Infrastructure contributed 1.3 percentage points to Burkina Faso's annual per capita gross domestic product (GDP) growth over the past decade, much of it due to improvements in information and communication technology (ICT). Raising the country's infrastructure endowment to that of the region's middle-income countries (MICs) could boost annual growth by more than 3 percentage points per capita.Today, Burkina Faso's infrastructure indicators look relatively good when compared with other low-income countries (LICs) in Africa. Burkina Faso has made significant progress in developing its infrastructure in recent years. The rapid modernization of the ICT sector, around 60 percent of the population lives within range of a global system for mobile communications (GSM) cell-phone signal. The expansion of safe water and sanitation technologies in urban areas since the late 1990s and the establishment of a system for funding road maintenance (by reducing the cost of road travel) should pay long-term dividends to the economy. The Africa Infrastructure Country Diagnostic (AICD) has gathered and analyzed extensive data on infrastructure across almost all African countries, including Burkina Faso. The results have been presented in reports covering different areas of infrastructure including ICT, irrigation, power, transport and water and sanitation and various policy areas, including investment needs, fiscal costs, and sector performance.
In the post-global economic crisis environment, Vietnam's economy continues to grow at a reasonably rapid and stable rate. While the speed of global economic recovery has been uneven across the world, Asia as a region has done particularly well. And within Asia, Vietnam's growth performance continues to be impressive. As shown in left panel of, Vietnam was one of the fastest growing economies in the East Asia and Pacific (EAP) region prior to the global economic crisis and has remained so in the post-crisis period as well1. After registering a real gross domestic product (GDP) growth of 5.3 percent in 2009, Vietnam's economy is expected to grow between 6.5-6.7 percent in 2010. Vietnam, like China, stands out not only for achieving a higher average growth rate but also a more stable growth path. This however has meant that the speed with which the Vietnam's economy is bouncing back from the lows of 2009 appears to be less impressive than countries that experienced negative growth last year. This edition of 'Taking Stock' a semi-annual publication from the World Bank attempts to understand the recent macroeconomic changes in Vietnam. It documents changes to the macroeconomic outcomes and policies with a view to inform policy discussions in the country. The analysis is mostly retrospective in nature, though discussions on prospective challenges and outlook are also briefly mentioned. Developments in the global economy in general and in the EAP region in particular are juxtaposed against Vietnam's own economic outcomes and policies to provide a more complete and nuanced picture of the issues.
The Situation In The Middle East Report Of The Secretary-General On The Implementation Of Security Council Resolutions 2139 (2014), 2165 (2014), 2191 (2014), 2258 (2015), 2332 (2016) And 2393 (2017) ; United Nations S/PV.8171 Security Council Seventy-third year 8171st meeting Tuesday, 30 January 2018, 10.35 a.m. New York Provisional President: Mr. Umarov. . (Kazakhstan) Members: Bolivia (Plurinational State of). . Mr. Llorentty Solíz China. . Mr. Shen Bo Côte d'Ivoire. . Mr. Tanoh-Boutchoue Equatorial Guinea. . Mr. Ndong Mba Ethiopia. . Mr. Woldegerima France. . Mr. Delattre Kuwait. . Mr. Alotaibi Netherlands. . Mrs. Gregoire Van Haaren Peru. . Mr. Meza-Cuadra Poland. . Ms. Wronecka Russian Federation. . Mr. Safronkov Sweden . Mr. Skoog United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . Mr. Allen United States of America. . Mr. Miller Agenda The situation in the Middle East Report of the Secretary-General on the implementation of Security Council resolutions 2139 (2014), 2165 (2014), 2191 (2014), 2258 (2015), 2332 (2016) and 2393 (2017) (S/2018/60) This record contains the text of speeches delivered in English and of the translation of speeches delivered in other languages. The final text will be printed in the Official Records of the Security Council. Corrections should be submitted to the original languages only. They should be incorporated in a copy of the record and sent under the signature of a member of the delegation concerned to the Chief of the Verbatim Reporting Service, room U-0506 (verbatimrecords@un.org). Corrected records will be reissued electronically on the Official Document System of the United Nations (http://documents.un.org). 18-02496 (E) *1802496* S/PV.8171 The situation in the Middle East 30/01/2018 2/10 18-02496 The meeting was called to order at 10.35 a.m. Adoption of the agenda The agenda was adopted. The situation in the Middle East Report of the Secretary-General on the implementation of Security Council resolutions 2139 (2014), 2165 (2014), 2191 (2014), 2258 (2015), 2332 (2016) and 2393 (2017) (S/2018/60) The President: In accordance with rule 39 of the Council's provisional rules of procedure, I invite Ms. Ursula Mueller, Assistant Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Deputy Emergency Relief Coordinator, to participate in this meeting. The Security Council will now begin its consideration of the item on its agenda. I wish to draw the attention of Council members to document S/2018/60, which contains the report of the Secretary-General on the implementation of Security Council resolutions 2139 (2014), 2165 (2014), 2191 (2014), 2258 (2015), 2332 (2016) and 2393 (2017). I now give the floor to Ms. Mueller. Ms. Mueller: I thank you, Mr. President, for this opportunity to provide the Security Council with an update on the humanitarian situation in Syria. Years of conflict have caused immeasurable human suffering and left countless civilians dead, injured or missing. The United Nations estimates that 13.1 million people are in need of protection and humanitarian assistance, including 6.1 million people who are displaced within the country. Another 5.5 million people have fled the conflict across borders into neighbouring countries. The Council will have heard at first-hand the account of the Emergency Relief Coordinator in his statement to the Security Council on 22 January with regard to his visit to Syria, in which he highlighted the plight of the Syrian people. During the visit, he heard individual stories from some of the people caught up in the violence and conflict. In Homs, he saw entire districts of the city reduced to rubble. The visit was the first for an Emergency Relief Coordinator in more than two years. It was an important opportunity to see ways in which the United Nations can support people in need. It was also a chance to hold discussions with the Government of Syria and our humanitarian partners on how to address some of the most pressing humanitarian needs. As fighting continues, I am particularly concerned about the safety and protection of civilians caught up in the violence in north-west Syria, where hostilities have reportedly caused numerous deaths and injuries. Air strikes and fighting in southern Idlib and northern Hama have resulted in more than 270,000 displacements since 15 December 2017, driving people from their homes to other areas of Idlib. Camps for displaced people are overstretched, forcing most of those displaced to seek shelter in some 160 makeshift settlements. During the cold and wet winter months, many families have nothing else but improvised tents, which they share with others. Attacks on medical facilities and vital infrastructure continue, with reports of at least 16 attacks on health-care facilities during the month of December alone. Yesterday Médecins Sans Frontières reported that air strikes had hit a hospital it supports in the Saraqib district of Idlib, causing five deaths, injuring others and seriously damaging the facility, which is now closed. That was the second reported strike on the facility in nine days. Further north, in Afrin, in Aleppo governorate, the United Nations is carefully monitoring the situation of over 300,000 people living in the district, which is experiencing fighting. We have reports of civilian casualties and that approximately 15,000 people have been displaced within the district, with another 1,000 displaced to Aleppo governorate. We have also received reports that local authorities inside Afrin are restricting civilian movement, particularly for those who want to leave. I am also concerned about the situation in eastern Ghouta and areas of Damascus, where civilian deaths and destruction of civilian infrastructure continue to be reported. In the first 10 days of the year, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights documented at least 81 civilians killed in the enclave, including 25 women and 30 children. Scores of residential buildings in the area have been damaged or destroyed in recent weeks. I also note with concern that shelling continues from eastern Ghouta into Damascus, resulting in civilian deaths and injuries. Although 29 patients in urgent need of medical care were allowed out of eastern Ghouta in late December, hundreds more, most of them women and children, require immediate medical attention. So far, there have 30/01/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8171 18-02496 3/10 been 21 civilian deaths among those waiting for and needing medical evacuation. Their needs are critical, and the law is clear. I urge all parties, and all those with influence over the parties, to see to it that all such medical evacuations take place without conditions or delay. With reference to all of the flashpoints I have highlighted, I call on the parties to ensure the protection of civilians and civilian and medical infrastructure, in line with international humanitarian law, and to ensure the safe, sustained and unimpeded delivery of humanitarian assistance to all in need. I would also like to take this opportunity to reiterate my concern about the protection situation in the city of Raqqa, where returns continue despite the widespread presence of explosive remnants of war. Nearly 60,000 individuals have reportedly returned since the end of hostilities in October 2017. However, humanitarian partners continue to emphasize that, given the high prevalence of landmines, booby traps and unexploded ordinance, Raqqa is not safe for civilian returns. Deaths and injuries due to explosions have been reported with alarming frequency, and trauma cases nearly doubled in recent months. More than 534 civilians have been injured in blasts since the expulsion of the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant from the city in October 2017, of whom 112 people died. Each week, between 30 and 50 civilians continue to arrive at trauma centres in Raqqa after being wounded by improvised explosive devices concealed in their homes and neighbourhoods. Risk from explosive hazards is not limited to Raqqa; there are indications that substantial contamination also exists throughout Deir ez-Zor governorate, where there has been little or no mine surveying or clearance. Despite the desperate humanitarian needs in many areas in Syria, the United Nations and humanitarian partners continue to face serious challenges in accessing those in need. Last month, I briefed the Council that none of our cross-line convoys were able to reach besieged locations and that only two convoys had accessed hard-to-reach areas. This month, the United Nations and its partners have had no access to any such locations at all. Not one convoy has been able to deploy. Discussions about convoys have stalled over requirements to lower the number of beneficiaries and about splitting convoys in a way that would not allow us to provide food or other essential items. Our deliveries must continue to be based on humanitarian principles and international humanitarian law, impartially based on civilian need. At the same time, the United Nations is also seeing access to areas previously reached under regular programming coming to a halt. Local authorities in north-east Syria have twice held humanitarian convoys at the checkpoint with Government-controlled areas in eastern Aleppo. Furthermore, local authorities have requested changes related to the operations of our non-governmental partners, which in turn has blocked our assistance delivery to much of north-east Syria. The situation has been further compounded by the refusal of the Governor of Hassakah to issue facilitation letters for our deliveries. While the cross-border operations of our partners continue, such assistance is not sufficient to meet the needs in the north-east. To solve the situation, I call on all parties and those with influence over them to engage now to see that access to those areas resume. Finally, due to insecurity in the north-west, which has included numerous rocket attacks from within Syria into Turkey, on 20 January the United Nations temporarily suspended cross-border deliveries at the two authorized border crossing points in Turkey. The United Nations remains in discussion with Turkish authorities on restarting operations as quickly as possible to ensure the continued delivery of assistance, which hundreds of thousands of Syrians rely upon every month. Those access challenges underscore the importance of using all the modalities of delivery at our disposal. Despite prevailing challenges, the United Nations and its partners have continued to reach millions of people in need each month. For example, in December, regular programming from within the country resulted in the delivery of humanitarian assistance to millions of people, including over 3 million people who received food assistance through 1,500 deliveries. The United Nations and its partners also provided health, protection and education services. Cross-border assistance also continued to reach hundreds of thousands of people in need, as 653 trucks delivered food assistance to more than 500,000 people, health assistance for over 600,000 treatments, as well as other support for hundreds of thousands. After almost eight years of conflict, people's needs are as vast as they are critical. The United Nations and its partners will continue to deliver to millions of S/PV.8171 The situation in the Middle East 30/01/2018 4/10 18-02496 people in need. The United Nations also stands ready to bolster such support, but requires efficient and effective mechanisms to ensure the safe and rapid delivery of aid. To that end, the Emergency Relief Coordinator has identified five areas where the United Nations is looking to make concrete progress. First, we need to finalize the United Nations humanitarian response plan for 2018, for which we will be seeking $3.5 billion to meet the needs of more than 13 million people in all parts of Syria. Secondly, it is important that there be an agreement on medical evacuations for hundreds of critically ill people trapped in besieged eastern Ghouta. People in other besieged areas should get the same assistance. Thirdly, humanitarian access needs to improve. The United Nations has requested agreement for three to four United Nations and Syrian Arab Red Crescent inter-agency cross-line convoys each week. We need consistent access to all people in need. Fourthly, we must reach agreement on the United Nations-supported aid convoys from Damascus to Rukban in south-eastern Syria. While the exceptional delivery of assistance from Jordan in early January was a positive development, a sustainable solution is required. Fifthly, more effective arrangements are needed to enable the United Nations to support the work of Syrian non-governmental organizations and to enable international non-governmental organizations to perform the stronger role they can, and are ready to, play in relieving the suffering. I hope that we will be able to report to the Security Council next month on real progress achieved in those five key areas, and that, month after month, we will move forward until they are all fully addressed. The President: I thank Ms. Mueller for her briefing. I shall now give the floor to those members of the Council who wish to make statements. Mr. Allen (United Kingdom): I thank Assistant Secretary-General Mueller for her briefing. When considering the Syria humanitarian issue, we always have in mind the powerful plea last December by the Russian Permanent Representative that we should keep our differences over the politics in Syria out of our consideration of humanitarian issues — a view that we strongly continue to endorse. Last week, Mark Lowcock briefed us on his visit to Syria. It was the first time that an Under-Secretary- General for Humanitarian Affairs had visited Syria in more than two years, having been blocked previously from visiting. The United Kingdom commends the Under-Secretary-General's efforts to start a meaningful dialogue between the United Nations and the Syrian regime in order to improve the humanitarian situation for the people of Syria. On the basis of discussions and as we iterated today, the Under-Secretary-General set out five clear asks to enable the United Nations to sustain and improve its aid efforts. The United Kingdom fully supports those asks. Unfortunately, the Security Council has been unable to reach agreement on a text that would unanimously call upon the Syrian regime to ensure that those five asks are granted without delay. I want to reflect on this disappointing situation. One of the five key asks of the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs is the regime's agreement to allow three or four United Nations and Syrian Arab Red Crescent convoys each week across front lines to provide assistance to up to 2.5 million people in besieged and hard-to-reach areas. These convoys are needed to deliver aid, including both food and medical supplies, to civilians who have lived in a war zone for almost seven years. That request for consistent, regular access to all people in need is crucial. In 2017, only 27 per cent of United Nations inter-agency convoy requests were approved by the Syrian regime in full. That is significantly worse than in 2016, when 45 per cent of requests were approved. Assistant Secretary- General Mueller's briefing was especially concerning in that respect. We cannot let that happen again in 2018. Ninety-four per cent of those living under siege are located in eastern Ghouta. The Al-Assad regime is using humanitarian aid as a weapon of war by restricting access to the besieged population. There were no aid deliveries to the area for the whole of December, and nearly 12 per cent of children under five years of age in eastern Ghouta suffer from acute malnutrition. It is appalling that innocent children are once again suffering the most. The Under-Secretary-General also requested the immediate evacuation of hundreds of people who are in need of medical assistance from eastern Ghouta. We call on those who can influence the regime to use all of their authority to allow for rapid, unhindered and sustained humanitarian access and medical evacuations 30/01/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8171 18-02496 5/10 for those in need. According to the Secretary-General, 18 people have already died while waiting for the regime's permission to leave the besieged city. People are dying for want of health care and services that are available fewer than 10 miles away, in Damascus. Let us recall that the backdrop of the Under- Secretary-General's visit was the escalation in air strikes in eastern Ghouta and the north-west, including Aleppo, Idlib governorate and northern Hama. Yesterday at least five people, including a child, were killed by an air strike on a hospital supported by Médecins sans frontières in Syria's Idlib governorate. The facility was also seriously damaged and at least six people, including three medical staff, were injured as a result of the attack. The air strikes on the hospital occurred while the doctors were receiving people who had been injured an hour earlier in another air strike on a market. Those strikes had already killed 11 people. These events are taking place are in areas where there are meant to be ceasefires with the stated aim of putting a prompt end to violence and improving the humanitarian situation. Unfortunately for the people of Syria, that could not be further from the reality. The deliberate targeting of civilians and civilian infrastructure in Idlib and eastern Ghouta continues, in blatant violation of international humanitarian law and human rights law. The intensification of hostilities has displaced approximately 270,000 people within Idlib since 15 December 2017, stretching scarce resources beyond their limits. The escalation of air strikes in eastern Ghouta has resulted in hundreds of civilian deaths since 30 December. UNICEF reports that, in the first 14 days of 2018, more than 30 children were killed by escalating violence in the enclave. It is against that backdrop that I call on the regime to allow for immediate, safe and unhindered access to humanitarian assistance to meet fully the needs of those who require food and medical supplies. Let all with influence exert it to ensure that. It is our must crucial, immediate request. It is also imperative that all parties adhere to agreed ceasefires and cessations of hostilities, uphold international humanitarian law and protect civilians. Yesterday, a number of us visited the United States National Holocaust Museum's exhibition on Syria. We saw the photographs of those killed and tortured by the regime and we read their biographies, their life stories. It had a profound effect on me, and it brought home how the tragedy in Syria is not just a geopolitical one — it is a human one. For humanity's sake, all of us around this table must ensure that we have done our all. Mr. Delattre (France) (spoke in French): I would like to thank Ms. Ursula Mueller for her comprehensive briefing. I reiterate France's full support for the recommendations of the Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs, Mr. Mark Lowcock, which Ms. Mueller has just referenced. I would also like to express my country's grave concerns about the latest developments in the humanitarian situation in Syria. Several points are of particular concern. We note the extremely dire situation of the population in eastern Ghouta — still besieged and denied the humanitarian assistance and medical evacuations that they need — and the escalation of violence, particularly in the Idlib region. In addition, we are concerned about the attacks on hospitals, medical facilities and the provision of health care, as well as the persistent restrictions on humanitarian access in Syria, which are unacceptable and have tightened further in recent weeks — denying the civilian population the access to the essential resources that they so vitally need. Accordingly, I should like to make three main observations. First, we are particularly concerned about the current escalation of violence in eastern Ghouta and the Idlib region, which adds to the suffering of the affected populations. In eastern Ghouta, 400,000 civilians are victims of almost daily bombings by the regime and its allies. According to the World Health Organization, approximately 750 people in eastern Ghouta are still waiting for emergency medical evacuation. Since 30 December, the wounded have been unable to be transported out of eastern Ghouta to receive care; 21 others have died from their wounds, unable to wait another day. We note and stress that it is the responsibility of the Syrian regime to allow those medical evacuations to proceed without delay. The situation in the south of Idlib and in the north of Hama is very worrying as well. The continued bombings led to the displacement of about 250,000 civilians last month. More than 33 people were reportedly killed in less than 24 hours. The town of Sarakab was bombed yesterday morning, and the strikes hit the town market, killing more than 11 people and injuring a number of others. One hour later, the only public hospital in the district — a hospital supported by the non-governmental S/PV.8171 The situation in the Middle East 30/01/2018 6/10 18-02496 organization Médecins Sans Frontières — was struck, killing five people, including a child, and injuring six others, including medical staff. France very firmly condemns attacks on health-care workers and medical infrastructure, as well as the indiscriminate bombings carried out in recent weeks by the Syrian regime against civilians in eastern Ghouta and in residential areas of Idlib province. France reiterates that indiscriminate bombings and the use of incendiary weapons against civilians represent serious violations of international humanitarian law and could constitute war crimes or even crimes against humanity. It is vital and urgent to bring to an immediate end the bombings in Idlib and the siege in eastern Ghouta. The Astana guarantors have taken upon themselves the responsibility to supervise its implementation, and we therefore urge these States to effectively impose on the Syrian regime a complete cessation of hostilities as well as respect for the basic principles and norms of international humanitarian law and human rights law. The second observation is particularly worrying: the deterioration of humanitarian access in recent weeks in Syria. We have reiterated this concern on numerous occasions in this Chamber: the humanitarian situation will not improve without comprehensive, unimpeded, safe and ongoing humanitarian access to the aid distributed by the United Nations and its partners. Nonetheless, the regime is continuing to create unacceptable obstacles to the provision of humanitarian aid. The Syrian authorities have not authorized even a single inter-agency convoy in several weeks. France condemns this unacceptable attitude and reiterates its call for the safe and unhindered access of the United Nations and its humanitarian partners to civilians throughout Syrian territory. The right of the Syrian population both to humanitarian assistance and to protection must be respected unconditionally. The Security Council cannot remain silent given these recurring violations of international humanitarian law, which require a strong response from the Council. Finally, I would like to touch on the obvious discrepancy between the continuing violence on the ground in Syria and the diplomatic offensives, which are not facing up to the situation. We know that only an inclusive political solution that is elaborated under the auspices of the United Nations and that sets up a political transition in the context of resolution 2254 (2015) can bring a lasting and credible end to the suffering of the Syrian people. However, the regime is continuing its policy of methodical and deliberate obstruction, as we saw during the negotiation session held in Vienna on 25 and 26 January. In this context more than ever, we need to support the United Nations and United Nations mediation in Geneva, as well as eschew any temporary solutions agreed without the opposition, which would be unrealistic as they would not meet the aspirations of all Syrians. It is up to those countries that support the regime, primarily Russia and Iran, to bring to bear the pressure necessary to ensure that the regime puts an end to this negative and irresponsible strategy. Make no mistake: there can be no negotiated political transition in Syria without a total ceasefire, humanitarian access throughout the whole of the territory and the creation of a neutral environment that would restore trust and ensure the safety of all Syrians. How credible is a regime that is stepping up the bombing in Idlib, preventing medical evacuations in eastern Ghouta and refusing to authorize a single humanitarian convoy? How credible can diplomatic efforts be that are devoid of any specific assurances and that do not lead to any significant and lasting improvement in the humanitarian situation in Idlib and eastern Ghouta? We reiterate that humanitarian aid is unconditional and apolitical. We therefore make an urgent request to see proof of this on the ground. That is exactly what France will seek to defend in the weeks to come, in line with the Geneva communiqué (S/2012/522, annex), namely, the establishment of a neutral environment that must include the lifting of sieges, the cessation of hostilities, prisoner exchanges and chemical disarmament, all of this under international supervision so as to ensure genuine constitutional reform and the holding of free elections. That is the only way to bring a lasting end to the suffering of the Syrian people and open the way to an inclusive political process in Syria, in the interests of all the Syrian people. It is for that reason that we will continue to fully support the process stemming from resolution 2254 (2015), and we will make every effort to unite the Council in this respect. Mrs. Gregoire Van Haaren (Netherlands): The Kingdom of the Netherlands wishes to thank Assistant Secretary-General Ursula Mueller for her briefing. 30/01/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8171 18-02496 7/10 Seven years after the start of the conflict in Syria, the humanitarian situation in the country continues to be a truly heartbreaking drama. While several parties to the conflict are responsible for a wide array of violations of international humanitarian law, it is especially painful to see the horrifying effects of the military actions taken by the Syrian authorities. Instead of protecting their own citizens, the Syrian authorities are bombing them. Instead of providing basic services to their people, the authorities are destroying hospitals and schools. Instead of allowing humanitarian aid into the most affected areas, the authorities are starving some of their own people. The outlook for 2018 remains grim, with a worsening humanitarian situation and a continuation of the battle for influence by regional Powers. Allow me to focus on three important aspects: the current situation on the ground, cross-border aid delivery and the implementation of the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs' (OCHA) five asks. On the situation on the ground, the international community has been providing funding for a principled humanitarian response. The Kingdom of the Netherlands has provided amply to the United Nations and to international non-governmental organizations in order to provide relief for the suffering of the Syrian people. But this relief is hardly reaching those in need. In besieged eastern Ghouta, we are witnessing the use of starvation as a method of warfare. Not a single aid convoy has reached the 400,000 people trapped there in the last three months. Where have we seen this before? In Idlib, because of the continuous intensified aerial bombardments, aid to more than 250,000 internally displaced persons is extremely difficult to deliver. Improvised explosive devices in Raqqa and elsewhere in Syria have caused large numbers of casualties. The Netherlands urges all Council members to continue their contributions to make all of Syria free of mines and explosive devices. Concerning cross-border aid delivery, it is equally disturbing that today, one month after the Council renewed the authorization of cross-border aid, some of these very aid convoys cannot cross the border because of the security situation. The consequences of this lack of cross-border aid for the large number of displaced people in north-west Syria are tremendous. There is an urgent need to ensure that all convoys can have safe passage to reach those in need, both in Afrin and beyond. In Afrin, the intensification of the military operation there last Sunday has led to more displaced families that have nowhere to go. We call upon all parties to protect civilians, to facilitate humanitarian access and to allow for the safe passage of all people who wish to leave areas under attack. Turning to the implementation of OCHA's five asks, the recent visit by Mark Lowcock to Syria was in itself a positive step, but it is imperative that the dialogue on aid delivery yield effective results as soon as possible. In effect, the requests made by the Emergency Relief Coordinator do not differ much from those of his predecessors, effectively highlighting the lack of progress in terms of sustained, principled humanitarian access to those most in need. The message of the humanitarian and international community has been consistent: respect your obligations under international humanitarian law, protect your own citizens — including health workers and humanitarian aid workers — and allow for rapid, safe and sustained humanitarian access. In conclusion, it is crucial that the Security Council unequivocally unite itself behind the concrete and attainable five asks of OCHA. It remains essential to see progress on the rapid, effective and principled implementation in the coming weeks of all five asks of OCHA. We call on Council members to consider steps to be taken collectively in case no progress takes place and on those who have influence on the Syrian authorities to make sure that humanitarian aid reaches those most in need. Let us not forget that lives are at stake. Mr. Miller (United States of America): The Security Council met only last week (see S/PV.8164) and heard the Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs describe his visit to Syria and reiterate a series of requests that, in his estimation, would be a positive step towards improving the humanitarian situation in Syria. Sadly, not only has none of those requests been approved by the Syrian regime, but also the situation in places such as eastern Ghouta continues to deteriorate beyond our worst imagaination. To the surprise of no one, cross-line deliveries in Syria, particularly to besieged and hard-to-reach areas, remain stalled. In S/PV.8171 The situation in the Middle East 30/01/2018 8/10 18-02496 fact, there have been no United Nations inter-agency convoys anywhere for more than six weeks and no convoys to a besieged area for more than eight weeks. We deplore what are, frankly, starve-and-siege tactics, preventing the distribution of aid, which must be needs-based. As a result, many families are going without the most basic food, medicine and other supplies required for survival. Hospitals reuse syringes and other medical items meant for single use and, during the coldest months of winter, families who have run out of fuel and cooking oil burn household items to stay warm. That is happening in Ghouta and elsewhere throughout Syria. We need an immediate, unconditional humanitarian pause in eastern Ghouta, where the impact of air strikes and artillery shelling on the civilian infrastruture has forced the closure of more schools and medical clinics. Those bombings continued over the weekend, further proving that any supposed ceasefire in the area was merely aspirational. We reiterate the need to evacuate hundreds of critically ill people trapped in eastern Ghouta. We have seen no movement on that issue since late December, and the list continues to grow. Only a few weeks ago, we heard that the medical evacuation list contained 600 names, including hundreds of children. That list has now grown to at least 750 people, according to the United Nations staff on the ground. Over the weekend, the United Nations reported that another critically ill person on Ghouta's medical evacuation list died due to the lack of medical treatment. Such deaths are senseless and reflect the Syrian regime's depraved disregard for human life. Such gratuitous cruelty suggests that the regime's siege of eastern Ghouta is directed not at the armed opposition but against the civilian population. We need not remind the members of the Council that a siege directed against civilians is a violation of international humanitarian law. We also appreciate the fact that Sweden and Kuwait worked on a draft presidential statement to address such dire humanitarian challenges. The overwhelming majority of Council members agree that we must be clear in demanding that the Syrian authorities allow immediate medical evacuations and cross-line assistance. When there are hundreds of thousands of Syrians besieged by the regime and starving due to the regime's actions, such demands are the very least that the Council can make. We would also like to take a moment to thank the Government of Jordan for facilitating an extraordinary delivery of humanitarian assistance in mid-January to the internally displaced populations stranded at Rukban. That population now has food and relief items for one month. However, we continue to wait for the Syrian regime's formal approval for the United Nations to begin cross-line aid deliveries to that vulnerable population from Damascus. The United Nations submitted its proposal in mid-November and has still receievd no response. All arrangements have been made for the deliveries to begin as soon as possible. The Syrian regime has only to grant its approval and to stand out of the way for life-saving assistance to reach those in need. As we heard earlier today, members of the Security Council visited the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C., yesterday and saw the exhibition about the Syrian regime's arbitrary detention and torture of more than 100,000 civilians. The name of the exhibition is "Please Don't Forget Us". We should bear that, and what the Syrian regime is capable of doing, in mind as we discuss yet again what is taking place in easter Ghouta and elsewhere in Syria. Mr. Llorentty Solíz (Plurinational State of Bolivia) (spoke in Spanish): My delegation wishes to thank Ms. Ursula Mueller, Assistant Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs, for her briefing. Bolivia regrets the crisis in Syria, which, after all these years, has caused so much destruction and the loss of so many lives. Ms. Mueller told us that, since the beginning of the conflict, more than 500,000 people have died; currently, there are 13.1 million people who need humanitarian assistance, 2.9 million of whom are trapped in besieged and hard-to-reach areas; and at least 6.1 million people have been internally displaced. We believe that the most recent events have resulted in an increase in the number of dead, of people who need humanitarian assistance and of internally displaced persons. We call for the cleaning and demining of and access for basic humanitarian assistance to the city of Raqqa to take place as soon as possible to allow for the safe and dignified return of those families who were displaced due to the conflict. We regret that, since the month of October 2017, approximately 220 people have died and others have been injured in blasts. 30/01/2018 The situation in the Middle East S/PV.8171 18-02496 9/10 The recent events in Syria show once again the urgent need to revitalize the Geneva political process, reinforcing the tangible results of the Astana meeting, in consultation, of course, with all the parties involved, including the opposition, in order to facilitate the development of mutual confidence-building measures and, as a result, the improvement of the political and humanitarian situation. We are certain that this will also allow for the release of detainees and hostages and the search for the disappeared, as well as for the establishment of conditions for a political process and a sustained and lasting ceasefire. We express our support for the efforts made recently in Vienna and for the work to take place in Sochi. We welcome the decision of the Secretary-General to allow his representative to participate in those events. We once again remind the parties to the conflict that they must allow unconditional access for humanitarian assistance, ensuring and safeguarding the security and physical integrity of humanitarian workers, in particular in the besieged and hard-to-reach areas. In that regard, we reiterate once again our highest recognition for the work being done by the staff of the various humanitarian assistance agencies and bodies on the ground, and we urge the parties involved to meet their obligations under international law, in particular international humanitarian law and international human rights law. We remind the parties involved that they must implement the Astana agreements, respect the de-escalation areas and prevent any attacks on civilian institutions, such as residential areas, schools and hospitals, in line with international humanitarian law, to ensure the protection of civilians and unimpeded access for accredited humanitarian organizations to provide the greatly needed assistance. In that regard, we underscore the work of the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, which has reached 800,000 people through cross-border convoys. We hope that those operations can continue, for which better coordination and cooperation between the United Nations and the Government of the Syrian Arab Republic are recommended. In that context, we underscore the agreements arrived at among Iran, Russia, and Turkey on 22 December 2017, and we urgently call for strengthening them so as to free detainees and abductees, as well as to positively identify missing persons. We stress the importance of the work of the Russian Centre for Reconciliation of Opposing Sides in the Syrian Arab Republic, which has become a guarantor of security and the distribution of humanitarian aid, while ensuring the evacuation of persons from areas facing armed conflict. Lastly, it is important to point out that the humanitarian situation, which is affecting more than 13.2 million people in Syria, must be resolved exclusively through an organized, inclusive and political process based on dialogue and led for and by the Syrian people, which would allow for a peaceful solution respecting the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of Syria. We call on members of the Security Council to make every effort to ensure that it remain unified on such an issue as fundamental as humanitarian assistance. Mr. Meza-Cuadra (Peru) (spoke in Spanish): We thank Ms. Ursula Mueller, Assistant Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Deputy Emergency Relief Coordinator, for her detailed briefing. The humanitarian landscape in Syria that she described to us this morning is, once again, disheartening. Over the past several years, the relevant reports of the Secretary-General and Security Council meetings on this issue have repeatedly related victim fatalities, the renewal of the large-scale displacement of refugees, besieged cities, an increasing spread of diseases, a high level of malnutrition, the destruction of medical infrastructure and other scourges. Given such a situation, the only remedy left is to ensure the immediate, safe and unrestricted access of humanitarian assistance and strict compliance under international humanitarian law, in particular respect for the principle of proportionality as related to conducting military attacks and taking the appropriate precautions with regard to their impact on the civilian population. We therefore regret the persistent restrictions placed on access to humanitarian aid in various areas of Syria, in particular the tragic and untenable situation facing the people of eastern Ghouta and Idlib. We hope that the ceasefire agreement in eastern Ghouta, recently deliberated in Vienna, will have a positive secondary effect in addressing the pressing humanitarian needs of its people. We appreciate the work of the Syrian authorities and Russia that resulted in the medical evacuation of 29 people from eastern Ghouta in December 2017. At the same time, we encourage them S/PV.8171 The situation in the Middle East 30/01/2018 10/10 18-02496 to intensify such efforts as there are hundreds of other people who are in need of urgent care. Another issue that deeply concerns us pertains to demining and, in general, to the deactivation of explosive ordnance, in the light of what is happening daily in cities, such as Raqqa in which 30 to 50 victims, who fall prey to such ordnance, are recorded weekly. We see as positive the dialogue aimed at humanitarian goals between the United Nations and the Government of Syria, especially the visit to the country by Under- Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs Mark Lowcock. That dialogue and the joint statement on humanitarian mine action issued following the latest Astana meeting positively herald that more substantial progress could be made in that area. Concerning military operations in densely populated areas, such as Afrin, we call for preventing any escalation that could further exacerbate the suffering of the people and hinder achieving a political solution pursuant to resolution 2254 (2015) and the Geneva communiqué (S/2012/522, annex). It is absolutely necessary that the Council show the world its unity and sense of commitment, and send a message that prioritizes human beings over political interests. We therefore hope that a consensus can be reached on the adoption of a text that reflects the five priorities outlined by Mr. Lowcock, which constitute the bare minimum for alleviating the human suffering of the Syrian people, and that is why Peru fully supports them. Mr. Ndong Mba (Equatorial Guinea) (spoke in Spanish): In taking the floor at this meeting on the humanitarian situation of Syrian Arab Republic, I should like to begin by sincerely thanking Ms. Ursula Mueller, Assistant Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and Deputy Emergency Relief Coordinator, for her detailed briefing on the very unfortunate humanitarian situation that Syria is currently undergoing. Moreover, we listened to Under-Secretary- General Lowcock's briefing on 22 January following his visit to Syria, in which he pointed out for us five areas where improvement is needed in order to address the serious humanitarian situation, including the imperative to address the needs of some 13 million people in Syria, to facilitate medical evacuations and freedom of movement across borders, and to adopt measures so that the United Nations and international non-governmental organizations can provide effective assistance to the Syrian people. Both Ms. Mueller and Mr. Lowcock's briefings afford us a very desolate overview that must focus the attention of the international community on making every effort necessary to alleviate the suffering of the Syrian people. The specific situation in eastern Ghouta, in which almost 94 per cent of the people are trapped, is a particularly a worrisome issue. The situation of more than 600 people in need of urgent medical care has been, and is being, exacerbated by air-strike campaigns that have led to the displacement of those in Idlib and Hama. In addition to all this, we also point to the catastrophic humanitarian situation resulting from the ongoingOperation Olive Branch, which is leading to the substantial displacement and suffering of civilians. On the one hand, that can only elicit our deep concern, and, on the other hand, we must call for redoubling the efforts of the United Nations and the international community to find a solution to the very serious humanitarian crisis in the Syrian Arab Republic. The President: There are no more speakers inscribed on the list of speakers. I now invite Council members to informal consultations to continue our discussion on the subject. The meeting rose at 11.30 a.m.
The study of the history of primary education in Azerbaijan expands the boundaries of pedagogical thinking. The re-introduction of the progressive aspects of the historical and pedagogical heritage of the 20th century into scientific circles plays an important role in the formation of modern educational culture. Historical and pedagogical heritage is a source of renewal of pedagogical knowledge, acquisition of qualitatively new content, as well as its sustainability. It is important to study the history of primary education, as it helps to solve two problems that are closely related to each other. Firstly, what happened when one first examined the historical pedagogical heritage? How did it happen? Why did it happen and what was the result? What was the significance of what happened during that period and further development? Secondly, by referring to the historical pedagogical heritage, it is possible to understand the theory and practice of today's education, the problems of modern pedagogical thinking and worldview. The article examines and compares the role of tradition and innovation in the development of the theory of primary education in Azerbaijan in the 1920s. For this purpose, the article analyzes the educational technologies used in that period, general scientific approaches, curricula and content of textbooks prepared for primary schools, and quality criteria in teacher training. It is argued that this period was politically complex, economically difficult, characterized by a general decline in the common cultural and educational level of the population, but was interesting in terms of the building of a new society and a new state. Reforms in the field of education in Russia were repeated in Azerbaijan. Although experiments in the field of education were aimed at raising the cultural level of society, eliminating illiteracy, establishing new approaches to education, innovations (application of "complex" approach, use of active learning methods, application of project method, etc.), they did not improve the quality of education. The introduction of innovations sometimes led to the denial and oblivion of traditions. The new teaching methods applied in Azerbaijani schools without any expertise, as they were brought from European and American schools, created serious problems in the formation of education because the new technology denied the tradition. The class-lesson system with strict regulations, exhaustive structure and function, and rich traditions were replaced by the laboratory-brigade method. The results of incorrect experiments became a serious obstacle to the development of education. For this reason, in the early 1930s, official government decisions banned experiments that hindered the development of education. ; El estudio de la historia de la educación primaria en Azerbaiyán amplía los límites del pensamiento pedagógico. La reintroducción de los aspectos progresivos del patrimonio histórico y pedagógico del siglo XX en los círculos científicos juega un papel importante en la formación de la cultura educativa moderna. El patrimonio histórico y pedagógico es fuente de renovación del conocimiento pedagógico, adquisición de contenidos cualitativamente nuevos, así como de su sostenibilidad. Es importante estudiar la historia de la educación primaria, ya que ayuda a resolver dos problemas estrechamente relacionados entre sí. En primer lugar, ¿qué sucedió cuando se examinó por primera vez el patrimonio histórico pedagógico? ¿Como paso? ¿Por qué sucedió y cuál fue el resultado? ¿Cuál fue el significado de lo que sucedió durante ese período y el desarrollo posterior? En segundo lugar, al referirse a la herencia histórica pedagógica, es posible comprender la teoría y la práctica de la educación actual, los problemas del pensamiento pedagógico moderno y la cosmovisión. El artículo examina y compara el papel de la tradición y la innovación en el desarrollo de la teoría de la educación primaria en Azerbaiyán en la década de 1920. Para ello, el artículo analiza las tecnologías educativas utilizadas en ese período, los enfoques científicos generales, los planes de estudio y el contenido de los libros de texto elaborados para las escuelas primarias, y los criterios de calidad en la formación docente. Se argumenta que este período fue políticamente complejo, económicamente difícil, caracterizado por un declive general en el nivel cultural y educativo común de la población, pero fue interesante en términos de la construcción de una nueva sociedad y un nuevo estado. Las reformas en el campo de la educación en Rusia se repitieron en Azerbaiyán. Aunque los experimentos en el campo de la educación tenían como objetivo elevar el nivel cultural de la sociedad, eliminar el analfabetismo, establecer nuevos enfoques de la educación, innovaciones (aplicación de un enfoque "complejo", uso de métodos de aprendizaje activos, aplicación del método de proyectos, etc.), no mejoraron la calidad de la educación. La introducción de innovaciones a veces condujo a la negación y al olvido de las tradiciones. Los nuevos métodos de enseñanza aplicados en las escuelas azerbaiyanas sin ningún conocimiento, ya que fueron traídos de escuelas europeas y americanas, crearon serios problemas en la formación de la educación porque la nueva tecnología negaba la tradición. El sistema de lecciones de clase con regulaciones estrictas, estructura y función exhaustivas y ricas tradiciones fue reemplazado por el método de brigada de laboratorio. Los resultados de experimentos incorrectos se convirtieron en un serio obstáculo para el desarrollo de la educación. Por esta razón, a principios de la década de 1930, las decisiones gubernamentales oficiales prohibieron experimentos que obstaculizaran el desarrollo de la educación. ; O estudo da história da educação primária no Azerbaijão expande os limites do pensamento pedagógico. A reintrodução dos aspectos progressivos do patrimônio histórico e pedagógico do século 20 nos círculos científicos desempenha um papel importante na formação da cultura educacional moderna. O patrimônio histórico e pedagógico é uma fonte de renovação do conhecimento pedagógico, de aquisição de conteúdo qualitativamente novo, bem como de sua sustentabilidade. É importante estudar a história da educação primária, pois ela ajuda a resolver dois problemas que estão intimamente relacionados um com o outro. Em primeiro lugar, o que aconteceu quando se examinou pela primeira vez o patrimônio histórico pedagógico? Como isso aconteceu? Por que aconteceu e qual foi o resultado? Qual foi o significado do que aconteceu durante esse período e do desenvolvimento posterior? Em segundo lugar, referindo-se ao patrimônio histórico pedagógico, é possível compreender a teoria e a prática da educação atual, os problemas do pensamento pedagógico moderno e a visão do mundo. O artigo examina e compara o papel da tradição e da inovação no desenvolvimento da teoria da educação primária no Azerbaijão nos anos 20. Para este fim, o artigo analisa as tecnologias educacionais utilizadas naquele período, abordagens científicas gerais, currículos e conteúdo de livros didáticos preparados para escolas primárias, e critérios de qualidade na formação de professores. Argumenta-se que este período foi politicamente complexo, economicamente difícil, caracterizado por um declínio geral no nível cultural e educacional comum da população, mas foi interessante em termos da construção de uma nova sociedade e de um novo estado. Reformas no campo da educação na Rússia foram repetidas no Azerbaijão. Embora as experiências no campo da educação visassem elevar o nível cultural da sociedade, eliminando o analfabetismo, estabelecendo novas abordagens para a educação, inovações (aplicação de abordagem "complexa", uso de métodos de aprendizagem ativa, aplicação de método de projeto, etc.), elas não melhoraram a qualidade da educação. A introdução de inovações às vezes levou à negação e ao esquecimento das tradições. Os novos métodos de ensino aplicados nas escolas azerbaijanesas sem nenhum conhecimento especializado, pois foram trazidos de escolas européias e americanas, criaram sérios problemas na formação da educação porque a nova tecnologia negou a tradição. O sistema de aulas de classe com regulamentos rigorosos, estrutura e função exaustivas e ricas tradições foram substituídos pelo método de brigada de laboratório. Os resultados de experimentos incorretos se tornaram um sério obstáculo ao desenvolvimento da educação. Por esta razão, no início dos anos 30, as decisões oficiais do governo proibiram os experimentos que dificultavam o desenvolvimento da educação.
The doctoral dissertation with the title "Post-9/11 America: Poetic and Cultural Responses" examines the immediate responses that emerged in American media and poetry after the terrorist attacks on 11 September, 2001 in New York City and Washington, D.C. The research proceeds from the analysis of responses to 9/11 in several American printed media, to the reading of poetic works by contemporary American poets. Using the resources of the editorials in four major daily American newspapers (USA Today, The New York Times, The Washington Post, and The Washington Times) and two leading weekly American magazines (The New Yorker and The Weekly Standard), the research employs the theoretical approach of content analysis to examine the rhetoric used. This method enables textual data analysis in selected editorials associated with the language of 9/11 to confirm the first variable of the thesis ; i.e. that the media reproduced the manner of the rhetoric of the then current government administration. Seeking to explain the rhetoric of the politicians and the media after 9/11, the analysis explores several parameters. This kind of rhetoric addressed the issues connected to 9/11, and employed a great deal of patriotism-related words as well as a language that could help instigate fear and paranoia in Americans and their culture. After the first hypothesis of the thesis has been established, the study turns towards the primary argument of the thesis. The main crux of the study is to show that the majority of the poets deviated from the prevalent rhetoric of the time, and did not resort to the language of fear and intense patriotism. This in-depth study of contemporary American poetry that came into existence as a response to the events of 9/11 focuses on poems published in several anthologies (Poetry after 9/11: An Anthology of New York Poets ; September 11, 2001 American Writers Respond ; An Eye for an Eye Makes the Whole World Blind ; September 11: West Coast Writers Approach Ground Zero ; 110 Stories), prominent American journals (such as The New Yorker and Michigan Quarterly Review), and poetry collections. Focusing on portraying the manifold poetic responses to 9/11, this study leans on thematic criticism as a comparative approach for creating a collectivity of poems that differ in metrics, style, tropes and figures of speech. Thematic criticism provides a foundation for organizing the poems into thematic clusters, not by determining unique thematic features of a specific poem, but by establishing attributes that unite several poems into a thematic cluster. The thesis divides the 9/11 poems into eight thematic clusters, which are then analyzed in detail. Additionally, the study uses another method to analyze individual poetic responses to 9/11, which is the formalist theoretical approach, New Criticism. This interpretive method of close reading enables an interpretation of a poem by analyzing its formal elements based on internal evidence. With the combination of the interpretive and comparative approach, the thesis has confirmed the main postulate and has established that most post-9/11 American poetry eschewed the prevalent patriotic rhetoric of the then current U.S. media. The study has shown that post-9/11 poetry is a marginal genre in comparison to the 9/11 novel when it comes to the critical examination of the post-9/11 literary responses. Hence, this study is novel in providing a substantial scholarly examination of post-9/11 poetry written by American poets. Chapter 2 investigates fear, patriotism and language issues in politics and the media after 9/11.Chapter 3 establishes the prevailing rhetoric in the immediate post 9/11 response of U.S. media with the help of the theoretical framework of content analysis. The pre-existing scholarly work on literary responses to 9/11 and the problems with representation of 9/11 in American culture occupy Chapter 4, while Chapter 5 sets out the selected methodology (Thematic Criticism and New Criticism) for studying post-9/11 American poetry. Chapter 6 deals extensively with thematic representations in post-9/11 American poetry. ; Namen doktorske disertacije z naslovom »Amerika po 11. septembru: odzivi v poeziji in kulturi« je analiza in sistematična razčlenitev takojšnjih odzivov v Ameriki na teroristične napade, ki so se zgodili 11. septembra 2001 v mestih New York in Washington D.C. Doktorska disertacija se giblje od analize odzivov ameriških tiskanih medijev do odzivov na te dogodke sodobnih ameriških pesnikov. Prvi del študije je tako namenjen podrobni analizi retorike dualizma, patriotskega jezika kot tudi elementov ustrahovanja v uredniških uvodnikih v izbranih ameriških tiskanih medijih (uvodniki v štirih dnevnih časopisih: USA Today, The New York Times, The Washington Post, The Washington Times, ter dveh tednikih: The New Yorker in The Weekly Standard). Ker se doktorska disertacija osredotoča na takojšnje odzive na napade, zajema raziskava izbranih uredniških uvodnikov obdobje štirih tednov v dnevnem časopisju in osmih tednov v tednikih. Metodologija za dokazovanje, da je bila uporabljena retorika domoljubna, da je pomagala širiti strah in paranojo v ameriški družbi ter da je bila nadvse podobna bipolarni politični retoriki tistega časa, je kvantitativna analiza vsebine (content analysis). Ta pristop omogoča analizo besedilnih podatkov v izbranih uredniških uvodnikih s pomočjo računalniške programske opreme za raziskovanje večih parametrov in potrditev prve hipoteze: da so mediji v veliki meri sledili načinu retorike takratne politične administracije. Ko je bila dokazana prva spremenljivka doktorske disertacije glede prevladujoče retorike, se doktorska naloga usmeri proti glavnemu argumentu. Glavna hipoteza doktorske disertacije je, da je po teh dogodkih vzniknilo veliko poezije, ki izraža poetično ter popolnoma osebno stran krize in ki v veliki meri odstopa od javnih odzivov medijev in politikov, kar predstavlja tudi jedro te študije. Tako smo priča številnim antologijam s poezijo o dogodkih, povezanih z 11. septembrom, ki so se pojavile v prvih letih po napadih leta 2001. Disertacija obravnava poezijo po 11. septembru, ki je bila objavljena v teh antologijah (Poetry after 9/11: An Anthology of New York Poets, September 11, 2001 American Writers Respond, An Eye for an Eye Makes the Whole World Blind, September 11: West Coast Writers Approach Ground Zero, 110 Stories), posameznih pesniških zbirkah in prestižnih revijah, kot sta npr. The New Yorker in Michigan Quarterly Review. Študija ne vsebuje poetičnih odzivov, objavljenih na številnih spletnih straneh, saj so bili tisti odzivi v veliki meri napisani izpod peresa ne-pesnikov, ki so se odločili le uporabiti pesniško obliko za izraz svojih mnenj. Ta doktorska disertacija se osredotoča izključno na raziskovanje odzivov med že uveljavljenimi sodobnimi ameriškimi pesniki. S pomočjo tematske kritike doktorska disertacija pokaže, kako raznoliki, a hkrati podobni so bili odzivi ameriških pesnikov. Tematska kritika omogoča razdelitev pesmi v tematske sklope, ki se razlikujejo v slogu, retoričnih figurah in metaforiki. Še dodatno pa se doktorska disertacija opira na formalistični pristop natančnega branja. Ta novokritiška teorija omogoča interpretativno obravnavo posameznih pesmi in njihovih formalnih elementov, ki gradijo zgolj na zunanjih dokazih posamezne pesmi in ne upoštevajo ostalih kontekstov. S kombinacijo komparativnega (tematska kritika) in interpretativnega (nova kritika in natančno branje) pristopa doktorska disertacija analizira poezijo s formalističnega vidika, hkrati pa zaobjame tudi širši (zgodovinski) kontekst in variacije v odnosih v izbranih pesmih. Teza potrdi pričakovani rezultat, da so se sodobni ameriški pesniki v največji meri odmaknili od prevladujočega mnenja javnosti tedanjega časa o terorističnih napadih 11. septembra 2001. Poleg tega odzivi na 11. september v ameriški poeziji kot tudi odklon teh pesnikov od tedanje politike in njene propagande do sedaj še niso bili sistematično raziskani in obdelani, zato je tako zastavljeno delo inovativen prispevek k literarni vedi na področju ameriške književnosti in primerjalne književnosti. Sleherne značilnosti odzivov v ameriški poeziji, ki se nedvomno razlikujejo od odzivov celotne ameriške družbe, so opisane in pojasnjene v luči sodobne teorije.
Tutkimustulosten julkaiseminen ja lukeminen ovat keskeisiä tehtäviä tutkijan työssä. Viime vuosina erityisesti julkaisemisen rooli on korostunut, kun valtiot ja muut tutkimusta rahoittavat tahot ovat alkaneet arvioiden tutkimusta ja tutkijoita julkaisujen perusteella. Tutkijoita ei pelkästään rohkaista vaan myös velvoitetaan julkaisemaan tutkimustuloksiaan kilpaillakseen tutkimusrahoituksesta. Tässä tutkimuksessa selvitetään valtion tutkimuslaitoksissa työskentelevien tutkijoiden julkaisemisen ja lukemisen käytäntöjä. Aiemmat tutkijoiden julkaisemisen ja lukemisen käytäntöjä kartoittaneet tutkimukset ovat keskittyneet lähinnä yliopistoihin ja tutkimukset joiden kohteena ovat valtion tutkimuslaitokset ovat selvästi vähemmistössä. Valtion tutkimuslaitokset ovat kuitenkin merkittävä osa valtioiden tutkimus- ja innovaatiojärjestelmiä. Suomessa toimii tällä hetkellä 18 valtion tutkimuslaitosta eri ministeriöiden alaisuudessa. Tutkimuslaitosten tehtävänä, erilaisten viranomaistehtävien ohella, on tuottaa tutkimustietoa poliittisen päätöksenteon sekä yhteiskunnan muiden toimijoiden tueksi. Valtion tutkimuslaitokset ovat tällä hetkellä mittavan rakenteellisen muutoksen alla. Tämä tutkimus perustuu sekä laadullisen että määrällisen aineiston analyysiin. Tutkimustulokset, koskien tutkijoiden lukemisen ja julkaisemisen käytäntöjä eri tieteenaloilla, rakentuvat valtion tutkimuslaitoksissa työskenteleville tutkijoille tehdyn kyselyaineiston ympärille. Kyselyaineisto kattaa erilaisia akateemisia, ammatillisia ja yleistajuisia julkaisufoorumeita. Laadullinen tutkijahaastatteluaineisto tarjoaa tietoa tutkimuslaitoksissa työskentelevien tutkijoiden päivittäisestä työstä. Tutkimus osoittaa miten eri Becherin (1989) ja Whitleyn (1984) teorioista johdetut tieteenalakulttuureja kuvaavat tekijät vaikuttavat tutkijoiden lukemisen ja julkaisemisen käytäntöihin. Tutkimuksessa myös selvitetään miten eri kontekstitekijät, kuten yhteistyökumppanit ja tutkimusrahoittajat ovat yhteydessä lukemisen ja julkaisemisen käytäntöihin. Tutkimuslaitoksille annettujen tehtävien mukaisesti tutkimuslaitoksissa tehty tutkimus on pääosin empiiristä ja usein suunnittelu/kehitystyötä, tai asiantuntijatyötä/konsultointia. Tutkijat toimivat usein yhteistyössä eri organisaatioiden kanssa. Tyypillisimpiä yhteistyökumppaneita ovat suomalaiset yliopistot ja toiset valtion tutkimuslaitokset. Erityisesti teknillisillä aloilla yhteistyö yksityisten yritysten kanssa on myös yleistä. Valtion budjettirahoitus kattaa suurimman osan tutkijoiden tutkimusrahoituksesta. Ulkopuolisista rahoittajista suurimpia ovat ministeriöt, Tekes ja EU. Tutkijat työskentelevät tyypillisesti useassa tutkimusprojektissa samaan aikaan. Tulokset osoittavat että tutkijat julkaisevat aktiivisesti eri julkaisukanavissa. Aktiivinen julkaiseminen on yhteydessä aktiiviseen lukemiseen. Ammatillinen -, akateeminen artikkeli -, akateeminen konferenssi - ja teollinen julkaisuorientaatio tunnistettiin kyselyaineistosta. Lukemisen osalta tunnistettiin akateeminen -, ammatillinen - ja faktalukuorientaatiot. Ammatillinen julkaiseminen ja lukeminen on yleisintä bio- ja ympäristötieteissä, yhteiskuntatieteissä sekä humanistisilla aloilla. Akateeminen julkaiseminen ja lukeminen on puolestaan tyypillisintä lääke- ja terveystieteiden sekä bio- ja ympäristötieteiden aloilla. Konferenssi ja teollinen julkaiseminen on tyypillistä erityisesti teknillisillä aloilla ja luonnontieteissä. Akateeminen julkaiseminen ja lukeminen on yhteydessä teoreettisen ja empiirisen tutkimuksen tuottamiseen. Myös yhteistyö toisten akateemisten organisaatioiden kanssa ja tutkimusrahoitus Suomen Akatemialta on yhteydessä akateemiseen julkaisemiseen ja lukemiseen. Ammatillinen lukeminen ja julkaiseminen on taas yhteydessä asiantuntijatyöhön/konsultointiin. Aktiivisimmat ammatillisen kirjallisuuden lukijat ja julkaisijat työskentelevät ilman ulkopuolista rahoitusta. Teollinen julkaiseminen on vahvasti yhteydessä yhteistyöhön ja tutkimusrahoitukseen yksityiseltä sektorilta. Pitkät tutkimusprojektit ja työskentely useassa projektissa samaan aikaan on yhteydessä aktiiviseen ammatilliseen ja akateemiseen kommunikointiin. Lyhyet tutkimusprojektit ovat taas yhteydessä aktiiviseen teolliseen julkaisemiseen. Yhteenvetona voidaan sanoa, että erityyppiset tutkimusprojektit, eri tieteenaloilla, tehtynä yhteistyössä erilaisten organisaatioiden kanssa ovat yhteydessä erilaisiin julkaisemisen ja lukemisen tapoihin. Tämän vuoksi on perusteltua väittää, että tutkimukset joissa keskitytään vain tutkimuksen akateemisiin tuotoksiin, kuten lehtiartikkeleihin, antavat rajoittuneen kuvan tieteellisestä viestinnästä. Valtion tutkimuslaitoksissa akateemisen yleisön lisäksi, viestintä ammatillisen ja teollisen yleisön kanssa on keskeistä. Tämän vuoksi myös tutkimuksen arvioinnin lähtökohtana tulisi olla tutkimuksen tavoitteet. Tieteenalakohtaiset erot julkaisukäytännöissä tulisi ottaa myös huomioon. Valtion tutkimuslaitokset ovat rakenteellisen uudistuksen kohteena tällä hetkellä. Tulevat muutokset, kuten tutkimusyksiköiden yhdistäminen ja tutkimusrahoituksen uudistaminen voivat vaikuttaa tutkijoiden työhön. Tämän vuoksi, olisikin mielenkiintoista seurata, miten tulevat muutokset tulevat vaikuttamaan tutkijoiden tutkimus- ja viestintäkäytäntöihin. ; Communication has been portrayed as the essence of science. Thus, communication practices such as publishing and reading are one of the main tasks in scholarly work. In recent years, communication has become even more important, as for example governments have started to evaluate research primarily by visible outcomes: publications. Consequently, researchers are not only encouraged but also required to show the impact of their work by this form of productive output. This study examines scholarly publishing and reading practices in state research institutes. Earlier studies of scholarly publishing and reading practices have focused mainly on universities, while studies focusing on state research institutes are in minority. State research institutes are important actors along universities in national innovation systems. The traditional role of state research institutes has been to produce 'policy-oriented research' for the needs of Finnish society and decision-making. Publishing and reading practices in research institutes were studied by collecting both qualitative and quantitative data. Qualitative interviews yield insight into the everyday work practices of researchers in Finnish research institutes. Quantitative data from a survey covering all 18 state research institutes in Finland forms the core of the study and shows the big picture concerning publishing and reading practices and their variation in different disciplines. Study includes various academic, professional and general publishing forums. Results also show how different cultural and contextual factors influence publishing and reading practices. Indicators derived from Becher's (1989) and Whitley's (1984) theories of academic cultures are applied to explore the impact of cultural factors such as nature of research, field interdependence, and dependence between researchers, on publishing and reading practices. In addition, the influence of amount and types of collaboration partners, types of research funding and nature of research projects are examined. Researchers in research institutes engage in collaborations with many types of organisations. The main collaboration organisations are Finnish universities and public research institutes. In the technical sciences, collaboration with the private sector is common. Research funding in state research institutes is covered mainly by governmental basic funding. The main external funders are ministries, Tekes, and the EU. Researchers typically work on many research projects at the same time. Four publishing orientations were identified from the survey data. These were: professional, academic article, academic conference, and industrial. Three types of reading orientations, academic, professional and fact orientation, were detected. In all, active reading is associated with active publishing. Professional publishing and reading are most typical in bio and environmental sciences, social sciences and humanities. Academic article publishing and reading is most typical in health care sciences and bio and environmental sciences. Conference and industrial publishing is most common in technical and natural sciences. Academic publishing and reading is especially related to conducting theoretical and empirical research. Of the contextual factors academic publishing and reading was related to collaborating with other academic organizations such as universities working without external research funding or funding from the Academy of Finland. Those working with multiple research projects at the same time and with long projects were most active publishers and readers of academic literature. Professional publishing and reading was related to specialist work / consulting. Most active publishers and readers of professional literature worked without external funding and collaborated with various other research organizations. Industrial publishing on the other hand was highly related to collaborating and having research funding from the private sector. Working with many projects at the same time and long projects were related to academic and professional communication. Short research projects were related to active industrial publishing. In sum, the study shows that different types of research, conducted in different disciplines, with different research funding, in collaboration with different types of organisations and in different types of research projects, are related to differences in publishing and reading practices. Therefore, it is reasonable to argue that studies focusing only on academic outputs of research (such as journal articles) give only a limited picture of scholarly communication practices. In state research institutes in addition to academic audience, communication with professional and industrial audiences is important. In research institutes, where the nature of research is often applied and research outputs are not always academic publications, research outcomes cannot be evaluated with the same criteria as those used in the evaluation of universities. Also disciplinary differences in communication practices should be taken into account. According to the results, the nature of the research and the aims of the research projects should be taken as points of departure in research evaluation. State research institutes are engaged in structural reorganisation at the moment. Forthcoming changes such as mergers of research institutes and the changes in funding structure may have an effect on researcher's ways of publishing and reading. In the future research it will be interesting to follow how the reorganisation works out and what consequences it may have for research and communication practices.
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Maya Ranganath (Associate Director, Global Networks and Inclusion) speaks to Ronald Mulebeke (2019 CEGA Fellow) about his reflections on a return to Berkeley four years after his fellowship. Mulebeke's fellowship was supported by the East Africa Social Science Translation Collaborative (EASST).Ronald Mulebeke outside the CEGA office in Berkeley, CA | Maya RanganathCEGA invests deeply in our fellows each semester, but the relationship doesn't end there. Fellows go on to join the Network of Impact Evaluation Researchers in Africa, a network of African scholars seeking to advance impact evaluations of development programs, conduct workshops at their home institutions, and receive funding to pursue the brilliant ideas they develop while at Berkeley. While we reunite yearly at the annual Africa Evidence Summit, staff also keep in touch throughout the year with fellows to follow their professional and personal developments, from new papers to new babies.It's a happy occasion when fellows come back to Berkeley for a visit. Recently, 2019 CEGA Fellow Ronald Mulebeke returned to campus to work with his faculty mentor, CEGA affiliated professor Stefano Bertozzi, on his CEGA-funded study "Implementing Supportive Supervision and Behavior Change Communication at Private Health Facilities in Uganda." I sat down with Ronald to talk about what originally attracted him to the fellowship, what brought him back to Berkeley, and his advice for future fellows.Maya: Ronald, it's great to see you back in Berkeley! It's special when we have a fellow return after a few years. To start from the beginning, can you tell me about what originally brought you to the fellowship, and what your experience was like?Ronald: When I joined the fellowship in 2019, my interest was to improve my skills in impact evaluation and cost-effectiveness analysis. The fellowship was an interesting time of learning. I loved the chance to network with people, organizations, and groups involved in diverse research activities. The seminars were so eye-opening; I came from a health background and quickly realized that impact evaluation concepts applied to many different sectors. I loved the opportunity for interdisciplinary collaboration.It's great to hear that you expanded your thinking during the fellowship. Did your current projects start at that time? Could you tell me a little more about them?My work is about helping private health facilities provide better malaria treatment by improving their ability to "Test, Treat, and Track" malaria (a policy established by the World Health Organization). I submitted a concept note on this for the fellowship application and developed that into a full proposal with my mentors while at Berkeley. In 2020, I received a research grant from CEGA to conduct a feasibility study of our randomization process. We wanted to see if supportive supervision would work effectively in private health facilities owned by different individuals with varying capacities. We also wanted to test the best way to randomize. After the pilot study, we are planning to apply for a second grant. We implemented the project — with some disruptions due to the COVID-19 pandemic — — but, overall, it has progressed well.So what brings you back to Berkeley now?My current visit is primarily to finalize the initial results of the study and strategize with Stef [Stefano Bertozzi] for the next phase of the project. We needed the time in person to work together. This time around, the focus has been on collaborative work and building a strong research team. I have connected with other faculty members at Berkeley for their expert input on the project's future applications. This visit has been more study-focused and didn't involve coursework.Can you talk about the major changes in your life and career after the fellowship? How did the fellowship impact your work?After the fellowship, I maintained contact with CEGA staff and faculty and continued working with them on my main project. I also collaborated with CEGA researchers on a project to increase mask use in Uganda during the COVID-19 pandemic, and on the new initiative "Impact Evaluation for Evidence in Decision Making (IEED)."IEED is a joint program between CEGA and Makerere University in Uganda to improve capacity for impact evaluation within Makerere and connect with policymakers to start demand-driven studies. I have been able to ingrain impact evaluation in three institutions, working with the Office of the Prime Minister and two other government agencies. Because of the expertise I gained through the fellowship, I was also appointed a board member of the Mildmay Research Center, Uganda.Additionally, I have been involved in mentoring and training activities as a member of the Network of Impact Evaluation Researchers in Africa (NIERA).Did you learn anything specific during the fellowship that you are passing on to junior researchers?The fellowship emphasized the importance of networking, learning from mentors, and working in teams, which I've been able to apply in my career. I learned the importance of networking with policymakers and other stakeholders right from the beginning and involving them in a project's design, implementation, and dissemination stages. I have maintained a good working relationship with my mentor Stef, and I believe learning from experienced researchers and establishing collaborations is crucial for growth. When I work with junior researchers, I really emphasize how important this is.I have also mentored junior researchers and helped one successfully apply to the fellowship: I'm excited that Nneka Osadolor from the University of Benin in Nigeria is a resident fellow this fall.What advice would you give someone just starting their fellowship?I would give four key pieces of advice. First, be clear about your goals. Next, be open to new ideas (and to receiving constructive criticism!). Third, make sure you network proactively: connect with mentors, other fellows, and professionals, seek advice, have conversations, and build meaningful relationships. Last, keep in mind that it's important to balance technical skills and conceptual understanding.Looking ahead, what are your career goals?First and foremost, I aim to complete my PhD in Medical Sciences at the University of Antwerp this year. Beyond that, I'm passionate about doing more implementation science research. I want to delve deeper into how policies can be effectively implemented and scaled up through the application of research. I hope to contribute to discussions and make a meaningful impact in this area.That sounds like an important area of focus. Do you have any specific plans after completing your PhD?It's still a little early to say. I envision pursuing opportunities in academia or research institutions where I can continue my work in implementation research and impact evaluations. Ultimately, I want to contribute to improving the effectiveness of policies and their scalability. I'm grateful that the fellowship gave me a great foundation for this.A fellow returns to CEGA: Reflections, learning, and growth four years later was originally published in CEGA on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.
Atmospheric pollution is one of the biggest environmental problems in the world. To evaluate and create action plans that improve air quality, measurements are needed that indicate the state of air quality, its trends, the pollutants of greatest concern and the regions most affected. However, to have air quality measurements it is necessary for governments to have policies and resources focused on this issue. For many years, developed countries have had data and programs to measure and improve air quality, but in regions such as Latin America and the Caribbean, many countries have so far started their measurement programs and in some cases they do not. According to the World Bank, global monitoring and modeling systems are a free source of information and can help to know the air quality in a specific region. CAMS is the atmospheric monitoring service of the Copernicus program and has models to know the atmospheric composition such as CAMS Reanalysis, CASMRA generates air quality and meteorological data with hourly and spatial temporal resolutions below 1° arc. Currently there are no works evaluating the CAMS data for Latin America and the Caribbean For these reasons, the main objective of this work was to analyze the air quality in different cities of Latin America and the Caribbean from surface monitoring, CAMSRA data and Tropomi satellite monitoring. Initially, data was sought in cities with more than one million inhabitants and later these data were spatially and temporally analyzed. The surface mediations were then evaluated and compared with the data from CAMSRA and Tropomi. Finally, satellite images identified areas with the highest level of pollutants in the region or places where more in-depth studies are needed. This work allowed the creation of a public database of 15 cities in the region with hourly periodicity for all pollutants by station. Also, it allowed to analyze for the first time multiple trends from 2000 to 2018 together thanks to the new Prophet tool. On the other hand, the performance of CAMS and Tropomi in Latin America and the Caribbean was evaluated for the first time and compared with surface data. Furthermore, it was possible to identify areas with high levels of contamination by means of satellite images of Tropomi. It was found that only 18% of cities with more than 1 million inhabitants measure air quality with good spatial and temporal resolution. From the analysis of the available surface measurements, it was found that, in general, in the cities analyzed, air pollution has decreased in the last two decades. However, all cities still exceed the recommendations by the World Health Organization for particulate matter. The results also indicate that the CAMSRA data only reproduce the trends and levels of particulate matter in some cities in Latin America and the Caribbean. It was also found that Tropomi in general reproduces well the trends of surface NO2 measurements, however, it does not adequately reproduce the behavior of particulate matter. Finally, it is concluded that global monitoring and modeling information is very valuable and very useful to analyze air quality problems in this region of the world or where there are still no air quality monitoring networks. ; La contaminación atmosférica es una de las mayores problemáticas medio ambientales en el mundo. Para evaluar y crear planes de acción que mejoren la calidad del aire se necesitan mediciones que indiquen cual es el estado de la calidad del aire, sus tendencias, los contaminantes de mayor preocupación y las regiones más afectadas. Sin embargo, para tener mediciones de calidad del aire es necesario que los gobiernos tengan políticas y recursos enfocados en este tema. Desde hace muchos años países desarrollados cuentan con datos y programas para medir y mejorar la calidad del aire, pero en regiones como América Latina y el Caribe muchos países hasta ahora inician sus programas de medición y en algunos casos no tienen. De acuerdo con el Banco Mundial los sistemas de monitoreo y modelación global son una fuente de información gratuita y pueden ayudar a conocer la calidad del aire en una región especifica. CAMS es el servicio de monitoreo atmosférico del programa Copernicus y cuenta con modelos para conocer la composición atmosférica como CAMS Reanálisis. CASMRA genera datos de calidad del aire y meteorológicos con resoluciones temporales horarias y espaciales inferiores a 1° de arco. Actualmente no existen trabajos que validen los datos de CAMS para América Latina y el Caribe. Por estos motivos, este trabajo tuvo como objetivo principal analizar la calidad del aire en diferentes ciudades de América Latina y el Caribe a partir de monitoreos en superficie, datos de CAMSRA y monitoreos de satelitales de Tropomi. Inicialmente se buscaron datos en las ciudades con más de un millón de habitantes y posteriormente se analizaron espacial y temporalmente dichos datos. Luego se evaluaron y compararon las mediciones en superficie con los datos de CAMSRA y Tropomi. Finalmente, por medio de imágenes satelitales se identificaron zonas con mayor nivel de contaminantes en la región o lugares donde se necesiten hacer estudios con mayor profundidad. Este trabajo permitió crear una base de datos publica de 15 ciudades de la región con periodicidad horaria para todos los contaminantes por estación. También, permitió analizar por primera vez múltiples tendencias desde el año 2000 hasta el año 2018 en conjunto gracias a la nueva herramienta Prophet. Por otra parte, se evaluó por primera vez el desempeño de CAMS y de Tropomi en América Latina y el Caribe y se compararon con datos en superficie. Además, se pudo identificar zonas con altos niveles de contaminación por medio de imágenes satelitales de Tropomi. Se encontró que solo el 18% de las ciudades con más de 1 millón de habitantes miden la calidad del aire con una buena resolución espacial y temporal. A partir del análisis de las mediciones de superficie disponibles se encontró que en general en las ciudades analizadas la contaminación del aire ha disminuido las últimas dos décadas. No obstante, todas las ciudades aun exceden las recomendaciones por la Organización Mundial de la Salud para material particulado. Los resultados también indican que los datos de CAMSRA solo reproducen las tendencias y los niveles del material particulado en algunas ciudades de América Latina y el Caribe. También se encontró que Tropomi en general reproduce bien las tendencias de las mediciones de NO2 en superficie, sin embargo, no reproduce adecuadamente el comportamiento del material particulado. Finalmente, se concluye que la información de monitoreo y modelación globales es muy valiosa y de gran utilidad para analizar los problemas de calidad del aire en esta región del mundo o donde aún no existen redes de monitoreo de calidad del aire. ; Línea de Investigación: Calidad del aire ; Maestría
Access to reliable and quality health information and appropriate medical advice can contribute to a dramatic reduction in the mortality figures of countries. The governments of the Americas are faced with the opportunity to continue working on this challenge, and their institutional presence on their websites should play a key role in this task. In a setting where the access to information is essential to both health professionals and citizens, it is relevant to analyze the role of national health authorities. Given that search engines play such a key role in the access to health information, it is important to specifically know - in connection to national health authorities - whether health information offered is easily available to the population, and whether this information is well-ranked in search engines. Quantitative methods were used to gather data on the institutional presence of national health authorities on the web. An exploratory and descriptive research served to analyze and interpret data and information obtained quantitatively from different perspectives, including an analysis by country, and also by leading causes of death. A total of 18 web pages were analyzed. Information on leading causes of death was searched on websites of national health authorities in the week of August 10-14, 2015. The probability of finding information of national health authorities on the 10 leading causes of death in a country, among the top 10 results on Google, is 6.66%. Additionally, ten out the 18 countries under study (55%) do not have information ranked among the top results in Google when searching for the selected terms. Additionally, a total of 33 websites represent the sources of information with the highest visibility for all the search strategies in each country on Google for the ten leading causes of death in a country. Two websites, the National Library of Medicine and Wikipedia, occur as a result with visibility in the total of eighteen countries of the sample. Taking into consideration that providing reliable and quality information on these topics to the population should be one of the priorities of national health authorities, these results suggest that national health authorities need to take measures to try to better position their contents. ; El acceso a información médica confiable y de calidad y el asesoramiento médico adecuado pueden contribuir a una reducción drástica en las cifras de mortalidad de los países. Los gobiernos de las Américas se enfrentan a la oportunidad de continuar trabajando en este desafío, y la presencia institucional en sus sitios web debe jugar un papel clave en esta tarea. En un entorno donde el acceso a la información es esencial tanto para los profesionales de la salud como para los ciudadanos, es relevante analizar el papel de las autoridades sanitarias nacionales. Dado que los motores de búsqueda desempeñan un papel tan importante en el acceso a la información de salud, es importante saber específicamente, en relación con las autoridades sanitarias nacionales, si la información de salud que se ofrece está fácilmente disponible para la población y si esta información está bien clasificada en los motores de búsqueda. Se han utilizado métodos cuantitativos para recopilar datos sobre la presencia institucional de las autoridades sanitarias nacionales en la web. Una investigación exploratoria y descriptiva ha servido para analizar e interpretar datos e información obtenidos cuantitativamente desde diferentes perspectivas, incluido un análisis por país y también por las principales causas de muerte. Se han analizado un total de 18 páginas web. Se buscó información sobre las principales causas de muerte en los sitios web de las autoridades nacionales de salud en la semana del 10 al 14 de agosto de 2015. La probabilidad de encontrar información de las autoridades sanitarias nacionales sobre las 10 principales causas de muerte en un país, entre los 10 primeros resultados en Google, es del 6,66%. Además, diez de los 18 países estudiados (55%) no tienen información clasificada entre los mejores resultados en Google al buscar los términos seleccionados. Además, un total de 33 sitios web representan las fuentes de información con la mayor visibilidad para todas las estrategias de búsqueda en cada país en Google para las diez principales causas de muerte en un país. Dos sitios web, la Biblioteca Nacional de Medicina y Wikipedia, aparecen como resultado con visibilidad en el total de dieciocho países de la muestra. Teniendo en cuenta que brindar información confiable y de calidad sobre estos temas a la población debería ser una de las prioridades de las autoridades sanitarias nacionales, estos resultados sugieren que las autoridades sanitarias nacionales deben tomar medidas para tratar de posicionar mejor sus contenidos. ; L'accés a informació mèdica confiable i de qualitat i l'assessorament mèdic adequat poden contribuir a una reducció drástica en les dades de mortalitat dels països. Els governs de les Amèriques s'enfronten a l'oportunitat de continuar treballant en aquest desafiament, i la presència institucional en els seus llocs web ha de jugar un paper clau en aquesta tasca. En un entorn on l'accés a la informació és essencial tant per als professionals de la salut com per als ciutadans, és rellevant analitzar el paper de les autoritats sanitàries nacionals. Donat que els motors de recerca tenen un paper tan important en l'accés a la informació de salut, és important saber específicament, en relació amb les autoritats sanitàries nacionals, si la informació de salut que s'ofereix és fàcilment disponible per a la població i si aquesta informació està ben classificada en els motors de cerca. S'han utilitzat mètodes quantitatius per recopilar dades sobre la presència institucional de les autoritats sanitàries nacionals a la web. Una investigació exploratòria i descriptiva ha servit per analitzar i interpretar dades i informació obtingudes quantitativament des de diferents perspectives, inclosa una anàlisi per país i també per les principals causes de mort. S'han analitzat un total de 18 pàgines web. Es va buscar informació sobre les principals causes de mort en els llocs web de les autoritats nacionals de salut en la setmana del 10 al 14 d'agost de 2015. La probabilitat de trobar informació de les autoritats sanitàries nacionals sobre les 10 principals causes de mort en un país, entre els 10 primers resultats a Google, és del 6,66%. A més, deu dels 18 països estudiats (55%) no tenen informació classificada entre els millors resultats a Google en cercar els termes seleccionats. A més, un total de 33 llocs web representen les fonts d'informació amb la major visibilitat per a totes les estratègies de cerca a cada país a Google per les deu principals causes de mort en un país. Dos llocs web, la Biblioteca Nacional de Medicina i Wikipedia, apareixen com a resultat amb visibilitat en el total de 18 països de la mostra. Tenint en compte que oferir informació confiable i de qualitat sobre aquests temes a la població hauria de ser una de les prioritats de les autoritats sanitàries nacionals, aquests resultats suggereixen que les autoritats sanitàries nacionals han de prendre mesures per tractar de posicionar millor els seus continguts.
Tribunale unificato dei brevetti e brevetto europeo con effetto unitario: giurisdizione e legge applicabile. Oggetto del presente elaborato è il pacchetto normativo costituito dall'accordo internazionale n. 2013/C 175/01 sul tribunale unificato dei brevetti, dal regolamento UE n. 542/14, che ha modificato il regolamento n. 1215/12 (c.d. Bruxelles I-bis) e dai regolamenti UE n. 1257/12 e n. 1260/12 sul brevetto europeo con effetto unitario e sul relativo regime di traduzione; con specifico riferimento alle tematiche della giurisdizione del tribunale unificato e della legge applicabile. Si tratta di due temi tradizionali in materia di tutela interstatale dei diritti, che tuttavia assumono nell'ambito della nuova regolamentazione connotati del tutto innovativi ed originali, funzionali ad assicurare una protezione uniforme delle invenzioni in Europa. La riforma introduce un titolo brevettuale con effetto unitario (peraltro limitato ad alcuni soltanto degli Stati dell'Unione europea) e realizza una maggiore uniformità anche rispetto agli esistenti brevetti europei senza effetto unitario. L'uniformità viene realizzata sul piano giurisdizionale rimettendo una porzione prevalente del contenzioso alla cognizione esclusiva di un tribunale unificato. Alle autorità nazionali degli Stati aderenti all'accordo rimane una competenza solo residuale, che attiene principalmente alla materia contrattuale, agli aspetti proprietari, e alla reazione agli abusi del titolare del brevetto. Oltretutto la riforma, modificando il regolamento Bruxelles I-bis, attribuisce al tribunale unificato dei brevetti una giurisdizione estesa potenzialmente anche al di fuori dei confini degli Stati aderenti all'accordo istitutivo del tribunale medesimo. Anche sul binario della legge applicabile il pacchetto realizza una maggiore uniformità di trattamento, assoggettando il brevetto europeo con effetto unitario e il brevetto europeo senza effetto unitario a una disciplina uniforme degli effetti e delle limitazioni del diritto di brevetto, che va ad aggiungersi alle norme uniformi in materia di validità e di interpretazione del brevetto previste dalla CBE. La riforma lascia ancora tuttavia diversi spazi alla legislazione nazionale, in relazione alla tutela della domanda, alle invenzioni dei dipendenti e su commessa, agli aspetti proprietari del brevetto, ai diritti di preuso, alle licenze obbligatorie, alla disciplina del concorso e della responsabilità solidale (che non assurgano a contraffazione indiretta), nonché alla tutela penale. Il pacchetto normativo realizza dunque un passo in avanti rilevante rispetto al passato per il brevetto europeo senza effetto unitario, mentre a confronto il passo appare scarso per il brevetto europeo con effetto unitario, a causa della porzione probabilmente eccessiva di disciplina e di giurisdizione lasciate per quest'ultimo alla dimensione nazionale. Terminato il periodo transitorio, la scelta tra i due titoli sembra dunque essenzialmente rimessa a una comparazione dei costi, rapportata ai territori di interesse per la tutela brevettuale. Occorre peraltro notare che il referendum inglese sulla Brexit ha gettato un'ombra di incertezza sul futuro del pacchetto: sulla base del testo attuale, l'accordo non consente la partecipazione del Regno Unito al sistema dopo il recesso dall'UE, ma il Regno Unito ha dichiarato di voler comunque aderire. La possibilità di modificare l'accordo in modo da aprirsi all'adesione di Stati non europei o comunque di consentire la permanenza in esso di Stati che perdano la qualifica di Stato membro dell'UE pone seri dubbi di compatibilità con i Trattati istitutivi alla luce del parere n. 1/09 della Corte di giustizia, rispetto al quale tuttavia le opinioni non sono concordi. Non è neppure scontato che una volontà politica in tal senso sussista in capo a tutte le parti in gioco. Il futuro del brevetto con effetto unitario e del tribunale unificato è quindi ancora incerto. ; Unified Patent Court and European Patent with unitary effect: jurisdiction and applicable law. This study examines the "UP-UPC package" (agreement no. 2013/C 175/01 on the unified patent court, EU Reg. no. 542/14, which amended EU reg. no. 1215/12 Bruxelles I-bis, and EU Reg. no. 1257/12 and no. 1260/12 on the european patent with unitary effect); with regard to jurisdiction and applicable law, both relevant matters in the light of pursuing a more uniform protection of inventions in Europe. Uniformity is pursued by the package for both the european patent with unitary effect and the already existing european patent without unitary effect, by devolving most portion of litigation to the exclusive competence of the unified patent court. National courts' competence will thus become residual, mainly referring to contract law, proprietary aspects, and patent holder's abuse. Furthermore, by amending EU Reg. Bruxelles I-bis, the package confers to the unified patent court a long-arm jurisdiction potentially extended over the territories of countries which are not part of the UPC agreement. With regard to applicable law, the package introduces some uniform rules (applicable not only to european patent with unitary effect, but also to the "traditional" european patent without unitary effect) regarding patent infringement and limitations, which add to the unirofm rules on patent validty and interpretation set forth by the EPC widely extending the scope of the uniform protection. Many areas however will continue to be regulated by national laws, more specifically the matters related to patent application's enforcement, employees' inventions, proprietary aspects, prior use, compulsory licenses, joint liability and criminal sanctions. In the light of the above, it appears that the package achieves a sensitive improvement for the european patent without unitary effect, in terms of uniformity of protection. On the other hand, the step forward seems quite limited with regard to the european patent with unitary effect, as too many areas will be left to national law and jurisdiction. Under the new regulation, the protection granted by "old" european patents without unitary effect will not be much different than that assured by "new" patents with unitary effect. Therefore, after the expiration of the transitory period, the patentees' choice between the two option will essentially depend on a comparison of costs taking into consideration the territories where they seek protection. It is to be noted that entry into force of the package is still at risk after the UK referendum on Brexit. The UPC agreement (at least, the version currently under ratification) prevents non-EU countries from joining the package, but notwistanding this circumstance, the UK Government recently announced that the UK will ratify the UPC agreement. Wether the agreement can be amended in that non-EU countries can be part of it, or in that previous EU countries can continue to be part of it, is a disputed matter, as the Court of Justice stated in opinion n. 1/09 that the previous version of the agreement (which was open to non-EU countries participation) was not compliant with EU treaties. This interpretation of op. 1/09 is not shared by all, and the matter is still unclear. Moreover, it is not clear if there would event be the necessary consensus among the member states to such amendment of the agreement. The future of the UP-UPC package is therefore still uncertain.
Authoritarian and totalitarian systems are built on the collective conscience and obedience of their subjects. With the object of securing the continuity of the dominant ideology, these systems create obedient masses and draw their strength from their support. Their awareness of human agency and the troubles that it may initiate require these oppressive political systems to take measures to abolish it beforehand. Totalitarian regimes and the dominance of an ideology are the frequently referred motifs that dystopian narratives employ to display how oppressive and restrictive a political regime may become. The governmental restrictions include the repression of sexual practices and the manipulation of gender roles. These are regarded as the predominant ones that affect the protagonists more than other restrictions and put them into action against the order. Throughout this thesis, three dystopian novels that were published in three consecutive periods of the twentieth century will be examined by putting emphasis on the manipulation and suppression of sexuality and gender. With regard to Judith Butler's gender performativity theory, three different close readings will be provided. According to Butler, one can develop personality and so communicate with the others if she/he can experience her/his sexuality and gender. In line with her theory, sexuality and gender stand as the essential elements of identity development. In George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), notably sexuality and other relations among people are regulated by the state. Besides sexual relations, the citizens are isolated from each other through general distrust with the intent of securing the continuity of the state; therefore, as a first step family bonds are annihilated in Oceania. Natural sexual relations and emotions are not approved of and sexual intercourse is accepted only on the condition that it aims procreation. Citizens are encouraged to have children as it is their duty to the state. Discovering his subjectivity through sexual pleasure, Winston Smith rejects the suppressive regulations of the Party and suffers due to his rebellious nature. xi In Anthony Burgess's The Wanting Seed (1962), the main crises that the society has encountered are put forward as overpopulation and famine. In order to control population increase, homosexuality is promoted by the government and heterosexuality is politically and socially suppressed. Although heterosexuals and heterosexual families still exist, they are constantly subjected to negative discrimination. This social pressure hinders the citizens from experiencing their natural gender inclinations and forces them to behave and even feel like homosexuals. The protagonists Tristram Foxe and his wife Beatrice-Joanna Foxe are separated due to their heterosexual desires and are punished by the social structure in different ways. In Iain Banks's The Wasp Factory (1984), the manipulation of not only sexuality but also gender is suggested as an oppressive enforcement carried out by the totalitarian power. It is suggested that if a person is constantly suppressed throughout the process of her/his personality development, she/he inevitably internalises the already constructed gender norms. The manipulation of gender in a totalitarian-state-like-family is depicted through the abused sixteen-year-old protagonist, Frank Cauldhame. Unaware of his biological femaleness, he is brought up by his father believing that he is a castrated boy. His corrupted gender directs him to commit crimes in an attempt to accomplish the socially constructed masculine ideal. Throughout the novel, Frank's attempts to fulfil his masculine ideal foreshadow the catastrophic results that sexual and gender manipulation would lead to. In conlcusion, the destructive effects of the restrictive and manipulative enforcements carried out by the totalitarian systems in the fields of sexuality and gender will be examined from three different perspectives throughout the novels in mention. ; Otoriter ve totaliter sistemler toplumsal bilinç ve insanların sisteme bağlılığı üzerine kurulmuşlardır. Bu sistemler, hâkimiyet sahibi ideolojinin devamlılığını sağlamak için kendilerine bağlı kitleler yaratır ve onların desteğinden güç alırlar. İnsan etkinliğinin ve ileride neden olabileceği sorunların farkındalığı, bu baskıcı siyasal sistemleri insan etkinliğini ortadan kaldırmayı hedefleyen tedbirler almaya yönlendirir. Totaliter rejimlerin ve ideolojilerin hâkimiyeti, bir siyasal rejimin ne kadar baskıcı ve engelleyici olabileceğini gözler önüne sermek amacıyla distopik eserlerin sıklıkla başvurduğu öğelerdir. Bu idari kısıtlamalar cinselliğin baskılanmasını ve cinsel kimliklerin manipüle edilmesini de kapsar. Cinselliğin bastırılması ve farklı şekillerde kişilerin kendi eğilimlerinin dışına yönlendirilmesi distopik romanlardaki ana kahramanları etkileyen ve onları düzene karşı harekete geçiren öncelikli baskı unsurları olarak kabul edilebilir. Bu tez kapsamında, yirminci yüzyılın üç ayrı döneminde yayımlanmış üç distopik eserde cinselliğin ve toplumsal kimliğin manipülasyonu üzerinde durularak incelenecektir. Judith Butler'in performatif cinsiyet kuramına ilişkin olarak üç farklı metin okuması sunulacaktır. Butler'e göre, bir kişi eğer cinselliğini ve toplumsal kimliğini deneyimleyebiliyorsa kişilik geliştirebilir ve diğer kişiler ile iletişim kurabilir. Bu kuram doğrultusunda, cinsellik ve toplumsal cinsiyet bireyselliğin temel unsurları olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. George Orwell'in romanı Bin Dokuz Yüz Seksen Dört (1949)'te, başta cinsel ilişki olmak üzere insanlar arasındaki tüm ilişkiler devlet tarafından düzenlenmiştir. Cinsel ilişkilerin yanı sıra, devletin devamlılığının güvence altına alınması amacıyla insanlar yaratılan güvensizlik yoluyla birbirlerinden uzaklaştırılmak istenmiştir ve bu sebeple, ilk adım olarak Oceania'da aile bağları ortadan kaldırılmıştır ve aile fertlerinin birbirlerine olan güveni yok edilmiştir. Doğal cinsel ilişkiler ve duygular kabul görmez ve cinsel ilişki üremeyi hedeflediği takdirde onaylanır. İnsanların çocuk sahibi olmaları devlete karşı bir görev olarak kabul edildiği için teşvik edilmiştir. Cinsel tatmin yoluyla ix bireyselliğinin farkına varan Winston Smith, egemen sistemin baskıcı düzenlemelerini reddeder ve isyankâr doğası yüzünden cezalandırılır. Anthony Burgess'in Tohuma Hasret (1962) romanında temel sorunlar olan aşırı nüfus artışı ve kıtlık cinsel eğilimlerin baskılanması, yönlendirilmesiyle ve üremenin kısıtlanması ile önlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Nüfus artışını kontrol altına almak amacıyla hükümet tarafından eşcinsellik teşvik edilir ve heteroseksüeller siyasal ve sosyal açılardan hor görülür. Bu baskıcı düzenin temel amacı insanların bireyselleşmelerine cinsel kimliklerinin manipüle edilmesi yoluyla engel olmaktır. Heteroseksüellik ve heteroseksüel aileler toplumda hâlâ var olsalar dahi, sürekli olarak ayrımcılığa, hor görülmeye maruz kalırlar. Sosyal baskı insanları toplumsal cinsiyetlerini deneyimlemekten alıkoyar ve eğilimleri olmadığı halde eşcinsel gibi davranmaya hatta hissetmeye zorlar. Ana kahramanlar Tristram Foxe ve eşi Beatrice-Joanna Foxe heteroseksüel eğilimleri sonucunda ayrı düşerler ve farklı yollarla toplum düzeni tarafından cezalandırılırlar. Iain Banks'ın Eşekarısı Fabrikası (1984)'nda, sadece cinselliğin değil toplumsal cinsiyetin manipülasyonu da totaliter güç tarafından yürütülen baskıcı bir uygulama olarak sunulur. Kişilik gelişimi boyunca baskı altında kalan bir bireyin, dayatılan cinsel kimliği kaçınılmaz bir şekilde benimsediği ortaya koyulmuştur. Cinsel kimliğin manipülasyonu totaliter-benzeri-bir sistemin hâkim olduğu ailede on altı yaşındaki ana kahraman Frank Cauldhame üzerinden anlatılmıştır. Biyolojik kadınlığından habersiz bir şekilde, bir kaza sonucunda hadım kaldığına inandırılmış ve babası tarafından büyütülmüştür. Frank'ın yozlaşmış cinsel kimliği onu ideal erkeksi cinsel kimliğini kazanması amacıyla suç işlemeye sevk etmiştir. Roman boyunca, Frank'ın erkeksi cinsel kimliğini kazanma çabaları, cinselliğin ve cinsel kimliğin manipülasyonun neden olacağı feci sonuçları önceden belirtmektedir. Sonuç olarak, bahsi geçen romanlarda konu edilen totaliter sistemlerin cinsellik ve toplumsal cinsiyet alanlarında gerçekleştirilen baskılayıcı ve manipüle edici zorlamaların yıkıcı etkileri üç farklı bakış açısı ile incelenecektir.
The Neo-colonial style in the Mexican architecture of the 20th century is a subject that has not been explored in depth, even though it has had a very singular development built through 3 phases: the post-revolutionary educational work, the houses of the post-revolutionary wealthy bourgeoisie in Mexico City and the architecture in California. This thesis focuses on the first examples of Neo-colonial architecture identified in buildings in the education sector built by the Constructions Department of the Secretariat of Public Education (SEP, its acronym in Spanish) between 1921 and 1924. The architecture that the SEP supported had a solid reasoning but complicated reading. It is understandable since it was communicating channel of that historic moment (Mexican Revolution), the non-conformist ideologies generated during the Porfiriato, the modern education and architecture theory, as well as the educational project which justified its existence. In addition to this, the Neo-colonial style became the ideological container for nationalism and the identity that it intended to conform to. Although, the need to look for an architecture that stands alone without following foreign models was a request given at the end of the 19th century, the perfect justification for this change came with the revolutionary movement, by the relevance of creating architecture that was more closely identified with the majority of the population; by this reason it can be considered a post-revolutionary architecture. José Vasconcelos is a key character for understanding the work that took place, as Public Education Secretary defended and dictated the requirement to build in a Neo-colonial style, understandable due to his involvement in the "Ateneo de la Juventud" (Youth Athenaeum). The SEP was organized into three new Directorates: Schools, Libraries and Fine Arts; and they had a Constructions Department that innovated the structure and the government granted permissions to the public servants in charge of the national education system, so they could provide appropriate spaces for schools. The Constructions Department faced to the difficult task of interfacing with the Neo-colonial style and the new theories around its architectural work with an architecture that was more social and inclusive, as well as to planning spaces that were consistent with the building's purposes, One of the challenges, was design scientifically for labs and workshops with machines and the activities carried out in those spaces required lighting and hygiene. At the same time, building in Neo-colonial style not only meant rethinking the models of space distribution and formal elements of the building constructed in the past three centuries when Mexico was a Spanish colony, but also to praise the more evident and identifiable architectonic aspects with the surroundings of the majority of the habitants of Mexican cities and in that way build an architectonic imaginary, a more "mexican" architecture and as ostensible revolutionary message the architecture was used as pedagogical element complemented with visual arts like muralism and sculpture. In sum, the national and the modern aspects are strategic goals and the other aspects become subordinated to them. Vasconcelos' contribution in the architecture field was to accept as a revolutionary ideal the arrival of architecture for the Mexican people that stands alone, carried out by local professionals, from wich later emerged a new generation of young architects that would change the course of the modern Mexican architecture ; El estilo Neocolonial en la arquitectura mexicana del siglo XX es un tema poco explorado, aunque ha tenido un singular devenir y transitó por tres momentos: la obra educativa posrevolucionaria, las casas habitación de la burguesía posrevolucionaria con alto poder adquisitivo en la Ciudad de México y la arquitectura realizada en California (de ahí que se le llamara estilo californiano). La presente tesis se aboca a los primeros ensayos de este estilo, identificados en edificios del sector educativo y materializados por el Departamento de Construcciones de la Secretaría de Educación Pública (SEP) entre 1921 y 1924. La arquitectura que auspició la SEP tuvo un discurso sólido pero de complicada lectura, al ser vaso comunicante del momento histórico (la Revolución Mexicana), las ideologías contestatarias generadas en el Porfirismo, las teorías modernas en materia de educación y arquitectura, así como el proyecto educativo el cual justificaba su existencia. Aunado a esto, el estilo Neocolonial se convirtió en el recipiente ideológico del nacionalismo y la identidad que se pretendía conformar. Aunque la necesidad de buscar una arquitectura propia sin seguir modelos extranjeros fue una demanda que a finales del siglo XIX se dio, el cambio se logró en el propio movimiento armado por la pertinencia de hacer arquitectura más identificada con la mayoría poblacional; por lo tanto se puede considerar una arquitectura posrevolucionaria. José Vasconcelos es un personaje clave para entender la obra realizada, ya que como Secretario de Educación Pública defendió y dictó el requisito de construir en estilo Neocolonial, comprensible por su participación juvenil en las filas del Ateneo de la Juventud. La SEP se fundamentó en tres nuevas Direcciones: Escolar, Bibliotecas y Bellas Artes a las que se les creó un Departamento de Construcciones, innovando los esquemas y atribuciones que el gobierno confería a los encargados de la educación nacional, con la función de proveer de espacios escolares adecuados. El Departamento de Construcciones se enfrentó a la difícil tarea de congeniar el estilo Neocolonial y las nuevas teorías alrededor de su quehacer arquitectónico con una arquitectura más social e incluyente, así como proyectar espacios coherentes con la actividad propia del edificio. Uno de los retos fue diseñar científicamente para laboratorios y talleres con máquinas en inmuebles ya erigidos, por lo que utilizaron nuevas técnicas constructivas para lograr espacios con buena iluminación e higiene. A su vez, construir en estilo Neocolonial no sólo significaba repensar los modelos de distribución espacial y elementos formales de los antiguos edificios construidos en los tres siglos de colonización española, sino exaltar los aspectos arquitectónicos más evidentes e identificables con el entorno de la mayoría de los habitantes de las ciudades de México y así construir un imaginario arquitectónico, una arquitectura más "mexicana". Así también, al ostentar un mensaje revolucionario, la arquitectura se orientó como un elemento pedagógico, complementado con artes plásticas como el muralismo y la escultura. En síntesis, lo nacional y lo moderno fungieron como metas estratégicas a cuyo tenor las demás adquirieron un sitio subordinado. La aportación de Vasconcelos en el ámbito de la arquitectura fue asumir como ideal revolucionario arribar a una arquitectura propia, realizada por profesionistas autóctonos, de los que emergieron jóvenes arquitectos que posteriormente cambiarían el rumbo de la arquitectura moderna mexicana. ; Postprint (published version)
The Neo-colonial style in the Mexican architecture of the 20th century is a subject that has not been explored in depth, even though it has had a very singular development built through 3 phases: the post-revolutionary educational work, the houses of the post-revolutionary wealthy bourgeoisie in Mexico City and the architecture in California. This thesis focuses on the first examples of Neo-colonial architecture identified in buildings in the education sector built by the Constructions Department of the Secretariat of Public Education (SEP, its acronym in Spanish) between 1921 and 1924. The architecture that the SEP supported had a solid reasoning but complicated reading. It is understandable since it was communicating channel of that historic moment (Mexican Revolution), the non-conformist ideologies generated during the Porfiriato, the modern education and architecture theory, as well as the educational project which justified its existence. In addition to this, the Neo-colonial style became the ideological container for nationalism and the identity that it intended to conform to. Although, the need to look for an architecture that stands alone without following foreign models was a request given at the end of the 19th century, the perfect justification for this change came with the revolutionary movement, by the relevance of creating architecture that was more closely identified with the majority of the population; by this reason it can be considered a post-revolutionary architecture. José Vasconcelos is a key character for understanding the work that took place, as Public Education Secretary defended and dictated the requirement to build in a Neo-colonial style, understandable due to his involvement in the "Ateneo de la Juventud" (Youth Athenaeum). The SEP was organized into three new Directorates: Schools, Libraries and Fine Arts; and they had a Constructions Department that innovated the structure and the government granted permissions to the public servants in charge of the national education system, so they could provide appropriate spaces for schools. The Constructions Department faced to the difficult task of interfacing with the Neo-colonial style and the new theories around its architectural work with an architecture that was more social and inclusive, as well as to planning spaces that were consistent with the building's purposes, One of the challenges, was design scientifically for labs and workshops with machines and the activities carried out in those spaces required lighting and hygiene. At the same time, building in Neo-colonial style not only meant rethinking the models of space distribution and formal elements of the building constructed in the past three centuries when Mexico was a Spanish colony, but also to praise the more evident and identifiable architectonic aspects with the surroundings of the majority of the habitants of Mexican cities and in that way build an architectonic imaginary, a more "mexican" architecture and as ostensible revolutionary message the architecture was used as pedagogical element complemented with visual arts like muralism and sculpture. In sum, the national and the modern aspects are strategic goals and the other aspects become subordinated to them. Vasconcelos' contribution in the architecture field was to accept as a revolutionary ideal the arrival of architecture for the Mexican people that stands alone, carried out by local professionals, from wich later emerged a new generation of young architects that would change the course of the modern Mexican architecture ; El estilo Neocolonial en la arquitectura mexicana del siglo XX es un tema poco explorado, aunque ha tenido un singular devenir y transitó por tres momentos: la obra educativa posrevolucionaria, las casas habitación de la burguesía posrevolucionaria con alto poder adquisitivo en la Ciudad de México y la arquitectura realizada en California (de ahí que se le llamara estilo californiano). La presente tesis se aboca a los primeros ensayos de este estilo, identificados en edificios del sector educativo y materializados por el Departamento de Construcciones de la Secretaría de Educación Pública (SEP) entre 1921 y 1924. La arquitectura que auspició la SEP tuvo un discurso sólido pero de complicada lectura, al ser vaso comunicante del momento histórico (la Revolución Mexicana), las ideologías contestatarias generadas en el Porfirismo, las teorías modernas en materia de educación y arquitectura, así como el proyecto educativo el cual justificaba su existencia. Aunado a esto, el estilo Neocolonial se convirtió en el recipiente ideológico del nacionalismo y la identidad que se pretendía conformar. Aunque la necesidad de buscar una arquitectura propia sin seguir modelos extranjeros fue una demanda que a finales del siglo XIX se dio, el cambio se logró en el propio movimiento armado por la pertinencia de hacer arquitectura más identificada con la mayoría poblacional; por lo tanto se puede considerar una arquitectura posrevolucionaria. José Vasconcelos es un personaje clave para entender la obra realizada, ya que como Secretario de Educación Pública defendió y dictó el requisito de construir en estilo Neocolonial, comprensible por su participación juvenil en las filas del Ateneo de la Juventud. La SEP se fundamentó en tres nuevas Direcciones: Escolar, Bibliotecas y Bellas Artes a las que se les creó un Departamento de Construcciones, innovando los esquemas y atribuciones que el gobierno confería a los encargados de la educación nacional, con la función de proveer de espacios escolares adecuados. El Departamento de Construcciones se enfrentó a la difícil tarea de congeniar el estilo Neocolonial y las nuevas teorías alrededor de su quehacer arquitectónico con una arquitectura más social e incluyente, así como proyectar espacios coherentes con la actividad propia del edificio. Uno de los retos fue diseñar científicamente para laboratorios y talleres con máquinas en inmuebles ya erigidos, por lo que utilizaron nuevas técnicas constructivas para lograr espacios con buena iluminación e higiene. A su vez, construir en estilo Neocolonial no sólo significaba repensar los modelos de distribución espacial y elementos formales de los antiguos edificios construidos en los tres siglos de colonización española, sino exaltar los aspectos arquitectónicos más evidentes e identificables con el entorno de la mayoría de los habitantes de las ciudades de México y así construir un imaginario arquitectónico, una arquitectura más "mexicana". Así también, al ostentar un mensaje revolucionario, la arquitectura se orientó como un elemento pedagógico, complementado con artes plásticas como el muralismo y la escultura. En síntesis, lo nacional y lo moderno fungieron como metas estratégicas a cuyo tenor las demás adquirieron un sitio subordinado. La aportación de Vasconcelos en el ámbito de la arquitectura fue asumir como ideal revolucionario arribar a una arquitectura propia, realizada por profesionistas autóctonos, de los que emergieron jóvenes arquitectos que posteriormente cambiarían el rumbo de la arquitectura moderna mexicana. ; Postprint (published version)
Máster Universitario en Finanzas ; En el presente trabajo se hace un análisis de la Seguridad Social en España, estudiando la sostenibilidad del sistema de pensiones y el futuro del mismo en términos de viabilidad financiera a largo plazo. En primer lugar analizaremos los antecedentes históricos del Sistema de Pensiones español, su evolución, y las modificaciones más importantes que se han introducido desde su creación y puesta en marcha, hasta la actualidad. Seguidamente analizaremos la Seguridad Social desde un punto de vista teórico, resaltando las ventajas e inconvenientes que tiene el actual sistema de pensiones que se gestiona a través de este organismo del Estado. A continuación, y desde un punto de vista más práctico, analizaremos la viabilidad del sistema de pensiones con los números y en base a las previsiones que en torno al mismo se tienen en este momento, con objeto de concluir si existe fecha para el agotamiento de los recursos del sistema y del Fondo de Reserva, la denominada hucha de las pensiones. Si nos atenemos a la evolución de la cuantía del fondo, y los ponderamos por el efecto de las medidas de reforma ya emprendidas, podemos estimar que este podría agotarse entre el 2020 y el 2025. No obstante, dados los evidentes signos de recuperación de la economía española, y por tanto de su nivel de empleo, la previsión de agotamiento del fondo podría retrasarse, y dar por tanto más tiempo a las autoridades para emprender las reformas necesarias, que nos pongan en el objetivo de constituir un sistema de pensiones eficaz y sostenible. Finalmente, después de realizar este análisis, el propósito sería llegar a establecer cuáles podrían ser las alternativas que se podrían dar, y los sistemas que se podrían implementar. Se analizarán también sistemas de pensiones que tienen en la actualidad Chile y Suecia, con objeto de estudiar las consecuencias que podría tener en nuestro sistema público de pensiones, es decir sobre la Seguridad Social de nuestro país, la adopción de medidas puestas en marcha en esos países, así como los efectos sobre la viabilidad del mencionado sistema. Así mismo realizaremos una descripción y análisis del sistema de pensiones de Dinamarca, nombrado por la revista Forbes y la consultora Mercer como el mejor sistema de pensiones del mundo. En este sentido, de una parte intentaremos determinar los cambios que se podrían introducir en el actual sistema de pensiones para retroalimentarlo y que fuera viable. Asimismo, y de otra parte recogeremos las posibles alternativas que podría tomar cada persona individualmente, con objeto de garantizarse una pensión que le permita disponer de un adecuado nivel de vida, acorde con su capacidad y con sus expectativas de consumo y bienestar futuros. Para la realización de este análisis y poder llegar a establecer nuestras conclusiones, nos basaremos en estadísticas y gráficos que nos permitan visualizar de manera más nítida cual sería la situación actual, y hacia donde nos conducirían las hipótesis y previsiones de evolución de las variables que determinan del gasto en pensiones de España y su comportamiento a futuro. El debate ideológico en torno a que sistema es el mejor para un país, en este caso para España, está servido. Desde las posiciones más liberales que optarían por un sistema de pensiones íntegramente privado, a base de Planes Privados de Pensiones, hasta las posiciones más progresistas, que se decantarían por un sistema público de pensiones, y en medio todos los sistemas mixtos posibles en los que convivirían el Sistema Público de Pensiones, con Planes de Pensiones Privados complementarios. ; In this paper it is analyzed the Spanish's Social Security by studying the sustainability of the pensions system and its future in terms of long-term financial viability. Firstly, we analyze the historical background of the Spanish pensions system, its evolution, and the most important changes that have been introduced since its creation and implementation, to the present. Secondly, Social Security will be analyzed from a theoretical point of view, highlighting the advantages and the drawbacks of the current pension system that it is managed by the government agency. Then, from a practical perspective, we analyze the viability of the pension´s system with numbers and figures based on the forecast, in order to conclude if there is depletion date of the system resources and Reserve Fund. If we follow the evolution of the funds amount, and we ponder the effect of the reform measures already undertaken, we can estimate that this could be exhausted between 2020 and 2025. However, given the clear signs of recovery in the Spanish economy, and therefore their level of employment, the provision of fund depletion could be delayed, and therefore give more time to the authorities to undertake the necessary reforms, which put us in order to be an effective pension and sustainable. Finally, after conducting this analysis, the purpose would be to establish what could be the alternatives that could occur, and systems that could be implemented. Furthermore, it will be analyzed the pensions system that have now Chile and Sweden, in order to study the consequences that we could have on the social security of our country the measures implemented in these countries as well as the effects on the viability of that system. Also we will have a description and analysis of the pensions system in Denmark, named by Forbes magazine and Mercer as the best pensions system in the world. In this regard, on one hand we try to determine what changes could be made in the current pension system in order to feed-back and to prove its viability. In addition we collect the possible alternatives that could take each person individually, to a pension that allows you to have an adequate standard of living, according to its capacity and its expectations of consumption and future welfare guaranteed. For the realization of this analysis and set to reach our conclusions, we will rely on statistics and graphs that allow us to visualize most clearly what would be the current situation and where we lead the assumptions and forecasts of the evolution of variables that determine pensions spending in Spain and their behavior in the future. The ideological debate over which system is best for a country, in this case for Spain, is served. From liberal positions that would opt for a fully private pension system, based on private pension plans, even the most progressive positions, and amidst all possibilities, the best combination would be a mixed system in which there would be a public pensions system with complementary private pension plans.
