Suchergebnisse

A number of different techniques and rationales were used by the French and British colonial authorities to racially segregate cities in Africa - from the use of planning by-laws requiring European building materials, to the requiring of fluency in European languages in specific areas of towns. Here, the ways in which town planning policies were used to segregate cities in Madagascar, Congo, Guinea, Sierra Leone and Nigeria are considered.

Pre-independence poems have been categorized as a struggle against the government and, on the other side, as a media to increase the nationalism of young natives to their country and nation. In the subsequent development, poem column in magazines is not only used as a media of poets creativity but also used as a media in propagandizing dissatisfaction to the colonialist. Native people not only need creativity space but also want to get a sense of justice, to get herness, freedom in expressing an opinion, and freedom from as an instrument of propaganda which fights for right to live free from the colonialist fetters. In addition to used as media to struggle, advice, propagandize, and get justice, pre-independence poem is also used to express the intellectual ideas of the young.

The release of Peter Clarke's biography of Sir Stafford Cripps in 2002, with much of its focus on the protagonist's time in India, meant that a thorough reappraisal of Lord Wavell's time as Viceroy to India was clearly needed. By giving an impartial account of Wavell's relationship with Whitehall during his time as Viceroy this article will also focus on such significant events as the 1945 Simla Conference, the 1946 Cabinet Mission and Wavell's dismissal in late 1946/early 1947. It is hoped that by the end of this article readers will be able to judge Wavell's overall performance as Viceroy and decide for themselves whether he deserved to be replaced by Mountbatten or not.

The Muslim Brotherhood is the main opposition group in Egypt. As the parliamentary elections of November confirmed this status, the organization maintains its demands for political inclusion. This does not seem a probable scenario in the short-term though slow moves towards reform are being taken by the government. The first multi-candidate presidential election of September is one of such steps. If this will be branded an isolated event or the starting point of a wider process of transition remains to be seen. This study focuses on the Muslim Brotherhood and its eventual formal inclusion within a scenario of democratization. Arguments are drawn from the behavior of the groups' leadership itself as a political actor, fom 1990 to 2005, in three areas of action: the parliament, the syndicates' leadership and the networks of social services. The concept of political learning and the assessment of the presence of pro-democratic cognitive change within the group are the guidelines for this analysis. The research has confirmed that the behavior and attitude of the Muslim Brothers show a real commitment to democratic reform. This indicates the presence of political learning, though not to a full extent in what concerns the core beliefs of the group. The Muslim Brotherhood does not advocate for full equality between men and women. In addition, it is still vague in what concerns political rights of Copts and the specifics of the application of the Islamic principles in society. Overall this study argues for the inclusion of the Muslim Brotherhood in formal participatory politics based on its actions of the last fifteen years and its proven contribution to democratization. Moreover, inclusion entails the potential for furthering political learning through participation, contributing to political stability in the country and preventing radicalization or the political spectrum.