This book focuses on one of the prime movers in the unification of Lunigiana – a region which at the time was still broken up into a myriad of tiny feudal holdings, almost all in the hands of the various branches of the Malaspina family. The process of unification began in the fifteenth century, when various areas of the region were conquered by Milan and Florence, which also divided between them the hegemony of the remaining independent territories, while Genoa too displayed an interest in expansion in the region. As a result it became crucial for the local lords to manoeuvre between the various forces at play to maintain the independence of their own little states. Among the figures who displayed the greatest dexterity in this was Gabriele Malaspina, who became a leading player on the stage of local history. The book starts by illustrating the period in which Malaspina succeeded in obtaining his political independence, and then goes on to analyse the phase in which his policy came to be characterised by an absolute loyalty to Florence. Finally the book addresses the last part of the Marquis's life, marked by a progressive distancing from the Florentine alliance in favour of other entities, in which he nevertheless always succeeded in maintaining his independence.
L'histoire de la chinoiserie est celle d'une ambition économique qui chercha à donner une nouvelle extension, maritime, aux anciennes routes de la soie afin de capter au profit des nombreuses Compagnies des Indes orientales, créées à cet effet, une partie des parts de marché qu'impliquait ce commerce avec l'Extrême-Orient. Ainsi envahirent l'Europe une foule de « produits de la Chine » – porcelaines, textiles, laques, objets de luxe – dont la possession a le plus souvent été un marqueur de distinction sociale. Le développement de la chinoiserie et du goût chinois au XVIIIe siècle est un phénomène européen, qui s'inscrit dans la dynamique même instaurée par la Pensée des Lumières, où l'on détecte un courant utopique fondé à la fois sur l'idée de la reconstitution d'un Éden perdu, et sur celle d'une communauté politique et sociale restaurée. Sur le plan stylistique, l'influence de la Chine s'est trouvée en phase avec les grandes tendances du goût régnant entre 1720-1770, dominé par la confusion des figures et de l'ornement ; les effets de surface dus à la découverte de matières nouvelles comme la porcelaine et la laque ; et l'imbrication des formes. Il est clair que l'appropriation du goût chinois en Europe s'est exprimée à travers une démarche dont il convient d'apprécier le caractère subversif, puisque l'art rocaille apparaît incontestablement comme une tentative de mettre entre parenthèses certains des principes de la représentation classique. Le déni du système perspectif, le refus d'utilisation du système proportionnel des ordres, l'expérimentation systématique de l'asymétrie, de fréquentes propositions pour des compositions non centrées, comme la légitimité reconnue à des variations non proportionnelles d'échelle sont autant d'éléments qui participent à la proposition d'un système de composition alternatif au système classique. Devant l'impossibilité évidente de proposer ici un aperçu complet de cette histoire d'influences, d'appropriations et de réinterprétations, les éditeurs ont choisi de privilégier certains pans de cette histoire, moins récemment investigués ou laissés parfois en friche. Ils ont pris l'option de centrer ce volume sur deux axes particuliers : privilégier, d'une part, l'étude des vecteurs de transmission de cette séduction ainsi que l'appréciation de la manière dont ces agents ont contribué à « colorer » les éléments transmis ; et attirer, d'autre part, l'attention sur l'intérêt et la qualité, souvent mésestimés, des « chinoiseries » réalisées dans nos régions au XVIIIe siècle.Des questionnements fondamentaux sont ici esquissés : sur le degré d'extension du concept (par rapport, notamment, à l'expression littéraire) ; sur le degré d'adéquation de ses formes et de ses expressions par rapport à la réalité chinoise ; sur la place occupée par la chinoiserie dans le discours et la culture globale des Lumières, sur les agents de la diffusion – en particulier les missionnaires – et les modalités de celle-ci. Dans les Pays-Bas méridionaux (1715-1792), la chinoiserie et le goût chinois ont beaucoup contribué à créer, dans les habitudes de vie et l'environnement familier des classes aristocratiques, une sociabilité élégante et distinguée. En ce sens, l'architecture pavillonnaire des jardins anglo-chinois - à Kew comme à Potsdam ou à Drottningholm par exemple, ou, dans les Pays-Bas méridionaux, à Enghien, Belœil ou Boekenberg -, matérialise des lieux de plaisance, voire de « libertinage » – au sens intellectuel – liés à de nouvelles formes de sensibilité, et même à de nouvelles formes de pensée, axées sur la discontinuité, la diversité et l'esthétique du fragment. Mais, surtout, au-delà, dans un pays d'étendue réduite, de tradition intellectuelle relativement conformiste, elle a incontestablement constitué un élément d'ouverture vers le mouvement des Lumières, et elle a sans aucun doute contribué à forger la prescience d'une certaine forme de cosmopolitisme et d'appréciation de l'altérité.
The Landesarchiv Schleswig-Holstein opened the Landesgartenschau 2009 in Schleswig with the exhibition "Die Ordnung der Natur. Historical Gardens and Parks in Schleswig-Holstein ". This exhibition was complemented by a series of lectures which met with a great response. The lectures are published in this volume. Thematically, the volume is divided into two parts: The first four contributions deal with historical gardens and parks in Schleswig-Holstein. The second part of the volume points beyond the borders of Schleswig-Holstein. It deals with horticultural schools as vocational training for "higher daughters" in the Empire, gardens and nature in the context of democratically anti-democratic, folk ideology, the importance of gardens and parks in film and gardens in Duckburg.
Throughout history, those arrested for vagrancy have generally been poor men and women, often young, able-bodied, unemployed, and homeless. Most histories of vagrancy have focused on the European and American experiences. This is the first book to consider global laws, homelessness, and the historical processes they accompanied. Vagrancy and homelessness are used to examine the migration of labor, social and governmental responses, poverty through charity, welfare, and prosecution. Cast Out includes discussions of the lives of the underclass, strategies for surviving and escaping poverty, the criminalization of poverty by the state, the rise of welfare and development programs, the relationship between imperial powers and colonized peoples, and the struggle to achieve independence after colonial rule.
Au cours de la seconde moitié du XVIIIe siècle, la monarchie habsbourgeoise entama des réformes visant à modifier une série de paramètres de la vie politique et sociale, d'abord, le plus souvent, dans ses possessions italiennes, dont la Lombardie était la plus vaste, puis dans les Pays-Bas. Dans ce volume, une douzaine d'historiens universitaires, belges, français et italiens, se livrent à un vaste tour d'horizon de ces réformes, des conditions de leur mise en œuvre et de la réception qu'elles ont reçue dans ces deux territoires, alors également soumis aux autorités politiques viennoises, mais disposant chacun, cependant, d'une certaine autonomie au sein de la monarchie habsbourgeoise. Tour à tour toutes les grandes questions de l'époque sont abordées, depuis les relations de ces provinces avec Vienne jusqu'aux tentatives de modernisation de l'enseignement, de la police ou de la justice, en passant par les rapports tendus qu'entretenaient, en Lombardie et dans les Pays-Bas, l'Église et l'État, les réformes économiques mises en œuvre dans ces deux provinces, ou encore les solutions qu'on tenta d'y apporter aux difficiles questions de l'assistance aux pauvres et de la santé. Tous les textes de ce volume sont pourvus d'un bref résumé en italien.
After the change of power in Hamburg on March 8, 1933, the school administration was put under command of Karl Witt, a German nationalist and later Nazi. Converted to the National Socialist leadership principle, it was increasingly instrumentalized for the implementation of National Socialist educational concepts. These were mainly enforced by the persons who led the authority or dominated by informal power. The position of the four school-related officials in the power and governance system of National Socialism in Hamburg is therefore explained in this publication. Besides Karl Witt, three men were the protegés of the so-calld "Gauleiter" and "Reichsstatthalter" Karl Kaufmann: namely Wilhelm Schulz, Albert Henze, and Ernst Schrewe. Their proximity to the centre of power around Kaufmann led to very different formal and informal anchors in the mechanisms of the polycratic National Socialist system. The political pressure exerted by the head of the school administration on the schools intensified since the beginning of the war, culminating in the power and ruthless exercise of power by the National Socialist "Senatsdirektor" and "Gauschulungsleiter" Albert Henze.
World War I had just broken out, but colonial authorities in the Netherlands Indies heaved a sigh of relief: The colonial export sector had not collapsed and war offered new economic prospects; representatives from the Islamic nationalist movement had prayed for God to bless the Netherlands but had not seized upon the occasion to incite unrest. Furthermore, the colonial government, impressed by such shows of loyalty, embarked upon a campaign to create a 'native militia', an army of Javanese to assist in repulsing a possible Japanese invasion. - - Yet there were other problem: pilgrims stranded in Mecca, the pro-German disposition of most Indonesian Muslims because of the involvement of Turkey in the war, and above all the status of the Netherlands Indies as a smuggling station used by Indian revolutionaries and German agents to subvert British rule in Asia. - - By 1917 the optimism of the first war years had disappeared. Trade restrictions, the war at sea, and a worldwide lack of tonnage caused export opportunities to dwindle. Communist propaganda had radicalized the nationalist movement. In 1918 it seemed that the colony might cave in. Exports had ceased. Famine was a very real danger. There was increasing unrest within the colonial population and the army and navy. Colonial authorities turned to the nationalist movement for help, offering them drastic political concessions, forgotten as soon as the war ended. The political and economic independence gained by the Netherlands Indies, a result of problems in communications with the mother country, was also lost with the end of the war. - - Kees van Dijk examines how in 1917 the atmosphere of optimism in the Netherlands Indies changed to one of unrest and dissatisfaction, and how after World War I the situation stabilized to resemble pre-war political and economic circumstances. - - Kees van Dijk (1946) has worked as a researcher at KITLV/Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies from 1968 to 2007 and has been professor of the history of Islam in Indonesia at Leiden University since 1985. Among his publications are Rebellion under the banner of Islam; The Darul Islam in Indonesia (Leiden, KITLV Press 1981) and A country in despair; Indonesia between 1997 and 2000 (Leiden, KITLV Press 2001).
Many people know the stories behind the tulip mania in the 17th century and the legacy of the Dutch East India Company, but what basic knowledge of Dutch history and culture should be passed on to future generations? A Key to Dutch History and its resulting overview of historical highlights, assembled by a number of specialists in consultation with the Dutch general public, provides a thought-provoking and timely answer. The democratic process behind the volume is reminiscent of the way in which the Netherlands has succeeded for centuries at collective craftsmanship, and says as much about the Netherlands as does the outcome of the opinions voiced. The Cultural Canon of the Netherlands consists of a list of fifty topics from Dutch culture and history, varying from the megalithic tombs in the province of Drenthe and Willem of Orange to the Dutch constitution and the vast natural gas field in the province of Groningen. These fifty topics act as a framework for understanding and even studying Dutch culture and history. The canon should lead to further understanding and deepening of our knowledge of our past and act as an inspirational source for pupils, students and the public at large.
La "rigenerazione razziale e biologica" del popolo tedesco fu uno dei fondamenti del Terzo Reich. L'idea di un miglioramento biologico e quella di una selezione razziale delle stirpi umane avevano le loro origini rispettivamente nelle utopie e nei progetti dell'eugenetica e nel pensiero razzista sviluppatisi nella seconda metà dell'Ottocento non solo in Germania bensì in un più ampio contesto europeo e occidentale. Legislazioni eugenetiche erano già in vigore a partire dai primi anni del Novecento negli Stati Uniti e successivamente in Svizzera e nei paesi scandinavi. Tuttavia fu solo nella Germania nazionalsocialista che razzismo ed eugenetica poterono intrecciarsi e inverarsi in un ampio e articolato sistema legislativo per la "difesa" dell' "integrità razziale e genetica" dei Tedeschi. Statistica, genetica, demografia, antropologia, medicina contribuirono, con la loro vera o presunta scientificità, ad ammantare di certezza obiettiva l'ideologia discriminatoria e razzista nazionalsocialista. La pericolosa fusione di questi ingredienti si attuò in modo sistematico e organico nelle proposte del ruralismo antisemita del "sangue e suolo" culminando nell'utopia "zootecnica" di un allevamento selettivo di una nuova nobiltà contadina nordica, futura guida della società razziale tedesca. Il combinarsi di istanze eugenetiche e razziste non rimase tuttavia nell'ambito di progetti utopici ma trovò la sua drammatica realizzazione nella politica eliminazionista dell'eutanasia e della Shoah.
The company Behn Meyer Deutschland Holding AG & Co. KG, headquartered at Ballindamm in Hamburg, is one of the most traditional trading houses in the Hanseatic city. Among other things, it sells rubber chemicals for the European market. In the company's history there have been a number of well-known personalities such as Arnold Otto Meyer and Franz Heinrich Witthoefft. Eduard Lorenz Lorenz-Meyer, who is one of the donors of the Hamburg Scientific Foundation, has always been somewhat in the shadows. However, if the focus is not primarily on economic aspects, but also on political and cultural aspects, a very multi-faceted life is evident.
The history of kings and queens has always appealed to popular imagery. Monarchy is also a central theme to classic surveys of political history. The present volume approaches the relation between imagery and authority of the monarchy from a cultural historical angle. The authors focus on the different discourses produced since the Middle Ages aiming at the symbolic construction of royal power in Western Europe, as well as at its subversion. The history of monarchy is not a linear process from sacralization to banalization. Throughout premodern, modern and postmodern times, the mystification and demystification of the monarch remain inextricably intertwined.
After the National Socialists seized power in Hamburg on March 8, 1933, the existing professional organisations of teachers were first brought together, then dissolved and replaced by the National Socialist Teachers' Association of Hamburg (Nationalsozialistischer Lehrerbund, NSLB), which was founded in 1931, as the only teacher organisation. The primary school teacher Wilhelm Schulz accomplished National Socialist ideology in the largest Hamburg-based teachers' organization, the Society of Friends of the Patriotic School and Education (Gesellschaft der Freunde des vaterländischen Schul- und Erziehungswesens, GdF), founded in 1805. The teacher's organisation ADLV (Allgemeiner Deutscher Lehrerinnenverein - General German Teachers' Association) has been given priority over equalisation through self-dissolution. In 1935, the professional association of senior teachers, the Hamburg Philologists' Association, was forced to dissolve itself under the pressure imposed on it. The NSLB, now the only professional organisation for teachers in Hamburg, was incorporated into the Political Organisation of the NSDAP. After the beginning of the war, the NSLB lost more and more importance. In the course of the "total war" in February 1943 the Hamburg NSLB was also "shut down" for the duration of the war, at the command of the Führer. His story was thus already over two years before the fall of the dictatorship.
Did you know that many of the greatest and most colourful Ottoman statesmen and literary figures from the 15th to the early 20th century considered plague as a grave threat to their empire? And did you know that many Ottomans applauded the establishment of a quarantine against the disease in 1838 as a tool to resist British and French political and commercial penetration? Or that later Ottoman sanitation effort to prevent urban outbreaks would help engender the Arab revolt against the empire in 1916? Birsen Bulmus explores these facts in an engaging study of Ottoman plague treatise writers throughout their almost 600-year struggle with this epidemic disease. Along the way, she addresses the political, economic and social consequences of the methods they used to combat it.
Au XVIIIe siècle, quelques jours, parfois une dizaine à la mauvaise saison, étaient nécessaires pour accomplir le trajet entre Bruxelles et Vienne, lequel passait le plus souvent par Cologne, Francfort, Nuremberg, Ratisbonne, Passau et Linz. On peut penser que, ne quittant à aucun moment les terres d'Empire à l'occasion de ce périple, et en un temps où le cosmopolitisme des élites était une réalité, renforcée encore par l'usage commun de la langue française, les voyageurs n'avaient que peu d'occasions de ressentir un véritable dépaysement. Ce serait sans compter, cependant, avec le caractère très particulier des Pays-Bas au sein de l'ensemble habsbourgeois. Farouchement attachés à leurs privilèges, tant locaux que principautaires, ces derniers avaient laissé, en effet, au très lucide prince de Kaunitz, qui y séjourna longuement au cours des années 1730 et 1740, une impression peu favorable quant à leur aptitude à accepter la politique de centralisation qu'il allait pourtant bientôt se charger de mettre en oeuvre, depuis Vienne, au côté des souverains. C'est donc dans le contexte d'une permanente tension entre les velléités centralisatrices viennoises et le particularisme « belgique » que de nombreux serviteurs de « la Monarchie » furent amenés à se déplacer d'une capitale à l'autre tout au long des huit décennies du régime autrichien. On peut s'étonner, d'ailleurs, de ce qu'avant le très autocrate et très inquisiteur Joseph II, aucun souverain viennois n'ait jugé utile de séjourner dans cette « plus belle province de la Monarchie », pourtant régulièrement vantée par Marie-Thérèse. À proximité de Paris tout comme des îles britanniques, autre centre important des Lumières, Bruxelles était à même d'offrir à Vienne – capitale est-européenne quelque peu excentrée et pas encore promue alors à ce rang de métropole culturelle qu'elle occupera brillamment lors des décennies suivantes – un contact avec toutes les nouveautés provenant notamment de la galaxie parisienne. On le devine, danseurs, comédiens et musiciens circulaient alors sans frein entre les deux capitales, tout comme les goûts et les modes. Mais les idées paraissent, quant à elles, avoir eu un peu plus de difficultés à franchir les frontières.
Peter Borowsky (1938-2000) was a committed historian and enthusiastic historian. For more than 30 years he taught modern history at the History Department of the University of Hamburg. He left a lasting mark on generations of students through his competence and his way of conveying history in a lively way. This is also evident in the 14 contributions to German history in the 19th and 20th centuries, which are published here for the first time. The topics range from the Hohenzollern region to the political culture of the Federal Republic of Germany and include students in the revolution of 1848, Hamburg's 19th century history, the development from the Weimar Republic to the "Third Reich", German relations with Eastern European countries and the USA. Two texts deal vividly with the history of German historiography and the "Historian's Dispute".
