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"Key scholars provide comprehensive coverage of central issues in historiography of Puerto Rican migration to US. Includes chapters on economic forces, family life, impact on women, education, literature, music, return migration, and political status. Excellent bibliography"--Handbook of Latin American Studies, v. 58

The relative importance and relationship between psychological and situational factors in predicting commuter-transport-mode choice was tested by four hypotheses. First, the influence of individuals' values on commuter behavior is mediated by their corresponding beliefs about the environmental threat of cars (mediation hypothesis). Second, the influence of these beliefs on behavior is moderated by individual consideration of future consequences and control beliefs (moderation hypothesis). Third, cost, time, and access factors contribute to individuals' commuter choice (situational hypothesis). Fourth, situational and psychological factors jointly influence proenvironmental behavior (interaction hypothesis). A sample of 205 Australian university students completed a survey to measure these relationships. Regression analyses indicated support for the mediation, situational, and interaction hypotheses. It was concluded that to achieve a transport-mode shift to public transport, public policy strategies should focus on individuals' transport-related environmental beliefs (personal control and environmental effect of cars) and situations (access to public transport at reduced cost).

Welfare recipients face a number of obstacles to making the transition from welfare to work. One is their geographical separation from employment opportunities: many welfare recipients live in 'job-poor' neighbourhoods far from employment for which they are qualified. Combining administrative data on welfare recipients and employment in Los Angeles with data from the 1990 decennial census, we show that greater access to local jobs in low-wage firms increases the likelihood that welfare recipients find employment in neighbourhood jobs. Moreover, welfare recipients who have long commutes earn less than those who find work closer to home, contrary to the pattern for most workers. These findings demonstrate that proximity to low-wage jobs benefits welfare recipients through reduced commuting expenses and increased earnings.

Car production in Malaysia increasing dramatically. This situation created serious impact such as pollution and congestion. The Malaysian government should find a proper solution to prevent the vehicles growth by controlling them and improve public transportation services. The only way to get people to switch to public transportation is by improving the public transport system becomes more efficient. To find out the solution, an understanding of traveler behavior by applying to mode choice model using binary logit approach is necessary. Stated preferences method was adopted in order to construct hypothetical choice in current and future situations. A total of 250 respondents were selected as the sample based on the research study. This research employed a discrete choice analysis to examine the relationship between the independent variables (travel time, fares, comfort and safety). With variation of trip purpose (school, work, leisure activity, and shopping), model has been developed and tested to check the validity. The result shows that the potential of new train services to compete with the current commuter (KTM) and private car user are quite competitive. This is no doubt due to the characteristics of the respondent to choose a good level of services especially a better comfortability and safety with an affordable price (fares). It can be concluded that scenario 2 has great potential to be implemented since forecasting demand reached above 90%.

Understanding differential policy costs across constituencies, and how they link to legislators' policy preferences, can facilitate policy changes that solve pressing problems. We examine the role of policy costs on constituents by studying legislator support for taxing gasoline. Analysis of survey responses from US state legislators, as well as of their voting records, shows that legislators whose constituents would be most affected by an increased gas tax—those whose constituents have longer commutes—are more likely to oppose higher gas taxes. Separately estimating the impact of time spent driving to work versus using public transit shows that the effect of commute times comes from those who have long drives, not from those who ride public transit, highlighting how the policy costs to constituents is a major driver in legislators' considerations. We finish the article by discussing the implications of our findings for combating climate change and for understanding policy feedbacks.

Car production in Malaysia is increase dramatically. This situation created serious impact such as pollution and congestion. The Malaysian government should find a proper solution to prevent the vehicles growth by controlling them and improve public transportation services. The only way to get people switch to pubic transportation is by improving the public transport system becomes more efficient. To find out the solution, an understanding of traveller behavior by apply mode choice model using binary logit approach is necessary. Stated preferences method was adopted in order to construct hypothetical choice in current and future situations. A total of 250 respondents were selected as the sample based on the research study. This research employed a discrete choice analysis to examine the relationship between the independent variables (travel time, fares, comfort and safety). With variation of trip purpose (school, work, leisure activity, and shopping), model has been developed and tested to check the validity. The result shows that the potential of new train services to compete with the current commuter (KTM) and private car user are quite competitive. This is no doubt due to the characteristics of the respondent to choose a good level of services especially a better comfortability and safety with an affordable price (fares). It can be concluded that scenario 2 has great potential to be implemented since forecasting demand reached above 90%.

Chapter One: U.S. Shared-Use Vehicle Findings: Opportunities and Obstacles for Carsharing & Station Car GrowthShared-use vehicle services provide members access to a fleet of vehicles for use throughout the day, without the hassles and costs of individual auto ownership. From June 2001 to July 2002, the authors surveyed 17 U.S. shared-use vehicle service organizations on a range of topics, including organizational size, strategic partnerships, pricing strategies, insurance costs, and technology applications. While survey findings demonstrate a decline in the number of organizational starts in the last year, the rate of operational launches into new cities, membership, and fleet size continue to increase. Several growth-oriented organizations in the U.S. are responsible for the majority of this expansion. The authors explore several factors that challenge shared-use vehicle growth, such as high capital investment (or start-up costs), dramatic hikes in insurance rates, and scarcity of cost-effective technologies.The authors conclude that while early niche market findings are encouraging, the ability of this emerging sector to actualize its total environmental, economic, and social goals may be limited without the collective support of private industry (e.g., automakers, insurance providers, technology producers), public agents (e.g., transit and governmental agencies), and shared-use vehicle programs. Indeed, public-private partnerships and cooperation among shared-use vehicle providers may play a key role in addressing insurance and technology costs and assuring the long-term viability of this market.Chapter Two: A Framework for Testing Innovative Transportation Solutions: A Case Study of Carlink—A Commuter Carsharing ProgramTransit accounts for just two percent of total travel in the U.S. One reason for low ridership is limited access; many individuals either live or work too far from a transit station. In developing transit connectivity solutions, researchers often employ a range of study instruments, such as stated-preference surveys, focus groups, and pilot programs. To better understand response to one innovative transit solution, the authors employed a number of research tools, including: a longitudinal survey, field test, and pilot program. The innovation examined was a commuter carsharing model, called CarLink, which linked short-term rental vehicles to transit and employment centers. Over several years, researchers explored user response to the CarLink concept, a field operational test (CarLink I), a pilot program (CarLink II), and a commercial operation (the pilot was turned over to Flexcar in summer 2002). This multi-staged approach provided an opportunity for researchers to learn and adapt as each phase progressed. In this paper, the authors outline the CarLink model, technology, and early lessons learned; describe CarLink II operational understanding; provide a synopsis of the pilot program transition; and offer recommendations for future model development.Chapter Three: Travel Effects of a Suburban Commuter-Carsharing Service: A Carlink Case StudySince 1998, carsharing programs (or short-term auto rentals) in the U.S. have experienced exponential membership growth. As of July 2003, 15 carsharing organizations collectively claimed 25,727 members and 784 vehicles. Given this growing demand, decision makers and transit operators are increasingly interested in understanding the potential for carsharing services to increase transit use, reduce auto ownership, and lower vehicle miles traveled. However, to date, there is only limited evidence of potential program effects in the U.S. and Europe. This paper presents the travel effects of CarLink?a commuter carsharing model with explicit links to transit and employment in a suburban environment?in the context of participant demographic and attitudinal market profiles. A variety of research methods (including focus groups, interviews, questionnaires, and travel diaries) captured the following commute travel effects from the CarLink I and II programs:* Increased commuter rail mode share by 23 percentage points in CarLink I and II; * Reduced drive-alone mode share by 44 and 23 percentage points in CarLink I and II, respectively; * Decreased average daily vehicle miles traveled by 23 miles in CarLink II and by 18 miles in CarLink I; * Increased travel time but reduced stress; * Reduced vehicle ownership by almost six percent in CarLink II; and * Reduced parking demand at participating train stations and among member businesses.The typical CarLink I and II member was more likely to be highly educated, in an upper income bracket, and professionally employed than average Bay Area residents. CarLink I and II members also displayed sensitivity to congestion, willingness to experiment, and environmental concern. The travel results of CarLink I and II are compared to those of neighborhood carsharing models in the U.S. and Europe to suggest the importance of CarLink's explicit transit and employment connections and the value of carsharing in a suburban location.Chapter Four: Applying Integrated ITS Technologies to Carsharing System Management: A Carlink Case StudyCarsharing is the short-term use of a shared vehicle fleet by authorized members. Since 1998, U.S. carsharing services have experienced exponential growth. At present, there are 13 carsharing organizations. Over the past three years, electronic and wireless technologies have been developed that can facilitate carsharing system management in the U.S., improve customer services, and reduce program costs. This paper examines the U.S. carsharing market; the role of advanced technology in program management, including CarLink lessons learned; and technology benefits to this nascent market.Chapter Five: Carlink—A commuter Carsharing Model: Conditions for Economic ViabilityAt present, only a few alternatives exist to facilitate transit access. To expand the suite of viable modes, more demand-responsive mobility services should be developed. Under specific conditions, short-term rental vehicles linked to transit (or commuter carsharing) can offer a sustainable transportation alternative to private vehicles, particularly in suburban locations where transit connectivity is more limited. From January to November 1999, a commuter carsharing model, called CarLink I, was tested in the East San Francisco Bay Area. Building on CarLink I, the CarLink II pilot program was deployed from July 2001 to June 2002 in the South San Francisco Bay Area with the option of transitioning to a third-party provider. Examination of CarLink I and II economic data and scenario analyses—which explore program modification effects on viability—revealed several economic success factors. In addition to fixed monthly CarLink rates, the introduction of hourly rentals is an important strategy to diversify CarLink income streams and maximize vehicle use, as well as a revenue-risk sharing approach among partner participants (e.g., employers, transit providers). Additional strategies to create more viable commuter carsharing services include raising rates for business customers, lowering insurance rates, controlling costs through technology and scale, and marketing strategies.

Chapter One: U.S. Shared-Use Vehicle Findings: Opportunities and Obstacles for Carsharing & Station Car Growth Shared-use vehicle services provide members access to a fleet of vehicles for use throughout the day, without the hassles and costs of individual auto ownership. From June 2001 to July 2002, the authors surveyed 17 U.S. shared-use vehicle service organizations on a range of topics, including organizational size, strategic partnerships, pricing strategies, insurance costs, and technology applications. While survey findings demonstrate a decline in the number of organizational starts in the last year, the rate of operational launches into new cities, membership, and fleet size continue to increase. Several growth-oriented organizations in the U.S. are responsible for the majority of this expansion. The authors explore several factors that challenge shared-use vehicle growth, such as high capital investment (or start-up costs), dramatic hikes in insurance rates, and scarcity of cost-effective technologies. The authors conclude that while early niche market findings are encouraging, the ability of this emerging sector to actualize its total environmental, economic, and social goals may be limited without the collective support of private industry (e.g., automakers, insurance providers, technology producers), public agents (e.g., transit and governmental agencies), and shared-use vehicle programs. Indeed, public-private partnerships and cooperation among shared-use vehicle providers may play a key role in addressing insurance and technology costs and assuring the long-term viability of this market. Chapter Two: A Framework for Testing Innovative Transportation Solutions: A Case Study of Carlink—A Commuter Carsharing Program Transit accounts for just two percent of total travel in the U.S. One reason for low ridership is limited access; many individuals either live or work too far from a transit station. In developing transit connectivity solutions, researchers often employ a range of study instruments, such as stated-preference surveys, focus groups, and pilot programs. To better understand response to one innovative transit solution, the authors employed a number of research tools, including: a longitudinal survey, field test, and pilot program. The innovation examined was a commuter carsharing model, called CarLink, which linked short-term rental vehicles to transit and employment centers. Over several years, researchers explored user response to the CarLink concept, a field operational test (CarLink I), a pilot program (CarLink II), and a commercial operation (the pilot was turned over to Flexcar in summer 2002). This multi-staged approach provided an opportunity for researchers to learn and adapt as each phase progressed. In this paper, the authors outline the CarLink model, technology, and early lessons learned; describe CarLink II operational understanding; provide a synopsis of the pilot program transition; and offer recommendations for future model development. Chapter Three: Travel Effects of a Suburban Commuter-Carsharing Service: A Carlink Case Study Since 1998, carsharing programs (or short-term auto rentals) in the U.S. have experienced exponential membership growth. As of July 2003, 15 carsharing organizations collectively claimed 25,727 members and 784 vehicles. Given this growing demand, decision makers and transit operators are increasingly interested in understanding the potential for carsharing services to increase transit use, reduce auto ownership, and lower vehicle miles traveled. However, to date, there is only limited evidence of potential program effects in the U.S. and Europe. This paper presents the travel effects of CarLink?a commuter carsharing model with explicit links to transit and employment in a suburban environment?in the context of participant demographic and attitudinal market profiles. A variety of research methods (including focus groups, interviews, questionnaires, and travel diaries) captured the following commute travel effects from the CarLink I and II programs: * Increased commuter rail mode share by 23 percentage points in CarLink I and II; * Reduced drive-alone mode share by 44 and 23 percentage points in CarLink I and II, respectively; * Decreased average daily vehicle miles traveled by 23 miles in CarLink II and by 18 miles in CarLink I; * Increased travel time but reduced stress; * Reduced vehicle ownership by almost six percent in CarLink II; and * Reduced parking demand at participating train stations and among member businesses. The typical CarLink I and II member was more likely to be highly educated, in an upper income bracket, and professionally employed than average Bay Area residents. CarLink I and II members also displayed sensitivity to congestion, willingness to experiment, and environmental concern. The travel results of CarLink I and II are compared to those of neighborhood carsharing models in the U.S. and Europe to suggest the importance of CarLink's explicit transit and employment connections and the value of carsharing in a suburban location. Chapter Four: Applying Integrated ITS Technologies to Carsharing System Management: A Carlink Case Study Carsharing is the short-term use of a shared vehicle fleet by authorized members. Since 1998, U.S. carsharing services have experienced exponential growth. At present, there are 13 carsharing organizations. Over the past three years, electronic and wireless technologies have been developed that can facilitate carsharing system management in the U.S., improve customer services, and reduce program costs. This paper examines the U.S. carsharing market; the role of advanced technology in program management, including CarLink lessons learned; and technology benefits to this nascent market. Chapter Five: Carlink—A commuter Carsharing Model: Conditions for Economic Viability At present, only a few alternatives exist to facilitate transit access. To expand the suite of viable modes, more demand-responsive mobility services should be developed. Under specific conditions, short-term rental vehicles linked to transit (or commuter carsharing) can offer a sustainable transportation alternative to private vehicles, particularly in suburban locations where transit connectivity is more limited. From January to November 1999, a commuter carsharing model, called CarLink I, was tested in the East San Francisco Bay Area. Building on CarLink I, the CarLink II pilot program was deployed from July 2001 to June 2002 in the South San Francisco Bay Area with the option of transitioning to a third-party provider. Examination of CarLink I and II economic data and scenario analyses—which explore program modification effects on viability—revealed several economic success factors. In addition to fixed monthly CarLink rates, the introduction of hourly rentals is an important strategy to diversify CarLink income streams and maximize vehicle use, as well as a revenue-risk sharing approach among partner participants (e.g., employers, transit providers). Additional strategies to create more viable commuter carsharing services include raising rates for business customers, lowering insurance rates, controlling costs through technology and scale, and marketing strategies.

Commuting is a global phenomenon that has primarily been studied in terms of its costs. However, anecdotes and recent theorizing suggest that some employees enjoy their commutes. Is it, thus, possible that commuting can also be beneficial for employees? We integrate the Work–Home Resources model with the Conservation of Resources theory to conceptualize commuting as a source of recovery that facilitates daily resource gain spanning the commute-, work-, and home domain. Specifically, we hypothesize that morning commute recovery experiences (relaxation, mastery and detachment) trigger resource gains in the work domain, manifesting in increased subjective vitality as a manifestation of physical and cognitive energy. Higher levels of subjective vitality in the work domain, in turn, are positively related to work-to-home commute recovery experiences and associated subjective vitality in the home domain. Furthermore, we explore commute duration as a contingency factor of the relationships between commute recovery experiences and subjective vitality at work and home. A diary across ten workdays largely supports our hypothesized model. On days with higher levels of relaxation during the morning commute, employees experience daily resource gains that culminate in increased evening subjective vitality in the home domain through relaxation during the evening commute.

It’s a standard story at this point: work-from-home seems to be establishing itself as commonplace in many companies–at least in the “hybrid” form where many or most workers come into the office 3-4 days each week, but work from home the remaining time. For many workers, part of the benefit is avoiding a commute to … Continue reading Earning the Commute: Effects of the Pandemic on Real Estate
The post Earning the Commute: Effects of the Pandemic on Real Estate first appeared on Conversable Economist.

Bus rapid transit has become an increasingly popular investment in cities in the Global South, where policy discourse often positions BRT as a pro-poor investment. Planners usually expect BRT to reduce commute times in urban areas, particularly for economically disadvantaged populations, thus reducing mobility gaps between transit users across different socioeconomic population groups. Despite increased interest in BRT, there is surprisingly limited research testing these assumptions. Using data from a retrospective survey administered in Barranquilla, Colombia, and Cape Town, South Africa, we investigated whether BRT contributes to reducing commute time gaps between socioeconomic populations. Our comparative and distributional analyses indicate that, while BRT narrowed the gap in commute times in Cape Town, it did not contribute to closing the gap in Barranquilla. We argue that this contradiction may, in part, be explained by the degree to which BRT route configuration responded to the urban form and pre-BRT transit conditions in each city—two factors often overlooked in academic literature and discussions surrounding BRT planning. We close by providing policy recommendations that promote more equitable planning practices and recognize the links between transport and land uses in the Global South urban context.

ObjectivesIncreasing cycle commute uptake could be an important approach to improving worker health and reducing carbon emissions, congestion and air pollution. In order to increase cycle commute uptake, we must understand the characteristics of those who already cycle to work and the aspects of physical infrastructure that could promote cycling.
MethodsIn this work, we use administrative data pertaining to those in employment aged 16-74 years living and working in Glasgow and Edinburgh, Scotland on the night of the 2011 population census. We calculate distances to the nearest cycle path for each individual from cycle route data from around the time of the census that were made computer readable. We looked at the characteristics of those who cycled to work and how proximity to nearest cycle path differed between groups along with how distance from place of residence and place of work to nearest cycle path influenced cycle commute uptake.
ResultsWe show how the propensity to cycle commute differs across population characteristics such as sex, age and the National Statistics Socio-economic classification and how the interaction of these factors affects propensity to cycle commute. We also show the ways in which living and working closer to on- and off-road cycle paths increases the likelihood of cycle commuting.
DiscussionThe results of this study can be used to inform the most promising groups to aim cycling interventions at thereby improving health and environmental outcomes.

In major cities parking costs typically exceed automobile running costs, while the time to find a parking spot and walk to work can be comparable to driving time. Yet models of urban commuting have ignored parking completely. The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of parking on morning rush hour congestion and to assess the relative merits of road tolls and parking fees as tools for congestion relief. The paper extends Vickrey's (1969) bottleneck road congestion model by assuming on-street parking is located along commuting routes radiating from the CBD. Absent pricing, drivers occupy parking spots in order of increasing distance from the CBD. Three pricing schemes are considered: 1) an optimal time-varying road toll, 2) competitively set parking fees, and 3) optimal location-dependent parking fees. The optimal road toll is shown to eliminate queueing, but does not affect the order in which parking spots are occupied. In contrast, competitive parking fees do nothing to reduce queueing , but induce drivers to park in order of decreasing distance from the CBD, so that in the aggregate commuters arrive at work closer to their preferred time. Optimal parking fees reduce queueing in addition to supporting the efficient order of parking. For reasonable parameter values competitively set parking fees are found to be relatively inefficient-indeed potentially welfare-reducing. Optimal parking fees, however, are generally superior to a road toll. In light of the logistical drawbacks of tolls and political opposition that road pricing has met, this suggests that parking fees deserve more attention than they have received in the literature.