Suchergebnisse

The influence on local government organization and management of new public management practices promoted by national administrative reforms remains an issue of contention. On one hand, some authors argue that these reforms have produced similar results at both the central and local levels of government (John 2001; Sanderson 2001; Van Gramberg & Teicher 2000). Others consider that the political nature of elected mayors and their legitimacy derived from close proximity with voters has limited its impact at the local level (McLaughlin 2002). However, it is unquestionable that local governance has changed over the years, distancing itself from traditional management involving clearly defined hierarchical relations, long-lasting career systems, bureaucratic control mechanisms, and in-house production. The influence of Public Choice theory and the New Public Management reforms have transformed local governance, albeit the degree of change remains under dispute. These changes resulted in the adoption of alternative mechanisms to deliver public services based on the externalization of service delivery, either using market approaches or employing partnerships with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). The influence of New Public Management reforms brought about new service delivery arrangements replacing traditional bureaucratic in-house supply. Examples of these arrangements include: 1) CCT (Compulsory Competitive Tendering) replacing service delivery through in-house formal hierarchy with contracting (Fenwick, Shaw, & Foreman 1994); 2) Best Value relying on the comparison between delivery by the local government bureaucracy and alternative solutions provided by the market (Sanderson, 2001; Martin & Hartley 2000); 3) Local Government Amendment stressing the separation of municipal functions and highlighting the need for a corporate approach to commercial type functions (Wallis & Dollery 2001); and 4) New Steering Model (NSM) promoting functional decentralization and service autonomy to accomplish efficiency gains and quality in service delivery (Reichard 2003). Currently, local governments are responsible for the provision of an ever growing number of public services, including education, social services, land use planning and management, water supply, wastewater management, solid waste collection and management, and the promotion of local economic development. The mayoral system at the local level associated with the traditional administrative culture has produced resistance to the introduction and implementation of New Public Management reforms. In-house bureaucratic solutions still represent a large proportion of service delivery choices among Portuguese local governments. Nevertheless, the adoption of new governance mechanisms based on market competition and contracting out began increasing by the end of the 1990s. In recent years, we also witnessed the rise of alternatives to both market and hierarchy, through solutions relying on network partnerships and municipal cooperation. The large number of functions assumed by local governments as a result of central government delegation generated a substantial increase in the number and diversity of alternative governance mechanisms. We analyse the choice between these governance mechanisms in light of current trends of administrative reform. Our central hypothesis follows Robert Stein's 1993 assertion that service characteristics influence the choice among governance mechanisms (hierarchy, market or network). We match three types of municipal services with these governance mechanisms and develop our hypotheses accordingly. First, we expect regulatory and monitoring activities to be provided by hierarchy type mechanisms (Lowi 1964; Peterson 1981; Barney 1999). Second, for activities involving the delivery of private goods and services (rival consumption and exclusion), local government officials will be inclined to use market-type mechanisms (Brown & Potoski 2003a; Ostrom & Ostrom 1977). Finally, social services, generally involving redistributive and social policies are most likely provided by network type mechanisms (Lamothe, Lamothe, & Feiock 2007; Brandsen & Pestoff 2006; Osbourne & McLaughlin 2004; Lowi 1964). The empirical analysis employs data collected from a sample of 102 Portuguese local governments between February and October 2008.

The medical services have undergone substantial changes over the past decades, and the design and content of health care have been determined by economic programmes, streamlining, and rationalization. The calls to cut costs and implement reorganizations have come largely from politicians and have been handled by middle and high-level managers. Advances in medicine and technology have led to heavier burdens on staff, and another challenge concerns having to deal with patients who are more knowledgeable and demanding than was previously the case. Therefore, health care professionals are required to carry out more tasks simultaneously, and they also have to contend with additional obligations to different stakeholders. The main objective of the research underlying this thesis was to gain a better understanding of how medical and health care personnel are affected by having multiple obligations, which can even be conflicting in relation to these professionals themselves, their patients, and their employers. To identify and elucidate the experiences of care personnel in this context, data were collected by use of an open interview form in the first study and by performing in-depth interviews in the three subsequent investigations. The gathered data were assessed by content analysis in Study 1, by grounded theory in Studies 2 and 3, and by modified analytic induction in Study 4. All of the participants in the four investigations had in common the fact that they were licensed practitioners in various fields of medicine and health care, and thus they were responsible their own professional conduct. The first study included 42 resident physicians, and the results showed that these professionals were highly engaged in their work and were satisfied with their career choice, but they had mixed emotions about their work situation. It was clear they needed confirmation, more support, and greater opportunity for reflection under stressful working conditions. The eight participants in the second study represented all levels in one psychiatric care organization, which was being reorganized with respect to the authorities in charge, as well as the treatment strategies in use. It became apparent that a change in a theoretical frame of reference or a revision of internal obligations proceeded according to a completely different timetable compared to a more technical transformation of a method or an external change in the organization. Professional autonomy and authority were threatened, and professional identity was shaken. Ten middle managers took part in the third study. They had developed strategies and above all a personalprofessional maturity that gave them non-negotiable independence and authority. They were guided by their basic values, respect, and integrity in relation to how they perceived themselves, their personnel, and their patients, and even with regard to their own superiors and the organization in which they worked. The fourth study included 13 clinicians who served as both teachers and researchers, and had several formal commissions and different employers. These individuals had an extremely complicated and demanding work situation, but they felt that the various tasks they performed enhanced each other. They got feedback on their work, and their authority was not questioned. Furthermore, the work they did was stimulating and challenging, and led to self-development. The medical and health care services will be continually restructured to meet the demands of patients and society. One of the most important challenges is to make this an attractive area of work, so that the personnel will not want to leave. Health care professionals are not going to stand idly by while their autonomy and authority are undermined, rendering them a mere cog in an industrialized health care system. They want to contribute their expertise, and when they feel they are appreciated and treated with respect, they become involved in and committed to both the organization and their original mission to give their patients the best possible care.

In December 2006 the UN General Assembly adopted the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. It came into force in May 2008. The next step, the incorporation into national law, will be a great political challenge for most member states. The Convention calls for a paradigm shift from a policy of welfare to a policy of human rights. It is based on the social model, which attributes disability to social barriers, lack of support and discriminatory views in society. The guiding principles of the Convention are full and effective participation and inclusion in society, together with respect for individual autonomy and universal claims for social support. Disabled people who require intensive care are explicitly included. In a remarkable way, this links fundamental freedoms, such as the right to be protected from state or other interference in personal liberty, with social rights, such as the right to access social services and benefits. In detail, states are e.g. obliged to guarantee the elimination of obstacles and barriers in buildings, transportation, all indoor and outdoor facilities, information and communication; to ensure that people with disabilities have the opportunity to choose their place of residence; to guarantee the general right for all children to get an inclusive education; and to ensure the right of all people with disabilities to marry and found a family. These examples show that the new Convention represents a remarkably rich and extended understanding of human rights. The present Thesis explores if the "disability rights" formulated by the new Convention can be understood as coherently and consistently specifying universal human rights. This analysis shows: First, the basic principle of inclusiveness of human rights contradicts popular positions in bioethics, where e.g. the universal right to life for disabled neonates is controversial. Second, while the basic principle of universal respect requires claims for care and support in daily life, it potentially undermines the modern division between the public and private spheres. Third, there might be doubts, if the sophisticated, specific claims for disabled people could be seen in accordance with the notion of general rights. Initially, these three points are discussed within the framework of social justice theory. Therefore, the three currently most popular concepts of social justice for disabled people, referring to John Rawls, Alasdair MacIntyre and Martha Nussbaum, are being examined. All three concepts are based explicitly or implicitly on the accounts of inclusiveness and universality regarding people with great demands for care and support. However, it has been shown that all three concepts contradict their own requirements to include all disabled people. Thus, a conclusion is drawn that the controversial aspects mentioned above can not be satisfactorily discussed without normative ethical reflection. Subsequently, it has been shown that the rich concept of human rights in the new Convention can be reasonably defended regarding a deontological concept of ethics. This concept is based on Kant's principle of human dignity and an extended interpretation of his doctrine of justice, which, on the one side, includes comprehensive claims for solidarity and, on the other, retains consistent refusal of any form of paternalism. In this way, it abstains from the individual coercion to care for others and instead formulates collective duties of solidarity. From this it follows that social conditions are required in which the protection not only of negative rights but also of positive social, economic and cultural rights is institutionally anchored. Furthermore, a social climate is required that promotes the individual and collective readiness to assume the corresponding positive duties to support, help and care for weaker and dependent members of our societies.

This thesis is an assessment of the current arms control agreements that regulate the transfers of conventional armament. Even though states acknowledge the threat and violent consequences that the legal, and illegal, arms trade represent, the control agreements they enact fail to successfully regulate and limit the international arms transfers. This study argues that these control agreements are ineffective. This argument is linked to the non-compliance of states to follow arms control regulations when security issues and economic interests are involved. Some agreements are merely smoke-screen measures in that they only stipulate regulations must be followed on a voluntary basis, despite the fact that the tragic repercussion of armed violence continues to occur. Due to this empirical ineffectiveness, the causes of, and possible solutions to, these situations are analyzed. The main concern of this study is to propose the implementation of instruments that enhance the effectiveness of conventional arms control, as well as consider new methods regarding security cooperation. It takes a critical approach of the state-centric conceptions about military means and the arms dynamics that determine the relations among states. Power dynamics within the international system still give priority to the production and transfer of armament, using justification of the status quo with classical conceptions of national security and the right of self-defence as a pretext to continue the arms trade. In the theoretical framework, the structural realist and neo-liberal institutionalist approaches are presented with the intention to understand the perspective of the states about achieving national security and the possibilities for security cooperation, despite the permanent presence of the security dilemma. Nevertheless, the main argument of this thesis asserts that the formation of an international institution based on the European Union policies on conventional arms can improve the overall situation in security cooperation. Thus, postulates from the regime theory approach are extensively presented, including the concept of international regime, its formation process, features, and types. The analytical section of this study is focused in the application of the European Union Code of Conduct on Arms Exports. The analysis attempts to verify if the Member States have applied the criteria included in the Code of Conduct when transferring armament. Specifically, the analysis will be guided by the teachings of Carl Patton and David Sawicki by applying the sixstep process of policy analysis method. This thesis proposes that the creation of a comprehensive international regime, including a binding regulation in the transfers of specific armament and the implementation of diverse strategies of economic and social development, can improve the overall situation of security and development for the European Union and nearby regions, such as Africa and the Middle East. The regime proposals presented are backed by the interest-based regime approach in which neo-liberalism proposes a certain degree of institutionalism. This is complemented by the constructivist-cognitive approach, where knowledge and the establishment of new practices may create new forms of cooperation in security, and, consequently, change the structure of the current international system. It is acknowledged that the effective control of conventional armament goes beyond the national sphere and, therefore, multilateral action is needed. Arms control and security must be obtained by different methods and actions that permit states to achieve security without the permanent acquisition of weapons. Until this can happen, arms control will not be successfully applied. Keywords: Conventional Arms, International Regimes, European Union

Pese a ser un sociólogo generalista o multidisciplinar, frecuento algunas especialidades con preferencia sobre las demás, siendo mis campos de estudio preferidos el género, la política, la edad, la familia, la cultura y la teoría sociológica. Y para describir la trastienda de mi proceso investigador, nada mejor que referirme a la gestación de mis estudios sobre relaciones de género, a los que me vengo dedicando a lo largo de mis últimos 30 años, desde que en 1977 me licencié en sociología con una Tesina sobre el emparejamiento y la estructura cognitiva del deseo (Útero, Deseo y Safo, inédita). Posteriormente, he publicado cuatro libros más sobre dicho campo (La mujer cuarteada en 1991, El nuevo sexo débil en 1997, Medias Miradas en 2000 y Máscaras masculinas, en 2006), así como diversos artículos relacionados. Y hoy continúo embarcado en esa misma línea de investigación, pues preparo un próximo libro que proyecto publicar bajo el título de El capital sexual. Para explicar tan porfiada insistencia en este objeto de deseo cognitivo podría decirse que todo se debe a una cierta obsesión sexual, cuya reiterada frustración se habría sublimado en sentido científico-social para revestirla con una pátina de respetabilidad académica. Por ello, puesto a revelar en público mis estrategias investigadoras, he optado por desnudar mis hábitos mentales más inconfesables para centrarme no en la fabricación de una obra singular sino en el progresivo desarrollo de una obra en marcha, que me viene acompañando a lo largo de mi biografía académica como si llevara una doble vida insospechada pero codiciosa y estimulante. Es mi mejor capital sexual. ; Despite being a generalist or multidisciplinary sociologist, I do frequent certain specialties more often than others. The fields of study which have been my priority are gender, politics, age, the family, culture and sociological theory. And to describe the inner workings of my research process there is nothing better than to refer to the development of my studies on gender relations, to which I have been dedicated during the last 30 years, since I received my degree in sociology in 1977 with an undergraduate thesis on couples and the cognitive structure of desire (Útero, Deseo y Safo, unpublished [The Uterus, Desire and Sappho]). Subsequently, I have published four books in this field (La mujer cuarteada [Woman fractured] in 1991, El nuevo sexo débil [The new weaker sex] in 1997, Medias Miradas [The Hidden Gaze] in 2000 and Máscaras masculinas [Masculine masks], in 2006), as well as diverse articles. Today I continue, embarked on this same line of research, as I prepare my next book projected to be published with the title El capital sexual [Sexual capital]. To explain such a stubborn insistence on this object of cognitive desire I could say that it is all due to a certain sexual obsession, whose repeated frustration has been sublimated into a social-scientific interest and dressed up with a patina of academic respectability. Therefore, willing to publically reveal my research strategies, I have opted to expose my most unconfessable mental habits to focus, not on the production of a particular work, but rather on the progressive development of a work in progress; one that has been accompanying me throughout my academic life as if I were leading an unsuspected but covetous and stimulating double life. This is my most valuable sexual capital.

Summary The study of National Tourism System in Jordan aims to shed some light on the structure of tourism industry in Jordan by illustrating the real resources present in the country, assessing the quality of services, and then exploring the management efficiency, ie. Governance dimension. The work has been based on the structure provided by the Resource-based Theory (RBT) which gives a significant weight to the existed resources in the territory and considers them as an important factor for the development of the product. Moreover RBT draws a connection between the various components in the area and the evolution and sustainability of tourism product. The author used the Resource-Service-Governance framework to show the relationship between these three elements in order to understand to how extent they affect the final product and its image. Five Jordanian tourist destinations were chosen, for this purpose, as a research field. That was useful to portray the reality of the Jordanian product, and to give a holistic idea about the local tourism systems adopted in these destinations. It is quite clear that the first dimension of the framework (Resources) represents the cornerstone from which to launch any tourist destination by exploiting these resources that can attract both tourists and investors. The analysis of tourism resources in Jordan is considered necessary before putting into place any global master plan for development. Moreover, exploring the nature of resources in Jordan leads us to put in order our priorities of work, focusing on the economic projects and programmes that can generate rapid and sustainable economic results. The second dimension (services) also has a crucial role in the life of the tourist destination. Indeed, a destination with poor tourist facilities (accessibility, accommodation, food and beverage services, and entertainment) will not be able to attract the numbers of tourists that it deserves even if it is rich in resources. The third dimension of the framework is Governance, and here we highlight the impact of policies and strategies adopted by both the public and private sectors to develop the tourism industry in the country. The form of the role played by governance is extremely crucial and significant in the development of tourist sites. In most cases, this role is assumed by government bodies, politicians, and decision makers who undertake practical procedures to realise their visions. Moreover, the concept of "Governance" sheds some light on the managerial aspects of the tourist destination, the degree of coordination between the various stakeholders, and the role given to those stakeholders in terms of the policies and strategy making. Indeed, many countries, especially the developing ones, have started to involve the private sector more in the planning process since it has became an important partner on the development path. Jordan, for example, has launched a great initiative that aims to bridge the gap between the private and public sector, and to build an integrative relationship between them instead of a hostile and unfriendly one. The author attempted to demonstrate several aspects of the Jordanian products such as; evolution of tourist sites, the competitiveness of Jordan as a tourist destination, quality of tourism services, the impact of the transport sector on the performance of Jordanian tourism system, price-quality relationship in the Jordanian product, relationship between private and public sector, decision making process, relationship between various public bodies and private sector, the role of private sector in the enactment of regulations and laws, the role of private sector in the promotion of product, and finally the efficiency of tourism statistical system and its impact on the availability of tourist database in Jordan.

Abstract The aim of the research was to explore the possibilities and limitations to foster teacher empowerment and promote Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender and Queer (GLBTQ) educational equity in schools. The context of the research was the GLBTQ Educational Equity (GLEE) Project funded by European Union (EU) during 1999–2002. Using an action research approach a Leadership Training Course (LTC) for teachers was developed with an international training team. The aim of the course was to empower teachers to develop action plans for their schools to promote GLBTQ equity. After the course teachers were supported in their actions by an internet-based support network called GLEENET. There was a LTC in 2000 and 2002 in Oulu, Finland. The starting point for developing an empowering pedagogy for the LTC was critical pedagogical theories. The results from the LTC along with the post-course actions were used to further develop the pedagogical theory, followed by another course and further theoretical development. The focus of the dissertation is on: (1) evaluating the empowerment of course participants, (2) developing principles of web-assisted transformative pedagogy, and (3) evaluating the methodological approach as a counter-heteronormative praxis. In addition, new tools for conceptualising empowerment are developed. There was evidence that the participants were empowered by the LTC, and that GLEENET after the course further empowered them. Following the LTC all the teachers engaged in some form of activism such as workshops for colleagues, curriculum development and student activities. Also, some of the participants carried out transnational projects funded by the EU. The first was the Inequality in School Project 2001–2002 and the second was the Towards an Inclusive School Project 2003–2006. Despite the empowerment of teachers and their actions to transform their schools, the research concluded that there were limitations. In particular, resistance and barriers were faced including opposition from headteachers and colleagues, as well as having a lack of time. There is a need for wider EU anti-discrimination legislation, action on the part of educational authorities, and pre and in-service teacher training to break down cultural and structural barriers to promoting GLBTQ educational equity. ; Tiivistelmä Tämän tutkimuksen päämäärä oli selvittää mitä mahdollisuuksia ja rajoitteita liittyy homojen, lesbojen, biseksuaalien sekä transgender- ja queer-henkilöiden (GLBTQ) yhdenvertaisuuden edistämiseen koulumaailmassa opettajien voimaannuttamisen kautta. Tutkimuksen konteksti oli Euroopan unionin (EU) rahoittama GLBTQ Educational Equity (GLEE) -projekti vuosina 1999–2002. Toimintatutkimuksellista lähestymistapaa käyttämällä kansainvälinen kouluttajatiimi kehitti opettajille suunnatun johtajuuskurssin (LTC), jonka päämäärä oli voimauttaa opettajat kehittämään kouluilleen toimintasuunnitelmat GLBTQ-yhdenvertaisuuden edistämiseksi. Kurssin jälkeen opettajat saivat tukea toimilleen GLEENET-internetyhteisön kautta. Kaksi LTC-kurssia järjestettiin Oulussa vuosina 2000 ja 2002. Kriittisen pedagogiikan teoriat olivat lähtökohtana LTC-kurssin voimauttavalle pedagogiikalle. Ensimmäisen LTC-kurssin tuloksia sekä osallistujien kurssin jälkeisiä toimia käytettiin pedagogisen teorian jatkokehittämiseen, minkä jälkeen seurasi toinen LTC-kurssi sekä teorian edelleen kehittämistä. Tämä väitöskirja keskittyy: (1) arvioimaan kurssin osallistujien voimaantumista, (2) kehittämään web-avusteisen transformatiivisen pedagogian perusperiaatteita, sekä (3) arvioimaan metodologisen lähestymistavan soveltuvuutta heteronormatiivisuuden vastaiseksi praksikseksi. Lisäksi kehitetään uusia työkaluja voimaantumisen käsitteellistämiseen. Havainnot ja tutkimusaineisto tukevat sitä, että osaanottajat voimaantuivat LTC-kurssilla, ja että kurssin jälkeen GLEENET voimaannutti heitä lisää. Kurssin jälkeen kaikki osallistuneet opettajat aktivoituivat esim. pitämään työpajoja kollegoilleen, kehittämään koulunsa lukujärjestystä tai järjestämään opiskelija-aktiviteetteja. Lisäksi jotkut osallistujat perustivat EU:n rahoittamia kansainvälisiä projekteja, joista ensimmäinen oli Inequality in School vuosina 2001–2002, ja toinen Towards an Inclusive School vuosina 2003–2006. Vaikka opettajat voimaantuivat ja pyrkivät toimillaan muuttamaan koulujaan, tutkimustulokset kertovat myös rajoitteiden olemassaolosta. Erityisesti ongelmia aiheutti rehtorin tai kollegoiden vastustus sekä ajan puute. Tarvitaan EU:n syrjinnän vastaisten lakien laajentamista, koulutuksesta vastaavien viranomaisten toimia sekä opettajien koulutusta ja jatkokoulutusta, jotta kulttuuriset ja rakenteelliset esteet GLBTQ-yhdenvertaisuuden edistämisen tieltä saadaan raivatuksi.

Der Handlungsspielraum der deutschen Außen- und Sicherheitspolitik hat sich mit dem Wegfall der systemischen Zwänge des Kalten Krieges und der letzten formalen Souveränitätsbeschränkungen nach 1990 erhöht. Zugleich bewahrheitete sich die von einigen neorealistischen Beobachtern vertretene Befürchtung nicht, Deutschland könne nun seine Bindungen im Rahmen der euro-atlantischen Sicherheitsinstitutionen aufgeben und fortan einen unilateraleren sicherheitspolitischen Kurs einschlagen. Stattdessen unterstrichen alle Bundesregierungen die weiterhin zentrale Bedeutung der NATO für die deutsche Sicherheitspolitik. Auf der Grundlage dieser beiden Beobachtungen " dem erweiterten Handlungsspielraum und dem fortdauernden deutschen Bekenntnis zur NATO " kann die Erwartung formuliert werden, dass Deutschland den zu Beginn der 1990er Jahre neu einsetzenden Transformationsprozess der Allianz aktiv und mit eigenen Impulsen begleitet hat und entsprechende Initiativen unternahm. Ein erster Blick auf die sicherheitspolitische Praxis enttäuscht diese Erwartungen jedoch. Lediglich im Zusammenhang mit der ersten Osterweiterung wurde der deutschen Bundesregierung (und insbesondere dem früheren Verteidigungsminister Volker Rühe) eine gestaltende Funktion zuerkannt, während sie im Bereich des militärischen Krisenmanagements in der Regel als Bremser qualifiziert wurde. Auch im Zusammenhang mit der globaleren Ausrichtung der NATO nach dem 11. September 2001 scheint die Bundesrepublik Deutschland sich über weite Strecken eher den Vorgaben des amerikanischen Bündnispartners angepasst zu haben, als dass sie den Prozess aktiv mitgestaltete. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht vor diesem Hintergrund den Gestaltungswillen der deutschen NATO-Politik von 1991 bis 2005 in den zentralen Bereichen der NATO-Osterweiterungen, des militärischen Krisenmanagements und der Antiterrorpolitik nach dem 11. September 2001. Trifft das Urteil weitreichender deutscher Passivität zu oder lassen sich differenziertere Handlungsmuster identifizieren? Wie lassen sich diese Handlungsmuster erklären? Zur Bearbeitung der Fragestellung wird ein Analyserahmen entwickelt, dem das spezifische deutsche Funktionsverständnis gegenüber der NATO als Institution zugrunde liegt. Die institutionalistische Theorie in den Internationalen Beziehungen hat ein Spektrum allgemeiner und spezifischer Funktionen entwickelt, welche die europäischen Sicherheitsinstitutionen aus Sicht ihrer Mitgliedstaaten erfüllen sollen. An dem einen Ende dieses Spektrums steht die allgemeine und primär nach innen gerichtete Funktion. Sie zielt auf die kooperative Sicherheit im Sinne der gegenseitigen Beeinflussung und Einbindung der Mitgliedstaaten ab. Dagegen handelt es sich bei der militärischen Interventionsfähigkeit um eine in erster Linie nach außen gerichtete, die militärische Handlungsfähigkeit der NATO betreffende spezifische Funktion. Zwar umfasst dieses Spektrum nicht ausschließlich Entweder-Oder-Kategorien. Allerdings stehen allgemeine und spezifische Funktionen vor dem Hintergrund begrenzter finanzieller Ressourcen sowie unterschiedlicher Anforderungen an die NATO-Strukturen (beispielsweise im Sinne der Exklusivität vs. Inklusivität) in einem Spannungsverhältnis. Somit werden die Mitgliedstaaten der Allianz die verschiedenen Funktionen der NATO unterschiedlich gewichten. Auch der deutschen Politik liegt ein spezifisches Funktionsverständnis zugrunde, welches durch innenpolitische, z.T. kulturell und historisch geprägte, Faktoren bestimmt wird. Das Ziel der Arbeit ist es, den Gestaltungswillen der deutschen Politik im NATO-Transformationsprozess nach dem Ende des Kalten Krieges nachzuzeichnen und das dieser Politik zugrunde liegende Funktionsverständnis von institutioneller Kooperation zu analysieren. Dem erkennbaren Bestreben der Bundesregierungen auch nach 1990, die Institution NATO zu erhalten, zu stärken und schließlich auch um neue Mitglieder zu erweitern steht dabei eine zögerliche Haltung gegenüber dem militärischen Krisenmanagement und der Schaffung der militärischen Voraussetzungen zur Umsetzung der gemeinsamen Ziele gegenüber (Verteidigungshaushalt, Bundeswehrreform). Die Arbeit kommt zu dem Schluss, dass sich dieser scheinbare Widerspruch mit dem deutschen Funktionsverständnis erklären lässt, welches der kooperativen Sicherheit einen deutlich höheren Stellenwert einräumt als der militärischen Interventionsfähigkeit. ; The scope of German security policy has expanded since the end of the Cold War as former restrictions and political constraints were removed with reunification. Rather than using this latitude to steer a more autonomous security policy course, German governments since 1990 have stuck to the traditional German commitment to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Against this background it can be expected that German policy has also proactively attempted to shape NATO's reform and transformation process since the end of the Cold War. Yet at a first glance the record is rather mixed: While Bonn/Berlin supported the organization's enlargement process Germany has been a reluctant actor in the area of military crisis management. The principal research purpose of this dissertation is to identify patterns of activity and passivity of German security policy within NATO in terms of its willingness to shape the reform and transformation process (Gestaltungswille). Its second aim is to relate this pattern to the German functional understanding of NATO as an international security institution. Institutionalist theory, particularly its rationalist version, offers a taxonomy of specific and general functions which international institutions usually perform for their member states. Yet member states tend to prioritize these functions differently, according to different security cultures, historical experiences and traditions. The study's central outcome is that Germany's Gestaltungswille towards NATO's transformation process reflects a specific German functional understanding of the alliance which emphasizes the political-integrative over the military-external functions.

A perceptible text-image plane has attracted various studies on intermediality ranging from comparison of literary texts with painting to linguistic analysis of puns and neologisms in advertising. The different media and means of communication indeed seem to share certain aspects that create the crossroad between the two poles so that they are treated more and more as an inseparable whole. This study will concentrate on the common ground of literature and advertising. In literature it is the text that generates a strong visual allusion and in advertising it is mostly the visual aspect that guides the viewer's 'reading'. The intrinsic message of these two media is encoded on a plane where the visual and the textual elements meet. This plane can be analysed in various ways. The focus here will be on two literary phenomena that will prove to be widely exploited in new media: figures of speech and ekphrasis. Figures of speech are foremost known as textual entities with a strong visual character in poetry, prose and other forms of literary texts. For example, metaphor, perhaps the best-known of figures, is a change of word sense achieved by rendering one thing in terms of another, normally incompatible things. Irony is a change of discourse sense (meaning the opposite of what is said); prosopopoeia – an absent person presented as speaking or a dead person as alive. Figures are able to establish an intimate link between objects or phenomena that could not be brought together otherwise. They enable the user to express with strong and sometimes exaggerated imagery ideas and experiences that might seem blunt in simple literal speech. The intrinsic function of figures is, as a matter of fact, to evoke notions and ideas that go beyond the factual denotation or description. The knot between the textual and the visual element can be analysed with the help of ekphrasis. The definition of this literary phenomenon – textual presentation of visual presentation – brings forth a plane where the two features meet and interact. Ekphrasis establishes the link between, e.g. a title and a painting or the text in a comic and the respective panels. In works of art that encompass both a textual and visual dimension ekphrasis is 'automatically' at work. The features might complement one another, or one of them might be dominant. Whatever the case may be, ekphrasis is active at their very intersection and reveals their simultaneous and dynamic interaction. The study will rely on recent magazine advertising. This medium has little space for communication of the respective message and needs to work with means that enable it to express and achieve the wanted effect in several seconds or on merely one page of a magazine. The density of the encoded meaning is what makes it extraordinary. Our analysis will furthermore encompass 20th century theatre. Its realistic portrayal of political and social contexts, on the one hand, and existentialist, on the verge of surrealist, presentation of real-life situations on the other, show its ability to juggle with familiar literary features. Comics will be another art form analysed here. The particularity of the medium is that it works simultaneously with text and image. All of the media analysed here share the common ground of being text-image entities. Throughout the study the emphasis will, however, be on advertising. Analysis should reveal that literary theory has found its way to the new media where literary elements have been given a new way of encoding. The shared features seem to create a new joint sphere for a dynamic interaction of probably the most important means of communication – text and image.

Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas. Facultad de Historia. Programa Institucional de Maestría en Historia ; During the XIX century there was a growing interest to favor the sanitary conditions in Mexico. The prevention of illnesses was part of the concerns of the public administration because the population's health was thought like one of the elements that would allow its development. For they took it into account the prescriptions of the hygiene, also known as .arte of conserving the health. For their study, the hygiene was divided in private and public. This distinction was given in the XIV century after the epidemic of black pest in Europe. The necessity to prevent the propagation of illnesses, as well as the revaluation of the influence of the environment in the health emphasized the collective dimension of the illness. The hygiene that from Hipócrates and Physician had concentrated on the individual and the humors (still when it considered the atmosphere), it would be also a public matter. 1 the private hygiene would take charge of the promotion of the care of the body and the domestic environment of people, as long as the public one would look for .la conservation of the health of the inhabitants of a real population.2 this distinction was recognized during centuries, however, its content was not identical throughout the time.3 the medical different visions about the illness, as well as the more and more systematic participation of the governments was some elements that marked the public hygiene in the XIX century. This way, the theory of the miasmas and the bacteriology influenced the preventive impelled measures for example, as it was about eliminating the threat of some morbid emanation or of some microorganism patógeno ; Durante el siglo XIX hubo un creciente interés por favorecer las condiciones sanitarias en México. La prevención de enfermedades formó parte de las preocupaciones de la administración pública debido a que la salud de la población se pensaba como uno de los elementos que permitiría su desarrollo. Para ello se tomaron en cuenta las prescripciones de la higiene, conocida también como el 'arte de conservar la salud'. Para su estudio, la higiene se dividió en privada y pública. Esta distinción se dio en el siglo XIV tras la epidemia de peste negra en Europa. La necesidad de prevenir la propagación de enfermedades, así como la revaloración de la influencia del entorno en la salud enfatizaron la dimensión colectiva de la enfermedad. La higiene, que desde Hipócrates y Galeno se había concentrado en el individuo y los humores (aún cuando consideraba el ambiente), sería también un asunto público. 1 La higiene privada se encargaría de la promoción del cuidado del cuerpo y el entorno doméstico de las personas, en tanto que la pública buscaría 'la conservación de la salud de los habitantes de toda una población'.2 Esta distinción fue reconocida durante siglos, sin embargo, su contenido no fue idéntico a lo largo del tiempo.3 Las diferentes visiones médicas acerca de la enfermedad, así como la participación cada vez más sistemática de los gobiernos fueron algunos elementos que marcaron la higiene pública en el siglo XIX. Así, por ejemplo, la teoría de los miasmas y la bacteriología influenciaron las medidas preventivas impulsadas, según se tratara de eliminar la amenaza de alguna emanación mórbida o de algún microorganismo patógeno.

The pharmacy sector in many European countries continues to be subject to strict governmental regulations. This consists - depending on the country - of regulations on ownership, business operations, opening hours, personnel, pricing, prohibiting certain sales methods (e.g. mail order), and specifying product ranges. Indeed, Germany has a particularly strong conglomeration of regulations. Specific governmental interventions on the marketplace, i.e. interventions additionally to general legislation governing the organisation of markets in terms of regulatory policy, are frequently justified as being peculiarities of the market, which actually or allegedly prevent the market mechanism from achieving optimal results. The aim of specific interventions is to eliminate the negative consequences of free competition. However, the resulting benefits always have to be offset by the costs of regulation. These costs consist first of direct costs due to the regulation itself, since they restrict the freedom of potential suppliers and/or customers. Secondly, they have indirect welfare effects, referred to by the term excess burden. This can be illustrated by the example of taxation: taxes are used to fund the affairs of the country. However, they place a direct burden on the taxpayers, but they also cause taxpayers to adapt, e.g. by being less willing to work, thereby costing the national economy the excess burden. This study analyses these benefits and costs of regulation in the German pharmacy sector. It then describes the deregulation measures needed to avoid regulation-costs to the national economy. The main outcome lies in the conclusion that partial deregulation is capable of improving efficiency and quality in drug distribution. Based on the principle of value for money, quality improves with a given investment in drug distribution. In contrast to the present situation, Germany could be a pioneer with regard to the regulation of the pharmacy sector, focusing on the interests of consumers and patients - and not just on particular interests specific to the profession. On basis of economic theory of production and transaction-cost regarding economies of scale and economics of scope as well as on basis of welfare economics regarding oligopoly models, this analysis is coming to the result that particularly ownership and management regulations of German pharmacy sector are not only obsolete, but impose high costs on society. Together with a partial relaxation in the field of business operations and product ranges - in this part less regulatory interventions and thus the power of free competition can cause at least the same results as the present strong regulation. And this without raising a danger for customers - a wide deregulation can develop positive economic effects. Additional or even stronger effects will be possible, if price regulations and mail-order-regulations are deregulated, too. However, the analysis also shows that not every regulatory measure in the pharmacy sector should be discarded. This includes pharmacy-only and prescription-only rules, the duty that a pharmacy must be managed by a pharmacist (which must be distinguished from the ownership of a dispensary) and some of the business regulations as well as minimum opening hours. Economic potential can be realised by allowing more competition in the pharmacy sector. The more of mentioned deregulation can be realised, the larger positive economic effects can be attained. Long-term consequence of initiated trial and discovery procedures with different concepts of vertical or horizontal cooperation could be a coexistence of owner-operated pharmacies and those owned by larger joint-stock companies, which increases national welfare by meeting society-s preferences.

This dissertation aims to analyze how the tourism invests in the urban development of Beijing. Based on one theory, this dissertation introduces the development of tourism center in Beijing, the structure of stakeholders, and their interaction with local territory. The CTDs are formed along with the travel activities of tourists, and the development of travel activities as well enlarges the scope of CTDs. Questionnaires and interviews made in Beijing show clearly the intention of the tourists and the influence that their travel activities bring. With the increase of the travel activities in the areas far away from the CTDs, these areas have been promoted and revived by the increasing travel activities and the infrastructures constructed by the tour operators attracted by tourists. (One of the good examples is Hutongs in Beijing.) This has greatly promoted the local economy. It can also be found in the survey that there is still inconsistency between the travel areas and tourists' residence in location, which is due to the preference of the developers or local governments on the construction of CBD business accommodation construction other than the CTD accommodation. This dissertation also outlines the basic information of the stakeholders and their tourism-related development strategies. The development of Beijing's tourism is described in detail in this dissertation. This is an on-going research topic because the regulations and policies on tourism constituted by the state-owned and private stakeholders are based on the situation at that time. Some of them have shown their effectiveness, but some have not. The continuous research on this topic will help us learn the latest information and policies of Beijing's tourism, so as to understand its development progress. ; Le projet de thèse consiste à analyser comment le tourisme a investi la ville de Beijing. Parti d'une base théorique, ce mémoire a éclairé en partie le cas de la ville de Beijing concernant le fonctionnement de la centralité touristique de la ville, les acteurs du tourisme et leurs relations avec les territoires. L'investissement des touristes dans la ville se présente avec L'émergence de la CTD. L'évolution des pratiques des touristes fait accroitre ce CTD en discontinuité. Les enquêtes et les entretiens sur les pratiques touristiques des touristes à Beijing nous apportent une clarification sur des origines et des influences de ces pratiques des touristes. Il nous mène à penser que l'augmentation de touristes sur certains espaces extra centrés permet une redynamisation des lieux en y amenant des acteurs du tourisme. Ceci est un effet positif pour l'économie car cela stimule le système d'économie local en y implantant des infrastructures du tourisme (Le Hu Tong par exemple). D'après les enquêtes, nous avons aperçu une discordance entre les espaces fréquentés par des touristes et les lieux d'hébergement. Ce fait est dû à la priorité de la logique d'hébergements en CBD des entrepreneurs. Les inventaires des acteurs professionnels nous amène à clarifier la situation actuelle des acteurs professionnels ainsi que leurs stratégies de développement en rapport avec le tourisme. Ce travail de thèse nous a permit de d'apporter une clarification sur le développement du tourisme à Beijing et la recherche peut toujours continuer, en effet la politique et les stratégies des acteurs publics comme des acteurs privés se font avec le temps. Certaines mesures ont commencé et d'autres non. En analysant des documents mis à jours nous pouvons effectuer un suivi de ces politiques et de ces stratégies, nous permettant ainsi d'étudier leur évolution.

In der Wissenschaft konnte schon mehrmals konzeptionell und empirisch nachgewiesen warden, dass Corporate Governance einen Einfluss auf Unternehmensfinanzierung oder auch die Entwicklung von Finanzmärkten hat. Demnach wurde des öfteren vorgeschlagen Corporate Governance in einem Land oder einer Firma zu verbessern um nicht nur die Entwicklung von Aktienmärkten zu fördern, sondern auch die allgemeine ökonomische Entwicklung. Dieser Gedanke hat jedoch zwei wesentliche Schwächen: (i) ein unklares Verständnis über "gute" Corporate Governance und (ii) unzureichendes Wissen über die Entwicklung und Veränderung der Corporate Governance. Während die erste Frage wahrscheinlich niemals abschliessend beantwortet werden kann, unter anderem wegen unterschiedlichen Interessen der verschiedenen Stakeholder der Corporate Governance, versucht diese Studie die zweite Thematik konzeptionell und empirisch zu bearbeiten. In einem ersten Schritt wird hierfür die Corporate Governance Environmnent entwickelt, welche beschreibt wie Corporate Governance sowohl in legalen und sub-legalen Standards als auch Normen und Verhaltensweisen der Gesellschaft eingebettet ist. In einem zweiten Schritt wird ein konzeptioneller Rahmen einer sich verändernden Corporate Governance Environment geschaffen, indem relevante Theorien untersucht werden (z.B. Neue Institutionenökonomie, Institutionentheorie). Konzeptionell kann gezeigt werden, dass internationale Faktorenflüsse wie Auslandsdirektinvestitionen auf die Entwicklung der Corporate Governance einwirken. Somit wird eine umgekehrte Kausalität festgestellt, da konventionell Investitionen von der Corporate Governance beeinflusst werden. Diese konzeptionelle Erkenntnis wird im Folgenden mit einem neuartigen Datensatz kompiliert aus Quellen wie dem IMD World Competitiveness Center, der Weltbank, der PRS Gruppe, UNSTATS und EUROSTATS über den Zeitraum von 1991 bis 2005 getestet. Die Empirie untersucht mit Hilfe ökonometrischer Analysen die Auswirkungen von Auslandsdirektinvestitionen aus entwickelten Ländern auf die Evolution der Corporate Governance Environment in Entwicklungs- und Schwellenländern. Bei den Untersuchungen kann gezeigt werden, dass unter bestimmten Umständen eine Verbesserung der Corporate Governance Environment in Übereinstimmung mit der Corproate Governance Environment des Quellenlandes der Investitionen eintritt und somit das entwickelte konzeptionelle Modell in Teilen bestätigt werden kann. Die Ergebnisse der Studie erweitern einerseits die akademische Diskussion um Corporate Governance und andererseits fördern sie die politische und ökonomische Diskussion über den Einfluss von Auslandsdirektinvestitionen auf die heimischen Institutionen. Das Resultat dieser Untersuchung kann somit Entscheidungsträgern und Beratern von Institutionen sowohl in Industrieländern als auch in Entwicklungsländern, welche an ökonomischer Entwicklung arbeiten, helfen, die institutionelle Evolution und auch die Effekte der Globalisierung besser zu verstehen. ; It has often been conceptually and empirically shown that corporate governance impacts firm finance and the development of the country's financial markets. Consequently it has been suggested to improve corporate governance in order to support not only stock markets development but also economic development. This idea though has two major shortcomings: (i) an unclear definition of "good" corporate governance and (ii) insufficient knowledge of how corporate governance develops and changes. While the first question can probably never be answered due to differing interests of various stakeholders, this study aims at answering the second question conceptually and empirically. In a first step the concept of the corporate governance environment is developed, which explicates how corporate governance is embedded in legal and sublegal standards as well as in behaviors and norms of the society. In a second step a conceptual framework of a changing corporate governance environment is developed by employing new institutional economics and institutional theory. As can be shown conceptually, international factor flows including foreign investments influence the development of the corporate governance environment – the very variable corporate governance is often trying to affect, which leads to a reverse causality. This finding is tested empirically with a novel dataset compiled from the IMD World Competitiveness Center, the World Bank, PRS Group, UNSTATS and EUROSTATS including data from 1991-2005. The empirical part employs econometrical analyzes to study the influence of foreign direct investments from developed countries on the evolution of corporate governance environments in developing countries. It can be found that under certain circumstances an improvement can be registered accordingly with the source country's CGE, supporting the developed conceptual framework. The findings of this study on the one hand help the academic debate on corporate governance, and on the other they advance the economic and political discussion whether foreign investors influence various institutions relevant for doing business. Hence, the results of this research can help policy makers and advisors as well as other institutions interested in economic development – both in developing and developed economies - to better understand institutional evolution and with that the effects of globalization.

Defense date: 03/10/2008 ; Examining board: Prof. Stefano Bartolini, European University Institute/RSCAS ; Prof. Adrienne Héritier, European University Institute (Supervisor) ; Doctor Antoaneta Dimitrova, Universiteit Leiden (Supervisor) ; Prof. B. Guy Peters, University of Pittsburgh ; How does policy implementation impact on the institutionalised capacities of political agents? This question about the link between policy-making and institutional development lies at the heart of the study. It is inspired by an empirical puzzle about the dynamics of European integration. Since 1993 the European Union has developed a strategic approach to enlargement the most relevant trademark of which has been the criteria which acceding states have to meet before entering the Union. The conditionality-based preaccession policy provided the European Commission with a set of new competences vis-à-vis the candidate states that were not directly derived from the internally applicable legal framework, the acquis communautaire. This kind of conditionality established double standards applicable to the candidate, but not the member states. Scrutinising all cases in which such double standards were created brings to the fore the fact that only in two cases did policies remain indeed limited to the candidate states before accession. In a further three cases the steering instruments the Commission developed in the enlargement context were extended beyond the institutional sub-system of the pre-accession policy to the institutional core of the acquis: why and how? The theoretical framework draws from functionalist theory. The necessary condition for policies to be integrated from a distinct institutional sub-system – such as the pre-accession policy that applied to candidate states only – is functional pressure. Double standards create functional pressure for integration per se because they undermine the credibility of the political system in that candidates for membership need to comply with higher standards than members themselves. Functional pressure rises if policies are implemented successfully and if political problems persist so that at the moment of accession they become a common matter of concern for all member states. However, this alone does not explain why a single policy 'spills-in' from a sub-system to the institutional core. The sufficient condition and theoretical explanation builds on Theodore Lowi's arenas of power approach. The variance between the single policies is explained by the policy type at stake that determines which steering instruments emerge in the respective arenas of power. The empirical results show that the Commission indeed extends its steering capacity if policies are formulated as non-binding rules and standards in the regulatory arena or in a restrictive way that limits redistributive effects in the distributive arena. In conclusion, the thesis contributes to three strands of European integration research. First, it offers a theoretically-guided analysis of European Union widening. Enlargement policy is conceptualised as an institutionally linked but distinct arena of institutional rules. The effect that policy-making in such an institutional sub-system has may hence be extended and applied to other institutional sub-systems that are linked to but distinct from the Union's core legal framework. Second, the study provides insights into the functioning the European Commission and how the organisation continues effectively to extend its steering capacities in the post-Maastricht era. Moreover, the case studies cover policy fields not much discussed in the existing scholarly literature. They therefore provide original research on how the Commission actually develops new responsibilities and implements policies. Third, the findings inform the study of European integration at large. Spelling out how implementing enlargement has been a source for extending the European Commission's action capacity, the thesis highlights the process of widening as a specific cause for supranational institutionalisation which has so far attained little if any attention.

Aquest article té el propòsit fonamental de presentar, encara que sigui de manera esquemàtica, alguns dels elements fonamentals sobre els quals se sosté la proposta política i filosòfica del Hanfeizi, un dels texts més importants de la Xina preimperial. Aquest antic text resulta especialment evocador per al pensament en la mesura que representa una veritable excepció en la teoria política clàssica. Mentre que les principals propostes sociopolítiques, més o menys utòpiques, articulades tant per pensadors occidentals com xinesos, consideren que el major obstacle per a la consecució d'aquests projectes rau en la naturalesa passional de l'ésser humà, l'obra atribuïda tradicionalment a Han Fei defensa que només és possible obtenir un cos social ordenat gràcies precisament a aquesta dimensió passional. A partir d'aquest eix argumental, el nostre article no solament tractarà d'aclarir la manera concreta en la qual es legitima i organitza aquest singular sistema ideològic, sinó que també s'esforçarà a posar de manifest els vincles ideològics comuns entre la concepció autoritària del Hanfeizi i alguns dels aspectes més essencials del liberalisme econòmic tal com es presenten en l'obra d'Adam Smith. ; basic aim of this article is to present, albeit it schematically, some of the fundamental elements upon which the political and philosophical proposal of the Hanfeizi, one of the most important texts of pre-Imperial China, is based. This ancient text is especially evocative for philosophy in that it constitutes a real exception in classical political theory. Whereas the principal socio-political proposals, which were to a greater or lesser extent utopian, put forward by both Western and Chinese philosophers, consider that the greatest obstacle to achieving these projects lies in the passionate nature of humans, the work traditionally attributed to Han Fei defends the idea that an ordered social body is only possible thanks precisely to that passionate side. Using this core argument as a basis, the article will not only try to clarify the specific way in which this unique ideological system is legitimised and organised, but also endeavours to show the common ideological links between the authoritarian conception of the Hanfeizi and some of the more essential aspects of economic liberalism as presented in the work of Adam Smith. ; El presente artículo tiene el propósito fundamental de presentar, aunque sea de manera esquemática, algunos de los elementos fundamentales sobre los que se sustenta la propuesta política y filosófica del Hanfeizi, uno de los textos más importantes de la China preimperial. Este texto antiguo resulta especialmente evocador para el pensamiento en la medida en que supone una verdadera excepción en la teoría política clásica. Mientras que las principales propuestas sociopolíticas, más o menos utópicas, articuladas tanto por pensadores occidentales como chinos, consideran que el mayor obstáculo para la consecución de esos proyectos reside en la naturaleza pasional del ser humano, la obra atribuida tradicionalmente a Han Fei defiende que sólo es posible obtener un cuerpo social ordenado gracias precisamente a esa dimensión pasional. A partir de ese eje argumental, nuestro artículo no sólo tratará de esclarecer el modo concreto en que se legitima y organiza ese singular sistema ideológico, sino que también se esforzará en poner de manifiesto los vínculos ideológicos comunes entre la concepción autoritaria del Hanfeizi y algunos de los aspectos más esenciales del liberalismo económico tal y como se presentan en la obra de Adam Smith.