Land degradation has increasingly been recognised as a serious environmental problem throughout the whole world. Six major threats may be identified that place soil fertility at risk, namely, soil erosion, loss of organic matter, soil biodiversity, soil compaction, soil salinity, and soil pollution. Several of those risks could be effectively identified, analysed, visualised and consequently limited by approaches originating from the geospatial domain. The China – European Union research and innovation project "SIEUSOIL" (SIno-EU Soil Observatory for Intelligent Land Use Management), funded between 2019 and 2022, as well as the European Big Data flagship research and innovation project "DataBio" (Data-Driven Bioeconomy), funded between 2017 and 2019, aim at the above mentioned challenges of land degradation from innovative geospatial perspectives. Such innovative approaches include local geological, geomorphological, climate, yield maps as well as global soil maps provided commonly by the European Commission (Directorate General Joint Research Centre) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Among the data inputs there are farm machinery tracking and interpreted satellite images. The second level of activities consists of selected standards and specification of ontologies for the integration and sharing of soil related data, facilitating their reuse and understanding. The resulting ontology and other selected models provide the basis for the integration, publication, and querying of the source datasets using Linked data as a federated layer. Besides offering an integrated view of the datasets, this layer also enables new insights through the discovery of links. From the cartographic perspective, several visualization techniques are deployed; from static maps to interactive visualisations. The main focus of visualization techniques is therefore given to the interactivity through utilizing the concept of Multiple Coordinated Views (also known as visual analytics tools) and dynamic queries to emphasize the impact of changes of various phenomena in space and time. For instance, see Figure 1 on monitoring of machinery fleet movement and especially its spatiotemporal changes that can bring new insights into the consequences of human decisions from many areas. Economic reasons are related to economic evidence for a farmer, including fuel consumption, efficiency of trajectory, etc. to revenue authority or subsidies management. On the other hand, ecologic motivations aim to decrease of environmental burden caused e.g. by high CO 2 emissions due to a lack of movement optimisation, water pollution by nitrogen due to excessive fertilisation, etc. The outcomes of the above mentioned research are intended as a feedback to (inter)national policies within the environmental domain including the Montreal Protocol (on substances that deplete the Ozone Layer), European Common Agricultural Policy, Nitrates Directive, Air Quality Framework Directive, Water Framework Directive, the Chinese Water Pollution Prevention Law, etc.
Land degradation has increasingly been recognised as a serious environmental problem throughout the whole world. Six major threats may be identified that place soil fertility at risk, namely, soil erosion, loss of organic matter, soil biodiversity, soil compaction, soil salinity, and soil pollution. Several of those risks could be effectively identified, analysed, visualised and consequently limited by approaches originating from the geospatial domain. The China – European Union research and innovation project "SIEUSOIL" (SIno-EU Soil Observatory for Intelligent Land Use Management), funded between 2019 and 2022, as well as the European Big Data flagship research and innovation project "DataBio" (Data-Driven Bioeconomy), funded between 2017 and 2019, aim at the above mentioned challenges of land degradation from innovative geospatial perspectives. Such innovative approaches include local geological, geomorphological, climate, yield maps as well as global soil maps provided commonly by the European Commission (Directorate General Joint Research Centre) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Among the data inputs there are farm machinery tracking and interpreted satellite images. The second level of activities consists of selected standards and specification of ontologies for the integration and sharing of soil related data, facilitating their reuse and understanding. The resulting ontology and other selected models provide the basis for the integration, publication, and querying of the source datasets using Linked data as a federated layer. Besides offering an integrated view of the datasets, this layer also enables new insights through the discovery of links. From the cartographic perspective, several visualization techniques are deployed; from static maps to interactive visualisations. The main focus of visualization techniques is therefore given to the interactivity through utilizing the concept of Multiple Coordinated Views (also known as visual analytics tools) and dynamic queries to emphasize the impact of changes of various phenomena in space and time. For instance, see Figure 1 on monitoring of machinery fleet movement and especially its spatiotemporal changes that can bring new insights into the consequences of human decisions from many areas. Economic reasons are related to economic evidence for a farmer, including fuel consumption, efficiency of trajectory, etc. to revenue authority or subsidies management. On the other hand, ecologic motivations aim to decrease of environmental burden caused e.g. by high CO2 emissions due to a lack of movement optimisation, water pollution by nitrogen due to excessive fertilisation, etc. The outcomes of the above mentioned research are intended as a feedback to (inter)national policies within the environmental domain including the Montreal Protocol (on substances that deplete the Ozone Layer), European Common Agricultural Policy, Nitrates Directive, Air Quality Framework Directive, Water Framework Directive, the Chinese Water Pollution Prevention Law, etc.
The research on school effectivity has worked out a complex variety of proximal and distal determinants of achievement. Beside school and classroom the family essentially contributes to explain students achievement disparities. Subsequent to the international comparisons of achievement studies (TIMSS, PISA, IGLU), evidence showed that distal institutional factors (educational system, school level) add to these differences. The question gets relevance in educational politics, because the transition regimes and school structures in Switzerland differ between the cantons. Until now the influence of educational structure on the change of students' achievement during the transition from the primary school to the lower secondary school as well as the individual coping of academic demands in school transitions have not yet been compared between the cantons.
Out of that three main questions result for this research project: (1) How strongly do cantonal and institutional determinants influence the domain specific and general educational expectations and values as well as the students' achievement in German and Mathematics of adolescents during the transition to lower secondary education? (2) How strongly does the class composition affect the domain specific and general educational expectations and values as well as the students' achievement in German and Mathematics at the end of primary school and after the transition to lower secondary education? (3) How strongly does the individual's coping of school challenges at the end of primary school and after transition to lower secondary education influence the educational expectations and values as well as student achievement?
The five cantons vary in the time point of transition and in the transition regime. Thus, they form a quasi-experimental design. While students in the cantons of Basel-Landschaft and Aargau enter lower secondary education after the 5th grade, students in the cantons Bern and Lucerne move on to lower secondary education after the 6th grade and students in the canton of Basel-Stadt move on after the 7th grade. For the first time, the varying situations of transition allow us to analyze the changes with regard to characteristics of students, parents and classes (education expectations and values, academic self-concept, classroom climate) as well as the achievement in German and Mathematics under varying cantonal conditions.
Approximately 1,800 5th grade students and their parents and teachers in the cantons of Basel-Stadt, Basel-Landschaft, Aargau, Bern and Lucerne filled out standardized questionnaires. The students also filled out achievement tests in the subjects German and Mathematics. In 6th and 7th grade, surveys were carried out with instruments adapted to the respective transfer situation (longitudinal sample with three main examinations). In addition, the classroom teachers of the selected classes were consulted by a short standardized questionnaire at the end of the 5th and 6th grade (two follow-up teacher surveys).
Durante el proceso de colonización de los Andes centrales neogranadinos las mantas de algodón que tejían los indígenas se convirtieron en objetos muy apreciados lo que afectó sus dinámicas de producción, trabajo y comercio, que incluían el cultivo, transformación y abasto de la materia prima. Este artículo tiene como propósito comprender cómo los grupos indígenas de las zonas productoras del algodón cumplieron con la demanda, cuáles fueron los efectos sobre su modo de producción, organización social y vida cotidiana, y por último los cambios que se dieron en las relaciones políticas y comerciales que existían entre los naturales de las tierras cálidas y las tierras frías. ; During the colonization of the Neogranadine central Andes, the cotton mantas woven by the Indigenous communities became highly coveted by the Spanish and, as such, affected their dynamics of production, work and trade in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. An indispensable part of this activity was the raw material cultivated in temperate climates and traded in its natural form, without the seed or as thread. This article aims to understand how Indigenous groups in the cotton production areas were able to meet the demand; the effects on their production methods, social organization and daily life; and, finally, the changes that occurred in terms of the political and trade relations which existed between the two geographic areas since the pre-Hispanic era. Through the review and analysis of official documents, the author was able to follow up on particular cases, which account for the changes in the daily lives of natives, the expansion of their croplands, and the encomenderos control of the trade, among other consequences of the demand for the natural fiber. ; Durante o processo de colonização dos Andes centrais neogranadinos as mantas de algodão que tricotavam os indígenas se tornaram objetos muito apreciados pelos espanhóis o que afetou suas dinâmicas de produção, trabalho e comércio nos séculos XVI e XVII. Uma parte indispensável para o desenvolvimento dessa atividade era a matéria prima que se cultivava nas zonas cálidas e se comercializava em forma natural, sem a semente ou bem na forma de linha. Este artigo pretende compreender como os grupos indígenas das zonas produtoras de algodão cumpriram com a demanda; os efeitos sobre seu modo de produção, organização social e vida cotidiana, e por último as mudanças que se deram nas relações políticas e comerciais que existiam desde a época pré-hispânica entre ambos os espaços geográficos. Através da revisão e análise da documentação oficial conseguiu-se fazer seguimento a casos particulares que dão conta das modificações no cotidiano dos naturais, a ampliação dos terrenos de cultivo, o controle da comercialização por parte dos encomendeiros, entre outras consequências associadas à demanda da fibra natural.
The Horizon 2020 project Green.eu, as part of the process of building and activating the Innovation for Sustainable Development Network, is undertaking work on clarifying the (operational) meaning of concepts related to sustainable development, green economy, and eco-innovation in different parts of the world, for different stakeholders and in different contexts. This paper is a first attempt to explore how these concepts are used in policy- and strategy-setting contexts, in the expectation that better understanding of commonalties and differences will improve stakeholders' ability to identify opportunities and mechanisms for collaboration in practice. This analysis explores this situation through a review of documents produced by different stakeholders in different geographies and contexts, applying a consistent framework to make the conceptual content of a range of policy- and strategy-oriented documents comparable. The framework uses Sustainable Development as the central concept around which political objectives, strategies, processes for change, domains for action, and other related concepts are organized. Among broad Strategies for sustainable development, Low-Carbon Economy has been the most prevalent, and has the deepest connections to the other strategies. Likewise, in terms of political objectives, climate protection was strongly associated with all the strategies, confirming the apparent link between Low-Carbon Economy and the others. Ecosystem conservation was nearly as prevalent. Taken together, this suggests that the environmental dimension of sustainability is the most important commonality across different strategies. In terms of overall emphasis on purely economic objectives, no meaningful split is evident between the developed and developing worlds, with poorer countries and richer countries giving economics an equally prominent role in sustainable development. In a keyword-based analysis of international stakeholders, the European Union put more relative emphasis on development as compared to growth than any other stakeholder group. Developing measurement and metrics for sustainability was more than twice as important as any other process for change in the set of 'global' documents reviewed. This appears to be an area where global collaboration is widely expected to add value. In a comparison of international stakeholder groups, business emphasized governance, responsibility, and supply chain management, while civil society emphasized partnership and fossil fuel substitution more than other stakeholders. The domains for action based on 'natural assets' (land use-agriculture-marine/fisheries/aquaculture-forestry-water) were considered almost universally relevant to sustainable development. Energy is unsurprisingly central to many of the documents: only water received comparable priority as a domain for action. Overall the EU and Brazil seem to have the most similar approach to sustainable development as that which is visible in the 'Global' documents. The poorest countries included in the review appear to be the most conceptually isolated, with no obviously strong links (even to each other). ; Green.eu
Aree urbane e modalità di risposta agli eventi pluviometrici estremi: analisi del fenomeno e stratLe parti più vulnerabili del territorio antropizzato sono rappresentate dalle aree urbane (piccole e grandi), inserite in contesti geo-ambientali i cui equilibri sono resi instabili da modificazioni fisiche naturali (per es.:cambiamento delle condizioni climatiche) e/o da trasformazioni provocate dagli interventi dell'uomo (realizzazionedi infrastrutture, attività rappresentata da alcuni, in senso dispregiativo, col termine "cementificazione").Le città possono essere esposte non solo alle criticità geo-ambientali specifiche del sito in cui sono ubicate (es. erosione costiera, instabilità dei versanti, subsidenza, alluvionamento, ecc.) ma anche a quelli generati nelle aree al contorno. La storia meteorologica recente mette in evidenza una sempre maggiore incidenza delle criticità di tipo idrologico ed idrogeologico (si pensi, per esempio, ai nubifragi di Genova del 2011 e 2014, a quelli in Sardegna, in Calabria, in Sicilia, a Benevento, ecc., tutti avvenuti negli ultimi 5 anni), con un sempre più probabile coinvolgimento dei centri abitati.La ricerca di strategie di prevenzione e protezione è impresa ardua, ma in sede di programmazione politica, alla luce della ricorrente perdita di vite umanenonché dei costi enormiche ricadono sulla società, deve essere considerata una priorità assoluta.In questo quadro trova spazio l'attività di pianificazione territoriale, intesa come attività di organizzazione di un insediamento urbano a valle di una rigorosa ed approfondita analisi di tutti gli aspetti, antropici e naturali, presenti e caratterizzanti una determinata area geografica. ; The most vulnerable components of the territory are represented by urban areas, located in geo-environmental contexts whose balances become unstable because of natural physical changes (eg .: changing climate conditions) and/or changes induced by human interventions (construction of infrastructures, represented by someone, in the pejorative way, with the term "overbuilding").The city, as anintegrated system of infrastructures, may be exposed not only to the critical geo-environmental hazard of the site where they are located (eg. coastal erosion, slope instability, subsidence, flooding, etc.) but also to those generated by boundary areas, sometimes even at a considerable distance.The recent meteorological history shows a growing incidence of hydrological and hydrogeological events (such as, for example, storms in Genoa in 2011 and 2014, the ones in Sardinia, Calabria, Sicily, Benevento, etc., all occurred in the last five years), demonstrating an increasingprobability of involvement of towns.The research of strategies of prevention and protection is a difficult task to deal with, but politics, as a consequence of recurring loss of life and the huge costs that burden on society, has to consider it as a priority.In this scenery, the activity of planning, considered as the activity of organization of a urban settlement afterwards a rigorous and accurate analysis of all relevant aspects, both human and natural, plays a major role to obtain acceptable risk level.
Diese Arbeit ist der Versuch, die große Bedeutung des politischen Rahmens für die Entwicklung der Kultur eines Landes darzustellen. Jedes politische System schafft ein Klima, das Kulturschaffende maßgeblich beeinflusst, und gleichzeitig die Bedingungen für ein restriktives oder offenes Kunstverständnis erzeugt. Die vorherrschenden politischen Mächte in einem Land und ihre Vertreter stehen in engem Bezug zum Entstehen eines Kunst- und Kulturgeschehens. Gerade auch an einzelnen Lebensläufen ist ablesbar, welch relativ großen Einfluss herausragende Menschen auf gesellschaftliche Bereiche haben können. Den zeitlichen Rahmen dieser Arbeit stellt die Ära Kreisky dar, behandelt werden Bruno Kreisky selbst und die Kultur- und Kunstpolitik seiner Partei. Es wird versucht, die gesetzten politischen Schwerpunkte in den Jahren der sozialdemokratischen Vormachtstellung und der geschaffene Rahmen für Kultur- und Kunstpolitik zu erläutern. Um die Kultur eines Landes zu einem bestimmten Zeitpunkt zu erfassen, muss wohl immer auch dessen Geschichte miteinbezogen werden. So wird auch ein kurzer Rückblick auf die jüngste Vergangenheit vor 1970 behandelt. Die Jahre der Nachkriegszeit und das sich allmähliche Verändern der Strukturen im Laufe der 50er und 60er Jahre sind exemplarisch dargestellt, insbesondere die international einschneidenden Ereignisse im Jahr 68 und das Aufkommen einer neuen Frauenbewegung. Der Kulturbegriff allgemein, die politische Definition von Kultur jener Jahre und die Errungenschaften der dreizehn Jahre SPÖ-Alleinregierung werden erläutert. Kunst ist stets auch Ausdruck der jeweiligen Zeitepoche und des jeweiligen politischen Systems. Immer wieder lässt sich der Einfluss von politischen Strukturen an den Werken der Kunstschaffenden erkennen. Es wird der Wandel in einem kulturpolitischen Umbruch beschrieben, der in der jüngeren Geschichte Österreichs besonders hervorzuheben ist. ; This work is an attempt to illustrate the great importance of a political framework for the development of the culture of a country. Each political system creates a climate that influences the cultural sector significantly, while defining the conditions for a restrictive or open understanding of art. The prevailing political powers in a country and their representatives are closely related to the emergence of an art and cultural events. Especially on individual lives can be read the relatively large impact outstanding people can have on areas of society. The time frame of this work illustrates the Kreisky era. It concerns Bruno Kreisky himself and the cultural and arts policy of his party. It tries to explain the political priorities set in the years of social democratic hegemony and the framework created for culture and arts policy. To understand the culture of a country at a particular point in time, its history must probably always be included. Thus, a brief review of the recent past before 1970 has been dealt with in this work. The post-war years and the gradual change to the structures during the 50s and 60s are exemplified, in particular the international drastic events in the year '68 and the emergence of a new women's movement. The concept of culture in general, the political definition of culture of those years and the achievements of thirteen years SPÖ party government are explained. Art is always an expression of the respective time period and the respective political system. Again and again, the influence of political structures in the works of artists can be recognized. There the change is described in a cultural and political upheaval that is particularly emphasized in the recent history of Austria. ; vorgelegt von Veronika Wabl-Kreuzer ; Zsfassung dt. und engl. ; Graz, Univ., Dipl.-Arb., 2014 ; (VLID)239896
Includes bibliographical references (p. 105-114). ; This dissertation presents an account of the life and work of the South African Lyricist Harold David (Hal) Shaper (1931-2004). The wealth of archival material that the project has uncovered is due to Shaper having meticulously kept most of his correspondence, diaries, song-writing drafts and autobiographical notes, as well as newspapers cuttings and magazine articles pertaining to his career. This study aims to provide an insight into his life and his hitherto largely unknown achievements, before the relevant documents are lost or dispersed. Shaper's family roots stem from Jewish persecution in eastern Europe. His mother was born in Poland, and his father in England, of Russian immigrant parents. His parents both came to South Africa in the early 1900s in search of a better quality of life. This background, and his parents' meeting in Cape Town, are detailed in Chapter One. Chapter Two describes Shaper's early years, which were spent in the Cape Town suburb of Muizenberg, and it was here, at the age of fourteen, that he decided that he wanted to be a songwriter. Even while studying in Cape Town to be a lawyer, he confidently and determinedly set about achieving his song-writing ambitions. Chapter Three follows Shaper's move to London, and his development as a lyricist, which resulted in his working with some of the foremost artists and composers of his generation He also wrote the lyrics for several successful musical theatre productions. These are discussed in detail in Chapter Four. After a very successful song-writing and business career overseas, Shaper returned to South Africa in 1992, when the political climate had begun to change. His considerable contribution to the artistic life of post-apartheid South Africa is explored in Chapter Five. His creation of a South Africa version of La Bohème, which he called La Bohème: Noir, helped ensure the continued survival of opera at a time of political change, when the relevance and cost of this art form were being questioned Shaper was also instrumental in locating the long-lost burial record and grave of Enoch Sontonga, the composer of Nkosi sikele' iAfrika. This, too, is described in Chapter 5. While he was living and working in England, Shaper founded his own music publishing company, the Sparta Florida Music Group Ltd, which he expanded to include song production and recording. Chapter Six gives a brief overview of his business interests. The dissertation ends with a conclusion which summarises the most important achievements of the life and legacy of Hal Shaper, and the events and people that shaped it.
This report consists of two parts: Part 1 presents a review of recent economic developments and a macroeconomic outlook. Part 2 focuses in greater depth on a special, selected topic relevant to Malawi's development prospects. This report focuses on agricultural risk management. Malawi is now set to suffer a second year of poor harvests due to the effects of a drought that is sweeping Southern Africa. This drought has had a serious impact both on the economy and on food security, requiring a major humanitarian response. The current situation underscores Malawi's serious need to improve the resilience of the agricultural sector and to develop a better system of risk management. With the country expected to continue to face climate-induced shocks into the future, it is vital that the Government considers how best to mitigate the impact of such shocks. In 2015 Malawi recorded a GDP growth rate of just 2.8 percent, with this low rate the result of both adverse weather conditions and macroeconomic instability. Flooding in southern districts followed by a countrywide drought resulted in a contraction in agricultural production. Maize, the key crop in terms of food security, recorded a 30.2 percent year-on-year drop in production. As a result, an estimated 2.8 million people (17 percent of the population) were unable to meet their 2015/16 food requirements.
The World Bank Group (WBG) Country Partnership Framework (CPF) for Egypt forFY15-19 has been prepared at an important juncture in Egypt's history to support transformational changes to the economic and social space. It builds on the Government of Egypt's (GOE) medium-term strategy and national priorities for economic development, responds to client demands, and is informed by consultations with a broad array of stakeholders in Egypt. At the same time, the CPF proposes selective interventions in line with the development priorities of the Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCD) for Egypt, and draws on the WBG's comparative advantage. This program will also seek to implement the new MENA Regional strategy, especially the pillars on renewing the social contract, supporting economic recovery, and promoting regional cooperation. The CPF supports a transformative program to renew the social contract to support private sector job creation, social inclusion, and enhanced governance. The WBG is moving towards more than doubling its lending program compared to the recent past, to a total of about $8 billion over FY15-19, of which an indicative amount of about $6 billion is requested by the authorities to come from IBRD and about $2 billion from IFC. The actual volume and pace of IBRD lending will dependon the implementation of the program, including the ability to address macroeconomic risks, choice of instruments and economic performance in the course of the CPF period, continued Government interest in IBRD financing, and on IBRD's lending capacity and demands from other borrowers. Similarly, the actual investments by IFC and guarantees by MIGA during the CPF period will depend on improvements in macroeconomic stability and progress in investmentclimate reforms that would boost investor confidence and facilitate greater private sector participation.
The Cambodia environment monitor 2008 is one of a series of environmental reports prepared for East Asian countries under an initiative sponsored by the World Bank. The objective of this series is to present a snapshot of environmental trends across a range of issues. The purpose of the monitor is to engage and inform interested stakeholders about key environmental changes in an easy to understand format accessible to a wide audience. This report identifies seven strategic priorities for the Royal government of Cambodia and its conservation partners. 1)articulate a clear and shared vision and re-commitment to conservation goals and objectives; 2)formalize a meaningful enabling legal and regulatory framework for management and protection of conservation areas; 3)formulate clear strategies for recognizing and improving community benefit sharing in conservation areas; 4) strengthen mechanisms for institutional coordination across the ministries; 5) adopt new approaches and paradigms for conservation areas management; 6) with donors, develop and secure sustainable sources of funding for conservation; and 7) reinforce the human resource capacity to implement and manage conservation areas.
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yaadahalli-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 662 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 597 ha (90%) in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 7 ha (1%) by rock outcrops and 58 ha (9%) by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 11 soil series and 21 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 32 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm), 28 per cent soils are deep (100 to 150 cm), 20 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 2 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) and 8 per cent soils are shallow (25-50 cm). About 22 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 49 per cent loamy soils and 19 per cent clayey soils at the surface. About 86 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of about 6 per cent is nearly level (0-1%) and 84 per cent area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands. An area of about 6 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) and 84 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded in the microwatershed. An area of about 2 per cent is slightly acid (pH 6.0-6.5), 44 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 22 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 20 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4) and 2 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) in reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) in organic carbon. About 62 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 28 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. About 88 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 2 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Available sulphur is low (<10 ppm) in an area of about 75 per cent and 15 per cent of the soils are medium (10-20 ppm) in the microwatershed. Available boron is low (<0.5 ppm) in an area of about 74 per cent and medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in an area of 16 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available iron is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available manganese is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available copper is sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 455(69) 87(13) Guava - 130(20) Maize 58(9) 433(65) Sapota - 131(20) Bajra 109(16) 433(65) Pomegranate - 528(80) Groundnut - 138(21) Musambi 389(59) 139(21) Sunflower 389(59) 139(21) Lime 389(59) 139(21) Redgram - 528(80) Amla 66(10) 475(72) Bengal gram 397(60) 81(12) Cashew - 66(10) Cotton 389(59) 88(13) Jackfruit - 131(20) Chilli - 542(82) Jamun - 397(60) Tomato 58(9) 401(60) Custard apple 476(72) 65(10) Brinjal 120(18) 421(64) Tamarind - 397(60) Onion 161(24) 101(16) Mulberry - 131(20) Bhendi 299(45) 242(37) Marigold - 542(82) Drumstick - 528(80) Chrysanthemum - 542(82) Mango - 46(7) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY The survey was conducted in Yaadahalli-2 is located at North latitude 160 49' 50.825" and 160 48' 22.582" and East longitude 770 10' 36.282'' and 770 8' 22.441" covering an area of about 661.39 ha coming underYaddalli, Bandhalli and Honagera villages of Yadagiri taluk. Socio-economic analysis of Yaadahalli-2 micro watersheds of Hattikuni subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 farmers were sampled in Yaadahalli-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 19 (52.78%) were marginal, 6 (16.67%) were small and 5 (13.89 %) were semi medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 127 (55.70%) men and 101 (44.30 %) were women. The average population of landless was 6.7, marginal farmers were 6.5, semi medium farmers were 5.7 and medium farmers were 6. Majority of the respondents (56.14%) were in the age group of 16-35 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 74.12 per cent illiterates, 25.44 per cent pre university education and 2.63 per cent attained graduation. About, 77.78 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.78 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers. Agriculture was the major occupation for 60.09 per cent of the household members. In the study area, 52.78 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 33.33 per cent possess pucca house. The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 61.11 per cent possess TV, 2.78 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.44 per cent possess mobile phones and 33.33 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 22.22 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.56 per cent possess tractor, 5.56 per cent possess bullock cart and 13.89 per cent possess sprayer. Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.33 per cent possess local cow and 2.78 per cent possess buffalo. The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.89, women available in the micro watershed was 1.69, hired labour (men) available was 7.83 and hired labour (women) available was 5.97. Further, 19.44 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2 In the study area, about 2.63 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1150.00 kms for about 12.00 months. Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 65.61 per cent (24.20 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 30.71 per cent area is irrigated land. There were 9.00 live bore wells and 9.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 25.00 per cent of the households. The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 107.16 per cent. Out of the sample households 77.78 percent possessed bank account and 47.22 per cent of them have savings in the account. About 38.89 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 14.29 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 64.29 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank. Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose. Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 92.31 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.50570.78 , 33213.31, 61554.52, 57120.33, and 40238.12 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.03, 1: 2.90, 1: 2.30, 1: 1.40, and 1:1.50, respectively. Further, 30.56 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate. The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 230574.94 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 62213.89 comes from agriculture. Sampled households have grown 14 horticulture trees and 44 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 15694.44 for land development and Rs. 27083.33 for irrigation facility. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.78 per cent depends on own funds and 11.11 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities. Regarding marketing channels, 61.11 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 25.00 per cent have sold in regulated markets. Further, 80.56 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3 Majority of the farmers (55.56%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 77.78 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 83.33 per cent of the households and 16.67 per cent households has LPG connection. Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 83.33 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 41.67 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. Regarding possession of PDS card, 91.67 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 8.33 per cent of the household's possessed APL card. Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (83.33%), pulses (88.89%) and oilseeds (52.78%) are adequate for consumption. Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (63.89 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (47.22%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (77.78%), inadequacy of irrigation water (58.33%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (77.78%), high rate of interest on credit (77.78%), low price for the agricultural commodities (77.78 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (63.89%), inadequate extension services (27.78 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (72.22%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 576 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 70 per cent in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 30 ha by rock outcrops, others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 7 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire cultivated area is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed. About 2 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are shallow (25-50 cm), 5 per cent are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 4 per cent are moderately deep (75-100 cm), 58 per cent are deep (100-150 cm) and 1 per cent soils are very deep (>150 cm) soils in the microwatershed. About 2 per cent are sandy soils at the surface, 54 per cent are loamy soils and 14 percent soils are clayey soils at the surface. Maximum area of about 68 per cent is non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity. About 57 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands and 14 per cent area is nearly level (0-1% slope) soils. An area of about 57 per cent is moderately (e2) eroded and 14 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) soils in the microwatershed. About an area of 2 per cent in the microwatershed is neutral (pH 6.5-7.3), 5 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8), 49 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8- 8.4) and 15 per cent is strongly alkaline (pH 8.4-9.0) soils. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%) in organic carbon content. An area of 1 percent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area of about 60 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 10 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium. Entire area is low (4.5 ppm) in 59 per cent and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 17 per cent soils. The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 23 (4) 234 (41) Guava - 23 (4) Maize 23 (4) 234 (41) Sapota - 23 (4) Bajra 23 (4) 234 (41) Pomegranate - 23 (4) Groundnut - 52 (9) Musambi - 23 (4) Sunflower - 23 (4) Lime - 23 (4) Redgram - 228 (40) Amla 23 (4) 29 (5) Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - 23 (4) Jackfruit - 23 (4) Chilli 23 (4) 29 (5) Jamun - - Tomato 23 (4) 29 (5) Custard apple 52 (9) - Brinjal 23 (4) 29 (5) Tamarind - - Onion 23 (4) 29 (5) Mulberry - 23 (4) Bhendi 23 (4) 29 (5) Marigold 23 (4) 29 (5) Drumstick - 23 (4) Chrysanthemum 23 (4) 29 (5) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified 5 LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc. Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY The survey was conducted in Yadgir Rf-2 is located at North latitude 160 51' 34.686" and 160 50' 14.901" and East longitude 770 12' 14.251'' and 770 10' 18.907" covering an area of about 564.17 ha coming under Hattikuni, Katagi Shahapura, Yadahalli and Honageri villages of Yadagiri taluk. Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir Rf-2 micro watersheds of Hattikuni subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgir Rf-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 12 (34.29%) were marginal, 11 (31.43%) were small, 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium and 3 (8.57 %) were medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 89 (56.33%) men and 69 (43.67 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.8, marginal farmers were 4.4, small farmers were 4.8, semi medium farmers were 3.7 and medium farmers were 6. Majority of the respondents (39.87%) were in the age group of 16-35 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 50.00 per cent illiterates, 0.63 percent were functional literates, 43.03 per cent pre university education and 2.53 per cent attained graduation. About, 88.57 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.86 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers. Agriculture was the major occupation for 33.54 per cent of the household members. In the study area, 54.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house. The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 91.43 per cent possess TV, 82.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 11.43 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 20.00 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 11.43 per cent possess bullock cart and 5.71 per cent possess sprayer. Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.86 per cent possess local cow. The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.53, women available in the micro watershed was 1.42, hired labour (men) available was 7.38 and hired labour (women) available was 6.74. Further, 60.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2 In the study area, about 6.96 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1114.83 kms for about 6.00 months. Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 72.89 per cent (40.31 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 25.10 per cent area is irrigated land. There were 5.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 14.29 per cent of the households. The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Sorghum, Cotton, Groundnut and Maize and cropping intensity was recorded as 89.00 per cent. Out of the sample households 88.57 percent possessed bank account and 82.86 per cent of them have savings in the account. About 82.86 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households. Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations. The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Sorghum, Cotton, Groundnut and Maize was Rs.37227.18, 25478.65, 34967.43, 43716.27 and 27475.11 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.20, 1: 1.40, 1: 1.50, 1: 0.80 and 1:1.80 respectively. Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.57 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate. The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 69780.00 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 33694.29 comes from agriculture. Sampled households have grown 8 horticulture trees and 42 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. About 14.29 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops. Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5428.57 for land development and Rs. 228.57 for irrigation facility. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.86 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities. Regarding marketing channels, 48.57 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 28.57 per cent have sold in regulated markets. Further, 62.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3 Majority of the farmers (74.29%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 74.29 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. About, 14.29 per cent of farmers practicing summer ploughing as soil and water conservation practice. Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households and 8.57 per cent households has LPG connection. Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 80.00 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 51.43 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.14%), pulses (68.57%) and oilseeds (28.57%) are adequate for consumption. Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.71%) wild animal menace on farm field (65.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (60.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (34.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (40.00%), high rate of interest on credit (28.57%), low price for the agricultural commodities (28.57%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (34.29%), inadequate extension services (31.43%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (62.86%), Less rainfall (34.29%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (31.43%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Itakal-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 540 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 522 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 18 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below. The soils belong to 7 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units. The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October. From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated. Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval. Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated. Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture. About 92 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 4 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm). About 4 per cent area of the microwatershed has loamy soils and 92 per cent clayey soils. About of 86 per cent area of the microwatershed has non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 20 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m) and 16 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity. An area of 13 per cent has nearly level (0-1% slope) lands and 83 per cent has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands of the microwatershed. An area of about 65 per cent area is moderately (e2) eroded and 31 per cent area is slightly (e1) eroded. An area of about 22 per cent is neutral (pH 6.5 to 7.3), 52 per cent slightly alkaline (pH 7.3 to 7.8) and 23 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8 to 8.4) in reaction. The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is dominantly 0.75%), 57 per cent medium (0.50-0.75%) and 9 per cent is low ( 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus. An area 89 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) and 8 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium of the microwatershed. Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) 28 per cent of the microwatershed. Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 60 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in 37 per cent area of the microwatershed. Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed. The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 244(45) Guava - 65(12) Maize 65(12) 179(33) Sapota - 65(12) Bajra 65(12) 179(33) Pomegranate - 220(41) Groundnut 65(12) 24(4) Musambi - 220(41) Sunflower - 220(41) Lime - 220(41) Redgram - 220(41) Amla 65(12) 24(4) Bengal gram - 155(29) Cashew - - Cotton - 155(29) Jackfruit - 65(12) Chilli 65(12) 179(33) Jamun - - Tomato 65(12) 24(4) Custard apple 65(12) 179(33) Brinjal 65(12) 24(4) Tamarind - - Onion 65(12) 24(4) Mulberry - 65(12) Bhendi 65(12) 179(33) Marigold 65(12) 179(33) Drumstick - 65(12) Chrysanthemum 65(12) 179(33) Mango - - Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops. Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc., Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required. As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY The survey was conducted in Itakal-1 is located at North latitude 160 54' 13.021" and 160 53' 26.25" and East longitude 770 24' 24.188'' and 770 23' 10.84" covering an area of about 118.39 ha coming under Gurumitkal village of Yadagiri taluk. Socio-economic analysis of Itakal-1 micro watersheds of Mothakapalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Itakal-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 21 (60.00%) were marginal, 4 (11.43%) were small, 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey. The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 107 (62.21%) men and 65 (37.79 %) were women. The average population of landless was 6.2, marginal farmers were 4.7, small farmers were 5, semi medium farmers were 4.3 and medium farmers were 4.5. Majority of the respondents (40.12%) were in the age group of 16-35 years. Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 24.42 per cent illiterates, 0.58 percent were functional literates, 70.36 per cent pre university education and 7.56 per cent attained graduation. About, 80.00 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture. Agriculture was the major occupation for 47.67 per cent of the household members. In the study area, 40.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 57.14 per cent possess pucca house. The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 80.00 per cent possess TV, 42.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.43 per cent possess mobile phones and 54.29 per cent possess motor cycles. Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 14.29 per cent possess bullock cart and 20.00 per cent possess sprayer. Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow and 5.71 per cent possess buffalo. The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.54, women available in the micro watershed was 1.03, hired labour (men) available was 5.14 and hired labour (women) available was 8.86. Further, 25.71 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2 Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 80.49 per cent (29.68 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 19.51 per cent area is irrigated land. There were 3.00 live bore wells and 3.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households. Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 14.29 per cent of the households. The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent. Out of the sample households 97.14 percent possessed bank account and 14.29 per cent of them have savings in the account. About 102.86 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 40.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 30.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank. Majority of the respondents (90.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose. Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 54.55 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 36.36 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement. The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Groundnut, Cotton, Jowar and Paddy was Rs.43067.31, 90445.62, 39213.13, 139598.90 and 48958.89 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.62, 1: 1.29, 1: 1.96, 1: 1.90 and 1:0.80 respectively. Further, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate. The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 137397.14 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 49711.43 comes from agriculture. Sampled households have grown 46 horticulture trees and 14 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards. About 8.57 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops. Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7571.43 for land development and Rs. 2857.14 for irrigation facility. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 42.86 per cent depends on own funds and 5.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities. Regarding marketing channels, 82.86 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 2.86 per cent have sold in regulated markets. 3 Further, 62.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. Majority of the farmers (60.00%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 71.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 57.14 per cent of the households and 54.29 per cent households has LPG connection. Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 94.29 per cent of the households. Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 22.86 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. Regarding possession of PDS card, 94.29 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 5.71 per cent of the household's possessed APL card. Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (80.00%), pulses (37.14%) and oilseeds (40.00%) are adequate for consumption. Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (77.14%) wild animal menace on farm field (68.57%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (68.57%), inadequacy of irrigation water (68.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (68.57%), high rate of interest on credit (80.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (48.57%), inadequate extension services (28.57%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (48.57%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project
The territory of the country measures 25,713 km2. In the north it borders Serbia and Kosovo, in the west Albania, in the south Greece and in the east Bulgaria. It is situated between 40o 51' and 42o 22' north latitude and 20o 27' and 23o 05' east longitude. The population that permanently resides in this territory, according to the last census is 2,022,547 inhabitants from diverse ethnic groups. The Macedonian population prevails with approximately 64% of the total number, but multi-ethnicity represents a solid basis for a rich ethnographic capacity which is included in the tourism offer of the Republic of Macedonia (Marinoski, 2008a). The city population is 59.78% of the total population. The economy experienced a radical change in its conditions. The most significant structural change in the economic system was the transition from socialist self-governing to capitalism, which led to a change of ownership from social to private and a clear determining of the title of ownership. Economic processes emphasised privatisation as the basis of the transition process. Unfortunately, the transition was implemented in a way that many companies and economic systems from the real sector were made bankrupt and liquidated and the overall economic conditions instead of being promoted, demonstrated a remarkable reduction in their development. The downturn of the economy meant that tourism development could not be supported. The decline of the population's standard of living affected the mobility of domestic tourists and the decline of the domestic tourism market. Furthermore, it is a fact that these processes of liquidation contributed in the Republic of Macedonia to the increase in unemployment. A large number of employees in the industry lost their jobs so they were forced to be engaged in other activities. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is an important indicator of the economy of the Republic of Macedonia. According to data of the State Statistical Office derived from the annual accounts from business entities and other sources, the gross domestic product in 2014 amounted to 525,620 million denars or 9,727 million US $ while compared to 2013 it increased by 4.7%. The real growth rate of GDP, compared to 2013 was 3.5%. The final expenditure in 2014, compared to 2013, increased by 1.9% and in the structure of GDP it accounted for 86.8%. The share of exports of goods and services in GDP in 2014 was 47.8% (State Statistical Office of the Republic of Macedonia, n.d.a). Tourism resources of a natural and cultural character are abundant in the region. The natural values have basic, complex and complementary features. Mountains represent exceptionally significant tourist potential. The hilly to mountainous area accounts for 92.2% of the country's surface area. The average height of the country is 1,404 m above sea level. The country is mountainous with the highest peak measuring 2,764 m. There are 34 mountains on which there are 6 major winter sports centres. Equally attractive are the 14 larger gorges and canyons. As well as inactive volcanic landscapes there is one active solfatara. The climate is generally continental, whereas in the mountains it is a mountain climate and towards the open space of the Aegean and Adriatic Seas the climate is Mediterranean. The Republic of Macedonia is landlocked, but there are tectonic, glacial and artificial lakes. The river network consists of three major river basins whereas thermo-mineral springs represent the basis for locating 8 spa centres. There are plant species that are characteristic for the Mediterranean and the Euro-Siberian regions. Forest areas and forest land form a total of 1,288,915 hectares, or 50% of the country's complete territory. The most significant protected areas are the 3 national parks. The wildlife which forms the base for hunting activities is represented by mammals (mammalia) and birds (aves). There are a total of 47 registered hunting associations, which have their own hunting areas. Nine major fishing centres are located by the rivers as well as on the shores of tectonic and artificial lakes (Zikov & Vasil, 1997). Cultural tourism resources are represented by a rare abundance of archaeological sites that date back to the Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Eneolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages, as well as to the period of ancient Roman culture, to the early Christian period and to the Middle Ages. Churches and monasteries are a real treasure and an important destination for visitors. They date back to the IX and XIX centuries. Mosques date back to the XIV and XIX centuries. Secular architecture is represented by the built fortified cities, towers, bridges, bazaars, inns, baths and palaces, cultural monuments in the form of urban architecture and distinguished urban settlements and individual houses, monuments and memorials – landmarks from recent history, museums and cultural centres, theatres, universities and major libraries, cultural or sports halls and archives. Ethnographic values and traditions include architecture, traditional economic activities, crafts, food, folkloric clothing as well as folk songs and dances. The most important events are the cultural, entertainment, sports, economic and scientific events. The political structure of the Republic of Macedonia has undergone significant changes. The country went through different political systems. After the Second World War, it was a part of the Yugoslavian federation, so the policies were mainly made at the central level whereby the republics aligned their decisions to the federation and suggested their own individual policies to the Central Committee of the Communist Party and to the bodies of the federation. The political system was characterised by statist and socialist characteristics although the beginnings of the self-governing system were introduced in 1953. Significant changes occurred in 1974 when the self-governing system adopted a greater decentralisation and increase of the individual powers of the republics. During this period the Republic of Macedonia gained more autonomy. There was an improved decentralisation of power towards the local level so that the municipalities also became a significant political structure within the country. Starting from 1980, the Republic of Macedonia entered a transition period which resulted from the breakup of Yugoslavia. It was the only Yugoslavian republic that peacefully gained its independence. Since 1991, the country has been an internationally recognised state and a member of the United Nations (UN). In 2001, a military conflict occurred that was relatively quickly resolved by the signing of the Ohrid agreement. This agreement, among other solutions, allowed minority communities to participate according to the representation of the overall population in the state administration. The administrative-territorial structure of the state underwent significant changes which were in line with the autonomy and transition of the self-governing system towards the capitalist system. The separation of the legislature from the executive and the judicial authority was guaranteed by the constitution. The single party system transformed into a multi-party system and the rule of law was established. State governing was a parliamentary democracy. The highest legislative authority was the Parliament in which representatives were elected by parliamentary elections. It elects the Government of the Republic of Macedonia. The President of the country is elected by direct elections, leads foreign policy and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The Ministries, besides participating in the decision-making of the government through its ministers, also have regional and local departments in major community centres through which operationally they implement state policies. The local departments for self-government in the country have an important place in the economic and social development of the country. They decide on the local infrastructure and its improvement as well as on the adoption of spatial and urban solutions that are of great importance for the development of tourism. The bodies of local self-government are managed by the mayor who is elected through local elections. The mayor presents his plans and their implementation to the Council which adopts these documents. The council members are also elected through local elections. In a political sense the local departments for self-government are autonomous in their decision-making. At state level, they are organised into the Association of Local Government Units – ZELS, which plays a significant role in inter-municipal cooperation as well as presenting to state institutions when they have common interests. At regional level, regions exist in which all municipalities are grouped. They are managed by Centres whose executives are elected by representatives of the units for local self-governance. They also enable the balanced economic development of the Republic of Macedonia and they do not have executive authority. In a political sense, numerous changes have taken place in the Republic of Macedonia. The country went from a socialist to a capitalist system, public ownership changed into private ownership, and the federal structure transformed into a unitary state. The country also had many turbulent periods of gaining independence and military conflict in order to establish a multi-party system and a general policy towards Euro-Atlantic integration processes. The legislature is separated from the executive and judicial autonomy. Representatives are elected through parliamentary elections as members of the Council which is appointed by the Government of the Republic of Macedonia. The President is also elected through presidential elections. Regions are established as functional territorial administrative units. The decentralisation processes in an administrative sense, are realised by the Mayor and the Council for local governance who are also elected through local elections.
