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Relationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Ratification — Withdrawal — European Community Treaties — Accession to European Communities — European Communities Act 1972 — Interpretation — Effect — Status as constitutional statute — Constitutional principles — European Communities Act 1972 giving effect to Community law in each jurisdiction of United Kingdom — Binding obligations and rights under Community Treaties — Parliament's intention in enacting European Communities Act 1972 — Section 2(1) — Rights arising under European Communities Act 1972 and EU law — Continued existence of rights — Whether within Crown's prerogative power — Whether Crown having prerogative power to effect withdrawal from Community Treaties — Effect of withdrawal on domestic law — Whether as a matter of United Kingdom constitutional law the Crown, acting through executive government, entitled to use prerogative powers to give notice to withdraw from European Union and its treaties under Article 50(2) of Treaty on European UnionTreaties — Withdrawal — European Community Treaties — Treaty on European Union, Article 50 — Right of withdrawal from European Union — Effect on United Kingdom domestic law — Notification of Member State of its intention to withdraw — United Kingdom voting in referendum to leave European Union — Giving notice under Article 50 — Whether power to withdraw from treaty on international or domestic plane — Whether as a matter of United Kingdom constitutional law the Crown, acting through executive government, entitled to use prerogative powers to give notice to withdraw from European Union and its treaties under Article 50(2) of Treaty on European UnionInternational organizations — European Union — Membership — Withdrawal — United Kingdom voting in referendum to leave European Union — Article 50 of Treaty on European Union governing withdrawal of Member State — Notification of Member State of its intention to withdraw — Effect on United Kingdom domestic law — Whether as a matter of United Kingdom constitutional law the Crown, acting through executive government, entitled to use prerogative powers to give notice to withdraw from European Union and its treaties under Article 50(2) of Treaty on European Union — The law of the United Kingdom

AbstractManuscript TypeConceptualResearch Questions/IssuesExecutive remuneration, whether as a tool for resolving agency problems or as a sign of them, has been discussed in the literature for decades. The discussion, however, has been focused on non‐financial firms, and bankers' remuneration, particularly in the context of corporate governance, has been overlooked until recently. However, following the financial crisis, regulators have begun intervening into banking boards' responsibilities, including remuneration. This raises numerous questions, in particular, how far the existing non‐financial literature applies to banks, and if not, why and how this impacts on appropriate corporate governance in banking, and what challenges this brings?Research Findings/InsightsThe paper argues that due to numerous externalities, notably the interconnectivity and systemic risk of the banking sector, a traditional approach to remuneration based on resolving the principal‐agent conflict is inappropriate. Active involvement of regulators is needed to balance the short‐term performance of the banking sector with the long‐term needs of society. This, however, means that remuneration and corporate governance of banks is no longer an individual bank issue but is a national and probably an international phenomenon. In some cases this may require fundamental changes to the national governance structure, culture, and practices.Theoretical/Academic ImplicationsThe analysis questions the suitability of the common idea of assessing corporate governance in banks in the same way as is done for non‐financial institutions. Given that several traditional non‐financial board responsibilities have been partially passed over to regulators in the banking sector, a new theoretical model of corporate governance is needed for banks. The paper examines relational contracts (echoed to some extent in stewardship, stakeholder, and network theories), and argues that these cannot be expected to be successful in the banking environment.Practitioner/Policy ImplicationsThe paper highlights the importance of tying the corporate governance of banks with other regulatory measures employed to restrict risk taking. It also stresses the need for harmonization of corporate governance metrics for the banking sector at a national/international level.

508Human rights — Torture — Inhuman and degrading treatment — United Kingdom operations in Afghanistan — United Kingdom transferring detainees to Afghan authorities — National Directorate of Security detention facilities — Kabul (Department 17), Kandahar and Lashkar Gah — Whether United Kingdom transferees at real risk of torture or serious mistreatment — Whether practice of transfer breaching Secretary of State's policy — Article 3 of European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Relevant principles — Role of court — Standard in international legal instruments — Article 3 of Torture Convention, 1984 — Class case — Whether consistent pattern of gross and systematic violations of human rights — Other relevant considerations — Whether proper evidential basis — Independent reports — Allegations of United Kingdom transferees — Canadian material — Safeguards — Afghanistan–United Kingdom Memorandum of Understanding and related assurances — Whether sufficient — Practical operation of transfer arrangements — Access to transferees by United Kingdom personnel — Credibility of allegations — Whether system of specific safeguards insulating United Kingdom transferees altogether from risk of ill-treatment — Whether current United Kingdom practice of transfers unlawfulWar and armed conflict — United Kingdom operations in Afghanistan — Security and rule of law in Afghanistan — Effectiveness of operations — Law of armed conflict — Power to capture insurgents — Power to detain insurgents temporarily — No power of indefinite internment — United Kingdom policy — Suspected insurgents detained by United Kingdom armed forces transferred to Afghan authorities for questioning and prosecution — Whether all transferees at real risk of torture or serious mistreatment — Safeguards — Nature and effectiveness — Afghanistan–United Kingdom Memorandum of Understanding and related assurances — Practical operation of transfer arrangements — United Kingdom assessment of no real risk of torture or mistreatment — Whether current practice of transfers unlawfulStates — Sovereignty — Afghanistan — United Nations Security Council Resolutions — International community pledging to support and ensure respect for Afghan sovereignty — Afghanistan having jurisdiction over all persons in territory unless expressly agreed otherwise — Entitlement of Afghan Government to 509prosecute those in jurisdiction committing offences under Afghan law — Security and rule of law in Afghanistan — Afghanistan having overall responsibility — Afghan Constitution and Penal Code prohibiting all acts of torture and inhuman punishment — Whether United Kingdom practice of transferring detainees to Afghan authorities unlawful — The law of England

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to investigate the following expatriate issues as related to the hospitality industry, from the perspective of practitioners: the most important management skills hotel expatriates should possess, whether these skills vary by the country of origin of the expatriate and parent company, and the most effective cross‐cultural training activities provided by hotel companies.Design/methodology/approachData for this exploratory study was obtained from a sample of 66 respondents from lodging organizations with membership in the International Hotel and Restaurant Association (IH & RA). Data was collected by means of self‐administered, web‐based surveys.FindingsParticipants in this study indicate that expatriate management skills vary in importance for hotel expatriates. The results of the analysis of variance demonstrate that the importance placed on the different expatriate management skills varies based on country of origin of both the expatriate and the parent company. Respondents and companies originating in different countries place more importance on certain expatriate management skills than others. Analyses also indicate that seven of nine cross‐cultural training activities provided by the parent company are perceived to be effective for the success of an expatriate assignment.Practical implicationsThis study suggests that opportunities do exist for international hotel companies to better prepare hotel expatriates for foreign assignments by integrating more effectively issues of cultural awareness into their preparation programs. Additionally, although it may appear counter‐intuitive for a future expatriate to focus on the structure and processes of the home company before embarking on a foreign assignment, the results of this study suggest that such knowledge is very valuable.Originality/valueWhile studies investigating expatriation management in the mainstream literature have been growing recently, only a handful of published studies have explored the issue in the hotel industry. Answers to the research questions that guided this study add to our knowledge and enhance our understanding of the issues related to expatriation management within the context of the hotel industry. The present study generated fruitful avenues, especially with regard to the issues related to the variation of management skills according to the country of origin of participants and parent company.

Purpose: Greece is a net importer of oil and gas and is among the most vulnerable countries of the European Union (EU) on energy supply disruptions. Furthermore, is considered a ""crossroad"" of existing and forthcoming infrastructure for importing energy to the EU. The purpose of this paper is the presentation of the web tool that implements the developed methodology for the quantification of socio-economic risks of oil and gas corridors. The tool is applied to the main present and future oil and gas corridors to Greece, and the related outcomes are discussed. Design/methodology/approach: A structured and coherent review on the future and present oil and natural gas (NG) corridors to Greece was elaborated, based on desk analysis and collection of the related data from national and international sources. Factor analysis was employed for the quantification of socio-economic risks of each energy corridor. Particular emphasis was laid on the tool's design, so as to be user-friendly, combining intuitive menus and navigation throughout the steps of the system. Findings: The calculation of socio-economic risks of the main oil and gas corridors to Greece provides operative and measurable concepts for supporting energy-modelling processes. Indeed, this paper provides useful insights on the factors affecting the smooth energy supply and the reliability of oil and gas supply options to the Greek energy system. Moreover, the presented web tool can be used as a reference point for the researcher working on energy supply risks quantification. Originality/value: The introduction of the energy corridors perspective in the valuation of supply security is of significant importance, taking into account the constantly increasing energy dependence of EU countries. To the best of the authors' knowledge, a structured and coherent review of the future and present oil and NG corridors to Greece is not present in the international literature. In addition to this, the development of the web tool is a clear contribution towards the quantification of the economic and socio-political risk analysis and a step forward of the existing studies. © Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

499 Human rights — Nature and scope of human rights treaties — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Article 1 — Duty of parties to secure the rights and freedoms under the Convention to persons within their jurisdiction — Extent of jurisdiction — Persons outside the territory of a Contracting State — Whether within its jurisdiction — Jurisdiction essentially territorial and extraterritorial applications requiring special justification — Effective control of an area outside the territory of a State Party — Whether extending to areas outside the territory of any of the Member States of the Council of Europe — Concept of effective control — Whether to be equated with criteria for belligerent occupation — Extraterritorial jurisdiction on the basis of the exercise of authority by State agents — Prisoner detained in military detention facility in occupied territory — Whether prisoner within the jurisdiction of detaining StateJurisdiction — Concept of jurisdiction in international law — Jurisdiction primarily territorial — Circumstances in which jurisdiction of State extends beyond its borders — Effective control of area in the territory of one State by the armed forces of another State — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Article 1 — Whether capable of extending to territory outside the Member States of the Council of Europe — Jurisdiction on the basis of exercisable authority over individualRelationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Human Rights Act 1998 — Whether Human Rights Act intended to apply to acts of United Kingdom public authorities outside the territory of the United Kingdom — Purpose of Act to give effect in domestic law to the provisions of the Convention — Whether application of the Act co-extensive with application of the ConventionWar and armed conflict — Occupation — Occupation of Iraq in 2003 — Creation by the United States of America and United Kingdom of Coalition Provisional Administration — Position of United Kingdom forces in South East Iraq — United Kingdom forces accepted as being in belligerent occupation of part of Iraq — Whether that part of Iraq falling within the jurisdiction of the United Kingdom for the purposes of the European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Whether United Kingdom forces possessing effective control of that part of Iraq — The law of England

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to make explicit why security needs to be viewed as a core activity and why senior management need to view security from a holistic perspective. Reference is made to various activities carried out by computer hackers and the costs associated with computer related crime.Design/methodology/approachA literature review was undertaken and a conceptual security model was produced. The key elements of the activities associated with security were highlighted and the links between the activities were made clear.FindingsOrganized criminal syndicates and international terrorist groups are increasing their level of activity. Senior managers within companies need to put in place an intelligence and security strategy to counter the activities of criminals and terrorists. Furthermore, senior managers will in the future have to work more closely with law enforcement representatives and industry representatives. They will also have to develop an appreciation of the strategic intelligence objectives of various governments. There is also evidence that senior management need to pay greater attention to identifying future threats associated with advances in internet technology.Research limitations/implicationsMore attention will need to be given to how facilitating technology such as the internet is providing computer hackers and criminals with ways to either disrupt business activities or extend the range of criminal activities that they are engaged in.Practical implicationsSenior management will need to refocus on the capability of staff vis‐à‐vis corporate intelligence and security work. The learning organization concept can be embraced and can be used to assist staff to identify the advantages associated with effective knowledge management. Scenario analysis and simulation exercises can be used to train staff in emergency work, and disaster management and prevention.Originality/valueA diverse range of topics is covered and integrated into a security‐oriented context. Attention is focused on the link between organized criminal syndicates and international terrorist groups, and why senior managers in companies need to be engaged in disaster management recovery planning. The material highlights why senior managers in companies need to develop business contingency plans and embrace the counterintelligence concept.

AbstractSince China's economic opening and reforms in 1978, the country has broadened and deepened its exchanges and relations with other countries. This has contributed to the increase in the scale of international migration of highly skilled Chinese abroad. The impact of the migration of highly skilled Chinese on China and the relevant nations particularly deserve attention and study. Following the earlier migration flows mainly to the United States, Japan, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, the migration of highly skilled Chinese to Europe has become a notable new trend.Currently, the flow of international migration of highly skilled Chinese personnel is mainly oriented toward Europe and the United States. While studying abroad has been the main form of migration of the skilled, this has now been joined by the migration of technical and professional staff, and the trend is increasing. The main country of destination for Chinese students is the United States, which absorbs more than half of the total, while Australia and Canada receive the largest number of skilled Chinese manpower. The United States also receives a large number of Chinese technical personnel, but its proportion has declined, while the flow to Europe has sharply increased.This development may be attributed to the global expansion of economic, scientific and technological, as well as cultural and educational exchanges and cooperation. But it is also the result of an increase in the educational investment made by the Chinese people following the continuous increase in China's economic strength and the population's personal income. Of greater importance are the gaps between China and Europe at the scientific, technological, and educational levels and the research and marketing environment. The intervening changes in labour market and immigration policies in European and American countries accelerate the trend further. For all of these and other reasons, the spatial distribution of Chinese students will become more balanced and play a positive role in the promotion of mutually beneficial exchanges between China and other countries.

Ulrich, Dave (directeur de publication). Delivering results: A new mandate for human resource professionals.Wagner, Helmut (directeur de publication). Globalization and unemployment.Livres récents: Antunes, Ricardo. ¿Adiós al trabajo? Ensayo sobre las metamorfosis y el rol central del mundo del trabajo.Blanpain, Roger (directeur de publication); Colucci, Michele; De Smijter, Eddy; Engels, Chris; Hendrickx, Frank; Salas, Lisa. Institutional changes and European social policies after the Treaty of Amsterdam.Nouvelles publications du BIT: Conventions et recommandations sur le travail maritime. Troisième édition. El diálogo social en los países andinos: ¿Nuevo camino para los sindicatos? Par Juan Manuel Sepúlveda Malbrán et María Luz Vega Ruiz. Gérez mieux votre entreprise (Eléments de base): Edition internationale. Par Mats Borgenvall, Håkan Jarskog, Barbara Murray et Cecilia Karlstedt. Gérez mieux votre entreprise (Eléments de base): Guide du formateur. Développé par Hanna N. Sahar, Mazen Asa'd, Salah A. Shafi, Cecilia Karlstedt et Håkan Jarskog. Inseguridad laboral y competitividad: modalidades de contratación. Publié sous la direction de Víctor E. Tokman et Daniel Martínez. Labour relations in SMEs in selected Central and Eastern European countries. Publié sous la direction de Giuseppe Casale. Managing the cooperative difference: A survey of the application of modern management practices in the cooperative context. Par le Dr Peter Davis. Manual para la defensa de la libertad sindical. Par José Marcos‐Sánchez. Modular package on gender, poverty and employment. Reader's kit. Modular package on gender, poverty and employment. Facilitator's kit. Négocier la flexibilité: le rôle des partenaires sociaux et de l'Etat. Publié sous la direction de Muneto Ozaki. Población, pobreza y mercado de trabajo en América Latina. Programmes d'infrastructures a haute intensité de main‐d'œuvre ‐ HIMO: Renforcement des capacités pour la passation des contrats dans le secteur de la construction ‐ Directives. Par Peter Bentall, Andreas Beusch et Jan de Veen. Recommandations internationales en vigueur sur les statistiques du travail. Sécurité sociale pour la majorité exclue: Etudes de cas dans les pays en développement.Social dialogue in Central and Eastern Europe Termination of employment digest. Un développement agricole durable dans une économie mondialisée.

1Arbitration — Compromis — Interpretation — Parties concluding two consecutive agreements — Agreement on Principles and Arbitration Agreement — Latter agreement taking priority — Parties unable to agree on definition of scope of dispute — Scope of dispute left to Tribunal to decide on the basis of the respective positions of the Parties — Critical date — Whether dispute confined to issues raised by Parties by a particular date — Compromis providing for arbitration proceedings in two stages — Effect on first stage of proceedingsArbitration — Compromis — Territorial dispute — Tribunal required to decide on territorial sovereignty — Whether required to do more than determine relative merits of competing claimsArbitration — Evidence — Admissibility — Territorial dispute — Whether evidence of acts occurring after a particular date inadmissible — Maps — Historical evidence — Evidence submitted in response to question from Tribunal memberArbitration — Procedure — Ad hoc tribunal created by agreement between two States — Tribunal using services of Permanent Court of Arbitration — Submissions by PartiesTerritory — Sovereignty — Historic claims — Whether international law contains doctrine of reversion of ancient title — Territory under sovereignty of Ottoman Empire — Whether title capable of reverting to State which existed prior to Ottoman period — Yemen — Evidence of prior sovereignty over Red Sea islandsTerritory — Sovereignty — Historical consolidation — Prescription — Effectivités — Nature and effect — Requirements of international law — Display of authority — Exercise of State functions — Peaceful possession — Petroleum agreements — Construction and maintenance of lighthouses — Acts of possession performed by military forces during civil war — Evidence of acts of third StatesTerritory — Sovereignty — Islands — Contiguity — Principle that islands within territorial sea of State presumed to be part of that State — Circumstances in which presumption rebutted — Portico doctrine2Territory — Sovereignty — Treaties — Treaty creating objective legal status for territory — Treaty of Lausanne, 1923 — Peace Treaty with Italy, 1947 — Red Sea islandsTreaties — Effect — Doctrine of res inter alios acta — Interpretation — Treaties creating objective legal status for territory — Treaty of Lausanne, 1923 — Peace Treaty with Italy, 1947War and armed conflict — Peace Treaties — Treaty of Lausanne, 1923 — Peace Treaty with Italy, 1947 — Eritrea-Yemen hostilities 1995 — Agreements ending conflict

131International organizations — Powers — Division of powers between the organization and Member States — European Community — Transfer of powers to the Community from Member States — Whether compatible with the European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Judgment of Court of Justice of the European Communities upholding fine imposed by EC Commission for violation of Article 85(1) of EC Treaty — Enforcement in national courts — Whether involving exercise of national jurisdiction within meaning of Article 1 of European Convention on Human Rights — Whether national authorities acting as Community organs when enforcing judgment of Court of Justice — Whether exercise of powers by European Community organs subject to review by the European Commission of Human RightsHuman rights — State responsibility — Decisions taken by international organization — Alleged human rights violation — Whether involving exercise of national jurisdiction within meaning of Article 1 of European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Whether transfer of powers to international organization necessarily excluding State responsibility for exercise of those powers — Scope of applicability of Convention guaranteesHuman rights — Scope of protection within the European Community — Whether respect for human rights constituting a condition for the lawfulness of Community acts — Significance of the European Convention on Human Rights within the Community legal order — Role of the Court of Justice of the European Communities in safeguarding fundamental rights — Whether Community legal system guaranteeing right to fair hearing — Whether Member States required to examine respect for Article 6 of the European Convention before granting execution of a judgment of the Court of Justice of the European CommunitiesTreaties — Conclusion and operation — Multilateral treaties — Effect of subsequent treaty on obligations entered into under earlier treaty — Whether Contracting States may be answerable where conclusion of later treaty disables them from performing obligations under earlier treatyInternational tribunals — European Commission of Human Rights — Jurisdiction — Proceedings before Commission and Court of Justice of European Communities — 132Whether European Commission competent to examine compatibility of such proceedings with European Convention on Human Rights — Relevance of fact that European Community is not a party to the European Convention on Human Rights

575Aliens — Refugees — Asylum — Duty of non-refoulement — Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951, Article 33, and Protocol, 1967 — Whether benefit of non-refoulement provisions extending to refugees situated outside the territory of a contracting State — Haitian refugees intercepted on the high seas by United States authorities — Whether forcible repatriation of refugees to Haiti violating duty of non-refoulement — Immigration and Nationality Act 1952 — Refugee Act 1980Jurisdiction — Territorial — Extraterritorial effect of legislation — United States Congress — Whether Congress possessing the ability to enforce its laws outside the United States — Presumption against extraterritorial effect — Whether presumption to be strictly applied — Whether evidence of clear Congressional intention needed to rebut presumption — Whether presumption to be applied in matters relating to foreign relations — Legislation concerning the non-refoulement of aliens — Whether applicable to aliens on the high seasRelationship of international law and municipal law — Treaties — Application by municipal courts — As aid to interpretation of municipal statutes — Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951, Article 33, and Protocol 1967, prohibiting refoulement of refugees — Whether aid to interpretation of United States Immigration and Nationality Act 1952 and Refugee Act 1980Relationship of international law and municipal law — Conduct of foreign relations — Power of United States President to conduct foreign relations — President establishing naval blockade on the high seas prohibiting the entry of all Haitian aliens into the United States — Whether blockade contravening United States refugee legislation and violating the Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951, and Protocol, 1967Treaties — Interpretation — Rules of interpretation — Ordinary meaning of words — Context — Travaux préparatoires — Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969, Article 32 — Foreign language text — Interpretation — Use of dictionaries — Whether permissibleSea — High seas — Jurisdiction — Power of United States authorities to intercept Haitian vessels on the high seas — 1981 Agreement between Haiti and the United States Regarding the Interdiction 576of Vessels Suspected of Carrying Illegal Immigrants — The law of the United States

Aliens — Treatment — Discrimination — Right to establish and manage companies — Principle of equal treatment — Italy-United States Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Treaty, 1948 — Denial of justice — Whether establishedClaims — Exhaustion of local remedies — Applicability of local remedies rule — Whether applicable to claim regarding alleged violation of Italy-United States Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Treaty, 1948 — Local remedies rule not mentioned in treaty — Whether local remedies rule excluded — Applicability of rule confined to claims of diplomatic protection — Whether claim for breach of treaty a claim regarding a direct wrong — Respondent State failing to mention duty to exhaust local remedies when claim first raised — Whether estopped from relying upon rule — Application of local remedies rule — Whether effective local remedies availableClaims — Nationality of claims — Companies — Locally incorporated subsidiary — Whether alleged wrong suffered by local subsidiary or shareholdersExpropriation — Definition — Taking of property — Italy-United States Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Treaty, 1948 — Definition of taking — Loss of right to manage company — Shareholders deprived of right to conduct orderly liquidation of company — Whether a taking of shareholders' property — Ability of shareholders to conduct orderly liquidation — Whether shareholders suffering real losses — Nature of property — "Immovable property rights and interests therein"312International Court of Justice — Contentious jurisdiction — Basis of jurisdiction — Italy-United States Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Treaty, 1948 — Jurisdiction confined to interpretation and application of the treaty and its protocols — Admissibility of applicationNationality — Companies — Locally incorporated subsidiary — Whether possessing nationality of parent company for purpose of international claimsState responsibility — Acts of local authorities — Requisition of property — Failure to prevent occupation of factory by employees — Acts of judiciary — Denial of justice — Definition — Delay — Control of executive acts by courts — Whether finding that executive act contrary to municipal law necessarily implies that there has been a violation of international lawTreaties — Interpretation — Principles of interpretation — Authentic texts in more than one language — Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, 1969, Articles 31 and 32 — Italy-United States Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Treaty, 1948

Jurisdiction — In general — Territorial — Exemptions from and restrictions upon territorial jurisdiction — Foreign States — Sovereign immunity — United States Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976 — Purpose of — Whether intended to divest President of authority to settle claims of United States nationals against foreign governments — The law of the United StatesState responsibility — Nature and kinds of — For taking of, or interference with, property — Suspension of attachments of Iranian assets located in the United States — Whether a "taking" of property requiring just compensation under United States Constitution — Iran- United States Algiers Declarations, 1981 — Jurisdiction of United States Court of Claims — Treaty exception clause of Statute of the Court of Claims — Whether precluding Court of Claims from hearing claims for takings in the future — The law of the United StatesThe individual in international law — Nationality — As determining the right of protection of citizens abroad — United States Hostage Act 1868 — Intention and purpose of — Whether Iranian hostage crisis within scope of Act — The law of the United StatesDisputes — Arbitration — Miscellaneous — Iran- United States Algiers Declarations, 1981 — lran — United States Claims Tribunal — Authority of United States President to settle claims in United States courts against Iran — Whether claims not within jurisdiction of Claims Tribunal could revive — The law of the United StatesState responsibility — Claims — State control over private claims — Iran-United States Algiers Declarations, 1981 — Executive order implementing Declarations — Authority of the President of the United States to settle claims in United States courts against Iran — Nullification of attachment of Iranian property — Whether authorized by International Emergency Economic Powers Act or Hostage Act — Intention and purpose of Hostage Act — Whether Iranian hostage crisis within scope of Act — Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976 — Purpose of — Whether intended to divest President of authority to settle claims of United States nationals against foreign governments — Whether claims not within jurisdiction of Iran-United States Claims Tribunal could revive — Whether suspension of attachments a "taking" of property requiring just compensation under United States Constitution — Jurisdiction of United States Court of Claims — Treaty exception clause — Whether precluding Court of Claims from hearing claims for taking in the future — The law of the United States

State responsibility — Nature and kinds of — For breaches of treaty obligations — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950 — Right to a fair and public trial in proceedings relating to the determination of civil rights or of a criminal charge — Article 6(1) — Proceedings before disciplinary bodies of professional association — Imposition of sanctions — Whether within ambit of Article 6(1) — Prohibition of inhuman or degrading punishment — Object of sanctions — Whether State party in breach of guarantees of fair trial and freedom of association — Article 50 — Just satisfactionState responsibility — Damages (Measure of damages) — Grounds for awarding damages — Non — pecuniary damages — Causal links between established violation and alleged damage — Legal fees — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950Disputes — Other international courts — European Court of Human Rights — Relinquishment of jurisdiction of Chamber in favour of plenary Court — Whether case raises serious questions affecting interpretation of European Convention on Human Rights, 1950411The individual in international law — In general — Human rights and freedoms — European Convention on Human Rights, 1950, Article 6(1) — Right to a fair and public trial in proceedings relating to determination of civil rights or of a criminal charge — Proceedings before disciplinary bodies of professional association — Imposition of sanctions — Whether within ambit of Article 6(1) — Existence of a dispute (contestation) — Direct relationship between dispute and a right — Nature of the right — Whether a civil right — Impartiality of tribunal — Whether providing for public hearings and public pronouncements of decisions — Prohibition of inhuman or degrading punishment — Article 3 — Object of sanctions — Guarantees of fair trial — Article 6(2) and (3) (a), (b) and (d) — Freedom of association — Article 11 — European Court of Human Rights — Relinquishment of jurisdiction of Chamber in favour of plenary Court — Whether case raises serious questions affecting interpretation of ConventionArticle 50 — Breach of right to public trial established — Just satisfaction — Non-pecuniary damage — Whether earlier judgment furnished reparation — Competence to direct State party to annul disciplinary sanctions and criminal sentences — Causal links between established violation and alleged damage — Reimbursement of legal costs