Suchergebnisse

International migration is a consequence of globalisation and part of a transnational trend which permanently influences communities, cultural interaction and socio-economic governance in developed and developing states (Harris 2009:4). According to Solomon (1996:1) one out of every hundred and fourteen people in the world can be regarded as displaced. Angenendt (2008:1) is of the opinion that the reasons for illegal immigration in particular can be universally linked to the attempt to fl ee from political violence and oppression or a lack of economic prospects in the country of origin. In the European Union (EU) the largest group of immigrants, for example, come from Turkey, Morocco, Albania and Serbia (A common immigration policy 2008:4). In the United States of America (USA) illegal immigrants and non-established minorities are mostly from Mexico, Cuba and other South American states. In South Africa the abovementioned groups mainly come from Zimbabwe, Mozambique and Swaziland (Whitman 2000:19). Migration is a multidimensional and complex concept relating to a variety of interpretations and meanings. For the purposes of this article the research will be narrowed down to illegal immigration and insufficient integration and marginalisation of non-established minorities in South Africa and the European Union (with a brief reference to the Netherlands as a case study). The key concepts can be summarised as follows: a) Non-established minorities: Smit (2009:8) views non-established minorities as individuals or a group that enter a receiver state legally or illegally. These individuals or groups find it difficult to integrate on social, cultural and economic levels in the receiver state. Non- established minorities tend to live in groups, develop their own community structures and tend to retain their own language, culture and religion. This means that they are unable to integrate into the structure and culture of the society that they have entered. They therefore tend to function and live in isolation. In many respects their traditions and way of life are being viewed as strange and regarded with suspicion. The consequence is that non-established minorities are often subjected to socio-economic marginalisation and even discrimination; b) Illegal immigration: In brief terms an illegal or undocumented immigrant can be described as a person that enters a state without formal permission. An illegal immigrant therefore enters a state outside the legislative migration framework of that state. Illegal immigration usually takes place through people-trafficking organisations, overstaying on a tourist or study visa or forging a visa (Offe 2011:4). The South African government has recently launched initiatives to improve immigration control and limit illegal immigration from other African states. In broad terms these initiatives consist of the redeployment of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF) on the South African borders, as well as improved internal processing arrangements and deportation procedures. In the light of the foregoing actions, this article undertakes a holistic comparative analysis of the immigration and non-established minority challenges facing the EU and the way in which illegal immigration is managed in South Africa. The primary assumption is that there are managerial shortcomings and certain lessons to be learnt from the EU experience. It is the main objective of this article to highlight these lessons. Firstly, the article focuses on the impact of moral obligations as an important rationale for the extent of, and manner in which the South African authorities currently manage illegal immigration and the problem of non-established minority groups. Here an emphasis is placed on crime, unemployment and xenophobia as perceived consequences of illegal immigration. Secondly, as the main focus, the article is narrowed down to the perception of, and manner in which illegal immigration and non-established minorities are currently being dealt with within the EU. In this regard there is a specific emphasis on the perception of the national interest of individual states as rationale behind the management of illegal immigration and non-established minorities in the EU. This comparison serves as a guideline to identify the challenges that must be overcome by the South African authorities and provide recommendations for relevant policy formulation and the implementation thereof ; Internasionale migrasie is 'n uitvloeisel van globalisering en deel van 'n transnasionale tendens wat gemeenskappe, kulturele interaksie sowel as sosio-ekonomiese regeerprosesse in ontwikkelde en ontwikkelende state permanent beïnvloed (Harris 2009:4). Volgens Solomon (1996:1) is een uit elke honderd en veertien mense wêreldwyd 'n uitgewekene. Die redes vir veral onwettige immigrasie word volgens Angenendt (2008:1) universeel verbind met pogings van mense om aan politieke geweld en onderdrukking te ontkom. 'n Gebrek aan ekonomiese vooruitsigte in die land van herkoms is dikwels ook 'n rede vir vertrek uit die eie staat van herkoms. Binne die EU is die grootste groepe onwettige immigrante en niegevestigde minderhede byvoorbeeld afkomstig uit Turkye, Marokko, Albanië, Algerië en Serwië (A common immigration policy 2008:4). In die Verenigde State van Amerika (VSA) is onwettige immigrante en niegevestigde minderhede afkomstig uit Meksiko, Kuba en ander Suid-Amerikaanse state. In Suid-Afrika is hulle veral afkomstig uit Zimbabwe, Mosambiek en Swaziland (Whitman 2000:19). Migrasie is 'n multidimensionele en komplekse konsep wat verband hou met 'n verskeidenheid interpretasies en betekenisse. Vir die doeleindes van hierdie navorsing word die omvang en hantering van die immigrasieproblematiek binne Suid-Afrika en die Europese Unie (met 'n kort verwysing na Nederland as 'n gevallestudie) beperk tot 'n bespreking van die problematiek van onwettige immigrasie en die daarmee verbandhoudende gebrekkige integrasie van minderhede in die "doelstaat". Die Suid-Afrikaanse regering het onlangs inisiatiewe van stapel gestuur ten einde onwettige immigrasie, veral uit ander Afrikastate, beter te beheer en selfs te ontmoedig. In breë trekke behels hierdie inisiatiewe die ontplooiing van die Suid-Afrikaanse Nasionale Weermag (SANW) op die grense, die verskerping van binnelandse prosesseringsmaatreëls en deporteringsprosedures. In hierdie artikel word 'n vergelyking getref tussen die immigrasie- en die niegevestigde minderheidsproblematiek van die EU en die wyse waarop veral onwettige immigrasie tans in Suid-Afrika hanteer word. Die primêre aanname is dat daar steeds leemtes in die Suid-Afrikaanse hanteringswyse is, en dat daar lesse te leer is uit die EU-ondervinding. Dit is juis hierdie lesse wat in die artikel uitgelig word. Eerstens word kernagtig ingegaan op die impak van morele verpligtinge as belangrike rasionaal onderliggend aan die wyse waarop die onwettige immigrasie en die niegevestigede minderheidsproblematiek tans in Suid-Afrika hanteer word. Hier is die fokus spesifiek op misdaad, werkloosheid en vreemdelingehaat as uitvloeisels van onwettige immigrasie. Die fokus word tweedens ter vergelyking vernou tot die persepsie en wyse waarop die immigrasie en niegevestigde minderheidsproblematiek binne die EU hanteer en ervaar word. In hierdie verband word die klem spesifiek op die persepsie van nasionale eiebelang van individuele EU-lidstate as rasionaal vir die hantering van die niegevestigde minderheidsproblematiek binne die EU gelê. Hierdie vergelyking dien as riglyn vir die identifisering van uitdagings wat deur die Suid-Afrikaanse owerhede oorkom moet word. Dit is dan moontlik om aanbevelings te maak vir relevante beleidsformulering en die implementering daarvan in Suid-Afrika

Published interview of Brooks Hays in Nation's Cities (American Municipal Association) ; refers to three "levels" of government—federal, state, and local. Should there be a fourth—metropolitan? Well, the intergovernmental aspect of metropolitan area government is one good example of what Senator Muskie of Maine calls "the fourth dimension" of government. Cities like Philadelphia and New York have an impact on a large area—parts of three states, in their cases—and on all levels of government. Do you see this as bringing about another level of government to handle problems of urban areas which are on rivers which form state boundaries, such as Kansas City or Memphis? It could be an exciting new experiment in government. What account should we take of a city that straddles a state line? The lives of many people are properly affected by that, even when their area isn't large enough to be defined as metropolitan. However, it seems to me that the most pressing problems brought about by urban growth would continue to be in the great metropolitan areas. In the Chicago area, Wisconsin and Indiana are affected. St. Louis laps over into Illinois, and Chattanooga actually extends into two other states besides Tennessee. You can point to Los Angeles and say that only one state is involved but even there the water supply comes from the Colorado River and this becomes an interstate matter in part. Federal agencies seem to be taking into account the metropolitan scope of their progress, aren't they? To some extent. I mentioned the President's instructions about notifying states of federal actions in advance. That's one approach. But other federal efforts can do only so much. I remember the problems of carrying out federal policy with the Office of Price Administration. The administrator had to realize that it could not be controlled without unified approval from the states. And we never got unified approval. We're not getting it today in regard to many of these programs which are directed at our localities. Does this mean that federal agencies which reflect some concern about metropolitan problems are doing it because the states have left a vacuum on the subject? I think there is a certain absence of concern in the state governments, but I don't think it is a vacuum. And what the federal administrator does is in terms of "reciprocity," he can't afford to be high-handed. We do it with the spirit of cooperation between levels of government. James Madison said, "This Federal system will work as long as there is reciprocal forbearance." That is a choice quotation. The kind of government we have launched is unique—we don't expect it to be a perfect mechanism. Human systems have to be resilient. Perhaps for this reason, allocations to states don't adhere rigidly to formulas. Do governors have need for staff positions such as yours and people such as the Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations? For neat and effective functioning, we've got to avoid proliferation of offices. Governors—a good many of them, at least—are aware of the magnitude of developing problems. Each has to become something of a specialist himself; it's almost necessary because there is so much interest in this area now. Having expert advice in his office might well serve a useful purpose, however. This is a matter for each state to decide. Do you care to comment on proposals that the President create a White House staff unit to coordinate federal urban programs which are administered by many different agencies? The present view at the White House is that we have established sufficient procedures between the President and individual agencies. We would much prefer the establishment of a Department of Urban Affairs so that the administration of each federal program could be better related to the others. As a general assessment, how do you feel the Administration's programs will fare at the hands of the new Congress? In broad terms, we do think that the Administration's programs will be treated more sympathetically. Looking ahead to 1964's elections, a lot of Congressmen will want to be able to point to their support of the President. Since the Republicans picked up additional seats in the South and showed surprising strength in close races, what meaning do you think this has for the future of a two-party South? Well, you must remember that there were a lot of changes and not just in the South. When voters in New England elect as many Democrats to state and national office as in recent elections, you have a different two-party picture there, too. In both places, however, the real meaning is very hard to define in actual terms. It does prove the independence of the American voter, regardless of where he lives. And, as I said before, maybe the remarkable mobility of our people will mean a better competition between parties in all regions, states, and districts. I hope so because I believe in the two-party system. When I was running for office, I was on record as favoring it. You know, I want every good thing in life for the Republicans except public office. At the same time, if the Southern Republicans are going to run on the idea that "we're more against integration than you Democrats," they are not building up a foundation for a real party organization. I suppose that the national Republican party will have to decide whether to push for such a foundation, or whether to accept whatever kind of candidates happen to come down the pike in the South. With your responsibilities combined with the staff work of the Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations and the legislative role of the House and Senate Subcommitees dealing with the subject, where do you think the biggest impact on this "jungle" will be felt? One of the greatest contributions will be to promote the new professionalism and broader outlook which must go into the workings of all levels of government in our time. There may be a long delay in getting through the steps of fact-finding, suggested remedies, debate on them, and decision-making eventually, but all of our effort is aimed at improving each of these vital parts of the democratic process. I think our governmental leaders at all levels will ultimately recognize that their government's decision will always influence the other fellow's, and that expert advice is needed to determine just what that impact will be and what to do about it, in the interest of good government. 14 NATION'S CITIES • WINTER 1962

acts. The research is based on relevant data from the field of environmental protection in four language versions of the EU acquis: Bulgarian, Greek, Polish and English. The aims of the research are the following: • to characterize a linguistic area of high social prestige (triggered by extralinguistic factors and its scientific context valued by the contemporary world), indicative of the advancement of civilization; • to study in a comparative plan the terminology coined for the basic notions (concepts) of the selected thematic field (i.e. environmental protection); • to present in a systematic way diverse data concerning a particular current topic in order to raise awareness about the process of terminology development and international exchange of terminology in the relevant field; • to draw general theoretical conclusions on trends of development in contemporary European languages for specific purposes (hereinafter LSP) based on cited linguistic terminology data. One of the secondary goals of this monograph is to raise awareness of scientific achievements originating in "smaller" nations, which may remain unnoticed in the European, let alone wider, fora. To achieve the research goals set, the author deemed it necessary to address thematic fields such as: the theory of terminology, lexicography, law, European integration, environmental protection etc., thus rendering the present study interdisciplinary. However, the primary focus of the study is on the linguistic analysis, since its theoretical and methodological apparatuses are grounded in the well-established theses of lexicography, theory of terminology, comparative and applied linguistics, as well as translation studies. The objectives of the monograph (dependent on the defined goals), which determined the methodological choices made, are as follows: to study the extralinguistic context and EU legal sources; to choose a representative thematic field; to assemble a representative database of relevant specialized notions (concepts) and analyse their term-formation in a comparative plan; to select an appropriate research method linked to the design of an algorithm for language comparison, excerption and a comparative analysis of terminological material. Our research on the European Acquis terminology has been determined by the wide linguistic and extralinguistic context, referring to: • the essence and characteristics of LSP; the specific features of the language of law (as an LSP and the existing dichotomic perception of it as the language of law and the language of lawyers; • the EU language of law as a subtype of legal language and thus LSP; • the essence and characteristics of terminology as the core of a LSP, especially the legal terminology; • the internationalization and Europeanization of terminology as developmental trends of LSPs. The enumerated linguistic issues are directly connected to extralinguistic factors, such as: • harmonization of the EU law; EU multilingualism; • European integration and adoption of the EU law by the accession countries; • translation (overt and covert) of the European Union Acquis; • the role of subjective factors (institutional as well as human, e.g. translators, experts, ministries, NGOs etc.) in the process of creating the European Union terminology. The first chapter of the monograph introduces a theoretical model of the research composed of basic theses which can be generalized as follows: • The European Union law is formulated in a LSP. • Terminology is the core of each LSP, including the EU legal language. • A term is a language unit which is defined in a specialized text and is an element of a LSP. A term signifies a specialized notion, has a restricted (professional) scope of use; it is systemic, conventional, context-independent , and expressively- neutral. • A term is recognized as belonging to the EU legal language if it is defined (has a legal definition) in an EU legal act. • In all language versions of the European Union law, identical and equivalent terms are used, defined in the EU legal acts by means of identical legal definitions. • The definitiveness of a term is used as a strict criterion to distinguish between terms and non-terms. • An identical legal definition worded in the different linguistic versions of the harmonized EU law justifies comparability of the terms between languages. • Undertaking an analysis of two Slavonic languages – Bulgarian and Polish, and two non- Slavonic ones, belonging to different language groups (and therefore, bound by diverse normative traditions): Greek and English, makes it possible to study processes of terminological internationalization. Internationalization is thus interpreted as the formation of a common pool of proportionate in form and semantics language units, presented in at least three languages, at least two of which belonging to different language groups. • The EU environmental law is a topical and extremely dynamic field of interdisciplinary and supranational nature, which makes it possible to claim that its terminology is representative of the state and development of the EU terminology as a whole. • The contents of the term 'environment' encompasses such elements as: human being, flora and fauna, soil, water, air, climate, and other. • LSPs are indicative as to the civilisational stage of development of a social community, hence, studying the EU LSP can contribute to the study of certain aspects of the European civilization. The second chapter of the monograph is devoted to the analysis proper of the terminological data, which is preceded by the presentation of the methodological choices made. The following basic concepts have been thoroughly analysed: environment , human , animals , plants , water , air , land /soil , impact (on the environment). Тhe chapter also discusses the work procedures for excerpting terminological material. The methods for comparative analysis used, based on standard comparative algorithm are presented as follows: determining the comparability of objects based on assumed tertium comparationis (the criterion of comparability); confirming similarities and differences of the studied objects; outlining and defining common features, tracing trends of further development of the phenomena. Detailed comparative procedures allowing to recognize similarities and differences between the terms used to signify the specialised notions in the four languages, include the following parameters: source of a term, outer form of a term, and inner form of a term. Each of the parameters has been thoroughly discussed. The outcomes of particular concepts analyses were presented in a form of autonomic and uniformly-structured parts in order to facilitate their individual interpretation. The descriptive way of presenting the results was preferred to a strictly formalized one in order to make the text easier to read; besides, data of different kind and order cannot be presented in a formalized way. It is also believed that a formalized approach would have left out some crucial aspects of the terminological naming process, for instance the component of evaluation in some of the terminological units. As many as 800 terminological units in the four studied languages were included in the analysis (presented in the order corresponding to their "seniority" as official languages of the European Union: English, Greek, Polish, and Bulgarian). All analysed units are quoted along with their Celex numbers that indicate the relevant legislative act of the EU from which they are excerpted. The most important conclusions of the monograph are the following: • (The source of a term parameter): the overwhelming majority of terms in each of the languages have their origin in the native tongue. English terms are most often semantic neologisms, whereas in the other languages being terminologically secondary, they are translated borrowings (calques), among which the most numerous are the phraseological calques. Analogous terminological units that occur in all four languages must be deemed Europeisms or internationalisms (in a wider sense) on the grounds of semantic and/or formal convergence in the four languages, of which three are not genetically connected. Basic concepts from the field of environmental protection, which are elementary (universal) notions co-creating crucial fragments of their respective linguistic world-images, are signified by old native words. On a regular basis there is no formal (material) convergence in the studied languages – except for Bulgarian and Polish. The European legislator fixes old words (e.g. river, air, animal etc.) as terms and assigns new terminological meanings to them which then become common (standardized) for each and every language version of the harmonized European Union law. What demands close attention is a relatively small share of material internationalisms, which can be explained by the aptitude of nominators to preserve the national character of terms in the context of European multilingualism. This tendency is most evident in Greek terminology. • (The outer form of a term parameter) A dominant structural type among the studied terms in all four languages are the two-component terms consisting of a head-noun and a subordinate component/member which is an adjective in Greek, Polish and Bulgarian, and a noun used attributively in English (N+N structures) The noticeable categorical monotony of the terminology is another feature thereof – substantive units are commonly recognized as the most proper form of a term. • The conclusion that can be drawn as regards the term inner form is that essential semantic features present in a meaning (definition) of a term usually serve as a foundation of the terminological naming process. The analysis shows that predominantly there is a dependence of form components on contents components of a given term. In cases of loan translations/ calques such a dependency is established both in the primary English term and in its calques in the other languages. The comparative analysis of this parameter shows the relation of the meaningful elements of the terms (words and morphemes) between the four languages, as well as their relation to a given semantic feature of concept. This is yet another proof for the convergence of terminologies. One of the effects of convergence is the unquestionable enhancement of comprehension of stakeholders of LSPs, lacking fluency in the target foreign langauge. • Some conclusions were also reached as to similarities and differences according to language type: synthetic vs. analytic; Balkan vs. non-Balkan; using Latin script vs. using other writing system (alphabet). A crucial general conclusion is related to the scale of convergence processes taking place in contemporary specialized languages of integrated Europe. What is established is the inter-language iso-semanticity, very similar to iso-semanticity occurring among the Balkan languages, that is an independent material rendering in each language provided there are identical semantic features, which may be referred to Stanisław Gajda's conclusion concerning the genesis of European language league (GAJDA, 2008). In conclusion, the research addresses the area of intensified convergence processes leading to inter-language iso-semanticity, which stems not so much from language interference as from the impact of English (as a language of high social and communicative prestige in the contemporary world) on the remaining languages included in the study. The original author's contributions can be summed up as follows: • synthesis and systematization of knowledge stemming from different fields yet relating to the selected topic; • contrastive analysis of four languages in a rare (unique) configuration; • practical and applied aspect of the results obtained from the analysis of a large representative corpus of terms from the EU legal field of environmental protection • (the corpus's) linguistic and historical value; should it happen that the EU's LSP becomes yet another rejected "newspeak", the author has nevertheless been able to study the potential of the linguistic teams and language systems to create specialized languages (language subsystems) with the aim to attain particular goals and meet civilization needs at a particular historical moment.

The research activity carried out during the three years of the PhD course attended, at the Engineering Department of the University of Palermo, was aimed at the identification of an alternative predictive model able to solve the traditional building thermal balance in a simple but reliable way, speeding up any first phase of energy planning. Nowadays, worldwide directives aimed at reducing energy consumptions and environmental impacts have focused the attention of the scientific community on improving energy efficiency in the building sector. The reduction of energy consumption and CO2 emissions for heating and cooling needs of buildings is an important challenge for the European Union, because the buildings sector contributes up to 36% of the global CO2 emissions [1] and up to 40% of total primary energy consumptions [2]. Despite the ambitious goals set by the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) at the European level [1], which states that, by 2020, all new buildings and existing buildings undergoing major refurbishments will have to be Nearly Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB) [3,4], the critical challenge remains the improvement of the efficiency when upgrading the existing building stock to standards of the NZEB level [5]. The improvement of the energy efficiency of buildings and their operational energy usage should be estimated early in the design phase to guarantee a reduction in energy consumption, so buildings can be as sustainable as possible [6]. While a newly constructed NZEB can employ the "state of the art" of available efficient technologies and design practices, the optimization of existing buildings requires better efforts [7]. One way or the other, the identification of the best energy retrofit actions or the choice of a better technological solution to plan a building is not so simple. It has become one of the main objectives of several research studies, which require deep knowledge in the field of the building energy balance. The building thermal balance includes all sources and sinks of energy, as well as all energy that flows through its envelope. More in detail, the energy demand in buildings depends on the combination of several parameters, such as climate, envelope features, occupant behaviour and intended use. Indeed, the assessment of building energy performance requires substantial input data describing structures, environmental conditions [8], thermo-physical properties of the envelope, geometry, control strategies, and several other parameters. From the first design phases designers and researchers, which are trying to respect the prescriptions of the EPBD directive and to simultaneously ensure the thermal comfort of the occupants, must optimize all possible aspects that represent the key points in the building energy balance. As will be shown in Chapter A, the literature offers highly numerous complex and simplified resolution approaches [9]. Some are based on knowledge of the building thermal balance and on the resolution of physical equations; others are based on cumulated building data and on implementations of forecast models developed by machine-learning techniques [10]. Several numerical approaches are most widespread; these have undergone testing and implementing in specialised software tools such as DOE-2 [11], Energy Plus [12], TRNSYS [13] and ESP-r [14]. Such building modelling software can be employed in several ways on different scales; they can be simplified [15,16] or detailed comprehensively by different methods and numerical approaches [17]. Nevertheless, they are often characterised by a lack of a common language, which constitutes an obstacle for making a suitable choice. It is often more convenient to accelerate the building thermal needs evaluation and use the simplified methods and models. For example, a steady state approach for the evaluation of thermal loads is characterised by a good level of accuracy and low computational costs. However, its main limitation is that some phenomenon, such as the thermal inertia of the building envelope/structure, may be completely neglected. On the other hand, the choice of a more complex solution, such as the dynamic approach, uses very elaborate physical functions to evaluate the energy consumption of buildings. Although these dynamic simulation tools are effective and accurate, they have some practical difficulties such as collecting detailed building data and/or evaluating the proper boundary conditions. The use of these tools normally requires an expert user and a careful calibration of the model and do not provide a generalised response for a group of buildings with the same simulation, because they support a specific answer to a specific problem. Meanwhile the lack of precise input can lead to low-accuracy simulation. Anyway, in all cases it is necessary to be an expert user to implement, solve and evaluate the results, and these phases are not fast and not always immediately provide the correct evaluation, conducting the user to restart the entire procedure. In the field of energy planning, in order to identify energy efficiency actions aimed at a particular context, could be more convenient to speed up the preliminary assessment phase resorting to a simplified model that allows the evaluation of thermal energy demand with a good level of accuracy and without excessive computational cost or user expertise. The aim of this research, conducted during the three years of the PhD studies, is based on the idea of overcoming the limits previously indicated developing a reliable and a simple building energy tool or an evaluation model capable of helping an unskilled user at least in the first evaluation phase. To achieve this purpose, the first part of the research was characterised of an in-depth study of the sector bibliography with the analysis of the most widespread and used methods aimed at solving the thermal balance of buildings. After a brief distinction of the analysed methods in White, Black and Grey Box category, it was possible to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of each one [9]. Based on the analysis of this study, some alternative methods have been investigated. In detail, the idea was to investigate several Black-Box approaches; mainly used to deduce prediction models from a relevant database. This category does not require any information about physical phenomena but are based on a function deduced only by means of sample data connected to each other and which describes the behaviour of a specific system. Therefore, it is fundamental the presence of a suitable and well-set database that characterise the problem, so that the output data are strongly related to one or more input data. The completely absence of this information and the great difficulty in finding data, has led to the creation of a basic energy database which, under certain hypotheses, is representative of a specific building stock. For this reason, in the first step of this research was developed a generic building energy database that in a reliable way, and underlining the main features of the thermal balance, issues information about the energy performances. In detail, two energy building databases representative of a non-residential building-stock located in the European and Italian territory have been created. Starting from a well-known and calibrated Base-Case dynamic model, which simulates the actual behaviour of a non-residential building located in Palermo, it was created an Ideal Building representative of a new non-residential building designed with high energy performances in accordance whit the highest standard requirements of the European Community. Taking into consideration the differences existing in the regulations and technical standards about the building energy performance of various European countries, several detailed dynamic simulation models were developed. Moreover, to consider different climatic characteristics, different locations were evaluated for each country or thermal zone which represent the hottest, the coolest and the mildest climate. The shape factor of buildings, which represents the ratio between the total of the loss surfaces to the gross heated volume of a building, was varied from 0.24 to 0.90. To develop a representative database where the data that identify the building conditions are the inputs of the model linked to an output that describes the energy performances it was decided to develop a parametric simulation. In detail different transmittance values, boundary conditions, construction materials, and energy carriers were chosen and employed to model representative building stocks of European and Italian cities for different climatic zones, weather conditions, and shape factor; all details and the main features are described in Chapter B. These two databases were used to investigated three alternative methods to solve the building thermal balance; these are: • Multi Linear Regression (MLR): identification of some simple correlations that uses well known parameters in every energy diagnosis [18–20]; • Buckingham Method (BM): definition of dimensionless numbers that synthetically describe the relationships between the main characteristic parameters of the thermal balance [21]; and • Artificial Neural Network (ANN): Application of a specific Artificial Intelligence (AI) to determine the thermal needs of a [22] building. These methods, belonging to the Black-Box category, permit solving a complex problem easier with respect to the White-Box methods because they do not require any information about physical phenomena and expert user skills. Only a small amount of data on well-known parameters that represent the thermal balance of a building is required. The first analysed alternative method was the MLR, described in Chapter C. This approach allowed to develop a simple model that guarantees a quick evaluation of building energy needs [19] and is often used as a predictive tool. It is reliable and, at the same time, easy to use even for a non-expert user since an in-depth knowledge in the use phase is not needed, and computational costs are low. Moreover, the presence of an accurate input analysis guarantees greater speed and simplicity in the data collection phase [23]. The basis for this model is the linear regression among the variables to forecast and two or more explanatory variables. The feasibility and reliability of MLR models is demonstrated by the publication of the main achieved results in international journals. At first, the MLR method was applied on a dataset that considered heating energy consumptions for three configurations of non-residential buildings located in seven European countries. In this way, it was developed a specific equation for each country and three equations that describe each climatic region identified by a cluster analysis; these results were published in [19]. In a second work [18], it was applied the same methodology to a set of data referring to buildings located in the Italian peninsula. In this case, three building analysed configurations, in accordance to Italian legislative requirements regarding the construction of high energy performance buildings, have been employed. The achievement of the generalised results along with a high level of reliability it was achieved by diversifying each individual model according to its climate zone. It was provided an equation for each climate zone along with a unique equation applicable to the entire peninsula, obviously with different degrees of reliability. An improved version of the latest work concerning the Italian case study appeared in the paper published in [20]. The revised model provided an ability to predict the energy needs for both heating and cooling. Furthermore, to simplify the data retrieval phase that is required for the use of the developed MLR tool, an input selection analysis based on the Pearson coefficient has been performed. In this way the explanatory variables, needful for an optimal identification of thermal loads, have been identified. Finally, a comprehensive statistical analysis of errors ensured high reliability. The second analysed alternative method represents an innovative approach in developing a flexible and efficient tool in the building energy forecast framework. This tool predicts the energy performance of a building based some dimensionless parameters implemented through the application of the Buckingham theorem. A detailed description of the methodology and results is discussed in the Chapter D and is also published in [21]. The Buckingham theorem represents a key theorem of the dimensional analysis since it is able to define the dimensionless parameters representing the building balance [24]. These parameters define the relationships between the descriptive variables and the fundamental dimensions. Such a dimensional analysis guarantees that the relationship between physical quantities remains valid, even if there is a variation of the magnitudes of the base units of measurement [25]. The dimensional analysis represents a good model to simplify a problem by means of the dimensional homogeneity and, therefore, the consequent reduction in the number of variables. Therefore, this model works well with different applications such as forecasting, planning, control, diagnostics and monitoring in different sectors. The application of the BM for predicting the energy performance of buildings determined nine ad hoc dimensionless numbers. The identification of a set of criteria and a critical analysis of the results allowed to immediately determine thought the dimensionless numbers and without using any software tool, the heating energy demand with a reliability of over 90%. Furthermore, the validation of the proposed methodology was carried out by comparing the heating energy demand that was calculated by a detailed and accurate dynamic simulation. The last Black-Box examined model was the application of Artificial Neural Networks. The ANNs are the most widely used data mining models, characterised by one of the highest levels of accuracy with respect to other methods but generally have higher computational costs in the developing phase [26]. The design of a neural network, inspired by the behaviour of the human brain, involves the large number of suitably connected nodes (neurons) that, upon applications of simple mathematical operations, influence the learning ability of the network itself [27]. Also in this case, as described in Chapter E, this methodology was applied at the two different energy databases. In [22], the ANN was used to predict the demand for thermal energy linked to the winter climatization of non-residential buildings located in European context, while in another work under review, the ANN was used to determine the heating and cooling energy demand of a representative Italian building stock. The validation of the ANNs was carried out by using a set of data corresponding to 15% of the initial set which were not used to train the ANNs. The obtained good results (determination coefficient values higher than 0.95 and Mean Absolute Percentage Error lower than 10%) show the suitability of the calculation model based on the use of adaptive systems for the evaluation of energy performance of buildings. Simultaneously, a deep analysis of the investigated problem, underlines how to determine the thermal behaviour of a building trough Black-Box models, particular attention must be paid to the choice of an accurate climate database that along with thermophysical characteristics, strongly influence the thermal behaviour of a building [9]. In detail, to develop a predictive model of thermal needs, it is also necessary to pay close attention to the climate aspects. In the literature, many studies use the degree day (DD) to predict building energy demand, but this assessment, through the use of a climatic index, is correct only if its determination is a function of the same weather data used for the model implementation. Otherwise, the predictive model is generally affected by a greater evaluation error; all these aspects are deeply discussed analysing a specific Italian case study in Chapter F, and the main results are published in [8]. The results achieved during the three years of PhD research, make it possible to affirm that each model can be used to solve thermal building balance by knowing merely a few parameters representative of the analysed problem. Nonetheless, some questions may be asked: Which of these models can be identified as the most efficient solution? Is it possible to compare the performances of these models? Is it possible to choose the most efficient model based on some specific phase in the evaluation? To attempt to answer these questions, during the research period it was decided to compare the three selected alternative models by applying a Multi Criteria Analysis (MCA), that explicitly evaluates multiple criteria in decision-making. It is a useful decision support tool to apply to many complex decisions by choosing among several alternatives. The idea rising thanks to the scientific collaboration with the VGTU University of Vilnius, Lithuanian, in the person of Prof. A. Kaklauskas and Prof. L. Tupènaitè, experts in the field of multi-criteria analysis. At the first time a multi-criteria procedure was applied to determine the most efficient alternative model among some resolution procedures of a building's energy balance. This application required extra effort in defining the criteria and identifying a team of experts. To apply the MCA, it was necessary to identify the salient phases of the evaluation procedure to explain the most sensitive criteria for acquiring conscious, truthful answers that only a pool of experts in the field can provide. Details of this work were carried out during the period of one-month research in Vilnius, from April to May 2019, where it was possible to improve the application of the Multiple Criteria Complex Proportional Evaluation (COPRAS) method for identifying the most efficient predictive tool to evaluate building thermal needs. These results are collected in Chapter G and the main results are explained in a paper under review in the Journal "Energy" from September. The identification of the most efficient alternative model to solve the building energy balance through the application of a specific MCA, allowed to deepen the identified methodology and improve research. In particular, the most efficient alternative resolution model was the subject of the research that took place during the research period at the RWTH in Aachen University, Germany with Prof. M. Traverso, Head of the INaB Department, from September 2018 to March 2019. The experience in the field of LCA and the possibility of identifying the environmental impacts linked to the building system, has led the research to investigate neural networks for a dual and simultaneous environmental-energy analysis. The results confirm that the application of ANNs is a good alternative model for solving the energy and environmental balance of a building and for ensuring the development of reliable decision support tools that can be used by non-expert users. ANNs can be improved by upgrading the training database and choosing the network structure and learning algorithm. The results of this research are collected in Chapter H and published in [28].

From the introduction: 'The more you know about the Olympics, the less it is about sport'. (Bob Perry, Design director of Olympic Projects at Scott Carver Pty. Ltd, http://www.infolink.com.au). The Olympic Games as a mega sports event attracts millions of people from all over the world. New records, fascinating performances, scandals or gigantic celebrations are just some of the attractions provided by this event. One attraction for urban planners is the fact that the Games imply opportunities to promote urban development. From an urban planning perspective, the Olympic Summer Games in Barcelona 1992 set a new standard in defining success of an event of this scale. The city used the Games to promote urban development and planning strategies, profiting from the event in a long-term perspective. Furthermore, the city took another opportunity to find again a place on the 'global map" through the Olympic Games. The case of Barcelona is one of the mostly cited successful urban development initiatives connected with a mega sports event. Olympic Cities have taken the opportunity to promote urban development with the event very differently in the history of the Olympics. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) as the event-owner sets some requirements giving only a few cities the right to stage the event. These requirements are checked in the bidding process ending with the decision which city succeeds in getting the right of staging the event. Integrating the success of an Olympic City in terms of urban development and in terms of the bidding process, the main question from an urban planning perspective is: What is the relevance of Urban Development in the Bidding Process for Olympic Games? To answer the definition of the city's success in terms of urban development and the Olympic Games bidding process, it is helpful to investigate the role of Olympic Infrastructure with a view towards urban sustainability. As such, it is believed that respecting specific planning principles in the bidding process can help to (1) ensure sustainable urban development and (2) enhance the quality of the bid. - The first aspect is relevant for the success of the city in terms of urban development to benefit from the Games in a long time perspective. - The second aspect is relevant for the city's success in the bidding process to acquire the right for staging the Games. The aim of this thesis is to examine how the quality of the bid may respond to principles of sustainable urban development. Two main objectives are identified to reach the aim: 1. Identifying opportunities and threats connected to Olympic Infrastructure in the history of the Olympics in order to formulate six main principles of sustainable urban development for the Olympic Games. 2. Analyzing official bidding documents of the IOC connected with these principles in order to understand how sustainable urban development can be considered in the bidding process. The thesis will conclude with recommendations which can be realized in the bidding process striving to ensure the defined success for the city. Abstract: This thesis is structured in four major parts. Part I consists of chapter 2 and 3 and includes the theoretical framework and methodology of the thesis. Chapter 2 describes the character of mega-events and mega sports events in specific. Based on a concept of sustainable urban development, it will place mega sports events in the context of such a development, forming a theoretical approach for the thesis. Chapter 3 presents the methodology used. Part II consists of chapter 4 and 5 and provides an overall understanding of the Olympic Games in the context of urban development. Chapter 4 gives an overview of the characteristics of the Olympic Games in order to understand the event and its background. Chapter 5 examines the relationship between urban development and the Olympic Games. A model will be presented in order to define 'Olympic Urban Development" for the following sections of the chapter. The chapter will then continue with an historical overview of Olympic Urban Development and present the decisions determining the scale of development. Finally, chapter 5 concludes with the summary of opportunities and threats identified in a literature review of the Olympic Games. The research questions of Part II can be defined as follows: - What are the significant characteristics of the Olympics in terms of mega-event factors? - How can Olympic Urban Development be defined and modelled? - Which are the opportunities and threats for the built, natural, economic and social environment related to Olympic Urban Infrastructure? An intermediate result re-structures the identified opportunities and threats putting them in connection with the concepts presented in the theoretical part. Chapter 6 will conclude with a definition of six principles of sustainable urban development for planning the Olympic Games. The research question leading to the intermediate result can be defined as follows: - Which kind of principles may respond to a sustainable Olympic Urban Development? The second part ends with Chapter 7 in which relevant IOC documents about sustainable urban development will be presented. Part III sets the bidding process in connection with sustainable urban development. Chapter 8 provides relevant information to understand the bidding process, its different phases and the selection procedure. Chapter 9 finally analyses the official bidding documents of the IOC for the defined principles of sustainable urban development. Summaries and recommendations will introduce the main findings for each principle and respond to three main research questions: - Which parts in the bidding documents deal with the principle? - How relevant is the principle in the evaluation of the bid? - Which strategies support the quality of the bid and contribute to meet the objectives of the principle? Part IV includes the conclusion of the thesis and summarizes the main findings of the analysis.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: Preface0 Index1 List of Figures and Tables4 1.INTRODUCTION5 1.1Aim and purpose of the thesis5 1.2Structure of the thesis6 PART I: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY 2.THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK9 2.1Mega Events9 2.2Factors of mega-events11 2.3Mega Sports Events12 2.3.1Phases of Mega Sports Events13 2.3.2Bidding14 2.3.3Impacts of Mega Sports Events14 2.4Physical Impact: Mega sports event Infrastructure18 2.5Sustainable Urban Development20 2.6Sustainable Urban Development in the context of a mega sports event22 2.7Definitions and Limitations23 3.METHODOLOGY25 PART II: UNDERSTANDING THE OLYMPIC GAMES IN THE CONTEXT OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT 4.Olympic Games Characteristics29 4.1History of the Olympic Games29 4.2The Olympic Movement30 4.3Olympic Games Factors31 4.4Olympic Games Phases35 5.Olympic Urban Development37 5.1Definition37 5.1.1Olympic Infrastructure38 5.1.2Urban Infrastructure38 5.1.3Modelling an Olympic City40 5.2History of Olympic Urban Development42 5.3Decisions determining Olympic Urban Development47 5.3.1Local distribution of Olympic Infrastructure48 5.3.2Funding Model50 5.3.3Expenditure on Olympic Infrastructure51 5.3.4Use of existing Olympic Infrastructure53 5.4Opportunities and Threats54 5.4.1Built environment54 5.4.2Natural Environment57 5.4.3Economic Environment60 5.4.4Social Environment61 5.4.5Summary64 6.Intermediate Result: Defining Principles of Sustainable Urban Development for Planning Olympic Infrastructure66 6.1Principles66 6.2Objectives68 7.Relevant IOC Documents on Sustainable Urban Development70 7.1Olympic Charter70 7.2Olympic Agenda 2170 7.3IOC Manual on Sports and the Environment72 7.4Olympic Games Study Commission73 PART III: THE BIDDING PROCESS IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT 8.Olympic Games Bidding Process74 8.1History of the Olympic Games Bidding Process74 8.2The process78 8.2.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure (CAP)78 8.2.2Evaluation of the Working Group Report79 8.2.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure83 8.3Selection of the Host City85 8.3.1Election Procedure85 8.3.2Decision Making in the Electing Procedure for a host city86 8.4Summary88 9.Analysing Principles of Sustainable Urban Development in the Bidding Process90 9.1Principle 1: Integrate Olympic Infrastructure in urban development plans92 9.1.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure92 9.1.2Evaluation in the Working Group Report92 9.1.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure94 9.1.4Summary95 9.1.5Recommendations96 9.2Principle 2: Ensure Post-Event Use for Olympic Infrastructure97 9.2.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure97 9.2.2Evaluation in the Working Group Report98 9.2.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure99 9.2.4Summary100 9.2.5Recommendations101 9.3Principle 3: Maximise the use of existing infrastructure by respecting the city's budget104 9.3.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure104 9.3.2Evaluation in the Working Group Report105 9.3.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure107 9.3.4Summary107 9.3.5Recommendations108 9.4Principle 4: Ensure environmental standards for Olympic Infrastructure and accessibility to environmental goods109 9.4.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure109 9.4.2Evaluation in the Working Group Report109 9.4.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure111 9.4.4Summary112 9.4.5Recommendations113 9.5Principle 5: Integration of citizens in the planning process of Olympic Infrastructure114 9.5.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure114 9.5.2Evaluation in the Working Group Report114 9.5.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure115 9.5.4Summary116 9.5.5Recommendations117 9.6Principle 6: Stimulate improvement of Urban Infrastructure through Olympic Infrastructure118 9.6.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure118 9.6.2Evaluation in the Working Group Report119 9.6.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure120 9.6.4Summary121 9.6.5Recommendations122 PART IV: CONCLUSION126 10.Conclusion126 10.1Conclusion of the analysis126 10.1.1Relevance of Sustainable Urban Development in the Bidding Process126 10.1.2How to respond to principles of sustainable urban development in the bid127 10.2General Conclusions130 10.2.1The interest of the IOC in Sustainable Urban Development130 10.2.2The real winner of a bidding process130 10.2.3Outlook on the future of the Games131 11.Appendix133 11.1References133 11.2Abbreviations137 11.3Extracts from Bidding Documents138 11.3.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure (CAP)138 11.3.2Evaluation: Working Group Report140 11.3.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure142Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 5.4, Opportunities and Threats: This section study provides a discussion on opportunities and threats related to Olympic Infrastructure. Potential effects are presented and ordered according to the different environments of a city (section 2.4). The IOC officially uses the term 'Legacy' for potential post-event effects preferably underlining positive ones. The sources used in this literature review (Cashman, 2002; Essex Chalkley, 2003; Furrer, 2002; Matos, 2006; Liao Pitts, 2006; Preuss, 2006; Centre On Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE), 2007; Ward, 2007; WWF, 2004) reflect the potential effects of the Olympics critically from different perspectives (researchers, NGOs, IOC related person). If applicable, the opportunities and threats are illustrated with examples. A summary is given in the end of this section as a basis for developing principles of sustainable urban development. As the potential effects have a multidimensional character, two selection criteria limit their number: - Time: The potential effect might occur at any period of the event but must have a relevance for the city in a long-time perspective. - Space: The potential effect might occur at a micro (e.g. dislocation) or macro (e.g. polycentric development) level but is relevant mainly for a city (not a region or nation). 5.4.1, Built environment: - Boost for urban development projects and urban renewal. Locational decision on Olympic Infrastructure opens the opportunity for a city to boost its urban development projects in favour of the city. There is a chance to connect a city's urban development strategy with Olympic Infrastructure projects. History of the Olympics shows that cities have dealt very differently with this opportunity (see section 4.1). Some have used the Olympics to reinvent the city while others have concentrated solely on the successful organization of the event itself. In many cases, Olympic Infrastructure is also used to trigger massive urban regeneration projects and the idea to create new centralities within the city. Development corridors can be focused through Olympic Infrastructure and stimulate urban development nearby. Strategic positioning of Olympic Infrastructure in specific urban areas may contribute to a polycentric development. This is especially true for the positioning of key Olympic Infrastructure represented by the Olympic Main Stadium, the main indoor halls and the aquatic centre. Barcelona 1992 is probably the most successful Olympics regarded to large-scale urban development. Urban planners of the city saw the Olympic Games as an useful instrument to achieve the objectives of development plans which had been the improvement of transport system, creation of new facilities, definition of central space and balancing the city. The initial authorized to make the first draft of the Olympic from an urban perspective was part of the Olympic Bidding Team and later entered into the Organizing Committee. The changes of the entire urban fabric connected to Olympic Infrastructure based on what was already existing in Barcelona became a best practice in terms of mega-event related urban development. - Changes of Urban Development plans in favour of the event/bid. Potential changes of existing urban development plans can occur in the preparation phase of the event due to tight time constraints. To speed up land acquisition for Olympic Infrastructure some cities approve special legislative acts and give power to Organizing Committees. Special building permits are created in the area where Olympic Infrastructure has to be built and can contribute to long-lasting procedural changes in the city. A special law for the Athens 2004 Games recognized the strategic significance of the Olympic Games to the evolution of the metropolitan area. The location of Olympic Infrastructure was determined as to be in accordance with the regional, environmental and urban development guidelines of the master plan of Athens. Through this legislation and the installation of special agencies it was possible to accelerate permits of Olympic Works. - Modernization and Upgrading of existing facilities. In terms of existing infrastructure, the Olympics bring the opportunity to upgrade and modernize sports facilities. This may also decrease financial risk. The main Olympic Stadium as the centrepiece of Olympic Infrastructure relies traditionally on public funding. Some Olympic Cities have strived to use existing facilities or refurbished ones for this major infrastructure project. Naturally, development of sports facilities had to be faced by almost all Olympic cities. Moscow 1980 and Barcelona 1992 used mainly existing sports facilities and refurbished existing Stadiums to Main Olympic Stadiums. Los Angeles 1984 used existing facilities to a large extent. - Unused large-scale facilities. The history of the Olympic Games shows that many Olympic sports facilities received poor post-Games usage. International Olympic Sports Federations have often pushed host cities to provide over-ambitious state-of-the-art facilities which are not in line with the local popularity of the sport. Furthermore, local agendas have often pushed for grandiose landmark legacies to be built in order to showcase the local economy and engineering ability. These objects might be designed over-sized and turn in a post-event period to 'White elephants'. They may neither integrate a long-term urban planning policy nor relate to the population's need for leisure and culture facilities. It is sometimes difficult to convince leading teams in specific sports to move their home ground to new Olympic Infrastructures. Another problem in this respect is the difficulty to attract large crowds to newly developed parts of the city away from trying to opportunity the citizens habits. The Olympic stadium of Sydney 2000 generated continuing losses at A$38 million/year six years after the event. The competition for sports events with other stadia in Sydney caused limited booking and shows the lack of post-use planning. 'Sydney Jurassic Park' is a symbolic expression used by criticizers of the post-use of Sydney Olympic Park. - Increase of Housing stock through Olympic Village. The Olympic Village is often located close to the sports facilities and represents the accommodation for the Olympic Family. It is an essential part of Olympic Infrastructure and has to be addressed by every hosting city. In many cases, Olympic Villages become residential areas for local people or halls of residences for a local university or college after the Games. Thus, an Olympic Village is a chance to increase the city's housing stock and provide facilities for alternative uses in a post-event period. 'In Barcelona and Sydney the former Olympic Villages now provide a mixture of housing that contributes to the cities' housing stock and adds a valuable source of revenue to cover Games-related expenditure'. - Improvement of transport infrastructure. As we have seen in the previous chapter, Olympic Infrastructure induces also the upgrade of the city's transport infrastructure. For an effective transport of athletes, spectators and officials during the event many host cities tend to expand their transport system Investment of previous Olympic Cities is often focused especially on underground or light rail system. Recent Olympic Cities (Athens and Beijing) invest in tram and overhead urban rail system due to high costs and implementation difficulties of underground transport. This may contribute to a better infrastructure for citizens and decreases traffic pressure in inner city and congestion. Asian Olympic Cities have strongly linked the Games to transport infrastructure. Between 1957 and 1964 Tokyo established 73 km underground, 13.2 km monorail and 500 km Shinkansen connecting Tokyo, Kyoto and Osaka. Seoul added 157.1 km to the length of its underground network from 1978 to 1993 for the preparation of the Games. Finally, Beijing extended its light rail length by 87.1 km before 2008. A strong reliance to public transport can be observed in Seoul and Tokyo through this investment related to Olympic Infrastructure. - Development of other Infrastructure. Furthermore, development of Olympic Infrastructure can be a driver for additional infrastructural improvements in the city, affecting the entire urban fabric. A basic infrastructure is needed serving Olympic facilities. Many cities have used the event as a catalyst to induce such investment and bring other infrastructure to a higher level appropriate for international visitors. Such investments can enhance the Quality of life for citizens, tourists and attract inward investment. Tokyo included the improvement of water supply system, higher public health standards for refuse collection, street cleaning, public toilets and three sewage disposal plants. Barcelona, Atlanta and Sydney invested in telecommunication systems through the staging of the event. Cultural and research facilities (Olympic Studies Centre, Olympic Museum) close to Olympic Infrastructure supporting the Olympic Cultural Programme were realized in many Olympic Cities. - Destruction of cultural heritage. There is a potential risk that Olympic Infrastructure may affect the cultural heritage of a city negatively. The potential risk seems to be higher for Olympic Cities approaching development in the inner city. Consequently, disregarding the laws may lead to the destruction of culturally built environment and displacement of residents. Infrastructure development for the Games of Beijing 2008 negatively affected the cultural heritage of the city. Demolition in Beijing was an ongoing process in the whole city, especially threatening the old 'hutong' and 'siheyuan' areas. According to reports of COHRE the violation of Cultural Heritage Protection laws and regulations effected both irreparably damaged cultural heritage and also violated residents' rights to adequate housing.

Le Fabbricerie sono rimaste per anni lontane dal dibattito pubblico. Fino a poco tempo fa, pronunciare il nome di Fabbriceria evocava nell'immaginario collettivo i più disparati significati, proprio per la scarsa confidenza del pubblico con questa realtà. La loro natura e collocazione giuridica, le loro funzioni di enti chiamati alla conservazione e alla valorizzazione degli edifici di culto, hanno caratterizzato nei secoli il dibattito pressoché esclusivo tra gli studiosi e tra i rappresentanti delle due entità eterne ed immutabili della Chiesa e dello Stato, ciascuna di loro preoccupata a far valere le proprie prerogative sull'altra. Gli interventi legislativi introdotti dal 1997 al 2017, prima con la normativa sulle ONLUS e poi con la riforma del Terzo Settore, andati ad intrecciarsi con l'impianto concordatario vigente, hanno rappresentato un'occasione di intenso confronto in dottrina e in giurisprudenza, alle prese con le posizioni assunte dalle Istituzioni Centrali Italiane, come il Consiglio di Stato, l'Autorità Anticorruzione e l'Agenzia delle Entrate, e dalla Conferenza Episcopale Italiana. Siamo partiti da un'indagine storica, seppur breve, sulla loro origine e evoluzione che ci ha portato a identificare le diverse strutture che le hanno caratterizzate nel loro momento costitutivo, quando fondazioni, quando enti giuridici autonomi o organi o collegi. Ciò ha comportato lo sviluppo nel tempo di discipline diversificate che ne hanno complicato l'analisi intorno alla loro natura giuridica, facendo emergere una certa difficoltà a riconoscere nel mondo giuridico le caratteristiche che le rendono speciali, a volte diverse l'una dall'altra. Il percorso normativo delle Fabbricerie è di fatto caratterizzato da quattro momenti essenziali: - il periodo preconcordatario, con le leggi eversive e la legge delle Guarentigie, dal 1865 al 1929; - il periodo concordatario, caratterizzato dai Patti Lateranensi stipulati nel 1929; - il periodo della legislazione post concordataria, con la nuova riforma di cui all'accordo di Vila Madama del 1984; - il periodo della legislazione degli enti non profit, da quella delle ONLUS del 1997 all'ultima degli Enti del Terzo Settore del 2017. Non sono quindi mancati i tentativi di dare alle Fabbricerie una collocazione adeguata ma, a tutt'oggi, nonostante vari contributi della dottrina e della giurisprudenza anche amministrativa, del legislatore e delle Istituzioni Centrali Italiane, resta comunque arduo disegnare un possibile quadro ordinamentale, coerente con le ultime novità legislative, in cui le Fabbricerie possano trovarsi ad operare senza rinnegare il proprio passato e la loro missione quotidiana di amministrare i beni delle chiese e provvedere alla manutenzione degli edifici di culto e dei complessi monumentali che spesso li caratterizzano. Il fenomeno della privatizzazione ha investito un gran numero di enti pubblici ed era chiaro che, prima o poi, sarebbero state coinvolte anche le Fabbricerie. Infatti, nel 1997, a seguito di una pronuncia della Corte di Cassazione (n°901 del 29 gennaio 1997) e di una interpretazione amministrativa sollecitata da una Fabbriceria che si era posta il problema se fosse possibile applicare alle Fabbricerie la disciplina di favore prevista dal d.lgs. 460/1997 sulle ONLUS, viene in evidenza la loro possibile natura privatistica, confermata dal Consiglio di Stato che nel 2000 fornisce, in sede consultiva, il suo punto di vista dal quale emerge che "le Fabbricerie non possono essere classificate come enti ecclesiastici o come enti pubblici e … che le stesse potevano rientrare tra quei soggetti privati chiamati a svolgere in forma provata funzioni un tempo ritenute di pertinenza esclusivamente pubblica. Ciò affermato, le Fabbricerie preposte alla valorizzazione e promozione delle cose di interesse artistico e storico possono rientrare negli enti aventi titolo per acquisire la qualifica di ONLUS, adeguando il proprio statuto al d.lgs. 460/1997." La pronuncia del Consiglio di Stato non ha convinto né l'ANAC che, nel 2016, con riguardo ad una Fabbriceria, ha sostenuto la tesi del carattere pubblicistico dell'ente, né la Conferenza Episcopale Italiana che, da parte sua, ha affermato che le Fabbricerie non possono essere considerate né enti pubblici né enti privati, ma enti ecclesiastici alla luce delle norme che si sono susseguite negli anni disciplinanti la materia e che la principale finalità delle Fabbricerie resta quella di garantire il culto, diventando la tutela e il mantenimento dell'edificio un attività di carattere sussidiario, finalità estranea a quella di pubblico interesse. La Conferenza episcopale Italiana ha precisato, inoltre, che nel momento in cui Stato e Chiesa hanno deciso di disciplinare la materia in maniera concordataria, si presuppone che nessuna parte possa intervenire unilateralmente. Arriviamo ai giorni nostri, con il quadro normativo che si arricchisce con la riforma del Terzo Settore, introdotta dal d.lgs. 117/2017, che si è posta l'obiettivo di superare la stratificazione normativa e la presenza di molteplici norme fiscali di riferimento che avevano creato non poca confusione in merito alla distinzione tra attività profit e non profit. Viene costituito l'Ente del Terzo Settore (ETS), in forma di associazione, riconosciuta o non riconosciuta, o di fondazione, per il perseguimento, senza scopo di lucro, di finalità civiche, solidaristiche e di utilità sociale mediante lo svolgimento di una o più attività di interesse generale in forma volontaria e di erogazione gratuita di denaro, beni o servizi, di mutualità o di produzione o scambio di beni o servizi. In particolare, vengono forniti dettagliati criteri per determinare la natura commerciale o non commerciale degli ETS, tenendo conto delle attività da essi svolte e delle modalità operative concretamente adottate, ciò al fine di determinarne le attività che concorrono o meno alla formazione del reddito e, conseguentemente, del regime fiscale da applicare loro. Gli ETS sono così classificati tra gli enti privati, con o senza personalità giuridica e le Fabbricerie, con la riforma del Terzo Settore, si trovano, ad un primo sguardo, davanti alla scelta tra entrare nel Terzo Settore, con l'adeguamento del proprio statuto alla riforma, oppure rimanerne fuori, tenendo conto della norma che dispone l'abrogazione delle previsioni ONLUS una volta entrata in vigore la riforma stessa. L'impostazione della riforma riguardo agli effetti prodotti dalla sua entrata in vigore, in particolare a seguito dello scioglimento della ONLUS, ai sensi dell'art.10, comma 1, del d.lgs.460/1997, cioè l'imposizione della devoluzione del patrimonio ad altre organizzazioni non lucrative di utilità sociale o a fini di pubblica utilità, ha spinto le Fabbricerie a prendere in seria considerazione il conformarsi alla riforma del Terzo Settore. E' il caso della Opera Primaziale Pisana (OPA), che ha avviato le procedure di adeguamento del proprio statuto, provvedendo al suo invio al Ministero dell'Interno per l'approvazione di rito. Intanto, di fronte ad un quadro normativo così complesso e intrecciato, il Ministero dell'Interno, ha avviato una istruttoria, da un lato, acquisendo un parere dell'Agenzia dell'Entrate e, dall'altro, preannunciando la necessità di acquisire un nuovo parere del Consiglio di Stato in sede consultiva che, a sua volta, ha espresso la necessità di interloquire con una Commissione Governativa concordataria appositamente costituita che attende ancora di essere integrata. Anche il Ministero del lavoro e delle Politiche Sociali e l'Agenzia dell'Entrate sono intervenuti nel dibattito, dichiarando la peculiarità delle Fabbricerie, che emerge dal fatto che la loro disciplina non è rimessa a norme di diritto comune, a differenza di altri enti di diritto privato sottoposti a controllo dell'autorità governativa, ma è di derivazione concordataria e che le loro funzioni non si esauriscono nella sola attività di tutela del patrimonio storico e artistico, ma sono indirizzate all'amministrazione del complesso dei beni patrimoniali dell'ente ecclesiastico destinati alle spese di ufficiatura e di culto

Cette étude aborde la question de la loi applicable au contrat international de construction, jusqu'à présent négligée en droit international privé québécois, en premier lieu, essentiellement du point de vue de la responsabilité du constructeur pour vice du sol ou de construction vis-à-vis du maître d'ouvrage et, accessoirement, du point de vue des rapports entre ces deux parties, les sous-traitants et les assureurs. En second lieu, il y est fait état de la condition des sociétés étrangères de construction au Québec. Si les questions de la loi applicable au fond des contrats de construction internationale et à la responsabilité contractuelle et extracontractuelle de droit commun qui en découlent ne posent pas de problème particulier, la difficulté centrale touche la qualification de la responsabilité particulière découlant en droit québécois de l'article 1688. En effet, cette qualification, contractuelle, légale, ou extracontractuelle, n'est pas certaine en droit interne. Or, elle a pour conséquence directe le choix de la règle de conflit en droit international privé et donc celui de la loi applicable. La qualification de la question permettrait aux parties d'écarter l'application de l'article 1688 C.C., même si la construction avait lieu au Québec, ce qui irait à l'encontre de la politique préventive de protection de la population québécoise que cette disposition veut promouvoir. Cependant, comme on la considère généralement d'ordre public en droit interne, on pourrait quand même écarter une solution fondée sur une loi étrangère en invoquant sa contrariété à la conception fondamentale que l'article 1688 C.C. exprime, en faisant appel, au cas par cas, à l'exception d'ordre public, telle qu'on l'entend dans l'ordre international. Plus radicalement, on pourrait aussi considérer cette disposition comme une loi de police de façon à l'appliquer à tous les contrats donnant lieu à des constructions au Québec, sans jamais tenir compte de la loi choisie par les parties pour régir leurs rapports. Lu qualification légale ou extracontractuelle de cette question permettrait d'éviter ces procédés exceptionnels, tout en faisant respecter la politique interne, puisque les parties n'auraient plus la possibilité de choisir la loi gouvernant cette responsabilité. Pour ces motifs, l'auteur opte pour cette solution, en constatant que la jurisprudence de droit interne se prononce en ce sens, que la Cour d'appel, dans un litige de droit international privé, a adopté une solution qui pourrait s'expliquer de cette façon et, enfin, que l'article 35 de la Loi sur la qualification des entrepreneurs de construction exprime une approche législative territorialiste de la question. Mais le problème consiste alors à déterminer le facteur de rattachement approprié. L'auteur propose une règle de conflit à caractère substantiel comportant un facteur de rattachement alternatif; se traduisant par un choix entre la loi du lieu de la construction et celle de l'établissement principal du constructeur, selon celle qui serait la plus favorable au maître d'ouvrage, ce qui aurait aussi l 'avantage de protéger le public. Dans les deux hypothèses de qualification, il faut déterminer le domaine d'application de la loi régissant la responsabilité du constructeur vis-à-vis du maître d'ouvrage et l 'auteur examine notamment la question de la loi relative au délai ou à la prescription de l'action en regard des règles matérielles complexes contenues aux articles 2190 et 2191 C.C. Par ailleurs, il s'efforce de préciser la loi applicable aux rapports de sous-traitance, notamment entre le sous-traitant et le maître d'ouvrage. Il examine aussi les nombreuses règles de police régissant le contrat d'assurance dans la même optique du contrat de construction internationale. Enfin, l'étude s'attache à présenter une vue d'ensemble des règles régissant l'activité des sociétés étrangères de construction au Québec, notamment au plan des procédures de soumission et d'adjudication, pour les contrats de construction privés comme pour ceux donnés par les organismes publics. ; Abstract: This study discusses issues pertaining to the law that applies to international construction contracts, an area that up to now has received little attention in Quebec private international law. The first part deals with the builder's responsibility towards the client for defects of construction or of the land. It also examines, the relationship between the client and the builder, the subcontractors and the insurers. The second part describes the conditions that apply to foreign construction companies in Quebec. Even though the legal questions that pertain to international construction contracts and to the contractual and extracontractual responsibilities under common law pose no unusual problems, the primary difficulty concerns the liability which results from article 1688 of the Civil Code. In fact, the determination whether this responsibility is contractual, legal or extracontractual remains uncertain in internal law. As a result, one must choose the rule in private international law that would govern this conflict and then determine which law in fact applies. To hold that this responsibility is contractual would exclude the application of article 1688 C.C. even if the construction tookplace in Quebec. This would be contrary to the preventive aim of this article, which is intended to protect the public. However, since the article in question is generally considered to be of public order in internal law, one could eliminate the application of a foreign law by invoking that the latter contradicts the basic concepts expressed in article 1688 C.C. and by using the public order exception clause. As a more radical approach it could be argued that this article constitutes a law of police and should apply to al1 contracts that pertain to construction in Quebec, thereby excluding any other law chosen by the parties to govern their relationships The qualification that liability is legal or extracontractual in such matters permits one to avoid recourse to these exceptional measures, while at the same time ensuring respect for internal policies, because the parties would no longer have the possibility of choosing the law that would govern liability. For these reasons, the writer, noting that this is the point of view held by jurisprudence, recommends this solution. The Court of Appeal, in a case involving private international law, decided the issue in a manner consonant with this approach and section 35 of an Act respecting the qualifications of construction contractors expresses a similar territorialist legislative approach to the question. Thus the problem then becomes one of merely finding the appropriate connecting factor. The writer proposes a substantive conflict rule that includes alternative criteria for eligibility, based on either the location of the construction project or else on the situation of the principal place of business of the builder, according to whichever one would be the most favorable for the client. This would also have the advantage of offering the greatest protection to the public. In effecting a characterization according to these alternative connecting factors, one must determine the pertinent law governing the responsibility of the contractor toward the owner. For instance, the writer examines the prescriptive delays applicable to law-suits in light of the material rules set out in articles 21 90 and 21 91 C.C. In addition, he seeh to determine the law pertaining to subcontracts and in particular, to the relationship between subcontractors and the client. He also examines the numerous laws of police that govern insurance contracts in the same field of international construction contracts. Finally, this study aims at presenting an overview of the rules that regulate the activities of foreign construction companies operating in Quebec, with emphasis on procedures for the submission of tenders and the awarding of contracts by private parties as well as by public bodies.

Regulatory reform has emerged as an important policy area in developing countries. For reforms to be beneficial, regulatory regimes need to be transparent, coherent, and comprehensive. They must establish appropriate institutional frameworks and liberalized business regulations; enforce competition policy and law; and open external and internal markets to trade and investment. This report analyses the institutional set-up and use of regulatory policy instruments in Uganda. It is one of five reports prepared on countries in East and Southern Africa (the others are on Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda and Zambia), and represents an attempt to apply assessment tools and the framework developed by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in its work on regulatory capacity and performance to developing countries.

Key words: intellectual property, unfair competition, means of individualization, valuation,squatter, losses, digital transformation, artificial intelligence The article examines the economic, legal and institutional aspects of combating unfair registration and use ofmeans of individualization (trademarks, brand names, geographical indications, domainnames) in the context of digital transformation. The formation of theoretical and methodologicaland methodological foundations for the protection of the rights of their owners,improving the efficiency of experts of intellectual property agencies, law enforcementagencies, tools for digital search and use of artificial intelligence (AI) to ensure the effectivenessof the institution of individualization. The economic and legal aspects of foreign(in the jurisdictions of China, USA, EU) and domestic legislative and law enforcementpractices to combat the phenomenon of unfair registration and use of personalization,digital search tools and the use of AI are analyzed. It is shown that over the next fiveyears, 30 to 50% of product searches will be by voice rather than text, so the impact of AIon the way a product is purchased will have significant economic and legal implicationsfor individualization legislation. The means of counteracting unscrupulous applicants inthe USA have been studied. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) has developedrules under which foreign applicants and trademark owners must be representedby a U.S. licensed attorney when filing trademark applications with the USPTO. Emphasisis placed on the introduction of legislative liability of e-commerce platforms forcounterfeit goods. The analysis of the last changes in the legislation of Ukraine on protectionof trade marks is carried out. It is shown that the new rules change the approachesto registration and protection of trademarks, create the possibility of their fair use.Digitalization, transition to e-document circulation in the Customs Register, improvementof the procedure for destruction of counterfeit goods are important anti-corruptionsteps in the activities of Ukrainian customs in the context of digital transformation of theeconomy. ; Ключові слова: інтелектуальна власність, торгова марка, доменне ім'я, фірмовенайменування, географічне зазначення, експертиза, реєстрація, недобросовісна кон-куренція У статті досліджено економіко-правові та інституціональні аспекти протидії недобросовісній реєстрації та використанню засобів індивідуалізації (торгових марок, фір-мових найменувань, географічних зазначень, доменних імен) в умовах цифровоїтрансформації. Розглянуто формування теоретико-методологічних і методичнихоснов захисту прав їх власників, підвищення ефективності діяльності експертіввідомств інтелектуальної власності, правоохоронних органів, інструменти цифрово-го пошуку та використання штучного інтелекту (ШІ) для забезпечення ефективностіінституту засобів індивідуалізації. Посилання 1.Paul Daugherty The post-digital era is coming: Are you ready? URL: https://www.accenture.com/us-en/blogs/technology-innovation/daugherty-digital-transformation (дата звернення: 25.10.2020). 2. Про схвалення Концепції розвитку цифрової економіки та суспільства України на 2018–2020 роки та затвердження плану заходів щодо її реалізації : розпорядження Кабінету Міністрів України від 17 січня 2018 р. № 67-р. URL: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/67-2018-%D1%80 (дата звернення: 08.10.2020). 3. Ульянова Е. В. Средства индивидуализации как «материальный» актив компании. URL: http://ipcmagazine.ru/legal-issues/means-of-individualization-as-a-material-asset-of-a-company (дата звернення: 08.09.2020). 4.Андрощук Г. О. Кількість порушень прав на товарні знаки зростає. Інтелектуальна власність в Україні. 2020. № 1. С. 56−57. 5.Trademark infringement rising year-on-year, says CompuMark report. URL : http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/trademark-infringement-rising-year-on-year-says-compumark-report-300986014.html (дата звернення: 08. 11.2020). 6. World Intellectual Property Indicators: Filings for Patents, Trademarks, Industrial Designs Reach Record Heights in 2019. URL:https://www.wipo.int/pressroom /en/articles/2019/article_0012.html (дата звернення: 28.10.2020). 7. Геннадій Андрощук. Рейтинг світових брендів Best Global Brands 2020. URL : https://yur-gazeta.com/golovna/reyting-svitovih-brendiv-best-global-brands-2020.html (дата звернення: 23.10.2020) 8. Martin Armstrong, The Age of the Tech Giants. https://www.statista.com/chart/22677/ the-age-of-the-tech-giants/ (дата звернення: 02.11.2020). 9. Андрощук Г. А. Охрана интеллектуальной собственности в Китае: состояние и тенденции. Наука та інновації. 2010. Т. 6. № 1. С. 81−101. 10. Андрощук Г. О. Недобросовісність заявника: аналіз зарубіжної практики правозастосування. Судова експертиза об'єктів інтелектуальної власності: теорія і практика : науково-практ. збірн. ; НДІ інтелектуальної власності НАПрН України. Випуск 6. Київ : Інтерсервіс, 2020. С. 15−24. 11. Paolo Beconcini China Trademark Office Attempts to Curb Bad Faith Filings. URL : http://www.ipwatchdog.com/2019/03/07/china-trademark-office-attempts-curb-bad-faith-filings/id=107062/ (дата звернення: 08.10.2020). 12. Amendments to China's Trademark Law will be implemented on November 1, 2019 CCPIT Patent & Trademark Law Office. URL: https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=c4d04dde-9f47-48ba-b862-07fb4de98bfa (дата звернення: 08.10.2020). 13. China IP cases surge amid US complaints, Beijing push for technology self-reliance. URL: https://www.scmp.com/economy/global-economy/article/3086313/china-ip-cases-surge-amid-us-complaints-beijing-push (дата звернення: 28.10.2020). 14. The Revised PRC Anti-Unfair Competition Law Took Effect on April 23, 2019.URL:https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=28800923-860e-4e9c-b04f-4852a7cd0baa (дата звернення: 28.10.2020) 15. Steve Brachmann USPTO to Propose Rule Requiring Foreign Trademark Applicants to Use U.S. Licensed Attorneys to File Documents URL: http://www.ipwatchdog.com/2018/11/03/uspto-rule-require-foreign-trademark-applicants-u-s-licensed-attorneys/id=102872/ (дата звернення: 08.10.2020). 16. Muireann Bolger Record TM filings at the USPTO—but do they conceal a darker picture? URL:https://www.worldipreview.com/article/record-tm-filings-at-the-uspto-but-do-they-conceal-a-darker-picture?utm_source=02.+WIPR&utm_campaign=43415a17ef-WIPR_Digital_Newsletter_ 30012020_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_d4c85a86a7-43415a17ef-27898587 (data zvernennia: 09.10.2020) 17. Геннадій Андрощук. Законодавці США покладають відповідальність за контрафактні товари на платформи е-комерції. URL: https://yur-gazeta.com/golovna/zakonodavci-ssha-pokladayut-vidpovidalnist-za-kontrafaktni-tovari-na-platformi-ekomerciyi.html (дата звернення: 10.10.2020). 18. Демченко Т. С. Недобросовісність заявника у законодавстві про товарні зна¬ки : монографія. Київ : Лазурит-Поліграф. 2008. 94 с. 19. John McElwaine Tackling bad faith registration of domain names in a fast-changing landscape. URL: https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2019/06/article_0006.html (дата звернення: 08.10.2020). 20. WIPO launches free AI trademark search tool for brand URL:http://www.ciplawyer.cn/html_e/Trademark/20190404/141684.shtml (дата звернення: 05 10.2020). 21. Геннадій Андрощук. Сінгапур представив перший в світі мобільний додаток для реєстрації торгових марок. URL: http://yur-gazeta.com/golovna/singapur-predstaviv-pershiy-v-sviti-mobilniy-dodatok-dlya-reestraciyi-torgovih-marok.html (дата звернення:11.10.2020). 22. Боденгаузен Г. Паризька конвенція з охорони промислової власності : коментар / переклад з англ., передмова, наукова ред. Г. О. Андрощука. Київ : Парламентське видавництво, 2018. 264 с. 23. Андрощук Г. О. Правова охорона фірмових найменувань. Концепція розвитку законодавства України. Київ : Ін-т законодавства Верховної Ради України, 1996. С. 249−251. 24. Бошицький Ю. Л., Козлова О. О., Андрощук Г. О. Комерційні найменування: наук.-практ. вид. / за заг. ред. Ю. С. Шемшученка. Київ : Юридична думка, 2006. 216 с. 25. Lee Curtis, Rachel Platts Trademark Law Playing Catch-up with Artificial Intelligence? URL:. https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine_digital/en/2020/article_0001.html. 26. Андрощук Г. А. Недобросовестность при регистрации товарных знаков: доктрина и практика. Журнал Суда по интеллектуальным правам. № 11. 2016. С. 100−104. 27. World Intellectual Property Indicators Report: Trademark and Industrial Design Filing Activity Rose in 2019; Patent Applications Marked Rare Decline. URL:https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2020/article_0027.html?utm_source=%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D0%B1%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8+%D0%92%D0%9E%D0%98%D0%A1&ut (дата звернення: 07.12.2020) 28. Шулъга И. Е. Институциональный анализ средств индивидуализации предприятий и производимой ими продукции : дис. … канд. экон. наук. Москва. 2003. 20 с. ======================================================= 1.Paul Daugherty The post-digital era is coming: Are you ready? URL: https://www.accenture.com/us-en/blogs/technology-innovation/daugherty-digital-transformation (data zvernennia: 25.10.2020). 2. Pro skhvalennia Kontseptsii rozvytku tsyfrovoi ekonomiky ta suspilstva Ukrainy na 2018–2020 roky ta zatverdzhennia planu zakhodiv shchodo yii realizatsii : rozporiadzhennia Kabinetu Ministriv Ukrainy vid 17 sichnia 2018 r. № 67-r. URL: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/67-2018-%D1%80 (data zvernennia: 08.10.2020). 3. Ulianova E. V. Sredstva yndyvydualyzatsyy kak «materyalnыi» aktyv kompanyy. URL: http://ipcmagazine.ru/legal-issues/means-of-individualization-as-a-material-asset-of-a-company (data zvernennia: 08.09.2020). 4.Androshchuk H. O. Kilkist porushen prav na tovarni znaky zrostaie. Intelektualna vlasnist v Ukraini. 2020. № 1. S. 56−57. 5.Trademark infringement rising year-on-year, says CompuMark report. URL : http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/trademark-infringement-rising-year-on-year-says-compumark-report-300986014.html (data zvernennia: 08. 11.2020). 6. World Intellectual Property Indicators: Filings for Patents, Trademarks, Industrial Designs Reach Record Heights in 2019. URL:https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2019/article_0012.html (data zvernennia: 28.10.2020). 7. Hennadii Androshchuk. Reitynh svitovykh brendiv Best Global Brands 2020. URL : https://yur-gazeta.com/golovna/reyting-svitovih-brendiv-best-global-brands-2020.html (data zvernennia: 23.10.2020) 8. Martin Armstrong, The Age of the Tech Giants. https://www.statista.com/chart/22677/the-age-of-the-tech-giants/ (data zvernennia: 02.11.2020). 9. Androshchuk H. A. Okhrana yntellektualnoi sobstvennosty v Kytae: sostoianye y tendentsyy. Nauka ta innovatsii. 2010. T. 6. № 1. S. 81−101. 10. Androshchuk H. O. Nedobrosovisnist zaiavnyka: analiz zarubizhnoi praktyky pravozastosuvannia. Sudova ekspertyza obiektiv intelektualnoi vlasnosti: teoriia i praktyka : naukovo-prakt. zbirn. ; NDI intelektualnoi vlasnosti NAPrN Ukrainy. Vypusk 6. Kyiv : Interservis, 2020. S. 15−24. 11. Paolo Beconcini China Trademark Office Attempts to Curb Bad Faith Filings. URL : http://www.ipwatchdog.com/2019/03/07/china-trademark-office-attempts-curb-bad-faith-filings/id=107062/ (data zvernennia: 08.10.2020). 12. Amendments to Chinas Trademark Law will be implemented on November 1, 2019 CCPIT Patent & Trademark Law Office. URL: https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=c4d04dde-9f47-48ba-b862-07fb4de98bfa (data zvernennia: 08.10.2020). 13. China IP cases surge amid US complaints, Beijing push for technology self-reliance. URL: https://www.scmp.com/economy/global-economy/article/3086313/china-ip-cases-surge-amid-us-complaints-beijing-push (data zvernennia: 28.10.2020). 14. The Revised PRC Anti-Unfair Competition Law Took Effect on April 23, 2019. URL:https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=28800923-860e-4e9c-b04f-4852a7cd0baa (data zvernennia: 28.10.2020) 15. Steve Brachmann USPTO to Propose Rule Requiring Foreign Trademark Applicants to Use U.S. Licensed Attorneys to File Documents URL: http://www.ipwatchdog.com/2018/11/03/uspto-rule-require-foreign-trademark-applicants-u-s-licensed-attorneys/id=102872/ (data zvernennia: 08.10.2020). 16. Muireann Bolger Record TM filings at the USPTO—but do they conceal a darker picture? URL:https://www.worldipreview.com/article/record-tm-filings-at-the-uspto-but-do-they-conceal-a-darker-picture?utm_source=02.+WIPR&utm_campaign=43415a17ef-WIPR_Digital_Newsletter_ 30012020_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_d4c85a86a7-43415a17ef-27898587 (data zvernennia: 09.10.2020). 17. Hennadii Androshchuk. Zakonodavtsi SShA pokladaiut vidpovidalnist za kontrafaktni tovary na platformy e-komertsii. URL: https://yur-gazeta.com/golovna/zakonodavci-ssha-pokladayut-vidpovidalnist-za-kontrafaktni-tovari-na-platformi-ekomerciyi.html (data zvernennia: 10.10.2020). 18. Demchenko T. S. Nedobrosovisnist zaiavnyka u zakonodavstvi pro tovarni zna¬ky : monohrafiia. Kyiv : Lazuryt-Polihraf. 2008. 94 s. 19. John McElwaine Tackling bad faith registration of domain names in a fast-changing landscape. URL: https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2019/06/article_0006.html (data zvernennia: 08.10.2020). 20. WIPO launches free AI trademark search tool for brand URL:http://www.ciplawyer.cn/html_e/Trademark/20190404/141684.shtml (data zvernennia: 05 10.2020). 21. Hennadii Androshchuk. Sinhapur predstavyv pershyi v sviti mobilnyi dodatok dlia reiestratsii torhovykh marok. URL: http://yur-gazeta.com/golovna/singapur-predstaviv-pershiy-v-sviti-mobilniy-dodatok-dlya-reestraciyi-torgovih-marok.html (data zvernennia:11.10.2020). 22. Bodenhauzen H. Paryzka konventsiia z okhorony promyslovoi vlasnosti : komentar / pereklad z anhl., peredmova, naukova red. H. O. Androshchuka. Kyiv : Parlamentske vydavnytstvo, 2018. 264 s. 23. Androshchuk H. O. Pravova okhorona firmovykh naimenuvan. Kontseptsiia rozvytku zakonodavstva Ukrainy. Kyiv : In-t zakonodavstva Verkhovnoi Rady Ukrainy, 1996. S. 249−251. 24. Boshytskyi Yu. L., Kozlova O. O., Androshchuk H. O. Komertsiini naimenuvannia: nauk.-prakt. vyd. / za zah. red. Yu. S. Shemshuchenka. Kyiv : Yurydychna dumka, 2006. 216 s. 25. Lee Curtis, Rachel Platts Trademark Law Playing Catch-up with Artificial Intelligence? URL:. https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine_digital/en/2020/article_0001.html. 26. Androshchuk H. A. Nedobrosovestnost pry rehystratsyy tovarnыkh znakov: doktryna y praktyka. Zhurnal Suda po yntellektualnыm pravam. № 11. 2016. S. 100−104. 27. World Intellectual Property Indicators Report: Trademark and Industrial Design Filing Activity Rose in 2019; Patent Applications Marked Rare Decline. URL:https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2020/article_0027.html?utm_source=%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D0%B1%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8+%D0%92%D0%9E%D0%98%D0%A1&ut (data zvernennia: 07.12.2020). 28. Shulъha Y. E. Ynstytutsyonalnыi analyz sredstv yndyvydualyzatsyy predpryiatyi y proyzvodymoi ymy produktsyy : dys. … kand. эkon. nauk. Moskva. 2003. 20 s.

Key words: intellectual property, unfair competition, means of individualization, valuation,squatter, losses, digital transformation, artificial intelligence The article examines the economic, legal and institutional aspects of combating unfair registration and use ofmeans of individualization (trademarks, brand names, geographical indications, domainnames) in the context of digital transformation. The formation of theoretical and methodologicaland methodological foundations for the protection of the rights of their owners,improving the efficiency of experts of intellectual property agencies, law enforcementagencies, tools for digital search and use of artificial intelligence (AI) to ensure the effectivenessof the institution of individualization. The economic and legal aspects of foreign(in the jurisdictions of China, USA, EU) and domestic legislative and law enforcementpractices to combat the phenomenon of unfair registration and use of personalization,digital search tools and the use of AI are analyzed. It is shown that over the next fiveyears, 30 to 50% of product searches will be by voice rather than text, so the impact of AIon the way a product is purchased will have significant economic and legal implicationsfor individualization legislation. The means of counteracting unscrupulous applicants inthe USA have been studied. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) has developedrules under which foreign applicants and trademark owners must be representedby a U.S. licensed attorney when filing trademark applications with the USPTO. Emphasisis placed on the introduction of legislative liability of e-commerce platforms forcounterfeit goods. The analysis of the last changes in the legislation of Ukraine on protectionof trade marks is carried out. It is shown that the new rules change the approachesto registration and protection of trademarks, create the possibility of their fair use.Digitalization, transition to e-document circulation in the Customs Register, improvementof the procedure for destruction of counterfeit goods are important anti-corruptionsteps in the activities of Ukrainian customs in the context of digital transformation of theeconomy. ; Ключові слова: інтелектуальна власність, торгова марка, доменне ім'я, фірмовенайменування, географічне зазначення, експертиза, реєстрація, недобросовісна кон-куренція У статті досліджено економіко-правові та інституціональні аспекти протидії недобросовісній реєстрації та використанню засобів індивідуалізації (торгових марок, фір-мових найменувань, географічних зазначень, доменних імен) в умовах цифровоїтрансформації. Розглянуто формування теоретико-методологічних і методичнихоснов захисту прав їх власників, підвищення ефективності діяльності експертіввідомств інтелектуальної власності, правоохоронних органів, інструменти цифрово-го пошуку та використання штучного інтелекту (ШІ) для забезпечення ефективностіінституту засобів індивідуалізації. Посилання 1.Paul Daugherty The post-digital era is coming: Are you ready? URL: https://www.accenture.com/us-en/blogs/technology-innovation/daugherty-digital-transformation (дата звернення: 25.10.2020). 2. Про схвалення Концепції розвитку цифрової економіки та суспільства України на 2018–2020 роки та затвердження плану заходів щодо її реалізації : розпорядження Кабінету Міністрів України від 17 січня 2018 р. № 67-р. URL: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/67-2018-%D1%80 (дата звернення: 08.10.2020). 3. Ульянова Е. В. Средства индивидуализации как «материальный» актив компании. URL: http://ipcmagazine.ru/legal-issues/means-of-individualization-as-a-material-asset-of-a-company (дата звернення: 08.09.2020). 4.Андрощук Г. О. Кількість порушень прав на товарні знаки зростає. Інтелектуальна власність в Україні. 2020. № 1. С. 56−57. 5.Trademark infringement rising year-on-year, says CompuMark report. URL : http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/trademark-infringement-rising-year-on-year-says-compumark-report-300986014.html (дата звернення: 08. 11.2020). 6. World Intellectual Property Indicators: Filings for Patents, Trademarks, Industrial Designs Reach Record Heights in 2019. URL:https://www.wipo.int/pressroom /en/articles/2019/article_0012.html (дата звернення: 28.10.2020). 7. Геннадій Андрощук. Рейтинг світових брендів Best Global Brands 2020. URL : https://yur-gazeta.com/golovna/reyting-svitovih-brendiv-best-global-brands-2020.html (дата звернення: 23.10.2020) 8. Martin Armstrong, The Age of the Tech Giants. https://www.statista.com/chart/22677/ the-age-of-the-tech-giants/ (дата звернення: 02.11.2020). 9. Андрощук Г. А. Охрана интеллектуальной собственности в Китае: состояние и тенденции. Наука та інновації. 2010. Т. 6. № 1. С. 81−101. 10. Андрощук Г. О. Недобросовісність заявника: аналіз зарубіжної практики правозастосування. Судова експертиза об'єктів інтелектуальної власності: теорія і практика : науково-практ. збірн. ; НДІ інтелектуальної власності НАПрН України. Випуск 6. Київ : Інтерсервіс, 2020. С. 15−24. 11. Paolo Beconcini China Trademark Office Attempts to Curb Bad Faith Filings. URL : http://www.ipwatchdog.com/2019/03/07/china-trademark-office-attempts-curb-bad-faith-filings/id=107062/ (дата звернення: 08.10.2020). 12. Amendments to China's Trademark Law will be implemented on November 1, 2019 CCPIT Patent & Trademark Law Office. URL: https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=c4d04dde-9f47-48ba-b862-07fb4de98bfa (дата звернення: 08.10.2020). 13. China IP cases surge amid US complaints, Beijing push for technology self-reliance. URL: https://www.scmp.com/economy/global-economy/article/3086313/china-ip-cases-surge-amid-us-complaints-beijing-push (дата звернення: 28.10.2020). 14. The Revised PRC Anti-Unfair Competition Law Took Effect on April 23, 2019.URL:https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=28800923-860e-4e9c-b04f-4852a7cd0baa (дата звернення: 28.10.2020) 15. Steve Brachmann USPTO to Propose Rule Requiring Foreign Trademark Applicants to Use U.S. Licensed Attorneys to File Documents URL: http://www.ipwatchdog.com/2018/11/03/uspto-rule-require-foreign-trademark-applicants-u-s-licensed-attorneys/id=102872/ (дата звернення: 08.10.2020). 16. Muireann Bolger Record TM filings at the USPTO—but do they conceal a darker picture? URL:https://www.worldipreview.com/article/record-tm-filings-at-the-uspto-but-do-they-conceal-a-darker-picture?utm_source=02.+WIPR&utm_campaign=43415a17ef-WIPR_Digital_Newsletter_ 30012020_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_d4c85a86a7-43415a17ef-27898587 (data zvernennia: 09.10.2020) 17. Геннадій Андрощук. Законодавці США покладають відповідальність за контрафактні товари на платформи е-комерції. URL: https://yur-gazeta.com/golovna/zakonodavci-ssha-pokladayut-vidpovidalnist-za-kontrafaktni-tovari-na-platformi-ekomerciyi.html (дата звернення: 10.10.2020). 18. Демченко Т. С. Недобросовісність заявника у законодавстві про товарні зна¬ки : монографія. Київ : Лазурит-Поліграф. 2008. 94 с. 19. John McElwaine Tackling bad faith registration of domain names in a fast-changing landscape. URL: https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2019/06/article_0006.html (дата звернення: 08.10.2020). 20. WIPO launches free AI trademark search tool for brand URL:http://www.ciplawyer.cn/html_e/Trademark/20190404/141684.shtml (дата звернення: 05 10.2020). 21. Геннадій Андрощук. Сінгапур представив перший в світі мобільний додаток для реєстрації торгових марок. URL: http://yur-gazeta.com/golovna/singapur-predstaviv-pershiy-v-sviti-mobilniy-dodatok-dlya-reestraciyi-torgovih-marok.html (дата звернення:11.10.2020). 22. Боденгаузен Г. Паризька конвенція з охорони промислової власності : коментар / переклад з англ., передмова, наукова ред. Г. О. Андрощука. Київ : Парламентське видавництво, 2018. 264 с. 23. Андрощук Г. О. Правова охорона фірмових найменувань. Концепція розвитку законодавства України. Київ : Ін-т законодавства Верховної Ради України, 1996. С. 249−251. 24. Бошицький Ю. Л., Козлова О. О., Андрощук Г. О. Комерційні найменування: наук.-практ. вид. / за заг. ред. Ю. С. Шемшученка. Київ : Юридична думка, 2006. 216 с. 25. Lee Curtis, Rachel Platts Trademark Law Playing Catch-up with Artificial Intelligence? URL:. https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine_digital/en/2020/article_0001.html. 26. Андрощук Г. А. Недобросовестность при регистрации товарных знаков: доктрина и практика. Журнал Суда по интеллектуальным правам. № 11. 2016. С. 100−104. 27. World Intellectual Property Indicators Report: Trademark and Industrial Design Filing Activity Rose in 2019; Patent Applications Marked Rare Decline. URL:https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2020/article_0027.html?utm_source=%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D0%B1%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8+%D0%92%D0%9E%D0%98%D0%A1&ut (дата звернення: 07.12.2020) 28. Шулъга И. Е. Институциональный анализ средств индивидуализации предприятий и производимой ими продукции : дис. … канд. экон. наук. Москва. 2003. 20 с. ======================================================= 1.Paul Daugherty The post-digital era is coming: Are you ready? URL: https://www.accenture.com/us-en/blogs/technology-innovation/daugherty-digital-transformation (data zvernennia: 25.10.2020). 2. Pro skhvalennia Kontseptsii rozvytku tsyfrovoi ekonomiky ta suspilstva Ukrainy na 2018–2020 roky ta zatverdzhennia planu zakhodiv shchodo yii realizatsii : rozporiadzhennia Kabinetu Ministriv Ukrainy vid 17 sichnia 2018 r. № 67-r. URL: https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/67-2018-%D1%80 (data zvernennia: 08.10.2020). 3. Ulianova E. V. Sredstva yndyvydualyzatsyy kak «materyalnыi» aktyv kompanyy. URL: http://ipcmagazine.ru/legal-issues/means-of-individualization-as-a-material-asset-of-a-company (data zvernennia: 08.09.2020). 4.Androshchuk H. O. Kilkist porushen prav na tovarni znaky zrostaie. Intelektualna vlasnist v Ukraini. 2020. № 1. S. 56−57. 5.Trademark infringement rising year-on-year, says CompuMark report. URL : http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/trademark-infringement-rising-year-on-year-says-compumark-report-300986014.html (data zvernennia: 08. 11.2020). 6. World Intellectual Property Indicators: Filings for Patents, Trademarks, Industrial Designs Reach Record Heights in 2019. URL:https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2019/article_0012.html (data zvernennia: 28.10.2020). 7. Hennadii Androshchuk. Reitynh svitovykh brendiv Best Global Brands 2020. URL : https://yur-gazeta.com/golovna/reyting-svitovih-brendiv-best-global-brands-2020.html (data zvernennia: 23.10.2020) 8. Martin Armstrong, The Age of the Tech Giants. https://www.statista.com/chart/22677/the-age-of-the-tech-giants/ (data zvernennia: 02.11.2020). 9. Androshchuk H. A. Okhrana yntellektualnoi sobstvennosty v Kytae: sostoianye y tendentsyy. Nauka ta innovatsii. 2010. T. 6. № 1. S. 81−101. 10. Androshchuk H. O. Nedobrosovisnist zaiavnyka: analiz zarubizhnoi praktyky pravozastosuvannia. Sudova ekspertyza obiektiv intelektualnoi vlasnosti: teoriia i praktyka : naukovo-prakt. zbirn. ; NDI intelektualnoi vlasnosti NAPrN Ukrainy. Vypusk 6. Kyiv : Interservis, 2020. S. 15−24. 11. Paolo Beconcini China Trademark Office Attempts to Curb Bad Faith Filings. URL : http://www.ipwatchdog.com/2019/03/07/china-trademark-office-attempts-curb-bad-faith-filings/id=107062/ (data zvernennia: 08.10.2020). 12. Amendments to Chinas Trademark Law will be implemented on November 1, 2019 CCPIT Patent & Trademark Law Office. URL: https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=c4d04dde-9f47-48ba-b862-07fb4de98bfa (data zvernennia: 08.10.2020). 13. China IP cases surge amid US complaints, Beijing push for technology self-reliance. URL: https://www.scmp.com/economy/global-economy/article/3086313/china-ip-cases-surge-amid-us-complaints-beijing-push (data zvernennia: 28.10.2020). 14. The Revised PRC Anti-Unfair Competition Law Took Effect on April 23, 2019. URL:https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=28800923-860e-4e9c-b04f-4852a7cd0baa (data zvernennia: 28.10.2020) 15. Steve Brachmann USPTO to Propose Rule Requiring Foreign Trademark Applicants to Use U.S. Licensed Attorneys to File Documents URL: http://www.ipwatchdog.com/2018/11/03/uspto-rule-require-foreign-trademark-applicants-u-s-licensed-attorneys/id=102872/ (data zvernennia: 08.10.2020). 16. Muireann Bolger Record TM filings at the USPTO—but do they conceal a darker picture? URL:https://www.worldipreview.com/article/record-tm-filings-at-the-uspto-but-do-they-conceal-a-darker-picture?utm_source=02.+WIPR&utm_campaign=43415a17ef-WIPR_Digital_Newsletter_ 30012020_COPY_01&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_d4c85a86a7-43415a17ef-27898587 (data zvernennia: 09.10.2020). 17. Hennadii Androshchuk. Zakonodavtsi SShA pokladaiut vidpovidalnist za kontrafaktni tovary na platformy e-komertsii. URL: https://yur-gazeta.com/golovna/zakonodavci-ssha-pokladayut-vidpovidalnist-za-kontrafaktni-tovari-na-platformi-ekomerciyi.html (data zvernennia: 10.10.2020). 18. Demchenko T. S. Nedobrosovisnist zaiavnyka u zakonodavstvi pro tovarni zna¬ky : monohrafiia. Kyiv : Lazuryt-Polihraf. 2008. 94 s. 19. John McElwaine Tackling bad faith registration of domain names in a fast-changing landscape. URL: https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2019/06/article_0006.html (data zvernennia: 08.10.2020). 20. WIPO launches free AI trademark search tool for brand URL:http://www.ciplawyer.cn/html_e/Trademark/20190404/141684.shtml (data zvernennia: 05 10.2020). 21. Hennadii Androshchuk. Sinhapur predstavyv pershyi v sviti mobilnyi dodatok dlia reiestratsii torhovykh marok. URL: http://yur-gazeta.com/golovna/singapur-predstaviv-pershiy-v-sviti-mobilniy-dodatok-dlya-reestraciyi-torgovih-marok.html (data zvernennia:11.10.2020). 22. Bodenhauzen H. Paryzka konventsiia z okhorony promyslovoi vlasnosti : komentar / pereklad z anhl., peredmova, naukova red. H. O. Androshchuka. Kyiv : Parlamentske vydavnytstvo, 2018. 264 s. 23. Androshchuk H. O. Pravova okhorona firmovykh naimenuvan. Kontseptsiia rozvytku zakonodavstva Ukrainy. Kyiv : In-t zakonodavstva Verkhovnoi Rady Ukrainy, 1996. S. 249−251. 24. Boshytskyi Yu. L., Kozlova O. O., Androshchuk H. O. Komertsiini naimenuvannia: nauk.-prakt. vyd. / za zah. red. Yu. S. Shemshuchenka. Kyiv : Yurydychna dumka, 2006. 216 s. 25. Lee Curtis, Rachel Platts Trademark Law Playing Catch-up with Artificial Intelligence? URL:. https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine_digital/en/2020/article_0001.html. 26. Androshchuk H. A. Nedobrosovestnost pry rehystratsyy tovarnыkh znakov: doktryna y praktyka. Zhurnal Suda po yntellektualnыm pravam. № 11. 2016. S. 100−104. 27. World Intellectual Property Indicators Report: Trademark and Industrial Design Filing Activity Rose in 2019; Patent Applications Marked Rare Decline. URL:https://www.wipo.int/pressroom/en/articles/2020/article_0027.html?utm_source=%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5+%D0%B1%D1%8E%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8+%D0%92%D0%9E%D0%98%D0%A1&ut (data zvernennia: 07.12.2020). 28. Shulъha Y. E. Ynstytutsyonalnыi analyz sredstv yndyvydualyzatsyy predpryiatyi y proyzvodymoi ymy produktsyy : dys. … kand. эkon. nauk. Moskva. 2003. 20 s.

Aunque el reconocimiento de los derechos de los pacientes a decidir sobre su salud se inicia en la década de los 70 del siglo pasado, el respeto a la capacidad del menor de decidir en el ámbito sanitario no se hace realidad en España hasta el año 2002, con la promulgación de la Ley 41/2002, de 14 de noviembre, básica reguladora de la autonomía del paciente y de derechos y obligaciones en materia de información y documentación clínica. En ella, se regula el derecho del menor a recibir información, a escuchar su opinión, y a decidir ante cualquier procedimiento diagnóstico o terapéutico a que vaya a ser sometido, responsabilizando al profesional sanitario en muchas situaciones, fundamentalmente el médico, de establecer en qué situaciones el derecho a recibir información o a decidir por parte del menor ha de ser respetado o no. Esta innovación legislativa no se ha acompañado ni de una mayor tranquilidad en el quehacer diario de los profesionales sanitarios, planteándose dudas sobre derechos y deberes, tanto de los propios menores como de sus padres o tutores, ni de un mayor respeto a los derechos del menor, no manejándose siempre con claridad conceptos tales como la confidencialidad, el consentimiento informado y la capacidad de toma de decisiones sanitarias. Así surgen dudas como: ¿Son los menores de edad titulares del derecho a la información?, comprenden la información que les proporcionamos?, ¿son titulares en lo que respecta al consentimiento informado?, ¿el profesional sanitario debe informar a todo menor?, ¿debe contar su opinión?, ¿puede decidir libremente?, ¿cuándo se ha de acudir a los padres o tutores?, ¿puede negarse a recibir un determinado tratamiento médico?. No es posible decidir sin comprender la información y sin tener la suficiente capacidad para ello, de modo que el facultativo deberá asegurarse de que el menor ha recibido toda la información necesaria de modo adecuado y que es maduro para tomar una decisión. El menor, ante todo, debe ser capaz de comprender la información que sustenta la decisión a tomar. En esta investigación hemos realizado un análisis detallado del proceso de información sanitaria y toma de decisiones en el menor de edad, en base a las opiniones tanto de los menores como de sus padres. Con respecto al adolescente, tratamos de conocer la mayoría de edad sanitaria, basándonos en la capacidad de comprensión de la información proporcionada por el médico, de los pros y los contras de la enfermedad y su intervención. Así mismo es nuestro objetivo determinar el grado de información recibida, y si esta información fue expuesta de una forma comprensible y adecuada a la edad del paciente. Analizamos el cumplimiento del derecho a ser oído y a decidir sobre su salud, su opinión acerca de su propia capacidad, y evaluar el grado de conocimiento de la legislación vigente. Con respecto a los padres intentamos determinar su grado de comprensión de la información proporcionada por el médico y el nivel de conocimiento de la legislación vigente. Tratamos de profundizar en la opinión sobre la mayoría médica de su hijo/a, aprovechar su experiencia como padres para obtener una aproximación a su idea de mayoría sanitaria general, y obtener una valoración de la participación del menor en la toma de decisiones. Para ello se ha realizado un estudio observacional descriptivo, en pacientes mayores de 12 años y menores de 18 años de edad que fueron sometidos a una intervención quirúrgica en el Servicio de Otorrinolaringología del Complejo Hospitalario Universitario de Cartagena y en el Servicio de Cirugía Maxilofacial del Hospital Universitario Virgen de la Arrixaca de Murcia, acompañados de sus padres o representantes legales. Se han diseñado dos cuestionarios independientes, el primero dirigido a uno de los padres del menor en cuestión y el segundo al menor de edad. Como conclusión nos encontramos ante un entorno de gran complejidad que no debe ceñirse a binomio madurez-inmadurez. En este sentido, el proceso deliberativo de la relación clínica, en el que participa el profesional sanitario junto al menor, y el progenitor siempre que el menor lo permita, es trascendental para evaluar el nivel de capacidad del menor en el proceso de toma de decisiones. Todo ello abandonando posiciones paternalistas tradicionales. Palabras clave: menor de edad, toma de decisiones sanitarias, consentimiento informado. SUMMARY Although the recognition of the rights of patients to decide about their health started in the 70s, respect for the child's ability to decide on the health sector in Spain was not actually implemented until 2002, with the enactment of Law 41/2002, of 14 November, regulating patient autonomy and rights and obligations regarding clinical information and documentation. In this law is regulated the child's right to be informed, to listen to their opinion, and the right to decide before any diagnostic or therapeutic procedure that performed, establishing also that the healthcare professional in most situations (usually the doctor), has to determine in what situations the minors right to receive information or to decide by themselves must be respected or not. This legislative innovation has not produce an easier and safer the daily work decision making for health professionals, raising questions about the rights and duties of both the children themselves and their parents or guardians. It has not created a greater respect for children's rights because is does not always express clearly concepts such as confidentiality, informed consent and the ability of healthcare decision making. This has created questions to arise like: do those under age entitled to the right to information?, do they comprehend the information we provide them?, are they entitled of the right to sign the informed consent ?, should the clinician inform every child ?, Should the clinician always listen to their opinion ?, can they freely decide ?, when should it be indicated to go to the parents or guardians ?, are they entitled to refuse to receive certain medical treatment? . You are not free to decide without understanding the information and without sufficient capacity to do so, the physician must ensure that the child has received all the necessary information adequately and that is mature enough to make a decision. Most importantly the minor should be able to understand the information supporting the decision to take. In this research we have conducted a detailed analysis of the process of informed consent and decision-making in the minor, based on the views of both children and their parents. Regarding teenagers, we have tried to find the age of capacity based on the ability to understand the information provided by the physician, the pros and cons of the disease and its intervention. We also tried to determine the degree of information received by them, and whether this information was exposed in an understandable and appropriate way for the patient's age. We have analyze the fulfilment of the right to be heard and decide about their health, their own opinion about their own ability to decided, and tried to assess their level of knowledge of the law. With regard to parents we tried to determine their understanding of the information provided by the doctor and the level of knowledge of the law. We also tried to deepen into their opinion on the capacity of their son / daughter, and use their experience as parents to obtain an approximation to their opinion of which should be the age of capacity, and obtain an assessment of the child's participation in decision making. To do so we performed an observational descriptive study, in patients older than 12 and younger than 18 years who underwent surgery in the Department of Otolaryngology at the University Hospital of Cartagena and the Maxillofacial Surgery Department in the University Hospital Virgen de la Arrixaca of Murcia, accompanied by their parents or legal guardians. We have designed two separate questionnaires, one directed to obtain information from one of the parents of the child and the second for minor in question. In conclusionIn conclusion we have a highly complex work environment so we shouldn't just stick to the binomial maturity-immaturity. In this sense, the deliberative process of creating a clinical relationship, in which the participation of the health professional and the minor is crucial, and the inclusion of the parent provided the acceptance of the minor, will be essential to be able to assess the skill level of the child in the process of decision making . We should leve behind all traditional paternalistic positions used in the past. Key Words: minor, informed consent, and healthcare decision making.

Dottorato di ricerca in Diritto dei contratti pubblici e privati ; La trattazione vuole offrire un inquadramento generale della cessione di cubatura a seguito dell'emanazione della legge 12 luglio 2011 n. 106 di conversione del d.l. 13 maggio 2011 n. 70. La normativa ha introdotto all'articolo 2643 c.c. rubricato ‹‹atti soggetti a trascrizione››, il numero 2-bis che ha disposto in modo del tutto innovativo la necessità di trascrivere ‹‹i contratti che trasferiscono, costituiscono o modificano i diritti edificatori comunque denominati, previsti da normative statali, regionali o da strumenti di pianificazione territoriale›› . I problemi teorici e applicativi posti dalla novella sono numerosi e particolarmente complessi. L'espressione utilizzata dal n. 2-bis, infatti, pur definendo la disciplina pubblicitaria, non esplicita né quali siano i caratteri essenziali di cui si compone il contratto che trasferisce la volumetria, né la natura dei ‹‹diritti edificatori››. L'obiettivo dello studio è pertanto quello di identificare oltre ai tratti caratteristici della cessione di cubatura, un modello contrattuale idoneo a garantire la circolazione della potenzialità edificatoria e soluzioni operative che possano rimanere immuni ai mutamenti giurisprudenziali, con la finalità precipua di verificare se il n. 2–bis, abbia posto le basi per un mercato dei ‹‹diritti edificatori›› volto ad un più efficace sfruttamento della proprietà immobiliare. Per farlo, nel Capitolo I si è ritenuto opportuno prendere le mosse da problematiche antiche e mai del tutto risolte inerenti agli accordi di ‹‹micropianificazione ad iniziativa privata›› (di cui la cessione di cubatura è espressione) ed allo ius aedificandi, al fine di individuare i limiti e le modalità di esercizio del potere di costruire soprattutto con riferimento ai rapporti con la p. a. La disamina non ha inoltre potuto prescidere da un'analisi dei più recenti strumenti di perequazione, compensazione ed incentivazione che rappresentano un'evoluzione rispetto all'originaria prassi applicativa. Indagato il ‹‹contenuto complesso›› dello ius aedificandi e la natura giuridica del permesso di costruire, si è potuta affrontare nel Capitolo II la spinosa problematica della natura giuridica dei trasferimenti di volumetria. A seguito di un esame dei principali teorizzazioni come ‹‹bene immateriale››, come ‹‹chance›› e come nuovo ‹‹diritto reale tipizzato›› si è potuto rilevare, anche attraverso un'analisi applicativa dell'istituto a vari negozi tipici ed ai diritti di godimento e di garanzia (Capitolo III), come la sola ricostruzione che possa assicurare un effettivo utilizzo dell'istituto è quella che riesca a farne interagire la natura privatistica e pubblicistica in uno sforzo di integrazione coerente tra le diverse materie. Pertanto, sul presupposto che l'interprete debba, prima di tutto, attenersi al dettato della norma, la soluzione di un nuovo diritto reale, caratterizzato da un'imprescindibile connessione con il provvedimento amministrativo, è apparsa maggiormente in linea con il dettato normativo ed in grado di assicurare un ampio utilizzo dell'istituto. Nel Capitolo IV l'attenzione si è quindi focalizzata sui caratteri costitutivi del contratto. In primis si è sottolineata l'importanza dell'accordo privatistico quale momento genetico della vicenda circolatoria attraverso una nuova lettura del tradizionale rapporto soggetto-oggetto, in cui l'autonomia negoziale assume una forza creatrice divenendo il veicolo mediante il quale si sostanzia il processo creativo voluto dalle parti atto a ‹‹generare l'oggetto del contratto›› (la cubatura). In secundis si è tentato di individuare il modo in cui diritto privato e diritto amministrativo convivono all'interno della cessione di cubatura, rinvenendo la chiave di congiunzione nell'elemento accidentale della ‹‹condizione››, rappresentata dal provvedimento amministrativo. Ne è emerso un istituto complesso che si compone necessariamente di due momenti: uno genetico (regolato dal diritto privato) ed uno applicativo (disciplinato dal diritto amministrativo). La particolare struttura dell'istituto esprime d'altra parte una tendenza sempre più diffusa a considerare l'ordinamento come un unicum, in cui i distinti sistemi normativi ‹‹perdono›› il proprio primato se collocati all'interno dell'ordinamento giuridico unitario. Stabilito in che termini diritto privato e diritto amministrativo dialogano tra loro e superato l'impasse della qualificazione giuridica, è stato possibile valutare le prospettive future di un mercato dei trasferimenti di volumetria. Considerato il quadro generale esistente in Italia e facendo tesoro delle considerazioni che sono derivate da uno studio del TDRs statunitense (Capitolo V), si è giunti a ritenere come agli intenti ambiziosi dei lavori preparatori non sia corrisposta un'opera di codificazione all'altezza dei propositi perseguiti a causa della mancanza di un framework di principi comuni da imporre su scala nazionale. In una prospettiva de iure condendo si è dunque tentato di ovviare alla carenza di un (auspicabile) intervento legislativo volto a definire più chiaramente i caratteri dell'istituto, proponendo alcune soluzioni applicative e teorizzando le possibili modifiche normative da introdurre nel codice civile per assicurare un maggiore e più sicuro utilizzo dei trasferimenti di volumetria. ; The Ph.D. thesis aims to provide a general framework of the transfer of development rights, following the issuance of the law 12 July 2011 n. 106 of converting d. l. 13 May 2011 n. 70. The legislation introduced in article 2643 c.c. entitled ‹‹instruments subject to registration››, the number 2-bis which places, in a completely innovative way, the need to record in a public register ‹‹contracts that transfer, constitute or modify the development rights, however denominated, provided by State or regional regulations, or by planning instruments››. The theoretical and applied problems posed by the new provision are numerous and very complex. In fact, the expression used by n. 2-bis does not express what are the essential characteristics of the contract which transfers the ‹‹development rights›› and their legal status. Therefore the aim of the thesis is to identify the characteristic features of the institute and also a contract scheme that could be able to ensure the transmission of the development rights for finding practical solutions, immune to judicial decisions. The principal aim is to verify whether the n. 2-bis has laid the foundations for a market of development rights, for a more efficient use of real estate. The Chapter I deals with ancient and never fully resolved problems related to the microplanning agreements (of which transfer of development rights is an expression) and related to the power to built, in order to identify the limits and procedures for exercising the right to build, especially in relation to the powers of the public administration. Moreover the analysis does not leave aside the latest tools of equalization, compensation and incentives that represent an evolution from the original archetype. After reviewing the complex content of the right to build and the legal status of building permits issued by the municipality, the Chapter II deals with the issue of the legal status of transfer of development rights. The analysis of the main theories as an ‹‹immaterial good››, such as ‹‹chance›› and as a ‹‹new land right›› show that the only feasible solution that can ensure an effective use of the transfer of development rights is the one that can make interact the private nature and public one in an effort of coherent integration between the different fields of law. On the assumption that the interpreter must, first of all, follow the wording of the rule, the solution of a new land right, characterized by an essential connection with the administrative measure, it appear nearer with the provision of the law and can ensure wide use of the institute. Therefore in Chapter IV, attention is focused on the characteristics of the contract. In the first place it is emphasized the importance of private agreement like ‹‹fundamental moment›› of transfer of development rights, through a new interpretation of the traditional relationship between ‹‹subject›› and ‹‹object››, in which the contractual autonomy has a creative force and became the vehicle through which the land rights is generated. Second attempt is made to identify the way in which private law and administrative law coexist, finding the key junction of the two moments in the element of the accidental ‹‹condition››, represented by building permit. What emerges from the examination is a complex institution that consists of two parts: one governed by private law and one determined by administrative law. The particular structure of the institute shows that the two areas of law, lose their primacy if placed within the unit legal system. After determining how private and administrative law interact with each other and overcoming the deadlock of the legal status, it is possible to assess the future prospects of a market of transfer of development rights. Based on the current Italian situation and building on the considerations that are derived from a study of the USA TDRs (Chapter V), it can be argued that the number 2-bis is not able to achieve the ambitious goals that the legislator wanted to accomplish, due to the lack of a framework of common principles to be imposed at national level. In the concluding remarks, in a proactive perspective, are proposed some application solutions and are theorized some possible legislative changes to be introduced in the Civil Code, to ensure a greater and safer use of development rights.

It is certainly the most important reform among the many that in recent months have taken place within the sector of cultural heritage. Amidst the great controversy that accompanied its birth, it certainly represents an important evolution in the discipline of the sector. Under some aspects at least, it also certainly marks another missed chance for the world of libraries.We are talking about the fundamental law for the sector of cultural heritage, that law of protection that was emanated last 22 January 2004 (D.L. n.42), with regard to which, before dealing more extensively with libraries, we must at least mention some particularly important elements of a more general nature.Thus, for example, it seems to be particularly important that art.1 identifies the fundamental principles which have inspired the Code, or the solution adopted to finally include in one series all cultural heritage, no matter what the category to which they belong, or again to recognize the nature of cultural heritage of a whole series of realities ignored by previous legislation. Lastly, great merit should be attributed to the attempt, even if not always successful, to provide a detailed and organic juridical definition of the many activities connected with cultural heritage, or of the institutes and places of culture prefixed to them.By contrast, we cannot but mention the many perplexities excited by article 12 on the control of cultural interest and the even serious consequences which, according to some, could have involved the very survival of our cultural heritage. The article has in fact appeared to many commentators all the more serious considering that the entire control procedure must be terminated within 120 days from its beginning and that, should there be no response within this time, the control must be understood as concluded with a negative result.If however as a whole the new Code can be judged fundamentally positive, the question changes considerably where the specific area of libraries is involved. Once again, in fact, many of the problems of the sector were not so much as mentioned by the Code, while for many others the answer provided was at the least either partial or unsatisfactory. Just consider, for example, the complex and many-sided theme of the fruition of library property, liquidated in just one paragraph, or the absence of any reference whatsoever to the national library services and institute of legal deposit, or the disappointing and reductive definition of a library provided by the letter b) of paragraph 2 of article 101, the first definition of a library, please note, ever formulated in an Italian legislative text and precisely for this reason certainly worthy of greater attention and awareness. Similarly confused and contradictory is the solution adopted with regard to the area of competence between State and Region with respect to the safeguarding of library property, a subject, as is known, radically altered by the decree of 1972 which transferred to the Regions the state administrative functions regarding libraries of local bodies. On the basis of this decree, the only case in the sphere of cultural heritage, the offices of the supervision of library property were transferred to the Regions and their tasks were in part transferred and in part delegated to the Regions themselves. Well, the rather unclear wording of paragraphs 2 and 3 of article 5, far from rectifying an historical controversy introduced in regard by the Decree of the President of the Republic no. 3/1972, seems rather destined to increase the uncertainty for the future.Inattention, lack of consideration for the sector of libraries, simple superficiality? Certainly partly this, but the real problem actually is more likely another, perhaps more fundamental also, only partially linked to the specific question of the Code and directly connected rather with the very nature of our institutions and, therefore, of our specific profession. If, as Angela Vinay wrote in 1967, our libraries have the task of preserving the books possessed, but also that of spreading and producing culture, providing readers not just with what they possess, but above all with what they need, it is in fact clear that the Code cannot, even if only partially, respond to our requirements and specificities. ; Certamente costituisce la riforma di gran lunga più importante fra le molte che in questi ultimi mesi hanno interessato il settore dei beni culturali. Certamente, pur fra le mille polemiche che ne hanno accompagnato la nascita, costituisce un'importante evoluzione nella disciplina del settore. Certamente, almeno per alcuni aspetti, costituisce un'altra occasione mancata per il mondo delle biblioteche.Si tratta della legge fondamentale per il settore dei beni culturali, quella legge di tutela che ha visto la luce lo scorso 22 gennaio 2004 (D. lo n.42), a proposito della quale, prima di soffermarsi più estesamente sulle biblioteche, non si può non dedicare almeno un cenno ad alcuni elementi di carattere generale di particolare spicco.Così appare, ad esempio, di particolare rilievo la individuazione, nell'articolo 1, dei principi fondamentali ai quali il Codice si ispira, oppure la soluzione adottata di ricomprendere finalmente in un'unica serie tutti i beni culturali, a qualunque categoria appartengano, o di riconoscere la natura di bene culturale a tutta una serie di realtà ignorate dalla precedente normativa. Meritevole infine il tentativo, anche se non sempre del tutto riuscito, di fornire una puntuale ed organica definizione giuridica delle molteplici attività connesse al patrimonio culturale, o degli istituti e luoghi della cultura ad essi preposti.Per converso, non si può non accennare alle molte perplessità suscitate dall'articolo 12 sulla verifica dell'interesse culturale ed alle conseguenze anche gravi che, secondo alcuni, avrebbe potuto comportare sulla sopravvivenza stessa del nostro patrimonio culturale. La disposizione è infatti apparsa a molti commentatori tanto più grave, in considerazione del fatto che l'intera procedura di verifica deve concludersi entro 120 giorni dal suo avvio e, in caso di mancata risposta nei termini, la verifica deve intendersi conclusa con esito negativo.Se tuttavia nel complesso il giudizio che si può dare del nuovo Codice è sostanzialmente positivo, il discorso cambia sensibilmente quando ci si ponga nell'ottica specifica delle biblioteche.Ancora una volta, infatti, molti dei problemi del settore non sono stati nemmeno sfiorati dal Codice, mentre per molti altri la risposta fornita è stata quanto meno parziale ed insoddisfacente. Basti pensare, ad esempio, al complesso ed articolato tema della fruizione dei beni librari, liquidato in un solo comma, oppure, all'assenza di ogni riferimento ai servizi bibliografici nazionali ed all'istituto del deposito legale, o alla deludente e riduttiva definizione di biblioteca fornita dalla lettera b) del comma 2 dell'articolo 101, la prima definizione di biblioteca, si noti, mai formulata in un testo normativo italiano ed appunto per questo certamente meritevole di una maggiore attenzione e consapevolezzaUgualmente confusa e contraddittoria appare poi la soluzione adottata in merito al riparto di competenze fra Stato e Regioni in materia di tutela dei beni librari, una materia, come è noto, radicalmente modificata dal decreto di trasferimento alle Regioni delle funzioni amministrative statali in materia di biblioteche degli enti locali del 1972, in base al quale, caso unico nel panorama dei beni culturali, gli uffici delle soprintendenze ai beni librari erano stati trasferiti alle Regioni e le loro competenze parte trasferite e parte delegate alle Regioni stesse. Ebbene, la formulazione assai poco chiara dei commi 2 e 3 dell'art.5, lungi dal sanare una storica discrasia introdotta in materia dal D.P.R. n.3/1972, sembra invece destinata ad accrescere l'incertezza per il futuro.Disattenzione, scarsa considerazione per il settore delle biblioteche, semplice approssimazione? Certamente in parte anche questo, ma in realtà il vero problema è probabilmente un altro, se vogliamo ben più sostanziale, solo parzialmente legato alla specifica questione del Codice e direttamente connesso invece con la natura stessa dei nostri istituti e, quindi, della nostra specifica professione. Se, come scriveva nel 1967 Angela Vinay, le nostre biblioteche hanno il compito di conservare i beni librari posseduti, ma anche quello di diffondere e produrre cultura, fornendo ai lettori non solamente ciò che possiedono, ma sopratutto ciò di cui essi hanno bisogno, è infatti chiaro che il Codice non può, se non solo parzialmente, rispondere alle nostre esigenze e specificità.

Il Volontariato nella Governance dei Servizi Sanitari Toscani: Dall'Aggregazione all'Integrazione di Modelli Sociali, Organizzativi ed Individuali Il fenomeno del Volontariato sta ricevendo progressivamente attenzione dagli studiosi di management, con particolare riferimento al ruolo che le Organizzazioni Non-profit (NPO) svolgono nella società moderna, oltre alla modalità con cui i cittadini si impegnano attivamente nel Terzo Settore al fine di far fronte ai cosiddetti 'fallimenti' dello Stato (government failures) e dei mercati (business failures). La letteratura di riferimento studia come la Società Civile sia in grado di fornire efficacemente i servizi socio-umanitari, rappresentando in tal modo un importante attore sociale al pari dell'Ente Pubblico, rappresentato dalle Istituzioni Governative (GOV), e del mercato, rappresentato dalle imprese ed i business commerciali (BUS). Nella presente ricerca il fenomeno del Volontariato è concettualizzato ed analizzato empiricamente attraverso tre prospettive – macro, meso, micro – le quali corrispondono alle tre sezioni della tesi di ricerca. A tal fine, abbiamo preso in considerazione l'area geografica della Regione Toscana, che rappresenta uno standard di riferimento ed eccellenza per l'implementazione da parte delle NPO di servizi socio-sanitari, in particolare nell'ambito dell'emergenza ed urgenza (Servizio 118). Infatti, il Terzo Settore toscano ha un'antica tradizione storico-culturale sviluppatasi fin dal Medioevo – la nascita della prima associazione di Volontariato fiorentina risale al 1244 – e durante i secoli è stato in grado di contribuire in modo significativo all'evoluzione del social welfare regionale, grazie all'implementazione di servizi socio-sanitari nei confronti della propria comunità locale. Quali sono le ragioni essenziali, le caratteristiche peculiari, e le leve strategiche che permettono il successo di tale realtà filantropica regionale? Per rispondere a tale domanda, abbiamo in primo luogo analizzato l'evoluzione storica delle interazioni istituzionali tra GOV e NPO toscane. Facendo riferimento alla letteratura di partnership ed alleanze strategiche, il focus è stato sul fenomeno delle partnership sociali cross-settoriali (CSSP – Cross-Sector Social Partnership), che si riferiscono ad alleanze strategiche tra i tre attori sociali, ossia lo Stato, le imprese for-profit ed il Terzo Settore, al fine di perseguire obiettivi sociali capaci di creare valore per la comunità di riferimento e soddisfarne le esigenze. La letteratura pertinente concettualizza tale fenomeno attraverso tre fasi, denominate 'formazione', 'implementazione', 'risultati'. Inoltre, tali fasi sono costituite da stage i quali a loro volta sono suddivisi in micro-processi. Uno dei gap della letteratura fa riferimento agli aspetti dinamici e contingentali che influenzano l'evoluzione delle CSSP in relazione a tali fasi, stage e micro-processi. Il nostro obiettivo è stato di contribuire a tale letteratura analizzando la specifica fase di 'implementazione' della partnership sociale cross-settoriale tra Regione Toscana e Associazioni di Volontariato, indagando l'evoluzione dei tre stage definiti 'selezione', 'design' e 'istituzionalizzazione'. Attraverso la metodologia della 'critical event analysis', abbiamo analizzato archivi storici, documenti, report, norme legislative, interviste con Presidenti e Direttori delle NPO toscane e responsabili della Regione Toscana, al fine di esaminare l'evoluzione della CSSP toscana negli ultimi 35 anni, ossia dal 1978 (creazione del Sistema Sanitario Nazionale) ai giorni d'oggi (2013-2015). Per tale livello 'macro' di analisi, è emerso come la partnership sociale sia stata caratterizzata dal cosiddetto 'isomorfismo coercitivo' il quale ha imposto alle Associazioni di Volontariato di adattarsi dinamicamente al contesto ambientale di riferimento per essere in grado di rispondere a pressioni contestuali esterne. Tali fattori hanno scaturito 5 principali criticità, ossia la legittimazione, il potere, la fiducia, l'identità, l'absorptive capacity, che sono evolute dinamicamente nel corso delle interazioni storiche tra i partner regionali. Nella seconda sezione della tesi abbiamo utilizzato una prospettiva 'meso', in particolare l'analisi di uno specifico modello di business e governance che sempre più caratterizza le organizzazioni non- profit, ossia il modello 'ibrido'. Tale modello fa riferimento alla compresenza di attività filantropiche/non-profit e commerciali/for-profit nella stessa organizzazione. Il fenomeno dell'ibridizzazione è sempre più un elemento significativo per le moderne realtà organizzative, poiché molte imprese sia for-profit che non-profit stanno sempre più convergendo verso un modello di 'impresa sociale', che sottolinea l'orientamento e l'attitudine imprenditoriale verso la responsabilità sociale delle strutture organizzative nei confronti di stakeholder e ambiente di riferimento. In particolare, tale fenomeno sta progressivamente caratterizzando le Associazioni di Volontariato toscane le quali devono organizzare innovativi modelli di business e governance al fine di essere autonome finanziariamente, divenendo così sempre più indipendenti dalle Istituzioni Governative e più sensibili ai bisogni di volontari e comunità locale. La letteratura ha individuato due tipologie di modelli ibridi, ossia il modello integrato e quello disintegrato, focalizzandosi in maniera marginale sulle possibili implicazioni manageriali. Al fine di contribuire a tale filone di letteratura, abbiamo effettuato un caso di studio multiplo analizzando tre NPO toscane 'ibride'. Grazie alla coding analysis delle interviste semi-strutturate effettuate con i Presidenti e i manager delle Associazioni di Volontariato, è stato possibile individuare implicazioni manageriali significative per tali realtà organizzative. In primo luogo, abbiamo concettualizzato una terza tipologia di modello di business e governance ibrido, ossia il modello semi-intergrato; in secondo luogo, abbiamo individuato sei categorie concettuali emerse dall'analisi che influenzano la gestione di tali realtà, ossia legittimità interna, legittimità esterna, scambi e flussi monetari, struttura organizzativa, perdita di identità, limiti alla crescita organizzativa. I risultati dell'analisi sottolineano come il modello ibrido integrato sia caratterizzato da alti livelli di criticità in riferimento ai limiti alla crescita; il modello disintegrato dal rischio di perdita identitaria; infine, il modello semi-integrato da criticità concernenti la legittimità interna e limiti alla crescita. La terza sezione della tesi fa riferimento ad una prospettiva 'micro', analizzando in primo luogo il concetto socio-antropologico del dono all'interno del contesto di volontariato; in secondo luogo, indagando le motivazioni psico-socio comportamentali dei volontari, oltre che le loro attitudini ed intenzioni comportamentali. In particolare, mentre il primo capitolo della sezione fa riferimento all'analisi concettuale del dono utilizzando importanti teorie antropologiche – come la Teoria del Dono di Marcel Mauss – il secondo capitolo presenta un'analisi empirica attraverso un modello ad equazioni strutturali (SEM – structural equation modeling), in grado di analizzare simultaneamente le relazioni ipotizzate tra significative variabili latenti delle attitudini, intenzioni e comportamenti dei volontari. Abbiamo utilizzato scale di questionari convalidati in letteratura e collezionato 379 questionari completati da volontari di 20 NPO toscane. Dopo l'analisi esplorativa fattoriale delle dimensioni oggetto di analisi – motivazioni (sociale, carriera, valori, conoscenza, protezione dell'io, avanzamento dell'io), atteggiamento verso l'organizzazione, religiosità, reciprocità positiva e negativa, intenzione a donare – abbiamo costruito un modello SEM e analizzato sia gli indici di significatività (modello di misurazione) sia le relazioni ed 'influenze' esistenti tra variabili (modello strutturale). Le principali implicazioni manageriali fanno riferimento alla capacità del management delle NPO di analizzare e conoscere i segnali relazionali emanati dai volontari, al fine di rispondere in modo appropriato ed incentivare lo sforzo di tali preziose risorse strategiche. Infatti, i volontari non rappresentano solamente il principale 'fornitore' di tempo, risorse, know-how e abilità per le Associazioni di Volontariato, bensì al contempo sono i beneficiari di gratificazione, soddisfazione e spirito associazionistico ottenuti dalla partecipazione all'organizzazione. In particolare, la dimensione di reciprocità insieme all'intenzione di donare sottolineano come la relazionalità sia un elemento cruciale per la gestione delle NPO, che presuppone una profonda conoscenza dei tratti psicologici dei volontari, oltre alle loro attitudini ed intenzioni comportamentali. Tali fattori sono importanti per rendere le Associazioni di Volontariato il veicolo sociale efficace in grado di rispondere ai bisogni della comunità locale e cercare di risolvere i 'fallimenti' dello Stato e dei mercati, grazie in modo particolare alle loro risorse più importanti, ossia i volontari. Voluntarism in the Governance of Tuscan Socio-health services: From the Aggregation to the Integration of Social, Organizational, and Individual Models The phenomenon of voluntarism is increasingly achieving attention by management scholars, specifically focusing on the role of Non-profit Organizations (NPOs) in modern society and the way citizens actively commit themselves in the Third Sector in order to cope with government and business failures. Pertinent literature questions how the organized Civil Society successfully provides human service delivery, thus traditionally representing an important societal actor along with both the Public Entity, represented at a local level by Governmental Institutions (GOV), and the market, represented by enterprises and for-profit business (BUS). In the present thesis, such a phenomenon has been conceptually and empirically analyzed following three perspectives, namely a 'macro', 'meso', and 'micro' perspective, which correspond to the three sections of the research. To this purpose, we chose an emblematic geographical area, the Region of Tuscany, which represents a paradigmatic excellence and national benchmark for the provision of emergency-urgency socio-health services. Actually, the Tuscan Third Sector has a historical and long-lasting tradition that started in the medieval period, precisely 1244 in Florence, and during the Centuries has significantly contributed to the evolution of regional welfare, especially by providing socio-health services to its own local community. What are the essential reasons, peculiar characteristics, and strategic levers that allow such a regional successful philanthropic reality? To answer this question, we firstly analyzed the historical evolution of the institutional interactions between regional GOV and Tuscan NPOs. Drawing on partnership and strategic alliances literature, we focused on the notion of cross-sector social partnership (CSSP), which refers to strategic arrangements between the three societal actors, namely GOV, BUS, and NPOs, aiming at social purposes. CSSP literature conceptualizes such arrangements through a tripartite framework which is composed by three phases, namely formation, implementation, and outcome of the social partnership. Further, each phase is characterized by stages which in turn are composed by micro-processes. However, scarce attention has been given to the analysis of evolving CSSP focusing on dynamic and contingent elements influencing and affecting such arrangements. We attempted to contribute to this stream of literature by choosing the implementation stage of the CSSP between Tuscan GOV and NPOs, and its three stages, namely selection, design, and institutionalization. By using critical event analysis, we examined historical archives, documents, reports, legislative frameworks, interviews with NPOs Presidents and Directors and GOV representatives, in order to assess the evolution of the Tuscan CSSP in the last 35 years, particularly from 1978 (the creation of the Italian NHS) to the present period (years 2013-2015). At this first 'macro' level of analysis, it emerged how the examined Tuscan CSSP has been characterized by an institutional 'coercive isomorphism' which imposed NPOs to adaptively respond to external pressures. These environmental factors resulted in five main CSSP internal outputs, namely legitimacy, power, trust, identity, and absorptive capacity, which dynamically evolve throughout the historical interactions between partners. In the second section of the thesis we used a 'meso' perspective, particularly the analysis of a specific business and governance model which is increasingly characterizing NPOs realities, the hybrid model. Such a model refers to the implementation of both for-profit and non-profit activities within a single organization. Hybridization is actually an important element in modern organizations, mainly because many for-profit enterprises and traditional NPOs are converging toward the so-called 'social enterprise' model, which stresses the socially responsible entrepreneurial mindset of modern management and organizational structures. Such a phenomenon is progressively characterizing Tuscan NPOs, which have to arrange innovative forms of business model in order to be financially autonomous and thus becoming, on the one hand, more independent of regional GOV and, on the other hand, more trustworthy toward its own volunteers and local community. Pertinent literature has individuated two types of hybrid business and governance models, namely the integrated and disintegrated ones, although few attempts have provided managerial implications for such hybrid arrangements. We attempted to contribute to this stream of literature by conducting a multiple case study of three Tuscan 'hybrid' NPOs. Specifically, the coding analysis of semi-structured interviews with NPOs Presidents and Directors resulted in significant managerial implications for these organizations. Firstly, we conceptualized a third hybrid business and governance model, the semi- integrated one; second, we individuated six conceptual categories affecting the hybridization phenomenon – internal legitimacy, external legitimacy, monetary exchange and flows, organizational structure, loss of identity, growth constraints. Interestingly, the integrated model resulted affected by high critical levels of growth constraints; the disintegrated model by risk of loss of identity; and, finally, the semi-integrated model by internal legitimacy and growth constraints. The third and final section of the thesis builds on a 'micro' perspective by firstly analyzing the socio- anthropological concept of the gift and donation in the voluntary context, and secondly investigating volunteers' motivations, attitudes, and behavioral intention to donate in order to deepen how these essential strategic resources of NPOs behave. While the first part of the section is a conceptual analysis of the notion of gift-giving building on anthropological theories (e.g. The Theory of the Gift by Marcel Mauss), the second part presents an empirical analysis using a structural equation model (SEM), which allowed to simultaneously assess the hypothesized relationships between important latent dimensions of volunteers' behavior, intention to donate, and attitude toward the NPO. Particularly, we used validated psychological and managerial scales and collected 379 questionnaires completed by Tuscan volunteers of 20 NPOs. After an exploratory factor analysis of the analyzed latent dimensions – volunteers' motivations (social, career, values, understanding, ego protection, ego enhancement), attitude toward charities, religiosity, positive and negative reciprocity, intention to donate – we implemented SEM procedure and evaluate both the 'measurement' model (fit indices) and the 'structural' model (hypothesized relationships) of the proposed constructs. Main managerial implications refer to the importance for NPO board to assess and understand volunteers' relational signals, in order to appropriately respond to and incentive such crucial strategic resources of the organization. Actually, volunteers represent not only the main 'provider' of time, resources, know- how, and ability for NPOs, but also and at the same time the main 'beneficiary' of gratification and satisfaction derived from being part of a committed philanthropic association. Particularly, the reciprocal dimension of volunteers' behavior, along with their intention to donate, stress how the relational element is important in the management of such realities, which presupposes a deep understanding of individual psychological traits, attitudes, and behavioral intention. Such elements make NPOs the effective and successful societal vehicles able to respond to community needs and to cope with government and market 'failures', thanks to their most precious resources, the volunteers.

Doing business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting 10 areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts and resolving insolvency. In a series of annual reports doing business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 183 economies, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe, over time. This economy profile presents the doing business indicators for United Kingdom. To allow useful comparison, it also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. The data in this report are current as of June 1, 2011 (except for the paying taxes indicators, which cover the period January-December 2010).