In the second stage, it was very unusual to find an amber bead or two in cinerary graves, whereas they were quite common in skeletal graves, usually by the head or around the neck, as worn inlife. Since there are other differences between these two basic types of burial, Z. Marić hypothesizes that the skeletal graves belonged to the female members of the local population and the cinerary graves to the male incomers from Pannonia. In stage three, amber features in greater quantities in cinerary graves as well, although skeletal graves still contain much morenumerous and richer artifacts; only in stage four does the ratio of such artifacts become equal between the two types of burials. During stage five, the number of amber artifacts in cinerary graves increases sharply, and it is from this very period, as already noted, that the two most richly equipped graves date, with the remains of incineration and numerous amber artifacts:grave 278 from Jezerine and grave 10 from Ribić (Z.Marić 1968:5-79; B. Raunig 2004). We can only guess at the routes by which amber reached the Japods in the Una valley (N. Negroni- Catacchio 1972: 1-18). The highly decorative dark reddishamber of outstanding quality used to make many of the artifacts found in the graves of the Una valley distinguishes these necropolises from all others of the same period in Europe as a whole. The number of artifacts and, it is fair to say, the coarse workmanship on the amber, suggest that one of the amber routes from the Baltic to the south ran along the Una valley,and that the Japods were intermediaries in the amber trade as well as using these goods. In the 7th century BC this route could have been of major importance, since this was one of the periods of severe cold that rendered the Po valley unsuitable for trade with the distant Baltic region in the north, passing as it did over the Alps, which were impassable, even over thelower passes, during periods of extreme cold. During the 4th century BC the Japods in the Una valley came into direct contact with the Celts, who already dominated the cultural stage in much of Europe. There is no doubt that there was considerable trade between these peoples over a long period, and it would be normal for the Celts to control the amber routes, so thatthis material reached local Japod workshops by way of exchange, in unworked form (A. Palavestra 1988: 205-217; A. Palavestra, V. Krstić 2006). Another type of amber, of poorer quality, translucent and light yellow in colour, from which the triangularand trapezoid beads from the later periods of the necropolises in the Una valley were made, undoubtedly came from a different source from the dark red amber. This type of bead is found in considerable quantities in these necropolises in the 1st century BC, at a time when trade from Hellenistic centres was already widespread. The major centres for the amber trade were then in the northern Black Sea regions (B. Srebrodolski 1984). It is interesting to note that forms of triangular amber beads were known as early as the late Mesolithic in the northern regions of Russia (M. Gimbutas 1985). This form was perhaps dictated bythe actual quality of the raw material from various sites in north-eastern Europe (B. Srebrodolski 1984; A. Palavestra 1993). Finally, it can be said that to confirm, at least in part, these observations on the routes by which amber was imported to the Una valley, a serious and wideranging study of the contemporary cultures would be needed, going well beyond their relationships with their immediate neighbours, along with some more detailed observations of historical facts. Espacially interesting is their relatios with the Celts and Veneto, which for now remains unclear, which directly affects to the different oppinions about ethnic identity Japodes.

L'objectiu del document és esbossar les circumstàncies de l'establiment de la galeria d'escultures de Łódź al carreró de Rubinstein (anteriorment: Aleja ZMP) i el seu impacte en l'estètica de Łódź.Tot i la història de la ciutat que es remunta a principis del segle XV, la primera escultura de ple dret a l'espai públic només va aparèixer el 1912. Al començament de la Segona Guerra Mundial, el nombre d'escultures va augmentar fins a una dotzena aproximadament, però totes aquestes obres van ser destruïdes pels alemanys en els primers anys de l'ocupació.En el període 1945-1970, van aparèixer dos monuments i una dotzena de formes més petites. La cara escultòrica de la ciutat només va ser canviada per la Galeria d'escultures de Łódź, que es va centrar en els temes més importants de l'urbanisme de la postguerra, la política, les tendències artístiques i les necessitats socials. Tot i el seu curt període de funcionament (1972-1978), els seus efectes encara són visibles a gairebé tot arreu a Łódź. Mai abans ni mai després s'havia estetitzat el mitjà de l'escultura a tal escala a la ciutat.El record d'aquest lloc i de diverses desenes d'escultures (i dels seus creadors) gairebé s'ha esvaït. Actualment, s'estan realitzant activitats per restaurar la galeria d'escultures de Łódź a la seva posició deguda en la història de la ciutat i continuar les seves activitats al mateix lloc. ; The aim of the paper is to outline the circumstances of the establishment of the Łódź Sculpture Gallery in Rubinstein's Alley (formerly: Aleja ZMP) and its impact on the aesthetics of Łódź. Despite the city's history dating back to the beginning of the 15th century, the first fully-fledged sculpture in public space appeared only in 1912. By the beginning of World War II, the number of sculptures increased to a dozen or so, but all of those works were destroyed by the Germans in the first years of the occupation.In the period 1945–1970, two monuments and a dozen or so smaller forms appeared. The sculptural face of the city was changed only by the Łódź Sculpture Gallery, which focused on the most important issues of post-war town planning, politics, artistic trends, and social needs. Despite its short period of operation (1972–1978), its effects are still visible almost everywhere in Łódź. Never before and never after has the medium of sculpture been aestheticised on such a scale in the city.The memory of this place and several dozen sculptures (and of their creators) has almost faded away. Currently, activities are under way to restore the Łódź Sculpture Gallery to its due position in the history of the city and to continue its activities in the same place. ; El objetivo del artículo es describir las circunstancias del establecimiento de la Galería de Esculturas de Łódź en Rubinstein's Alley (antes: Aleja ZMP) y su impacto en la estética de Łódź. A pesar de que la historia de la ciudad se remonta a principios del siglo XV, la primera escultura completa en el espacio público apareció solo en 1912. Al comienzo de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el número de esculturas aumentó a una docena más o menos, pero todas esas obras fueron destruidas por los alemanes en los primeros años de la ocupación. En el período 1945-1970, aparecieron dos monumentos y una docena de formas más pequeñas. La cara escultórica de la ciudad fue cambiada solo por la Galería de Esculturas de Łódź, que se centró en los temas más importantes del urbanismo, la política, las tendencias artísticas y las necesidades sociales de la posguerra. A pesar de su breve período de funcionamiento (1972-1978), sus efectos aún son visibles en casi todas partes en Łódź. Nunca antes y nunca después se ha estetizado el medio escultórico a tal escala en la ciudad. El recuerdo de este lugar y de varias decenas de esculturas (y de sus creadores) casi se ha desvanecido. Actualmente, se están llevando a cabo actividades para restaurar la Galería de Esculturas de Łódź a su debido lugar en la historia de la ciudad y continuar sus actividades en el mismo lugar. ; L'objectif de cet article est de décrire les circonstances de la création de la galerie de sculptures de Łódź dans Rubinstein's Alley (anciennement : Aleja ZMP) et son impact sur l'esthétique de Łódź.Malgré l'histoire de la ville remontant au début du XVe siècle, la première sculpture à part entière dans l'espace public n'apparaît qu'en 1912. Au début de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, le nombre de sculptures passe à une dizaine, mais toutes ces ouvrages ont été détruits par les Allemands dans les premières années de l'occupation.Dans la période 1945-1970, deux monuments et une dizaine de formes plus petites sont apparus. Le visage sculptural de la ville n'a été modifié que par la galerie de sculptures de Łódź, qui s'est concentrée sur les questions les plus importantes de l'urbanisme d'après-guerre, de la politique, des tendances artistiques et des besoins sociaux. Malgré sa courte période d'exploitation (1972-1978), ses effets sont encore visibles presque partout à Łódź. Jamais auparavant et jamais après le médium de la sculpture n'a été esthétisé à une telle échelle dans la ville.Le souvenir de ce lieu et de plusieurs dizaines de sculptures (et de leurs créateurs) s'est presque évanoui. Actuellement, des activités sont en cours pour redonner à la Galerie de sculptures de Łódź la place qui lui revient dans l'histoire de la ville et pour poursuivre ses activités au même endroit ; Lo scopo del documento è delineare le circostanze della creazione della Galleria di sculture di Łódź nel Vicolo di Rubinstein (precedentemente: Aleja ZMP) e il suo impatto sull'estetica di Łódź.Nonostante la storia della città risalga all'inizio del XV secolo, la prima scultura a tutti gli effetti nello spazio pubblico apparve solo nel 1912. All'inizio della seconda guerra mondiale, il numero di sculture aumentò a una dozzina circa, ma tutte quelle opere furono distrutte dai tedeschi nei primi anni dell'occupazione.Nel periodo 1945-1970 apparvero due monumenti e una dozzina di forme più piccole. Il volto scultoreo della città è stato cambiato solo dalla Galleria delle sculture di Łódź, che si è concentrata sulle questioni più importanti dell'urbanistica del dopoguerra, della politica, delle tendenze artistiche e delle esigenze sociali. Nonostante il suo breve periodo di attività (1972-1978), i suoi effetti sono ancora visibili quasi ovunque a Łódź. Mai prima e mai dopo il medium della scultura è stato estetizzato su tale scala in città.Il ricordo di questo luogo e di diverse decine di sculture (e dei loro creatori) è quasi svanito. Attualmente sono in corso le attività per riportare la Galleria di Sculture di Łódź alla sua giusta posizione nella storia della città e per continuare le sue attività nello stesso luogo. ; O objetivo do artigo é descrever as circunstâncias do estabelecimento da Galeria de Esculturas Łódź no Beco de Rubinstein (anteriormente: Aleja ZMP) e seu impacto na estética de Łódź.Apesar da história da cidade remontar ao início do século XV, a primeira escultura totalmente desenvolvida em espaço público apareceu apenas em 1912. No início da Segunda Guerra Mundial, o número de esculturas aumentou para cerca de uma dúzia, mas todas essas obras foram destruídas pelos alemães nos primeiros anos da ocupação.No período de 1945 a 1970, dois monumentos e uma dúzia de formas menores apareceram. A face escultural da cidade foi mudada apenas pela Galeria de Esculturas de Łódź, que enfocou as questões mais importantes do planejamento urbano do pós-guerra, política, tendências artísticas e necessidades sociais. Apesar de seu curto período de operação (1972-1978), seus efeitos ainda são visíveis em quase todos os lugares em Łódź. Nunca antes e nunca depois o meio da escultura foi estetizado em tal escala na cidade.A memória deste lugar e de várias dezenas de esculturas (e de seus criadores) quase desapareceu. Atualmente, estão em andamento atividades para restaurar a Galeria de Esculturas de Łódź ao seu devido lugar na história da cidade e continuar suas atividades no mesmo local.

[spa] La disponibilidad de recursos hídricos para el abastecimiento de las necesidades de las sociedades ha sido fundamental a lo largo del tiempo. Esto es aún es más relevante en aquellos territorios donde el agua es un recurso escaso y limitado. Ante estas dificultades, se han desarrollado continuamente estrategias, métodos y técnicas para gestionar eficientemente estos recursos, conformando distintas "culturas del agua". Este desarrollo se ha podido observar tanto en las denominadas civilizaciones hidráulicas como en otras comunidades de tipo local-regional sin que hubiera la necesidad de una intervención centralizada o estatal. La gestión local del agua, que incluyó sistemas de captación, conducción, almacenamiento y preservación del agua, garantizó el abastecimiento necesario para la subsistencia de esas sociedades. El yacimiento de Sela, ubicado en la región semiárida del sur de la Transjordania, contiene numerosos vestigios arqueológicos de estructuras hidráulicas. Estas evidencian que existió la necesidad de implementar infraestructuras para la gestión del agua en una región donde su disponibilidad es y fue limitada. El objetivo de este trabajo es el de documentar, analizar y estudiar las diferentes estrategias, mecanismos e instalaciones que permitieron la gestión de los recursos hídricos en Sela, desde la captación hasta el suministro para su uso. A partir de la información obtenida durante las prospecciones arqueológica llevadas a cabo en los años 2015 y 2016, se ha realizado la identificación, documentación y análisis de las instalaciones hidráulicas del yacimiento de forma pormenorizada. Para estudiar la distribución espacial de las instalaciones y establecer sus principales conexiones, se ha elaborado una planimetría arqueológica en 2D y se ha reconstruido un modelo tridimensional de un área concreta del yacimiento. Los datos resultantes se han comparado, tras realizar una investigación bibliográfica, con los datos existentes sobre instalaciones hidráulicas identificadas por parte de cinco proyectos arqueológicos desarrollados en el sur de la Transjordania en diferentes momentos. Complementariamente a este estudio, se ha realizado la caracterización petrográfica y mineralógica de catorce muestras de morteros extraídas de distintas instalaciones hidráulicas, tomando como base un informe previo elaborado por M. Soto (2017). Los resultados obtenidos en este trabajo, han permitido determinar cuáles fueron las posibles fuentes de agua disponibles y han evidenciado la existencia de distintas estrategias, técnicas y métodos para su gestión. El análisis y el estudio de la gran variedad de instalaciones existentes, ha permitido caracterizar los distintos sistemas hidráulicos presentes en el yacimiento de Sela. Las instalaciones que se han conservado, indican que el principal objetivo de la hidrotecnología desarrollada en Sela se basó principalmente en la implementación de instalaciones de acopio, conducción, almacenamiento y preservación del agua para garantizar el mayor volumen y calidad de agua para su consumo. Los resultados obtenidos, junto con su contextualización regional, sugieren que el poblamiento de Sela, desde un punto de vista sociopolítico, económico y cultural, se desarrolló mediante pequeños grupos locales. La ausencia de una red hidráulica jerarquizada y centralizada, así como su composición, basada principalmente en pequeñas unidades de captación, conducción y almacenamiento del agua, sugieren un uso familiar y doméstico de estas instalaciones. Estos sistemas han permitido formular distintas hipótesis en torno al modelo de ocupación del asentamiento sobre la base de la tecnología del agua, teniendo en cuenta nuevos factores: la disponibilidad y acceso a los recursos hídricos, la cantidad de estructuras y la variedad de sistemas, dispositivos, así como el diseño de las redes hidráulicas. La propuesta expuesta en este trabajo se ha realizado desde una perspectiva diacrónica, puesto que las instalaciones hidráulicas analizadas no han podido ser asignadas a un periodo cronológico específico dentro de las distintas fases de ocupación del yacimiento. Finalmente, pese a las limitaciones con las que se ha encontrado este estudio como es la imposibilidad de fechar mediante técnicas absolutas las instalaciones hidráulicas y su estado de conservación, el presente estudio pone de relieve la singularidad y el gran potencial del registro arqueológico de Sela para el conocimiento de la gestión de los recursos hídricos en el sur de la Transjordania y de sus implicaciones socioeconómicas, políticas y culturales a lo largo del tiempo. ; [eng] The availability of water resources has been essential over time. This is even more outstanding in those territories where water is a scarce and limited resource. Faced with these difficulties, several strategies, methods, and techniques have been continuously developed to efficiently manage these resources, shaping different "water cultures". This development has been observed both in the so-called hydraulic civilisations and in other local-regional communities without the need for centralised or state intervention. Local water management, which included systems for the collection, conduction, storage, and preservation of water, guaranteed the supply necessary for the subsistence of these societies. The site of Sela, located in the semi-arid region of southern Transjordan, contains numerous archaeological remains of hydraulic structures. This is evidence of the need to implement water management infrastructures in a region where water availability is and was limited. This work aims to document, analyse, and study the different strategies, mechanisms, and facilities that allowed the management of water resources in Sela, from collection to supply for use. Based on the information obtained during the archaeological surveys conducted in 2015 and 2016, the identification, documentation, and analysis of the hydraulic installations were carried out in detail. To study the spatial distribution of the facilities and establish their main connections, a 2D archaeological planimetry has been drawn up and a three-dimensional model of a specific area of the site has been reconstructed. The resulting data has been compared with existing data on hydraulic installations identified by five archaeological projects carried out in the south of the Transjordan at different times. As a complement to this study, a petrographic and mineralogical characterisation of fourteen samples of mortar extracted from different hydraulic installations has been carried out. The results obtained in this work have made it possible to determine the potential sources of water available and have shown the existence of different strategies, techniques, and methods for its management. The analysis and study of the wide variety of existing installations has allowed us to characterise the different hydraulic systems present at the site of Sela. The facilities that have been conserved indicate that the main goal of the hydro-technology developed at Sela was mainly based on the implementation of water collection, conduction, storage, and preservation facilities to guarantee the highest possible volume and quality of water for consumption. The results obtained, together with their regional contextualisation, suggest that the population of Sela, from a socio-political, economic, and cultural point of view, developed through small local groups. The absence of a hierarchical and centralised hydraulic network, as well as its composition, based mainly on small water collection, conduction, and storage units, suggest that these facilities are used by families and households. These systems have allowed us to formulate different hypotheses regarding the model of settlement occupation based on water technology. To that end, it has been taken into account the availability and access to water resources, the number of structures and the variety of systems, devices as well as the design of hydraulic networks. The proposal set out in this work has been made from a diachronic perspective since the hydraulic installations analysed could not be assigned to a specific chronological period within the different phases of occupation of the site. Finally, despite the limitations encountered in this study, such as the impossibility of dating the hydraulic installations using absolute techniques and their state of conservation, the current study highlights the uniqueness and great potential of the archaeological record of Sela with regard of the management of water resources in the south of the Transjordan and its socio-economic, political and cultural implications over time.

This thesis reveals how scholarly preconceptions guided the reception of a specific saga, Ljósvetninga saga, and contributes to a wider understanding of how saga, Old Norse, medieval, and general literature are each constantly changing and unstable, both in their preservation, and in the ways they are presented to the general public and scholarly community. It focuses on issues of memory and genre that arise from a material philology approach, providing a literary analysis of both redactions of the saga as independent texts with their own intrinsic value. ; Ljósvetninga saga takes place in Northern Iceland during the tenth and eleventh centuries and focuses on the political maneuverings of the chieftain Guðmundr inn ríki Eyjólfsson and his son Eyjólfr. Most of the academic debate surrounding Ljósvetninga saga has focused on the issue of its origins. This saga, most likely written in the thirteenth century, is atypical in that it has two seperate redactions that offer highly divergent information and narratives in several segments, dividing the saga between the A-redaction, based on the late fourteenth–early fifteenth-century manuscript AM 561 4to, and the C-redaction, based on the mid-fifteenth-century manuscript AM 162 c fol. and its approximately fifty post-medieval paper copies. The divergent redactions are the source of much speculation about the text's origins, split between an interpretation of oral composition, commonly referred to as Freeprose, and one of written composition, commonly referred to as Bookprose. These two understandings of the saga are also tied to two different editions of the saga, which have been alternately used to elevate one redaction over the other. Theodore Andersson's attempt to shift the debate toward a compromise between Freeprose and Bookprose has only been partially successful, due, among other reasons, to his continued elevation of one redaction (the C-redaction). This thesis approaches both redactions as independent, internally-coherent texts rather than stressing their literary relationship. The thesis deals with its primary question: How did the reception of Ljósvetninga saga influence its construction? It shows that Ljósvetninga saga has been constantly rewritten over time by its oral performers, its literary authors, its scribes, its publishers, and its scholars. In the introduction, the thesis establishes its material philology approach, presents its assumptions about medieval authorship and intentionality, and argues for the use of the paper manuscript AM 485 4to as the base manuscript for its treatment of C-redaction. The scholarly debate about the saga is presented with special attention paid to matters of origins and dating, examining Ljósvetninga saga's relationship with Brennu-Njáls saga, and what is gained from a literary connection between the two. A literary interpretation of both redactions as texts that have their own intrinsic value is provided, showing how each of these texts creates meaning using internal connections, including the C-redaction's þættir. Ljósvetninga saga is used as a tool to discuss the role of cultural memory in composition and interpretation, with a stress on the scholar Barði Guðmundsson, AM 162 c fol.'s fifteenth-century scribe Ólafur Loftsson, and AM 561 4to's hypothetical fourteenth-century context. The thesis offers a synchronic and a diachronic reading: the first treats memory as a template for events and people contemporaneous with the author, whereas the second acknowledges both past and present as significant for interpretation. The thesis also examines Ljósvetninga saga in its generic context, questioning and expanding the definition of the Íslendingasögur (Sagas of Early Icelanders) category, and rejecting the usefulness of the term 'post-classical' Íslendingasögur altogether. Using Rick Altman's concept of generic crossroads, the thesis analyses both redactions' manuscripts' approach to the issue of power. This thesis reveals how scholarly preconceptions guided the reception of a specific saga, Ljósvetninga saga, and contributes to a wider understanding of how saga, Old Norse, medieval, and general literature are each constantly changing and unstable, both in their preservation, and in the ways they are presented to the general public and scholarly community. ; Ljósvetninga saga gerist á Norðurlandi á tíundu og elleftu öld og fjallar fyrst og fremst um pólitískar fléttur höfðingjans Guðmundar hins ríka Eyjólfssonar og sonar hans Eyjólfs. Fræðileg umræða um Ljósvetninga sögu hefur öðru fremur einblínt á uppruna hennar. Sagan, sem talin er rituð á þrettándu öld, er óvenjuleg að því leyti að hún er varðveitt í tveim gerðum sem mjög eru frábrugðnar um ýmis atriði og atburði. Þannig skiptist sagan í A-gerð, sem byggð er á handritinu AM 561 4to frá seinni hluta fjórtándu aldar eða upphafi þeirrar fimmtándu, og í C-gerð, sem byggð er á handritinu AM 162 c fol. frá miðri fimmtándu öld og um það bil fimmtíu pappírsafritum sem rituð eru eftir siðbreytingu. Hinar frábrugðnu gerðir sögunnar hafa orðið tilefni til mikilla vangaveltna um uppruna sögunnar og skiptar skoðanir þar um. Ein skoðun er sú að sagan sé upprunnin í munnlegri geymd og er kennd við skóla sagnfestukenningarinnar, en önnur skoðun er sú að sagan sé frumsamin á bókfell og er hún kennd við bókfestukenninguna. Sá ólíki skilningur sem lagður er í söguna út frá þessum tveim meginkenningum tengjast sömuleiðis tveim ólíkum fræðilegum útgáfum á sögunni, sem hvor um sig hafa verið notaðar sem rök fyrir gildi annarrar gerðarinnar fram yfir hina. Tilraun Theodore Andersson til að sætta umræðuna og fara bil beggja kenninga hefur ekki tekist nema að hluta til, meðal annars vegna þeirrar óbilandi afstöðu sem hann tekur með C-gerð sögunnar. Í þessari ritgerð verður litið svo á að báðar gerðir sögunnar séu sjálfstæðir og sjálfum sér samkvæmir textar fremur en að bókmenntaleg tengsl þeirra verði í forgrunni. Lykilspurningin sem ritgerðinni er ætlað að svara er: Hvaða áhrif höfðu viðtökur Ljósvetninga sögu áhrif á samsetningu hennar? Hér verður sýnt að Ljósvetninga saga hefur stöðugt verið endursamin hvort heldur sem er í munnlegum flutningi, af bóklegum höfundum hennar, handritaskrifurum, útgefendum og fræðimönnum. Aðferðir efnislegrar textafræði eru grundvöllur rannsóknarinnar. Í inngangi eru kynntar forsendur rannsóknarinnar er varða höfunda á miðöldum og bókmenntalegan atbeina þeirra, og rök eru færð fyrir því að pappírshandritið AM 485 4to sé grundvallarhandrit að C-gerðinni. Áhersla verður lögð á þá fræðilegu umræðu um söguna sem hefur að gera með uppruna hennar og aldur. Þar með verða tengsl Ljósvetninga sögu við Brennu-Njáls sögu skoðuð og hvað samband þessara texta getur sagt okkur. Báðar gerðir sögunnar eru greindar með aðferðum bókmenntafræði enda eru þær sjálfstæðar gerðir sem hvor hefur gildi í sjálfri sér, og það er sýnt hvernig merkingarsköpun hvors texta hangir saman við innbyrðis tengingar, þar með talið þætti C-gerðarinnar. Ljósvetninga saga er ennfremur notuð sem rammi um umræðu um hlutverk menningarminnis í samsetningu og túlkun sögunnar, með áherslu á fræðileg skrif Barða Guðmundssonar, skrifara fimmtándu aldar handritsins AM 162 c fol., og ætlað fjórtándu aldar samhengi handritsins AM 561 4to. Ritgerðin býður hvort tveggja upp á samtímalegan og sögulegan lestur á sögunni; hinn fyrri lítur á minni sem skapalón fyrir notkun atburða og persóna samtíða höfundinum, meðan hinn síðari viðurkennir að hvort tveggja fortíð og nútíð skipta máli fyrir túlkun texta. Ritgerðin kannar einnig bókmenntagrein Ljósvetninga sögu og færir fram efasemdir um og útvíkkun á skilgreiningu Íslendingasagna, og hafnar jafnframt alfarið hugtakinu 'unglegar' eða 'póstklassískar' Íslendingasögur. Með stuðningi í hugtaki Rick Altman 'vegamót bókmenntagreina' (e. generic crossroads) er ráðist í greiningu á nálgun handrita beggja gerða sögunnar á völd. Ritgerðin leiðir í ljós hvernig fyrirframgefnar ályktanir fræðimanna hafa haft áhrif á viðtökur Ljósvetninga sögu. Hún er framlag til aukins skilnings á því hvernig forníslenskar sögur og bókmenntir almennt eru stöðugt breytingum háðar, bæði hvað geymd þeirra snertir og hvernig þær eru kynntar almenningi og fræðasamfélaginu. ; 163292-051

The North Anatolian fault (NAF), a 1000 km-long dextral fault zone is known for its strong seismic hazard. It accommodates the westward motion of Anatolia, relative to Eurasia. In its western part, the NAF splits into three strands, one of which passing south of the Marmara sea and the Iznik lake. This NAF middle strand (MNAF) shows nowadays a very low seismic activity. However, this area has been characterized by a significant earthquake hazard over the last two millennia. Several ancient authors mention the occurrence of more than six destructive earthquakes that impacted Iznik (old Nicaea), which was an important political and religious centre during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Our study aims to constrain the recent seismic activity on the MNAF in the Iznik area at different time scales through a multidisciplinary approach coupling earth science and archeology.The first goal of this thesis is to develop the study of ancient buildings as archives of the historical seismicity by observing their successive damages and repairs. The city of Nicaea is appropriate for this kind of study as it presents several well preserved ancient buildings that bear traces of numerous repairs. I focus my study on the critical infrastructures for the city such as the 3 km-long protecting walls. This also includes the aqueduct that provided the city with water and is crossed by a segment of active fault, and a Roman basilica recently discovered underwater in the Iznik lake 20 m far from the shore. Applying different dating techniques (stratigraphy of the archaeological building, 14C) to the various materials of these buildings (terra cotta, mortar, concretions on the aqueduct), I was able to identify at least three damaging earthquakes since the 6th century AD. The amount of damage on these buildings allows to estimate local intensities at VIII on the European macroseismic scale (EMS98). Thanks to numerical simulations, I show that the current deformation visible on a Roman obelisk north of Iznik is compatible with magnitudes close to Mw 7 for epicentral distances smaller than 15 km.The second goal of this thesis is to constrain the Quaternary slip rate on the MNAF and better understand the formation of Iznik Lake, a 313 km²-large lake located just west of the city, which is the largest freshwater lake in the Marmara region. The main faults around the lake were mapped using a high-resolution DEM derived from Pleiades images. Geomorphic markers offset by the MNAF were systematically measured. The statistical analysis of the offsets revealed six major ruptures preserved in the landscape, with coseismic displacements between 2 and 6 m. The ages of three levels of lacustrine terraces north of the lake were quantified by radiocarbon and in-situ produced 10Be. A minimal horizontal slip rate of 2.9 mm/yr was estimated. The southward tilting of the lake paeloshorelines is compatible with a high vertical slip rate on the MNAF around 6 mm/yr.While working on the morphology and lithologies of the Iznik area, we have discovered significant evidence for LGM glacial events. The U-shaped morphology of several successive valleys east of Iznik Lake separated by topographic highs is interpreted as the print of past glaciers. This is confirmed by the presence of moraine deposits on the sides of the valleys, erratic blocks from various lithologies and glacio-lacustrine sediments. The geographical distribution of these morphological and lithological markers enabled us to reconstruct the former location and eastward retreat of this glacier. The absolute ages obtained from glacial deposits and alluvial sediments postponing the glaciation are compatible with paleoenvironmental proxies in Iznik Lake and previous studies of other Turkish LGM glaciers. This constitutes the first evidence of glaciation at low elevations in Turkey. ; La faille nord anatolienne (NAF), une zone de faille dextre longue de 1000 km est caractérisée par un fort aléa sismique. Elle accommode le mouvement vers l'ouest de l'Anatolie par rapport à l'Eurasie. Dans sa partie ouest, la NAF se divise en trois branches, dont une borde le sud de la mer de Marmara et du lac d'Iznik. Ce segment médian de la NAF (MNAF) présente aujourd'hui une très faible sismicité. Pourtant, cette zone se caractérise par un risque sismique élevé à l'échelle des deux derniers millénaires. Plus de six séismes sont décrits par les auteurs anciens et causèrent des destructions dans la ville d'Iznik (ancienne Nicée), un centre politique et religieux important aux époques hellénistique et romaine. Notre étude a pour but de contraindre l'activité sismique récente de la MNAF dans la région d'Iznik à plusieurs échelles de temps, par une approche pluridisciplinaire combinant géosciences et archéologie.Le premier objectif de cette thèse est de développer l'étude des bâtiments anciens comme archives de la sismicité historique en observant leurs endommagements et réparations successifs. La ville de Nicée est appropriée pour ce type d'étude puisqu'elle présente plusieurs bâtiments préservés portant les traces de nombreuses réparations. J'ai concentré mon travail sur des infrastructures critiques comme la muraille défensive longue de 3 km. Cela inclut aussi l'aqueduc de la ville, recoupé par une faille active, ainsi qu'une basilique romaine découverte récemment sous les eaux du lac d'Iznik à 20 m de la côte. En appliquant plusieurs techniques de datation (stratigraphie des édifices, 14C) sur les bâtiments, j'ai pu identifier au moins trois séismes sources d'endommagement depuis le 6e siècle. La répartition des dommages sur les bâtiments permet d'estimer des intensités locales de VIII sur l'échelle macrosismique européenne (EMS98). Grâce à des simulations numériques, je montre que les déformations visibles sur un obélisque romain au nord d'Iznik sont compatibles avec des magnitudes proches de Mw 7 pour des distances épicentrales inférieures à 15 km.Le deuxième objectif de cette thèse est de contraindre la vitesse de glissement quaternaire sur la MNAF et de mieux comprendre la formation du lac d'Iznik à l'ouest de la ville. Ce lac de 313 km² est le plus grand lac d'eau douce de la région de Marmara. Les principales failles autour du lac ont été cartées avec un MNT de haute résolution dérivé d'images Pléiades. Les marqueurs géomorphologiques décalés par la MNAF ont fait l'objet de mesures systématiques. L'analyse statistique de ces décalages a mis en évidence six ruptures majeures préservées dans le paysage, avec des déplacements cosismiques entre 2 et 6 m. Les âges de trois niveaux de terrasses lacustres au nord du lac ont été quantifiés par radiocarbone et 10Be produit in situ. J'ai pu déterminer un taux de glissement horizontal minimum de 2.9 mm/yr. Le basculement vers le sud des paléorivages est compatible avec un taux de glissement vertical élevé sur la MNAF autour de 6 mm/yr.En travaillant sur la morphologie et les lithologies de la région d'Iznik, nous avons découvert des preuves d'épisodes glaciaires LGM. La morphologie en U de plusieurs vallées à l'est du lac d'Iznik, séparées par des sauts topographiques correspond à l'empreinte d'anciens glaciers. Cette hypothèse est confirmée par la présence de moraines en bord de vallée, de blocs erratiques aux lithologies variées, et de sédiments glacio-lacustres. La distribution spatiale de ces marqueurs morphologiques et lithologiques nous permet de reconstruire l'emplacement et le retrait vers l'est de ce glacier. Les âges absolus des dépôts glaciaires et des alluvions postérieurs à la glaciation sont compatibles avec des proxies paléoenvironnementaux provenant du lac d'Iznik et les études réalisées sur d'autres glaciers turcs LGM. Il s'agit de la première découverte de glaciers à si basse altitude en Turquie.

A la primera meitat del segle XIX i en la Revolució Industrial, ciutats com París es van enfrontar a problemes de salut que els va causar el ràpid creixement de les indústries i les onades d'immigració de les zones rurals. Com a conseqüència, les ciutats, especialment el seu centre històric, van patir de congestió, superpoblació i higiene que van portar a diverses epidèmies. Per millorar les condicions higièniques, es van prendre mesures a través d'importants desenvolupaments urbans com la transformació de París sota les ordres del Baró Haussmann, el Prefecte del Departament del Sena, entre 1853 i 1870. Segons Napoleó III, Haussmann va traçar el nou pla de París i va començar amb el 'Eventrement' dels barris insalubres de la ciutat obrint grans carrers rectilinis i longitudinals. De fet, continuava la feina ja proposat per Napoleó I i iniciat més tard pel comte de Rambuteau en 1839 sota les mateixes preocupacions d'higiene. Els objectius d'Haussmann eren embellir i modernitzar la ciutat i, sobretot, millorar les condicions de vida i la salut pública i proporcionar a tots els ciutadans llum, aire, aigua, parcs públics i jardins.D'una banda, va ser capaç de reunir un equip distingit com Alphand, Barillet-Deschamps, Davioud i Hittorff que van crear i van construir les passejades i places de París. Els seus dissenys i elements urbans van ser estandarditzats i sistematitzats convertint-se en un model urbà i influenciant el disseny urbà de les ciutats. El fet que va portar a Remesar a desenvolupar el "paradigma Alphand-Davioud-Hittorff", on les rèpliques del seu estil encara predomina en la configuració del paisatge, els espais i elements del nostre centre històric.D'altra banda, Haussmann va rebre dures crítiques dels opositors polítics que van resultar en el seu acomiadament. Per raó del 'eventrement', va ser criticat per destruir les parts antigues de la ciutat causant una pèrdua en edificis històrics i monumentals i barris. Els nous carrers i espais oberts van fer els mitjans de comunicació difícils especialment per als vianants. A més, se li va atribuir la desorganització social, la desigualtat i el desplaçament causats per les quantitats de demolicions i expropiacions. A més, se l'acusa de gastar diners en aquest llarg i costós procediment i en passar el pressupost.No obstant això, no es pot negar el fet que molts ho van defensar per tots els passejos, parcs, places, jardins i sistema de clavegueram creat sense oblidar que aquest tipus de plans i procediments ja havien començat abans de Haussmann que es remunta a l'època de Napoleó I. ; In the first half of the 19th century and the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paris were faced with health problems brought upon them by the rapid growth of industries and the waves of immigration from rural areas. As a consequence the cities, especially their historic center, suffered from congestion, overpopulation and hygiene that lead to various epidemics. To improve hygiene conditions, measures were taken through major urban developments such as the transformation of Paris under the hands of Baron Haussmann the Prefect of the Seine Department between 1853 and 1870. In accordance with Napoleon III, Haussmann traced Paris's new plan and started with the 'eventrement' of the city's unhealthy neighborhoods by opening large rectilinear and longitudinal streets. In fact, he was continuing the work already proposed by Napoleon I and iniated later by Comte de Rambuteau in 1839 under the same concerns of hygiene. Haussmann's objectives were to embellish and modernize the city, and foremost, to improve living conditions and public health, and provide all citizens with light, air, water, public parks and gardens.On one hand, he was able to assemble a distinguished team the likes of Alphand, Barillet-Deschamps, Davioud, and Hittorff who created and built the promenades and squares of Paris. Their designs and urban elements were standardized and systematized becoming an urban model and influencing the cities' urban design. The fact that led Remesar to develop the 'Alphand- Davioud- Hittorff paradigm' where replicas of their style still predominates in shaping the landscape, spaces, and elements of our historic center.On the other hand, Haussmann received harsh criticism from political opponents that resulted in his dismissal. Due to the 'eventrement', he was criticized for destroying the old parts of the city causing a loss in historic and monumental buildings and neighborhoods. The new wide open streets and spaces made means of communication hard especially for pedestrians. In addtion, he was blamed for social disruption, inequality, and displacement caused by the amounts of demolitions and expropriations. Moreover, he was accused of squandering money over this long and costly procedure and over passing the budget.However, one cannot deny the fact that many defended him for all the promenades, parks, squares, gardens, and sewage system created without forgetting that these kinds of plans and procedures had already started before Haussmann dating back to the time of Napoleon I. ; En la primera mitad del siglo XIX y en la Revolución Industrial, ciudades como París se enfrentaron a problemas de salud que les causó el rápido crecimiento de las industrias y las olas de inmigración de las zonas rurales. Como consecuencia, las ciudades, especialmente su centro histórico, sufrieron de congestión, superpoblación e higiene que llevaron a diversas epidemias. Para mejorar las condiciones higiénicas, se tomaron medidas a través de importantes desarrollos urbanos como la transformación de París bajo las órdenes del Barón Haussmann, el Prefecto del Departamento del Sena, entre 1853 y 1870. Según Napoleón III, Haussmann trazó el nuevo plan de París y empezó con el 'Eventrement' de los barrios insalubres de la ciudad abriendo grandes calles rectilíneas y longitudinales. De hecho, continuaba el trabajo ya propuesto por Napoleón I e iniciado más tarde por el conde de Rambuteau en 1839 bajo las mismas preocupaciones de higiene. Los objetivos de Haussmann eran embellecer y modernizar la ciudad y, sobre todo, mejorar las condiciones de vida y la salud pública y proporcionar a todos los ciudadanos luz, aire, agua, parques públicos y jardines.Por un lado, fue capaz de reunir un equipo distinguido como Alphand, Barillet-Deschamps, Davioud y Hittorff que crearon y construyeron los paseos y plazas de París. Sus diseños y elementos urbanos fueron estandarizados y sistematizados convirtiéndose en un modelo urbano e influenciando el diseño urbano de las ciudades. El hecho que llevó a Remesar a desarrollar el "paradigma Alphand-Davioud-Hittorff", donde las réplicas de su estilo todavía predomina en la configuración del paisaje, los espacios y elementos de nuestro centro histórico.Por otra parte, Haussmann recibió duras críticas de los opositores políticos que resultaron en su despido. Debido al 'eventrement', fue criticado por destruir las partes antiguas de la ciudad causando una pérdida en edificios históricos y monumentales y barrios. Las nuevas calles y espacios abiertos hicieron los medios de comunicación difíciles especialmente para los peatones. Además, se le atribuyó la desorganización social, la desigualdad y el desplazamiento causados por las cantidades de demoliciones y expropiaciones. Además, se le acusa de gastar dinero en este largo y costoso procedimiento y en pasar el presupuesto.Sin embargo, no se puede negar el hecho de que muchos lo defendieron por todos los paseos, parques, plazas, jardines y sistema de alcantarillado creado sin olvidar que este tipo de planes y procedimientos ya habíancomenzado antes de Haussmann que se remonta a la época de Napoleón I.

En la primera mitad del siglo XIX y en la Revolución Industrial, ciudades como París se enfrentaron a problemas de salud que les causó el rápido crecimiento de las industrias y las olas de inmigración de las zonas rurales. Como consecuencia, las ciudades, especialmente su centro histórico, sufrieron de congestión, superpoblación e higiene que llevaron a diversas epidemias. Para mejorar las condiciones higiénicas, se tomaron medidas a través de importantes desarrollos urbanos como la transformación de París bajo las órdenes del Barón Haussmann, el Prefecto del Departamento del Sena, entre 1853 y 1870. Según Napoleón III, Haussmann trazó el nuevo plan de París y empezó con el 'Eventrement' de los barrios insalubres de la ciudad abriendo grandes calles rectilíneas y longitudinales. De hecho, continuaba el trabajo ya propuesto por Napoleón I e iniciado más tarde por el conde de Rambuteau en 1839 bajo las mismas preocupaciones de higiene. Los objetivos de Haussmann eran embellecer y modernizar la ciudad y, sobre todo, mejorar las condiciones de vida y la salud pública y proporcionar a todos los ciudadanos luz, aire, agua, parques públicos y jardines. Por un lado, fue capaz de reunir un equipo distinguido como Alphand, Barillet-Deschamps, Davioud y Hittorff que crearon y construyeron los paseos y plazas de París. Sus diseños y elementos urbanos fueron estandarizados y sistematizados convirtiéndose en un modelo urbano e influenciando el diseño urbano de las ciudades. El hecho que llevó a Remesar a desarrollar el "paradigma Alphand-Davioud-Hittorff", donde las réplicas de su estilo todavía predomina en la configuración del paisaje, los espacios y elementos de nuestro centro histórico. Por otra parte, Haussmann recibió duras críticas de los opositores políticos que resultaron en su despido. Debido al 'eventrement', fue criticado por destruir las partes antiguas de la ciudad causando una pérdida en edificios históricos y monumentales y barrios. Las nuevas calles y espacios abiertos hicieron los medios de comunicación difíciles especialmente para los peatones. Además, se le atribuyó la desorganización social, la desigualdad y el desplazamiento causados por las cantidades de demoliciones y expropiaciones. Además, se le acusa de gastar dinero en este largo y costoso procedimiento y en pasar el presupuesto. Sin embargo, no se puede negar el hecho de que muchos lo defendieron por todos los paseos, parques, plazas, jardines y sistema de alcantarillado creado sin olvidar que este tipo de planes y procedimientos ya habían comenzado antes de Haussmann que se remonta a la época de Napoleón I. ; In the first half of the 19th century and the Industrial Revolution, cities like Paris were faced with health problems brought upon them by the rapid growth of industries and the waves of immigration from rural areas. As a consequence the cities, especially their historic center, suffered from congestion, overpopulation and hygiene that lead to various epidemics. To improve hygiene conditions, measures were taken through major urban developments such as the transformation of Paris under the hands of Baron Haussmann the Prefect of the Seine Department between 1853 and 1870. In accordance with Napoleon III, Haussmann traced Paris's new plan and started with the 'eventrement' of the city's unhealthy neighborhoods by opening large rectilinear and longitudinal streets. In fact, he was continuing the work already proposed by Napoleon I and iniated later by Comte de Rambuteau in 1839 under the same concerns of hygiene. Haussmann's objectives were to embellish and modernize the city, and foremost, to improve living conditions and public health, and provide all citizens with light, air, water, public parks and gardens. On one hand, he was able to assemble a distinguished team the likes of Alphand, Barillet-Deschamps, Davioud, and Hittorff who created and built the promenades and squares of Paris. Their designs and urban elements were standardized and systematized becoming an urban model and influencing the cities' urban design. The fact that led Remesar to develop the 'Alphand- Davioud- Hittorff paradigm' where replicas of their style still predominates in shaping the landscape, spaces, and elements of our historic center. On the other hand, Haussmann received harsh criticism from political opponents that resulted in his dismissal. Due to the 'eventrement', he was criticized for destroying the old parts of the city causing a loss in historic and monumental buildings and neighborhoods. The new wide open streets and spaces made means of communication hard especially for pedestrians. In addtion, he was blamed for social disruption, inequality, and displacement caused by the amounts of demolitions and expropriations. Moreover, he was accused of squandering money over this long and costly procedure and over passing the budget. However, one cannot deny the fact that many defended him for all the promenades, parks, squares, gardens, and sewage system created without forgetting that these kinds of plans and procedures had already started before Haussmann dating back to the time of Napoleon I. ; En la primera mitad del siglo XIX y en la Revolución Industrial, ciudades como París se enfrentaron a problemas de salud que les causó el rápido crecimiento de las industrias y las olas de inmigración de las zonas rurales. Como consecuencia, las ciudades, especialmente su centro histórico, sufrieron de congestión, superpoblación e higiene que llevaron a diversas epidemias. Para mejorar las condiciones higiénicas, se tomaron medidas a través de importantes desarrollos urbanos como la transformación de París bajo las órdenes del Barón Haussmann, el Prefecto del Departamento del Sena, entre 1853 y 1870. Según Napoleón III, Haussmann trazó el nuevo plan de París y empezó con el 'Eventrement' de los barrios insalubres de la ciudad abriendo grandes calles rectilíneas y longitudinales. De hecho, continuaba el trabajo ya propuesto por Napoleón I e iniciado más tarde por el conde de Rambuteau en 1839 bajo las mismas preocupaciones de higiene. Los objetivos de Haussmann eran embellecer y modernizar la ciudad y, sobre todo, mejorar las condiciones de vida y la salud pública y proporcionar a todos los ciudadanos luz, aire, agua, parques públicos y jardines. Por un lado, fue capaz de reunir un equipo distinguido como Alphand, Barillet-Deschamps, Davioud y Hittorff que crearon y construyeron los paseos y plazas de París. Sus diseños y elementos urbanos fueron estandarizados y sistematizados convirtiéndose en un modelo urbano e influenciando el diseño urbano de las ciudades. El hecho que llevó a Remesar a desarrollar el "paradigma Alphand-Davioud-Hittorff", donde las réplicas de su estilo todavía predomina en la configuración del paisaje, los espacios y elementos de nuestro centro histórico. Por otra parte, Haussmann recibió duras críticas de los opositores políticos que resultaron en su despido. Debido al 'eventrement', fue criticado por destruir las partes antiguas de la ciudad causando una pérdida en edificios históricos y monumentales y barrios. Las nuevas calles y espacios abiertos hicieron los medios de comunicación difíciles especialmente para los peatones. Además, se le atribuyó la desorganización social, la desigualdad y el desplazamiento causados por las cantidades de demoliciones y expropiaciones. Además, se le acusa de gastar dinero en este largo y costoso procedimiento y en pasar el presupuesto. Sin embargo, no se puede negar el hecho de que muchos lo defendieron por todos los paseos, parques, plazas, jardines y sistema de alcantarillado creado sin olvidar que este tipo de planes y procedimientos ya habían comenzado antes de Haussmann que se remonta a la época de Napoleón I.

The North Anatolian fault (NAF), a 1000 km-long dextral fault zone is known for its strong seismic hazard. It accommodates the westward motion of Anatolia, relative to Eurasia. In its western part, the NAF splits into three strands, one of which passing south of the Marmara sea and the Iznik lake. This NAF middle strand (MNAF) shows nowadays a very low seismic activity. However, this area has been characterized by a significant earthquake hazard over the last two millennia. Several ancient authors mention the occurrence of more than six destructive earthquakes that impacted Iznik (old Nicaea), which was an important political and religious centre during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Our study aims to constrain the recent seismic activity on the MNAF in the Iznik area at different time scales through a multidisciplinary approach coupling earth science and archeology.The first goal of this thesis is to develop the study of ancient buildings as archives of the historical seismicity by observing their successive damages and repairs. The city of Nicaea is appropriate for this kind of study as it presents several well preserved ancient buildings that bear traces of numerous repairs. I focus my study on the critical infrastructures for the city such as the 3 km-long protecting walls. This also includes the aqueduct that provided the city with water and is crossed by a segment of active fault, and a Roman basilica recently discovered underwater in the Iznik lake 20 m far from the shore. Applying different dating techniques (stratigraphy of the archaeological building, 14C) to the various materials of these buildings (terra cotta, mortar, concretions on the aqueduct), I was able to identify at least three damaging earthquakes since the 6th century AD. The amount of damage on these buildings allows to estimate local intensities at VIII on the European macroseismic scale (EMS98). Thanks to numerical simulations, I show that the current deformation visible on a Roman obelisk north of Iznik is compatible with magnitudes close to Mw 7 for epicentral distances smaller than 15 km.The second goal of this thesis is to constrain the Quaternary slip rate on the MNAF and better understand the formation of Iznik Lake, a 313 km²-large lake located just west of the city, which is the largest freshwater lake in the Marmara region. The main faults around the lake were mapped using a high-resolution DEM derived from Pleiades images. Geomorphic markers offset by the MNAF were systematically measured. The statistical analysis of the offsets revealed six major ruptures preserved in the landscape, with coseismic displacements between 2 and 6 m. The ages of three levels of lacustrine terraces north of the lake were quantified by radiocarbon and in-situ produced 10Be. A minimal horizontal slip rate of 2.9 mm/yr was estimated. The southward tilting of the lake paeloshorelines is compatible with a high vertical slip rate on the MNAF around 6 mm/yr.While working on the morphology and lithologies of the Iznik area, we have discovered significant evidence for LGM glacial events. The U-shaped morphology of several successive valleys east of Iznik Lake separated by topographic highs is interpreted as the print of past glaciers. This is confirmed by the presence of moraine deposits on the sides of the valleys, erratic blocks from various lithologies and glacio-lacustrine sediments. The geographical distribution of these morphological and lithological markers enabled us to reconstruct the former location and eastward retreat of this glacier. The absolute ages obtained from glacial deposits and alluvial sediments postponing the glaciation are compatible with paleoenvironmental proxies in Iznik Lake and previous studies of other Turkish LGM glaciers. This constitutes the first evidence of glaciation at low elevations in Turkey. ; La faille nord anatolienne (NAF), une zone de faille dextre longue de 1000 km est caractérisée par un fort aléa sismique. Elle accommode le mouvement vers l'ouest de l'Anatolie par rapport à l'Eurasie. Dans sa partie ouest, la NAF se divise en trois branches, dont une borde le sud de la mer de Marmara et du lac d'Iznik. Ce segment médian de la NAF (MNAF) présente aujourd'hui une très faible sismicité. Pourtant, cette zone se caractérise par un risque sismique élevé à l'échelle des deux derniers millénaires. Plus de six séismes sont décrits par les auteurs anciens et causèrent des destructions dans la ville d'Iznik (ancienne Nicée), un centre politique et religieux important aux époques hellénistique et romaine. Notre étude a pour but de contraindre l'activité sismique récente de la MNAF dans la région d'Iznik à plusieurs échelles de temps, par une approche pluridisciplinaire combinant géosciences et archéologie.Le premier objectif de cette thèse est de développer l'étude des bâtiments anciens comme archives de la sismicité historique en observant leurs endommagements et réparations successifs. La ville de Nicée est appropriée pour ce type d'étude puisqu'elle présente plusieurs bâtiments préservés portant les traces de nombreuses réparations. J'ai concentré mon travail sur des infrastructures critiques comme la muraille défensive longue de 3 km. Cela inclut aussi l'aqueduc de la ville, recoupé par une faille active, ainsi qu'une basilique romaine découverte récemment sous les eaux du lac d'Iznik à 20 m de la côte. En appliquant plusieurs techniques de datation (stratigraphie des édifices, 14C) sur les bâtiments, j'ai pu identifier au moins trois séismes sources d'endommagement depuis le 6e siècle. La répartition des dommages sur les bâtiments permet d'estimer des intensités locales de VIII sur l'échelle macrosismique européenne (EMS98). Grâce à des simulations numériques, je montre que les déformations visibles sur un obélisque romain au nord d'Iznik sont compatibles avec des magnitudes proches de Mw 7 pour des distances épicentrales inférieures à 15 km.Le deuxième objectif de cette thèse est de contraindre la vitesse de glissement quaternaire sur la MNAF et de mieux comprendre la formation du lac d'Iznik à l'ouest de la ville. Ce lac de 313 km² est le plus grand lac d'eau douce de la région de Marmara. Les principales failles autour du lac ont été cartées avec un MNT de haute résolution dérivé d'images Pléiades. Les marqueurs géomorphologiques décalés par la MNAF ont fait l'objet de mesures systématiques. L'analyse statistique de ces décalages a mis en évidence six ruptures majeures préservées dans le paysage, avec des déplacements cosismiques entre 2 et 6 m. Les âges de trois niveaux de terrasses lacustres au nord du lac ont été quantifiés par radiocarbone et 10Be produit in situ. J'ai pu déterminer un taux de glissement horizontal minimum de 2.9 mm/yr. Le basculement vers le sud des paléorivages est compatible avec un taux de glissement vertical élevé sur la MNAF autour de 6 mm/yr.En travaillant sur la morphologie et les lithologies de la région d'Iznik, nous avons découvert des preuves d'épisodes glaciaires LGM. La morphologie en U de plusieurs vallées à l'est du lac d'Iznik, séparées par des sauts topographiques correspond à l'empreinte d'anciens glaciers. Cette hypothèse est confirmée par la présence de moraines en bord de vallée, de blocs erratiques aux lithologies variées, et de sédiments glacio-lacustres. La distribution spatiale de ces marqueurs morphologiques et lithologiques nous permet de reconstruire l'emplacement et le retrait vers l'est de ce glacier. Les âges absolus des dépôts glaciaires et des alluvions postérieurs à la glaciation sont compatibles avec des proxies paléoenvironnementaux provenant du lac d'Iznik et les études réalisées sur d'autres glaciers turcs LGM. Il s'agit de la première découverte de glaciers à si basse altitude en Turquie.

In the article the Cossack chronicles of Samovodska, Gregory Hrabianka, Samilo Velichko are reviewed. They are important sources of Ukrainian culture history.At the end of the XVIth and at the beginning of the XVIIth centuries some changes happened in the social and spiritual life of Ukraine. They led to the creation of a new social class – the cossacks, which did the most important tasks of the whole nation, played the main role in the its development.The cossacks created an amazing, multifaceted, original culture, which occupied a special page of Ukrainian culture. The cossack chronicles are very important monuments among the achievements of cossack culture and valuablesources for the study of Ukrainian culture history. They are historical and literary works of the second half of XVII – XVIII century, devoted to the cossack wars. That's why they are called "Cossack" or "Lieutenant-colonel", but they differ from the traditional chronicles very much.Nowadays we have only three famous cossack chronicle. They are Witness' Chronicle (devoted to the events ofthe 1648-1702 years, probable author – Roman Rakushka-Romanov) Hrabianka Chronicle ((1710) about the period from the origin of cossacks till 1709) and Chronicle Family Wieliczka ((1720) events in Ukraine in the 1648-1700 years).Witness' Chronicle is one of the greatest historiographical monument and one of the most reliable historical sources of the XVIIth century. In addition, it is a distinctive and original monument of Ukrainian language and literature.The chronicle as a historical source, written by an eyewitness, contains important factual information about thehistory of Ukrainian, Russian, Byelorussian, Polish and other nations in the second part of the XVIIth century. Most of it is unique. The first part of the work, devoted to the period from 1648 to 1677 years, is written mainly in a historical style.The author follows the logical and causal consistency in the review of events. His historical stories have titles, consequences and are logically connected.The second part of the chronicle ( till 1702) concerned the chronicle tradition. There are not any forestalls in thiswork, because the author was a witness of that events and did not know their end. The author used the method of gaining information, which consists of the mechanical reproduction of historical facts, and the author's interpretation of those facts.The central topic of Witness' chronicle is a national liberation war of Ukrainians in 1648-1654. There are economic, political and cultural characteristics of the country, the fact from the history of Russia, Poland, Hungary, Sweden, Moldova, Turkey and other states in this chronicle.Witness is more interested in the theme of wealth destruction, devastation, robbing of the most part of society by the "black" and external enemies. On the other hand, he condemns all people who shed the blood of people, tortured them and did tyranny, regardless of their social status.As for the political views of Witness, he openly sympathized the monarchy – whether it was the king of Poland, or the tsar of Moscow. He did not think about Ukraine as an independent state. Witness historical worldview definedcategories of "earth" causality. In his work the theme of the Divine mostly meant traditional ethic formula. The author explained the causes of historical events by the circumstances of life and human motives.Another famous cossack chronicle writer was Gregory Hrabianka, Gadyach colonel. His chronicle – one of thebrightest and most valuable works of Ukrainian chronicles. The author focused on the event of the liberation war in 1648-1654 and the vivid descriptions of cossack battles. Its first translation from old Ukrainian into modern language was done by H.Ivanchenko in 1992.Chronicle is a typical example of rhetorical genre of historical literature such as narrative. The attention is particular paid to the description of extreme situations, heroic and moral lessons of a "historic drama." Its composition and subject is clear. It should be considered primarily as a literary work, not as historical. The author shows no documentary evidence and presents the literary-adapted history aimed to the public reading. First of all, he expects asignificant emotional impact on the reader. In the gradual loss of Ukraine's autonomy,the main tasks of Hrabianka was to remind about the old cossack glory.The main object of his research is a history of cossacks. The central figure of Hrabianka's chronicle is Bogdan Khmelnitsky. This is the main character of a work where the author units the features of a real historical figure and the ideal leader. In Hrabianka's description, Bogdan Khmelnitsky remains an icon and a model for the next generations.Family Wieliczko chronicle was the great stage in the history of the Cossack chronicles and the most outstanding Ukrainian historical-fiction memoir in XVII-XVIII centuries.The chronicle is the first systematic exposition of the history of Ukrainian Cossack state where the author usesmany Ukrainian, Polish, German sources, a lot of the general military office documents. Writing the chronicle, Samuel Velichko used various sources: folk tales, other cossack chronicles, works of foreign historians, archival documents, letters, registers, etc. The authenticity of the many documents, listed in the record, is not discussed by historians; because some of them are known from other sources.The chronicle consists of 4 parts. The first one – "Legend of the cossack war with the Poles caused by ZenoviyBohdan Khmelnytsky ." describes the events of the 1648-1659 years, individual episodes dating back to 1620. Thesecond and the third parts, covered periods of the 1660-1686 and 1687-1700 years, are called "Chronicle story aboutmalorussian and other behavior which got and described there" contain a lot of Velichko's observations based on thedocuments of the Hetman's Office. The forth one contains the applications from different documents of the 17th century.It was the first fundamental historical research where the author used systematically a great number of sourceson a special topic. As historian and ruled by the rhetoric of baroque art, Velichko wanted to create an impressive picture of military feats and tests, glory and betrayal, blinded heroes by their passions and immense human suffering, which the Ukrainian people met in a day of great social events – the National Liberation War and Ruin.Velichko was a humanist and a democrat. He also was an admirer of the cossacks and considered them a real defenders of Ukraine and national and democratic "rights and liberties" of the Ukrainian people. The cossack chronicler rudely criticized internecine struggle for the hetman power and thought that it led to the ruin of his country, split Cossacks into hostile camps. This situation was used by Poland, Moscow and Turkey to establish their dominance in Ukraine.S. Velichko tries to highlight the history of Ukraine in the context of the most important events in neighboring countries – Poland, Muscovy, Hungary, Moldova, Crimea, Turkey.Certainly, the figure of Velichko is a decisive criterion for his work in general and the concept of baroque personality, because the author was such baroque person in his style of thinking and attitude.Velichko's chronicle became the favorite book for all our historians. Our best writers drew from it the materials and the spiritual energy. This is a really great book of the Ukrainian people. This is a feat life Samiylo Velichko.According previous information, the author concludes that the cossack chronicles of Witness, Hrabianka and Velichko are important sources of research into the history of Ukrainian culture, and our national pride. They haven't lost their artistic value, but also became the golden treasury of world culture. They glorified their creators. ; В статье рассмотрены казацкие летописи Самовидца, Григория Грабянки, Cамойла Величка, которые являются важным источником истории украинской культуры. Автор утверждает, что они не только не потеряли свою художественную и историографическую ценность, но и сейчас составляют нашу национальную гордость, входят в золотую сокровищницу украинской и мировой культуры. ; У статті розглянуто козацькі літописи Самовидця, Григорія Грабянки, Самійла Величка, які є важливим джерелом історії української культури. Автор стверджує, що вони не тільки не втратили свою художню та історіографічну цінність, а й нині становлять нашу національну гордість, входять до золотої скарбниці української та світової культури.

This research is a novel knowledge about the library contribution because it proposes to create a new branch discipline the "green library". Analysis is a proposal from the college to address before the society and academia collective experience accumulated by the Costa Rican specialized libraries in these areas throughout their years of service and information management practices using front to the country's needs.Costa Rica is a country with a broad global recognition in the ecological theme and ecotourism, for the vast territories are protected areas for the preservation of ecological diversity, among others.The objective of this research was to demonstrate the importance of information management environment in libraries, proposing a new discipline: the ecological library. In addition, the contributions of the documentation centers and libraries specializing in this subject, in Costa Rica "were identified. The environmental management concept chosen for this research considering the importance of science librarianship as expand its disciplinary areas, to study specialties linked to national development.Currently, the document management aimed at providing information services on the current reality and aimed towards priority areas such as environmental management, climate change adaptation, and housing, employment, transparency and risk reduction. The role of documentation centers and libraries and information professionals is important, because they must be instances advice in making political, economic, social decisions that guarantee safeguarding the short and long term of our environmental history, and accessibility of information on this subject. In addition, they have to be able to create ecological culture, implement procedures to ecological literacy and "dating" communities for all human beings, we protect the environment.This research considered unique in its kind and a pioneer in this field in Costa Rica; it is a study of mixed approach and three sources of information consulted:1. The library staff consists of 24 officials of 24 specialized libraries and documentation centers selected for their functions and the contents of their collections.2. The virtual visibility projecting these 24 libraries in national and international networks.3. Public opinion on the contribution of these libraries to the environment.The first population was applied descriptive research, to gather information from the survey and a questionnaire consisting of 15 variables. Qualitative research used in the second source of information about the virtual visibility of libraries and public opinion gathered using an exploratory study, another survey conducted by social networks. ; Esta investigación es un aporte novedoso al conocimiento sobre la bibliotecología porque propone crear una nueva rama disciplinar: la "bibliotecología ecológica". Constituye una propuesta de análisis desde la universidad para abordar ante la sociedad y la academia la experiencia colectiva que han acumulado las bibliotecas especializadas costarricenses en estas áreas, a lo largo de sus años de servicio y las prácticas de gestión de información que utilizan frente a las necesidades del país.Costa Rica es un país con un amplio reconocimiento mundial en el tema ecológico y el turismo ecológico, por los amplios territorios que constituyen áreas protegidas para la preservación de la diversidad ecológica, entre otros.El objetivo de esta investigación fue demostrar la importancia de la gestión de información sobre el medio ambiente en las bibliotecas, proponiendo una nueva disciplina: la bibliotecología ecológica. Además, se identificaron los aportes de los centros de documentación y bibliotecas especializadas sobre ese tema en Costa Rica. El concepto gestión ambiental se escogió para realizar esta investigación considerando la importancia de que la bibliotecología, como ciencia, amplíe sus áreas disciplinares, para estudiar especialidades vinculadas al desarrollo nacional.Actualmente, la gestión documental está dirigida a ofrecer servicios de información sobre la realidad actual y encaminada hacia temas prioritarios como, por ejemplo, la gestión ambiental, la adaptación al cambio climático, la vivienda, el empleo, la transparencia y la reducción del riesgo. El rol de los centros de documentación y bibliotecas y del profesional de la información es importante porque deben ser las instancias que asesoren en la toma de decisiones políticas, económicas, sociales, que garanticen el resguardo a corto y largo plazo de nuestra historia ambiental, así como la accesibilidad de información en esta temática. También, tienen que ser capaces de crear cultura ecológica, aplicar procedimientos para la alfabetización ecológica y "enamorar" a las comunidades para que todos los seres humanos protejamos el medio ambiente.Esta investigación se considera como única en su índole y pionera en esta temática en Costa Rica. Es un estudio de enfoque mixto y se consultaron tres fuentes de información:1. El personal bibliotecario constituido por 24 funcionarios encargados de 24 bibliotecas especializadas o centros de documentación seleccionadas por sus funciones y los contenidos de sus colecciones.2. La visibilidad virtual que proyectan estas 24 bibliotecas en las redes nacionales e internacionales.3. La opinión pública sobre el aporte de esas bibliotecas al ambiente.Con la primera población se aplicó investigación descriptiva para recopilar la información mediante la encuesta y un cuestionario constituido por 15 variables. La investigación cualitativa se usó en la segunda fuente de información referente a la visibilidad virtual de las bibliotecas y la opinión pública se recabó utilizando un estudio exploratorio, otra encuesta aplicada por medio de las redes sociales. ; Esta pesquisa é uma nova contribuição para o conhecimento sobre a biblioteconomia porque propõe a criação de um novo ramo disciplinar: a "biblioteconomia ecológica". Constitui uma proposta de análise da universidade para abordar perante a sociedade e a academia a experiência coletiva que as bibliotecas especializadas costarriquenhas acumularam nessas áreas, ao longo de seus anos de serviço e as práticas de gestão da informação que utilizam diante das necessidades do país.Costa Rica é um país com um amplo reconhecimento mundial no tema ecológico e do turismo ecológico, pelos amplos territórios que constituem áreas protegidas para a preservação da diversidade ecológica, entre outros.o objetivo desta investigação foi demonstrar a importância da gestão da informação sobre o meio ambiente nas bibliotecas, propondo uma nova disciplina: a biblioteconomia ecológica. Além disso, foram identificadas as contribuições dos centros de documentação e bibliotecas especializadas neste tema na Costa Rica. O conceito de gestão ambiental foi escolhido para a realização desta pesquisa considerando a importância de que a biblioteconomia, como ciência, amplie suas áreas disciplinares para estudar especialidades ligadas ao desenvolvimento nacional; atualmente, a gestão documental tem como objetivo oferecer serviços de informação sobre a realidade atual e direcionados a temas prioritários como gestão ambiental, adaptação às mudanças climáticas, habitação, emprego, transparência e redução de riscos. O papel dos centros de documentação e bibliotecas e do profissional da informação é importante porque devem ser os organismos que aconselham sobre a tomada de decisões políticas, económicas e sociais, que garantem a protecção a curto e longo prazo da nossa história ambiental, bem como a acessibilidade da informação sobre este tema. Além disso, devem ser capazes de criar cultura ecológica, aplicar procedimentos de alfabetização ecológica e "apaixonar-se" pelas comunidades para que todos os seres humanos protejam o meio ambiente. esta pesquisa é considerada única em sua natureza e pioneira neste tema na Costa Rica. Trata-se de um estudo de abordagem mista e foram consultadas três fontes de informação: 1. A equipe de bibliotecários é formada por 24 funcionários encarregados de 24 bibliotecas especializadas ou centros de documentação selecionados para as suas funções e o conteúdo das suas coleções.2. A visibilidade virtual projetada por essas 24 bibliotecas em redes nacionais e internacionais.3 Opinião pública sobre a contribuição dessas bibliotecas para o meio ambiente. Com a primeira população, foi aplicada pesquisa descritiva para compilar as informações por meio da pesquisa e de um questionário composto por 15 variáveis. A pesquisa qualitativa foi utilizada na segunda fonte de informação sobre a visibilidade virtual das bibliotecas, e a opinião pública foi reunida por meio de um estudo exploratório, outra pesquisa aplicada através de redes sociais.

Author's introductionMost research on race and ethnicity focuses on discrimination patterns against entire groups, such as African Americans, Latina/os, Asian Americans, or American Indians. The study of colorism is unique because it investigates intraracial hierarchies of skin color. Studies of colorism examine how the actual lightness or darkness of a person's skin tone affects his or her life opportunities such as education, income, and housing. This is a crucial line of inquiry because a significant amount of race/color discrimination lies hidden within communities of color. Investigating colorism also exposes centuries‐old colonial ideologies that valorize white culture and white beauty. Many recent studies of skin tone stratification focus on both the historical and contemporary factors that maintain a light‐skinned elite in communities of color. Ultimately, colorism research enables a deeper understanding of systemic racism around the world.Author recommendsRussell, Kathy, Midge Wilson, and Ronald Hall 1992. The Color Complex. New York, NY: Doubleday.This book was groundbreaking in that it was one of the first popular books on the topic of colorism. Focused primarily on African Americans, the authors provide a journalistic account of the manifestations of colorism and the sociological, historical, and psychological causes of it. This book is a great overview of colorism in the African American community.Rondilla, Joanne and Paul Spickard 2007. Is Lighter Better? Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Rondilla and Spickard have written the first book on colorism in the Asian American community. This book is broad and thorough covering topics such as color and identity, mother–daughter relationships and the color/beauty nexus, and the global sales of skin‐bleaching products. The book is empirical, historical, and theoretical.Hunter, Margaret 2005. Race, Gender, and the Politics of Skin Tone. New York, NY: Routledge.Hunter creates a persuasive argument that skin color discrimination is alive and well in the USA. She pays particular attention to the African American and Mexican American communities in her studies that cover income disparities, educational gaps, marriage market politics, and cosmetic surgery. The book uses both statistics and interviews with women of color as evidence for its claims.Herring, Cedric, Verna M. Keith, and Hayward Derrick Horton (Eds.) 2004. Skin/Deep: How Race and Complexion Matter in the 'Color‐Blind' Era. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.This edited volume covers a broad range of topics, including the biracial baby boom, the 'neo‐mulatto' elite, the Latin Americanization thesis of racial formation, and the persistent role of colorism in African American communities. The contributors are primarily sociologists arguing that the form of racism and racial discrimination is changing in the new post‐Civil Rights era.Allen, Walter, Edward Telles, and Margaret Hunter 2000. 'Skin Color, Income, and Education: A Comparison of African Americans and Mexican Americans.'National Journal of Sociology 12: 129–80.The authors present a thorough analysis of the structural and social–psychological factors that affect colorism in the African American and Mexican American communities. Using two national survey data sets, Allen, Telles, and Hunter suggest that colorism is an ongoing phenomenon in both groups providing the light skinned with significant advantages in income and educational attainment.Brunsma, David L. and Kerry A. Rockquemore 2001. 'The New Color Complex: Appearances and Biracial Identity.' Identity 1: 225–46.This article takes up the important issue of biracial identity and its relationship to physical appearance. Moving away from a more traditional stratification model, the authors ask what it means to be darker or lighter as a mixed‐race person, and how one's physical appearance affects his or her racial self‐identification.Mire, Amina 2001. 'Skin‐Bleaching: Poison, Beauty, Power, and the Politics of the Colour Line.'Resources for Feminist Research 28 (3–4): 13–38.In this lengthy and rigorous article, Mire suggests that the postcolonial, global phenomenon of skin‐bleaching has strong and deep roots in the European colonial experience. She uses a feminist lens to understand why women's bodies are often the site of poisonous skin‐bleaching creams and how the interlocking systems of racism and patriarchy work together to oppress women in postcolonial nations around the world.Online materials'Color Coding and Bias in Hollywood'This video excerpt features Henry Louis Gates informally interviewing a group of African American women actors. They discuss the color line and skin tone in the entertainment industry. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UeGsIuBxDFk 'Black Students Still Favor Lighter Skin, Study Finds'This research report describes two recent surveys of college students and their attitudes toward skin color in dating and friendship. http://www.blackcollegewire.org/studentlife/070611_colorism/ 'A Girl Like Me'This short video features interviews with African American girls and women reflecting on the meaning of skin color in their own lives. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=17fEy0q6yqc 'Club Slammed Over 'Light‐Skinned' Promotion'This news article describes the controversy surrounding the owner of a Detroit area nightclub who promoted the club by offering light‐skinned black women free admission. http://www.cnn.com/2007/LIVING/wayoflife/10/18/skintone.club.ap/index.html?iref=newssearch 'Indian Men Go Tall, Fair, and Handsome'This article describes the new skin‐bleaching product, Fair and Handsome, marketed to men in India. Skin‐bleaching, once a primarily female activity, has crossed the gender line. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4396122.stm Sample syllabusRacial and Ethnic Relations (excerpt of syllabus).Course descriptionThis course is designed to introduce students to the exciting and influential field of racial and ethnic studies. With racial inequality as an enduring part of the American landscape, it is important that we all learn as much as we can about racial and ethnic issues. In this course, we will learn about many different aspects of racial and ethnic studies, including segregation, separatism, assimilation, immigration, and multiracial identity. We will discuss many different racial and ethnic groups in this course and we will focus on Latinos, Asian Americans, whites, African Americans, and American Indians.Week 1: Definitions of raceF. James Davis, Who Is Black? One Nation's DefinitionGeorge Martinez, 'Mexican Americans and Whiteness'Hector Tobar, 'A Battle Over Who Is Indian'Video: 'Race: The Power of An Illusion, Part I'Week 2: Interracial marriage and biracial identityMaria P. P. Root. 'Five Mixed‐Race Identities'Mary Texeira. 'The New Multiracialism'Video: 'Just Black'Week 3: Skin tone, inequality, and internalized racismMaxine Leeds Craig, Ain't I a Beauty Queen? Black Women, Beauty, and the Politics of Race Margaret Hunter, 'The Persistent Problem of Colorism: Skin Tone, Status, and Inequality' Video: 'A Question of Color'Week 4: The paradox of AmericanizationNazli Kibria, 'Becoming Asian American'Renato Rosaldo, 'Cultural Citizenship, Inequality, and Multiculturalism'Video: 'Fear and Learning at Hoover Elementary'Focus questions

Eduardo Bonilla‐Silva suggests that the racial hierarchy in the USA is increasingly resembling that of Latin America, with whites at the top, light‐skinned and mixed‐race people in the middle, and darker‐skinned people of color at the bottom. What evidence is there for and against this position?
What are the challenges for scholars who are researching 'across the color line' or researching 'across the skin tone line?'
Describe some aspects of US culture that perpetuate the valorization of whiteness? Are there any trends or movements that resist definitions of white beauty?
Eight‐five percent of cosmetic surgery in the USA is done on women's bodies. What does this tell us about how US culture views women's bodies?
Describe three strategies for combating colorism within communities of color and in the larger US context. What kind of attitudinal and structural changes must take place for significant changes to occur?

Project ideaConduct your own content analysis. Choose 10 magazines geared toward African Americans (or another community of color). Analyze the advertisements in each magazine by counting the number of images of light‐, medium‐, and dark‐skinned people featured in the advertisements. Also pay attention to the types of advertisements that people of different skin tones appear in (for example, beauty advertisements, travel advertisements, or advertisements for household products). By counting and categorizing in this way, you should find some interesting patterns that reveal deeper ideological meanings about skin tone and status in our society.