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In a world in which barriers to trade at all levels - international and internal - are mostly a by-product of the implementation by governments of different regulatory policies to deal with domestic or local problems, the mechanisms that are set in motion by the operation of competition among the governments inhabiting the different jurisdictional tiers of federal countries lead to outcomes that are different from those generated by the 'agreed-upon' rules that govern the relations of national governments with each other in matters of international trade. A model is used to compare two ways of dealing with the external damages that are consequent on the pursuit of beneficial domestic regulatory policies. It assumes that at the international level the methods used can be synthesized by what is known as the least-restrictive means principle, while in the context of competitive federalism the methods lead to what can be called a proper balancing of benefits and costs of domestic policies, including the spillover costs inflicted on others. With the help of this model, the paper shows that one or the other of the two sets of methods could be more restrictive, depending on the magnitude of spillovers and the relation between the instrument used and the achievement of the domestic objective. It includes also a discussion of the case of the European Union, which falls between these two polar extremes.

AbstractHuman capacity to explore and shape outer space will increase substantially over the next 50 years. Yet, International Relations (IR) theory still treats outer space as an isolated, unique, or inconsequential realm of political life. This paper moves IR beyond its 'terrestrial trap' by theorising planetary politics as inherently embedded in relations with environments and actors that are located beyond Earth. To face the momentous and often alarming political developments taking place in outer space, from space militarisation to space colonisation, we challenge two of IR's terrestrial biases. First, we confront the assumption that developments in international relations take place only or primarily on Earth. We show how the historically constituted ideologies and political economies of colonisation and domination are extended to – but also transformed within – outer space exploration and settlement. Second, we challenge the notion that developments in outer space form a logical extension of politics as it has emerged on the habitable surface of our planet. We move beyond zones of human habitation and explore how the material conditions of space intersect with situated histories of political governance and control. By analysing politics beyond Earth, we retool IR theory to confront an extraterrestrial political future.

A police force, domestic or international, must meet two requirements: it must be reliable, and it must be effective. While obviously it cannot be effective if it is not reliable, it can be reliable without being effective, and it is for this reason that the two prerequisites must be distinguished. A police force, in order to be reliable, must be loyal to the political authorities and share their conceptions of law and justice. A police force, in order to be effective, must stand in a certain relation of power to that fraction of the population which is likely to call forth police action by breaking the law.

PurposeThe gender gap in enterprise has been part of an ongoing debate on economic development for over 20 years. In an attempt to tackle this deficit Train 2000, the UK's largest dedicated women's enterprise support organisation supported by its partners Liverpool City Council, Liverpool Vision, and an international panel of leading experts are developing the Women's International Centre for Economic Development (WICED). WICED will support the development of the female enterprise research base, the design and provision of female targeted business start‐up and development programmes and business incubation. The purpose of this paper is to describe the work of WICED.Design/methodology/approachRigorous research was conducted in order to identify market need and opportunity for WICED in meeting the needs of would be and established women entrepreneurs. Primary and secondary sources of data have been collected utilising a combination of desk, semi‐structured interviews, focus groups and questionnaires gathering both qualitative and quantitative information to build a comprehensive picture. The research framework included; independent research review of women's enterprise; women entrepreneurs service user evaluation; study visits – UK, EU and the USA; literature review on legislation, policy, practice and academic research; academic and practitioner expert panel.FindingsThe research findings demonstrate that there is potential to transform the rates of self‐employment, business ownership and economic participation among women in Liverpool, Merseyside and the UK through the adoption of fit for purpose policies and initiatives to address existing challenges. The research data critically acknowledges that success in terms of increased levels and productivity of female entrepreneurship will not be achieved by "more of the same" in the way of encouragement, endorsement, development or support of the agenda and points to the US approach in developing new ways of harnessing this untapped economic opportunity.Research limitations/implicationsThe research process highlighted that despite women being one the fastest growing populations of entrepreneurs they remain vastly understudied and that there was a clear lack of cumulative knowledge to adequately build explanatory theories. This lack of a comprehensive picture within the existing body of research limits WICED's understanding of the support needs of female entrepreneurs. However, it also provides WICED with an opportunity to act and conduit between researchers, female entrepreneurs and business support advice, training and incubation practitioners to begin to address the research deficit.Practical implicationsThe evidence base indicates that both the design and implementation of business support services need to take account of gender. It is acknowledged that policy initiatives that do not recognise that specific requirements of aspiring and developing female entrepreneurs will have limited impact on the level of start‐up business or their growth trajectories. The WICED model reflects a transformation approach where a gender aware framework is proposed to support more nuanced research in the field, business support and business incubation.Originality/valueThe proposed WICED framework represents a departure from traditional transactional offerings as it will provide demand‐led gendered entrepreneurial services as opposed to policy and service provider supply based models.

Can China's Belt and Road Initiative be Reconciled with the EU's Multilateral Approaches to International Law?-Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann & Giuseppe Martinico -- Pluralism or Cosmopolitanism? Reflections on Petersmann's International Economic Law Constitutionalism in the Context of China-Tao Li & Zuoli Jiang -- Is Calvo Dead? Wenhua Shan.-Calvo Is Back! Changing Sovereignty and Evolutionary Investment Law in a Leaving and Return of the State Paradigm-Shuo Feng & Wei Shen -- Outward FDI: Determinants and Flows in Emerging Economies: Evidence from China-Mohamad Zreik & Badar Alam Iqbal & Mohd Nayyer Rahman -- BIT by BIT: The Growth of Bilateral Investment Treaties and Their Impact on Foreign Investment in Developing Countries-Jeswald W. Salacuse -- Diversity in the Formulation of Fair and Equitable Treatment in International Investment Agreements-Mujeeb Emami & Rehna Gul -- The 2016 Model Indian Bilateral Investment Treaty: A Critical Deconstruction-Prabhash Ranjan and Pushkar Anand -- The Final 2015 Indian Model BIT: Is This the Change the World Wishes to See?-Grant Hanessian and Kabir Duggal -- Legalizing the ASEAN Way: Adapting and Reimagining the ASEAN Investment Regime-Sungjoon Cho & Jurgen Kurtz -- Comprehensive or BIT or BIT: the ACIA and Indonesia's BITs-Junianto James Losari -- International Cooperation and Organizational Identities: The Evolution of the ASEAN Investment Regime-Sungjoon Cho & Jurgen Kurtz -- ASEAN Investment Treaties, RCEP, And CPTPP: Regional Strategies, Norms, Institutions, and Politics-Diane A. Desierto -- Addressing the Global Backlash Against Investment Arbitration? A Multilateral Investment Agreement and China-Junqing Chao -- A Multilateral Approach to Investor-State Dispute Settlement Issues in the Asia-Pacific Region-John Riley -- The Elephant In a Dark Room? Russia and the ISDS Reform-Dmitry K. Labin & Alena V. Soloveva -- Two Bites at the Same Apple? 'Derivative' ISDS Proceedings in the Revised Korea-US FTA-Jaemin Lee -- China and Investment Treaty Regime: Rule Taker or Rule Maker?-Sheng Zhang -- Investor-State Mediation in a China-EU Bilateral Investment Treaty: Talking About Being in the Right Place at the Right Time-Chunlei Zhao -- Legitimacy Crisis and the ISDS Reform in a Political Economy Context-Shuping Li and Wei Shen.

Inhaltsverzeichnis Inhalt: W. Fiedler, Die Konventionen zum Recht der Staatensukzession. Ein Beitrag der ILC zur Entwicklung eines ""modern international law""? - J. M. Mössner, Privatpersonen als Verursacher völkerrechtlicher Delikte. Bemerkungen zu Art. 11 des Entwurfs der ILC zur Staatenverantwortlichkeit - H.-J. Mengel, Der entscheidungsrelevante Zeitpunkt für die völkerrechtliche Beurteilung von Streitigkeiten territorialer Souveränität - J. Delbrück, International Traffic in Arms. Legal and Political Aspects of a Long Neglected Problem of Arms Control and Disarmament - H. Vets

Preliminary Material /Guenther Dahlhofff -- Register of the Judgments and Advisory Opinions of the International Court of Justice in the Order of the Case Numbers of the Court's General List /Guenther Dahlhofff -- Register of the Judgments and Advisory Opinions of the International Court of Justice by Subject Matter /Guenther Dahlhofff -- Digest of Judgments and Advisory Opinions of the International Court of Justice /Guenther Dahlhofff -- Pronouncements of the International Court of Justice on Customary International Law /Guenther Dahlhofff -- Index of Key Words and Terms /Guenther Dahlhofff -- Index of Resolutions of the General Assembly and the Security Council of the United Nations /Guenther Dahlhofff -- Index of International Multilateral Treaties and Conventions /Guenther Dahlhofff.

Written agreements record much that has been accomplished toward setting up a specific law between states. If international law is still essentially a customary law, with the weaknesses characterizing any such law, it is also true that through a process of transmutation many customary rules have at length been given more or less precise form through their inclusion in conventions. The opinion has been expressed that only by such a process will this law escape from being "a junk heap of antiquated and perverted forms of justice that has been brought about by the supremacy of power." It is of course possible to have treaty provisions which merely incorporate by reference, and perhaps emphasize without stating, the rules generally accepted by civilized states.The reference may be to international law in terms, or to the established body of the law by plain implication. Even if an existing rule is referred to for the purpose of waiving rights under it as between the parties, there is ordinarily an implied recognition of what has become established through custom.