The events designed and disseminated through social networks and from the perspective of transmedia storytelling are integrated into territorial marketing strategies as resources that reinforce the value of destinations. This type of events is key element in the construction of the World Heritage Sites (Unesco) brands. The new role of tourists as proactive users and the engagement generated towards the destination management organization are decisive elements for the online reputation management of territories. The monitoring of events let us evaluate the participation and interaction of tourist users in platforms 2.0. The aim of this research is to analyze the engagement (global, positive and negative) of events 2.0 integrated into the marketing strategy of the 40 World Cultural Heritage Sites in Spain on Facebook and Twitter. These social networks are the most frequently used in marketing strategies of destination marketing organizations. An exploratory study of events integrated in digital tourism marketing strategy of the World Cultural Heritage Sites is carried out through content analysis. Results show that there are substantial differences in the management of events 2.0. The different levels of interaction (reactions, sharing and comments) allow the destination marketing organizations (DMOs) to evaluate the rate of engagement. This latter parameter can be used as a reference for the efficient design of future events linked to the 2.0 promotion of cultural destinations. ; En la construcción de las marcas de los Sitios Patrimonio Mundial (Unesco), los eventos que utilizan redes sociales y narrativa transmedia en su diseño y difusión se integran en las estrategias de marketing territorial como recursos que refuerzan el valor de los destinos. El nuevo rol que asume el turista como usuario proactivo y el engagement generado hacia la organización gestora del destino representa la clave fundamental de la reputación online de los territorios. A través de la monitorización de los eventos se evalúa la participación e interacción del usuario turístico en plataformas digitales y medios sociales. El objetivo de esta investigación es analizar el engagement (global, positivo y negativo) de los eventos 2.0 vinculados a la estrategia de marketing de los 40 Sitios Patrimonio Mundial Cultural en España, a partir de su difusión en Facebook y Twitter como principales perfiles sociales. Mediante el análisis de contenido se realiza un estudio exploratorio de los eventos integrados en la estrategia digital de marketing turístico de los SPMC. Tras la investigación se concluye que existen diferencias sustanciales en la gestión de los eventos 2.0. Los diferentes niveles de interacción (reacciones, compartir y comentarios) permiten a las organizaciones de marketing de destinos (OMDs) evaluar el engagement generado. Este parámetro se puede utilizar como referencia para el diseño eficiente de futuros eventos vinculados a la promoción 2.0 de los destinos culturales. ; This work has been developed by the Institutional, Political and Social Advertising Research Group (Gepips) of the University of Alicante, within the framework of the I3CE Research Network Program for University Teaching of the Education Sciences Institute and the Vicerectorate of Educational Quality and Innovation of the University of Alicante (Call 2018-19). Ref.: (4338) Protocol inter-university network of collaborative work in protocol, event management and institutional relations (2010-2019).
Among the most emblematic and most visited heritages of Marseille, there are the four forts which command it (castle of If, fort of Notre-Dame of the Garde, forts Saint-Nicolas and Saint-Jean). However, their introduction into tourism is more a myth than an intrinsic military nature. Apart from these media locomotives, several dozens of contemporary military works punctuate the municipal territory, on the edge or set back from the coastline, waiting for an enemy coming from the sea. The coast and the islands are at this point full of forts and coastal batteries of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, made in the expectation of an enemy coming from the sea. Through their relentless refactoring – reduced - model 1846, then coastal batteries updated with shelter under rock after the crisis of the shell-torpedo in 1887, then blockhouse of the organization Todt, set up in the framework of SudWall from 1943), these massive structures covering sublime sites relate to those who want to hear it the arms race, the technical escalation of the armour struggle against an ever more powerful projectile, and in this respect the violence of the blows which were wiped off by the Marseille works in the last days of August 1944, during the fighting of the Liberation. The delay in the protection of this military heritage, which is now being completed by the Ministry of Defence, has begun in 1970 with the sale of the Frioul archipelago to the city. Beyond their significance for scientific and technical culture, these objects pose the problem of their heritage status, on the one hand because they lost their weaponry which constituted its reason to be, and because they are the result of pre-established patterns, repeated several hundred copies along the coast, and lastly because they bear the wounds of the blows received, an extraordinary conservatory, but an instable one, of an archeology of the seat. Their protection, therefore requires a previous thorough inventory in order to estimate their relative value so as not to blindly protect, to rapidly carry out so many unconscious disappearances are increasing today. But the patrimonial recognition of these objects passes through a memory appropriation that is hard to do, in Marseille perhaps more than elsewhere. Is it due to the mixed identities which constitute the different memorial layers of this balcony on the Mediterranean?
As Thierry Bonnot reminded in Biographies d'objets, it is the relational object that must above all focus the attention of the humanities studies. After being interested in objects as communication media in a first thesis, it is now in objects as media for exchanges in and outside Jewish communities at the end of the Middle Ages, in a larger territory a priori, the Catalan-Aragonese area with some Provencal parallels. Combining economic anthropology, sociology, even social psychology, and archeology, the approach will again be interdisciplinary, but more on the side of history than of the history of art this time. Why this obsession with objects? No doubt this should be compared to what Antoine Hennion and Bruno Latour noted in 1993: "Objects do something, and first of all they make us". Certain exchanges of objects punctuate the stages of life, are linked to religious practice, to the notion of family transmission or even to Justice and politics, and reflect the different contexts of an era, in both private and public spheres. In the era of the last centuries of coexistence of communities before the expulsions of the Jews, with many decrees against them, the paradoxes are also numerous, and one can even find Christian sacred objects in some Jewish hands. Furniture, trinkets, books therefore, but also other "things" can be considered here, mentioned in archival documents, notarial, judicial acts, even responsa . always with a notion of value and mobility, even reuse, and overall, a notion of survival to a certain extent (permanent inert elements witnessing the living, mortals), even if they have not all get reach to us. Moreover, the objects seem to be an emerging subject and museum exhibitions of medieval objects linked to Jewish communities are relatively recent, and still very limited on the French area but about to expand. ; Comme rappelait Thierry Bonnot dans Biographies d'objets, c'est l'objet relationnel qui doit surtout retenir l'attention des sciences humaines et sociales. Après m'être intéressée aux objets comme supports de communication dans une première thèse, c'est à présent aux objets comme supports d'échanges dans et hors les communautés juives à la fin du Moyen-âge, dans un territoire plus vaste a priori, catalano-aragonais avec quelques parallèles provençaux. Mêlant Anthropologie économique, Sociologie, voire Psychologie sociale, et Archéologie, l'approche sera à nouveau interdisciplinaire, mais plus du côté de l'Histoire que de l'Histoire de l'Art cette fois. Pourquoi cette obsession des objets ? Sans doute est-ce à rapprocher de ce qu'Antoine Hennion et Bruno Latour marquaient en 1993 : «Les objets font quelque chose, et d'abord ils nous font». Certains échanges d'objets rythment des étapes de vie, sont liés à la pratique religieuse, à la notion de transmission familiale ou même à la Justice et à la politique, et reflètent les différents contextes d'une époque, dans des sphères privées comme publiques. A l'ère des derniers siècles de coexistence de communautés avant les expulsions des juifs, avec de nombreux décrets contre eux, les paradoxes sont d'ailleurs nombreux, et on peut même trouver des objets sacrés chrétiens dans certaines mains juives. Meubles, bibelots, livres donc, mais aussi d'autres "choses" peuvent être considérées ici, mentionnées dans des documents d'archives, les actes notariés, judiciaires ou des responsa.avec toujours une notion de valeur et de mobilité, pourquoi pas de réutilisation et globalement, une notion de survivance dans une certaine mesure (des éléments inertes pérennes témoins des vivants, mortels), même s'ils ne sont pas tous parvenus jusqu'à nous. D'ailleurs les objets semblent un sujet émergent et les expositions muséales des objets médiévaux liés aux communautés juives sont relativement récentes, et encore bien restreintes côté français mais appelées à se développer.
Tarkastelen pro gradussani Venäjällä vuonna 2012 merkittäväksi keskusteluaiheeksi nousseen ulkomaalaisten agenttien käsitettä. Tarkoituksenani on kuvata, ymmärtää ja arvioida kriittisesti ilmiötä, jossa aiemmin epämuodollinen ja erittäin kiistanalaista käsitettä alettiin soveltaa juridisesti venäläisiin kansalaisjärjestöihin. Pyrin kuvaamaan ulkomaalaisten agenttien käsitteen virallisten ja epävirallisten tasojen yhteisoloa, näiden olemusta, ideoita, uskomuksia ja käytännön ilmentymiä. Tarkoituksenani on myös arvioida tämän ilmiön kautta venäläistä politiikkaa sen kansallisen hallintavaltaperinteen ja kansainvälisen hallintavallan näkökulmista. Lähestymistapani tutkimukseen on rakenteellinen ja tutkimusmenetelmäni on foucault'lainen diskurssianalyysi ja tiedon arkeologia. Aineistoni koostuu Venäjän Federaation laista, joka teki kesällä 2012 ulkomaalaisista agenteista juridisen käsitteen, minkä lisäksi käytän primääriaineistonani uutisartikkeleita kolmelta venäläiseltä mediayhtiöltä ensimmäisen vuoden ajalta siitä, kun edellä mainittu laki hyväksyttiin. Lisäksi käytän teorioita hallintapolitiikasta ja Venäjän tutkimuksesta apunani luodakseni näkökulmia tutkimusaiheeseen. Ulkomaalaiset agentit ilmentävät perinteistä venäläistä vertikaalia hallitokulttuuria, joka on konfliktissa globaalien vaikutusten alla olevan kansalaisjärjestötoiminnan kanssa. Ulkomaalaisten agenttien diskursseissa ilmenee perusteellinen ristiriita siitä, ovatko kansalaisjärjestöt näiden ulkomaalaisten tukijoiden poliittisen tahdon ajajia, onko ulkomaalainen agentti-termi oikeutettu ja rikkovatko uudet hallintosäädökset hyvän hallinnon periaatteita, demokratiaa ja ihmisoikeuksia. Ulkomaalaisten agenttien juridinen perusyksikkö Venäjällä, voittoa tavoittelematon järjestö, on käsitteellisesti voimakkaasti valtiopolitiikka sidonnainen. Venäjän epämuodolliset rakenteet suosivat vahvasti toimijoita, joita ei leimata ulkomaalaisiksi agenteiksi. ; In my pro gradu thesis I examine the concept of foreign agents which arose into the focus of Russian public debate in 2012. My goal is to describe, understand and evaluate critically the phenomenon where the formerly informal and controversial concept was taken into juridical implementation on Russian civil movements. I strive to describe the official and non-official co-existence of foreign agent ideas, their essences, beliefs and various appearances. Through foreign agents my goal is also to evaluate Russian politics and society in perspective of the national tradition of governing and global governmentality. I have a structuralist approach and my primary methods are Foucauldian discourse analysis and archeology of knowledge. My research material consists of the federal law making foreign agents juridical concept in 2012 and news articles from three Russian media companies from the time of the first year since introducing the law. Addingly I reflect relevant Foucauldian theories and research on Russia to bring the research better in contact with established framework of social sciences. Foreign agents embody traditional Russian vertical governing which is in conflict with civil movement activities connected with foreign influences. There appears contradiction of whether the foreign agents are advocates of the will of foreign regimes, if the term usage is correct and legitimate, do the Russian government follow principles of good governing, democracy and human rights. The basic units of foreign agents in Russia are non-commercial organizations that unlike the popularly synonymously used non-governmental organizations have strong discoursive connection with governmental politics in Russia. The non-formal structures in Russia tend to favor existence of the non-foreign agent subjects in Russia.
Peer reviewed ; [EN] This article presents an overview of the current situation of the medieval Islamic archaeology of the Horn of Africa, paying especial attention to the role of the medieval states that for more than three centuries were able to integrate peoples with very different beliefs, lifestyles, languages and ethnicities. The study combines historical and archaeological sources to analyze a specific case in western Somaliland, a region where nomads and urban dwellers –two groups with very different material cultures- lived together for centuries. The analysis of the relationships between these two groups is the base for a proposal to define a framework to understand how the Muslim sultanates were able to generate a cohesive superstructure that provided a remarkable stability for the region during the Middle Ages. This paper has been written with the support of the MEDLANDS project. "Medieval landscapes in the Horn of Africa. State, territory and materiality of the Adal Sultanate (15th-16th centuries AD)" is a project funded by the European Union Marie Skłodowska-Curie actions (H2020-MSCA-IF-2017). The Incipit-CSIC project is funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities and the Palarq Foundation. ; [ES] Este artículo pretende ofrecer una visión general de la arqueología medieval musulmana en el Cuerno de África, poniendo énfasis en el papel de los estados medievales que durante más de tres siglos fueron capaces de integrar poblaciones con creencias, estilos de vida, lenguas y etnias muy diferentes. El estudio combina fuentes históricas y arqueológicas para analizar el caso específico del oeste de Somalilandia, una región en la que grupos sedentarios y nómadas con culturas materiales muy diferentes convivieron durante siglos. A través del análisis de las relaciones entre estos dos grupos se plantea una propuesta sobre el modo en que los estados musulmanes fueron capaces de proporcionar unas marco estable y cohesionado para la región durante toda la Edad Media.
ABSTRACT Trujillo, today is a very attractive city not only in the economic area, but in the last two years has been considered as the second city in preference as a tourist destination in Latin America, highlighting in five categories that includes: culture, art, Natural beauty, diversity and archeology, for which both receptive and domestic tourism has increased considerably in recent times. So, having our city, a huge tourist potential, and having developed for a few decades after a legal institution as it turns out to be the timeshare, is born the concern to know How can be incentivized tourism in the city of Trujillo, using for this purpose the acquisition of real estate affected to the Timeshare System? The hypothesis made at the beginning of this research was based on the statement that "having a strict regulation" would promote tourism development at the region of La Libertad - Trujillo through the acquisition of timeshared properties. The result-oriented objectives set for the development of this research are mainly to analyze, stablish and evidence that through the acquisition of properties under the juridical figure of the time-sharing is possible to enhance the dissemination of tourism in our region, more specifically in Trujillo. In order to obtain the data needed, researches has been made in several communication media such as magazines, books and websites. As well as a market analysis to determinate if such an innovating trend of acquiring a property becomes attractive to the tourist market. One of the other methods to extract data was an interview to the head of the foreign commerce and tourism in La Libertad, and a structure survey applied to the main real estate brokers of our city. Deductive approach was the method selected. Once the research was carried out, results show that in order to encourage tourism in La Libertad – Trujillo, through the juridical figure of the time-sharing, the followings are needed: To perform a strict legislative regulation; and to promote the concept of juridical figure of time-sharing. The final conclusion is that, despite of having the timeshare clear advantages that make it attractive and encourage the acquisition of properties in our country, that legal institution, despite of being consider within our legal system, does not provide with the estimated results, even when it was strictly applied, therefore the elaboration of a new regulation of the legal institution that allows the accomplishments of the expected goals is highly recommended. ; RESUMEN Trujillo, hoy en día resulta ser una ciudad muy atractiva no sólo en el ámbito económico, sino que en los últimos dos años ha sido considerada como la segunda ciudad en preferencia como destino turístico en Latinoamérica, destacando en cinco categorías que incluye: cultura, arte, belleza natural, diversidad y arqueología, por lo cual tanto el turismo receptivo como interno se ha incrementado considerablemente en los últimos tiempos. Así al tener nuestra ciudad, un enorme potencial turístico, y al haberse desarrollado desde hace unas décadas a tras una institución jurídica como resulta ser la multipropiedad, es que nace la inquietud de conocer ¿Cómo se puede incentivar el turismo en la ciudad de Trujillo, empleando para tal fin la adquisición de bienes inmuebles afectados al Sistema de Multipropiedad? La hipótesis formulada al inicio de esta investigación estuvo referida a señalar que "tener una regulación adecuada", permitiría incentivar el turismo en la Región La Libertad–Trujillo, utilizando para ello la figura jurídica de la multipropiedad. Los objetivos planteados para el desarrollo del presente trabajo de investigación están orientados principalmente a analizar, establecer y demostrar que mediante la adquisición de inmuebles afectados a la figura jurídica de la multipropiedad, se puede dar mayor difusión al turismo en nuestra Región, específicamente en la ciudad de Trujillo. Para obtener la información necesaria para arribar a las conclusiones, se ha empleado la investigación en revistas, libros, páginas web, consulta en registros públicos, así como se ha realizado un estudio de mercado, ello con la finalidad de determinar si tal innovadora forma de adquirir la propiedad resulta ser atractiva para los turistas, además se realizó una entrevista al Gerente de Comercio Exterior y Turismo de la Libertad, así como se aplicó cuestionarios estructurados a los principales corredores inmobiliarios de nuestra ciudad a efectos de determinar si dicha institución resulta ser atractiva. los métodos utilizados fueron: el deductivo, analítico – sintético y hermenéutica jurídica. Luego del estudio realizado se puede afirmar que para incentivar el turismo en la Región la Libertad –Trujillo, a través de la figura jurídica de la multipropiedad, resulta necesario que se tenga en consideración lo siguiente: Se realice una adecuada regulación legislativa, así como se promueva la difusión y promoción de la figura jurídica de la multipropiedad. Finalmente, se concluye que pese a tener la multipropiedad claras ventajas que la hacen atractiva e incentivan la adquisición de bienes inmuebles en nuestro país, dicho instituto jurídico, no obstante estar recogido en nuestro ordenamiento jurídico, no ha dado los resultados esperados, habiéndose empleado de manera restringida, por lo cual se recomienda se elabore una nueva regulación de dicho instituto jurídico, que permita el cumplimiento de los fines para los cuales fue creada. ; Tesis
Con questa tesi di dottorato, finalizzata al campo del restauro, ma soprattutto all'uso dell'ICT (Information & Communication Technologies) per il Patrimonio dei Beni Culturali, si vuole dare un contributo all'integrazione tra Sistemi Multimediali Avanzati e Rivalutazione e Conservazione del Sito Archeologico di Pompei, ultimamente oggetto di depauperamento ed incuria. La ricerca è stata sviluppata secondo un piano di lavoro composto da 4 fasi. La prima, nasce dalla volontà di avere un quadro chiaro e preciso, della situazione attuale dell'area Archeologica degli Scavi di Pompei, affrontando vari ambiti, sia dal punto di vista amministrativo, che da quello economico, valutando le possibili pianificazioni in atto e proponendone eventuali credibili. Basti pensare che negli ultimi tre anni, si è constatato che la struttura "Scavi di Pompei" non è stata più sottoposta al controllo della vecchia Soprintendenza, ma a quello del SANP, Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Napoli e Pompei, Ente istituito nel 2008 come organismo periferico del Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, che esercita le sue competenze nell'ambito della tutela, della conservazione e della fruizione pubblica. A questo si affianca, la politica amministrativa che ha subito varie vicissitudini, passando per un commissariamento fino ad arrivare alle ultime vicende note a tutti, con il crollo di alcune case1. Analizzando le nuove politiche di sviluppo del settore culturale turistico, si è potuto constatare che attorno al "Sito Pompei", oggi, ruotano molti dei Fondi, stanziati dalla Comunità Europea o dalla Regione Campania, che potrebbero incentivare proposte di riqualificazione attraverso programmi finalizzati al coinvolgimento di scuole o privati così da poter avvicinare, ancora di più, il pubblico ad una realtà sempre più oggetto di interesse, visto che dai dati Istat risulta che gli Scavi di Pompei hanno una media annua di 2,5 milioni di visitatori. La seconda, si pone come obiettivo, il chiarire la posizione ed il ruolo di Enti come l'UNESCO e l'ICOMOS, che da anni si sono posti l'intento si preservare e promuovere la tutela e la conservazione di questo meraviglioso patrimonio dell'umanità e di investigare il significato ed approfondire la conoscenza del concetto di "Valutazione" e "Conservazione Integrata", avvicinandosi alla teoria dell' Economia dell'Esperienza2, base di moderne dottrine e riferimento per proposte di disegno di attuali leggi nazionali e regionali. La terza, si focalizza sul campo dell'ICT, esplora in modo particolare il mondo del "Museo Virtuale" o dei "Musei Emozionali", nuovi concetti di multimedia interattivi in cui viene introdotta la nozione della quinta dimensione, analizza i nuovi filoni di ricerca della Cultural Heritage, che associano alla Virtual Archeology linguaggi come CVR e VRML, quali mezzi di divulgazione e conoscenza. A questo punto si passa al "core" della ricerca, partendo da progetti di "Multimedia Interattivi" già realizzati, come il MAV di Ercolano o il Museo Virtuale dell'IRAQ, messo a punto dal CNR, per studiare e proporre un nuovo progetto di ricerca che vuole tramite l'utilizzo della Realtà Virtuale, settore in continua evoluzione, consolidare e poter preservare la MEMORIA dei luoghi e soprattutto le CARATTERISTICHE INTRINSECHE del contesto socio – culturale in cui i Beni culturali sono inseriti. Nella quarta ed ultima parte, viene descritta la metodologia di ricerca operativa che ha portato alla ricostruzione di 3 CASE della Regione VI, nella fattispecie la Casa dell'Ara Massima o del Narciso (Reg. VI, 16, 15 a 17), la Casa del Poeta Tragico (Reg. VI, 8, 3 e 5), la e Casa degli Amorini Dorati (Reg. VI, 16, 7 e 38), tipologicamente molto diverse tra loro, e proprio per questo, estremamente interessanti per la sfaccettatura delle informazioni a cui si fa riferimento. La ricostruzione consente un'iterazione multimediale che permetterà allo spettatore di ricostruire un percorso sensoriale attraverso il quale si potrà sviluppare la conoscenza e la trasmissione di valori dell'oggetto proposto, altrimenti non percepibili, se non tramite la Realtà Virtuale. Si passa dall'analisi Filologia al modello matematico vero proprio, che sottende il prototipo tridimensionale, per la ricostruzione interattiva del data base multimediale da associare al Bene culturale "Pompei". Il percorso descritto, sarà integrato con i concetti che fanno capo alla Grafica Immersiva in Real Time dei modelli digitali. Come ricorda la professoressa Guidazzoli (CINECA): ". nuove forme di comunicazione come Internet, streaming video, mondi virtuali all'interno di Virtual Set tenderanno ad integrarsi sempre più in un inevitabile processo di "media morfosi" ed occorre capire quindi quali siano le specificità di ciascun mezzo e quali le sinergie possibili di queste nuove forme di comunicazione nel campo specifico della Virtual Archaeology 3". Questo a voler dimostrare che le tecniche di streaming video, ad esempio, integrate con riprese in Virtual Set paiono particolarmente promettenti nel campo della divulgazione e dell'e-learning sui beni culturali. La procedura adottata, acquisisce maggiore scientificità anche grazie ad un regesto di documenti acquisiti ed un'approfondita bibliografia e sitografia, a supporto di tutta la documentazione prodotta, che consente di poter definire un modello che non sia solo tridimensionale, come del resto accade nei progetti attivi nel campo, ma sia portatore dei reali valori intrinseci che caratterizzavano nell'epoca romana il sito. Dunque, per la ricostruzione di due case della regione VI il progetto ha seguito un lungo iter che è partito dalla ricerca archivistica, delle fonti e di analisi dei monumenti sul posto, per giungere alla ricostruzione del modello matematico delle abitazioni, attraverso l'uso di diverse tecniche di rilievo (diretto, topografico e fotogrammetrico). La ricerca è divenuta "operativa" grazie ai software come AUTOCAD (per la realizzazione di modelli bidimensionali di piante, prospetti e sezioni), PHOTOMODELER (per l'orientamento immagini), RHINOCEROS (per la modellazione 3D), 3D STUDIO MAX (per il Texturing), VRAY (per Rendering foto realistici), CORTONA 3D Viewer (per l'iterazione multimediale in VR). Di fondamentale importanza è stata la strumentazione professionale (Misuratore Laser LEYCA GEOSISTEM, Stazione Totale, CANON EOS 500D), con il quale si è potuto realizzare un sistema digitale avanzato per l'acquisizione di dati numerici e di immagini per la restituzione tridimensionale e la gestione spazio temporale del modello 3D. Il processo di ricerca è stato affiancato da una serie di problematiche legate alla complessità del contesto, in particolare, le attività di acquisizione dati e di rilievo sul luogo, si sono rilevate estremamente lunghe e faticose; nonostante tutto si è cercato di mantenere una linea di ricerca che puntasse: l'elevato grado di dettaglio geometrico - metrico; al fotorealismo, alla leggerezza del modello per la visualizzazione interattiva; alla flessibilità, ai bassi costi e minime risorse hardware, alla conservazione dell'autenticità storica del monumento, alla documentazione completa, accurata e fruibile del bene culturale. Gli obiettivi strategici raggiunti, si possono sintetizzare: sperimentazione di tecniche di rilievo innovative per i beni culturali complessi; integrazione tra differenti metodi di rilievo; elaborazione per la conservazione, divulgazione e fruizione del dato rilevato (anche per un'utenza non specializzata). Ma l'obiettivo principale è stato quello di poter approfondire l'apprendimento dei siti archeologici sia attraverso la formazione di banche dati multimediali, visionabili e consultabili da tutti, che attraverso ricostruzioni virtuali 3D interattive. Fine principale della "VIRTUAL RECONSTRUCTION", è quello di mette in relazione tramite internet, studiosi di varie nazionalità (archeologi, architetti, geologi, ed esperti informatici) che, anche senza conoscersi, contribuiscono al dialogo culturale e alla conoscenza di un monumento o un intero sito archeologico.
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Eyal Weizman on the Architectural-Image Complex, Forensic Archeology and Policing across the Desertification Line
Incidents in global politics are usually apprehended as the patterned interaction of macro-actors such as states. Eyal Weizman takes a different tack—an architect by training, Weizman tackles incidents through detailed readings of heterogeneous materials—digital images, debris, reforestation, blast patterns in ruins—to piece together concrete positions of engagement in specific legal, political, or activist controversies in global politics. In this Talk, Weizman—among others—elaborates on methods across scales and material territories, discusses the interactions of environment and politics, and traces his trajectory in forensic architecture.
Print version of this Talk (pdf)
What is—or should be—according to you, the biggest challenge, central focus or principal debate in critical social sciences?
We live in an age in which there is both a great storm of information and a progressive form of activism seeking to generate transparency in relation to government institutions, corporations or secret services. These forms of exposure exponentially increase the number of primary sources on corporations and state and provide also rare media from war zones, but this by itself does not add more clarity. It could increase confusion and increasingly be used disseminate false information and propaganda. The challenge is to start another process to carefully piece together and compose this information.
I'm concerned with research about armed conflict. Contemporary conflict tends to take place in urban environments saturated with media of varicose sorts, whenever violence is brought into a city, it provokes an enormous production of images, clips, sounds, text, etc.
As conflict in Iraq, Syria, Missouri and the Ukraine demonstrate, one of the most important potential sources for conflict investigations is produced by the very people living in the war zones and made available in social networks almost instantly. The citizens recording events in conflict zones are conscious of producing testimonies and evidence, and importantly so, they do so on their own terms. The emergence of citizen journalists/witness has already restructured the fields of journalism with most footage composing Al Jazeera broadcasts, for example, being produced by non-professional media. The addition of a huge multiplicity of primary sources, live testimonies and filmed records of events, challenge research methods and evidentiary practices. There is much locational and spatial information that can be harvested from within these blurry, shaky and unedited images/clips and architectural methodologies are essential in reconstructing incidents in space. Architecture is a good framework to understand the world, alongside others.
Whereas debates around the 'politics of the image' in the field of photography and visual cultures tended to concentrate on the decoding of single images and photojournalistic trophy shots we now need to study the creation of extensive 'image-complexes' and inhabit this field reconstruct events from images taken at different perspective and at different times. The relation between images is architectural, best composed and represented within 3D models. Architectural analysis is useful in locating other bits of evidence—recorded testimonies, films and photos—from multiple perspectives in relation to one other bits of evidence and cross referring these in space.
But 'image complexes' are about interrogating the field of visibility it is also about absence, failures of representation, blockages or destruction of images.
How did you arrive at where you currently are in your thinking about global politics?
I'm an architect, and my intellectual upbringing is in architectural theory and spatial theory. I tend to hold on to this particular approach when I'm entering a geopolitical context or areas that would otherwise be the domain of journalists and human rights people, traditional jurists, etc. Architecture taught me to pay attention to details, to materiality, to media, and to make very close observations about the way built structures might embody political relations.
When I study political situations, I study them as an architect: I look at the way politics turns into a material—spatial practice—the materialization, and at the spatialization, of political forces. Architectural form—as I explained many times—is slowed-down force. My thinking is structured around a relation between force and form. And form, for an architect, is an entry point from which to read politics. So when I look at matter and material reality—like a building, a destroyed building, a piece of infrastructure, a road or bridge, a settlement or suburb or city—I look at it as a product of a political force field. But it is never static. A city always grows, expands or contracts recording the multiple political relations that shaped it.
Buildings continuously record their environment. So one can read political force on buildings. In taking this approach, I am influenced by building surveyors, and insurance people going into a building to look at a scratch in a wall to piece together what might have happened, and what might still happen. So I feel like a kind of property surveyor on the scale of a city at times of war. But in practicing this forensic architecture I also work like an archaeologist: archaeology is about looking at material remains and trying to piece together the cultural, political, military, or social spheres. But I'm an archaeologist of very recent past or of the present. While some of my investigations will always retain a haptic dimension based on material examination, much of it is an analysis of material captured and registered by various medias. Verify, locate, compose and cross-reference a spatial reality from images of architecture.
What would a student need to become a specialist in your field or understand the world in a global way?
The institutes I run do not recruit only architects. We need to open up the disciplinary bounds of education. We work with filmmakers and architects and with artists.
It embodies a desire to understand architecture as a field of inquiry, with which you can interrogate reality as it is effectively registering material transformation. I see architecture as a way of augmenting our way of seeing things in the world, but it's not for me a kind of sacred field that should not be touched or changed.
But I'm also using architecture across the entire spectrum of its relation to politics, from the very dystopian—with forensic architecture, a kind of architectural pathology—to the utopian. I have a studio in Palestine with Palestinian partners of mine, and internationals. Alessandro Petty and Sandi Hilal are in this group, which is called Decolonizing Architure. It's this group that is engaged in very utopian projects for the West Bank and Palestine and the return of refugees and so on. So I use architecture across the entire spectrum, from the very dystopian to the very utopian. Architecture is simply a way of engaging the world and its politics. Space is the way of establishing relations between things. And actually space is not static, it is both a means of establishing relations between people and objects and things. Just as material itself is always an event, always under transformation. So that is something I have taken from architecture and try to bring into politics, but not only in analyzing crimes, but in producing the reality yet to come.
So what we need from people is the desire to understand aesthetics as a field of inquiry, not simply as a pleasurable play of beauty and pleasing kind of effect, but as a kind of very sensorial field, sensorium, in which you can interrogate reality as it is effectively registering material transformation. So I would look simply for that kind of sensorial intensity and high critical approach and understanding and speculating of how it is we know what we think we know. Of course, you cannot see, or you do not know what you see, you do not have the language to interpret or question what it is you 'see' without abstract constructs. This means I don't necessarily look for theoretical capacities in people: I see theory as a way of augmenting our way of seeing things in the world, of registering them, of decoding them, but it's not for me a kind of sacred field to which I submit in any way.
So what is it you work on now?
I'm mostly trying to establish forensic architecture as a critical field of practice and as an agency that produce and disseminate evidence about war crimes in urban context. Recent forensic investigations in Guatemala and in the Israeli Negev involved the intersection of violence and environmental transformations, even climate change. For trials and truth commissions, we analyze the extent to which environmental transformation intersect with conflict.
The imaging of this previously invisible types of violence—'environmental violence' such as land degradation, the destruction of fields and forests (in the tropics), pollution and water diversion, and also long term processes of desertification—we use as new type of evidence of processes dispersed across time and space. There are other conflicts that unfold in relation to climatic and environmental transformations and in particular in relation to environmental scarcity.
Conflict has reciprocal interaction with environment transformation: environmental change could aggravate conflict, while conflict tends to generate further environmental damage. This has been apparent in Darfur, Sudan where the conflict was aggravated by increased competition over arable due to local land erosion and desertification. War and insurgency have occurred along Sahel—Arabic for 'shoreline'—on the southern threshold of the Sahara Desert, which is only ebbing as million of hectares of former arable land turn to desert. In past decades, conflicts have broken out in most countries from East to West Africa, along this shoreline: Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Sudan, Chad, Niger, Mali, Mauritania, and Senegal. In 2011 in the city of Daraa, farmers' protests, borne out of an extended cycle of droughts, marked the beginning of the Syrian civil war. Similar processes took place in the eastern outskirts of Damascus, Homs, al-Raqqah and along the threshold of the great Syrian and Northern Iraqi Deserts. These transformations impact upon cities, themselves a set of entangled natural/man-made environments. The conflict and hardships along desertification bands compel dispossessed farmers to embark upon increasingly perilous paths of migrations, leading to fast urbanization at the growing outskirts of the cities and slams.
I'm trying to understand these processes across desert thresholds. There has been a very long colonial debate about what is the line beyond which the desert begins. Most commonly it was defined as 200 mm rain per annum. Cartographers were trying to draw it, as it represented, to a certain extent, the limit of imperial control. From this line on, most policing was done through bombing of tribal areas from the air. Since the beginning, the emergence of the use of air power in policing in the post World War I period—aerial control, aerial government—took form in places that were perceived, at the time, as lying beyond the thresholds or edges of the law. The British policing of Iraq, the French in Syria, and Algeria, the Italians in Libya are examples where control would hover in air.
Up to now I was writing about borders that were physical and manmade: walls in the West Bank or Gaza and the siege around it—most notably in Hollow Land (2007, read the introduction here). Now I started to write about borders that are made by the interaction of people and the environment—like the desert line—which is not less violent and brutal. The colonial history of Palestine has been an attempt to push the line of the desert south, trying to make it green or bloom—this is in Ben Gurion's terms—but the origins of this statement are earlier and making the desert green and pushing the line of the desert was also Mussolini's stated aim. On the other hand, climate change is now pushing that line north.
Following not geopolitical but meteorological borders, helps me cut across a big epistemological problem that confines the writing in international relations or geopolitics within the borders organize your writing. Braudel is an inspiration but, for him, the environment of the Mediterranean is basically cyclically fixed. The problem with geographical determinism is that it takes nature as a given, cyclical, milieu which then affects politics—but I think we are now in a period where politics affects nature in the same way in which nature affects politics. The climate is changing in the same speed as human history.
What does your background in architecture add to understanding the global political controversies you engage in?
We are a forensic agency that provides services to prosecution teams around the world. With our amazing members we ran 20-odd cases around the world from the Amazon to Atacama, for the UN, for Amnesty, for Palestinian NGOs, in Gaza of course, West Bank, issues of killings, individual killings in the West Bank that we do now, and much more drastic destructions.
Forensic Architecture is unique in using architectural research methodologies to analyze violations of human rights and international humanitarian law as they bear upon the built environment—on buildings, cities and territories, and this is why we get many commissions. We produced architectural evidence for numerous investigations and presented them in a number of cases in national and international courts and tribunals. We were commissioned by the UN Special Rapporteur for Human Rights to study single destroyed buildings, as well as patterns of destruction, resulting from drone warfare in Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia and Gaza. This study was presented at the UN General Assembly in New York. We developed techniques to locate the remains of buildings and villages overgrown by thick rain forests and presented this material as evidence in the genocide trial of former president Efraín Ríos Montt in the National Court of Guatemala and the Inter-American Court. We quantified and analyzed levels of architectural destruction in Gaza after the 2014 conflict for Amnesty International. We provided architectural models and animations to support a petition against the wall in Battir submitted to the Israeli High Court, helping to win the case.
Recently, we use and deal with the reconstruction of human testimony. Witnesses to war give account of the worst moment of their lives; times when their dear ones have died or hurt. Their memory is disturbed, and tends to be blurred. We have developed a way of very carefully interviewing and discussing with witnesses. Together with them, we build digital models of their own homes. So we can see a very slow process of reconstruction of the relation between memory space and architecture. And events start coming back, through the process of building.
In order to develop this, we needed to explore the historical use of memory and architecture, such as Frances Yates' The Art of Memory (read it here), as well as different accounts on the use of trauma, and bring them into the digital age, bring an understanding of the relation of testimony and evidence into contemporary thinking. Single incidents tend to be argued away as aberrations of 'standard operating procedures'. To bring charges against government and military leaderships, it is necessary to demonstrate 'gross and systematic' violations. This means finding consistent and repeated patterns of violations. Architectural analysis, undertaken on the level of the city is able to demonstrate repetition and transformations in patterns of violation/destruction in space and time—within the battle zone along the duration of the conflict. Architectural analysis is useful not only in dealing with architectural evidence—i.e with destroyed buildings—but also helpful in locating other bits of evidence—testimony films or photos—in relation to one other bits of evidence, and cross referring these in space.
Urban violence unfolds at different intensities, speeds and spatial scales: it is made of patterns of multiple instantaneous events as well as slower incremental processes of 'environmental violence' that affects the transformation of larger territories. We aims to analyze and present the relation between forms of violence that occur at different space and time scales. From eruptive kinetic violence of the instantaneous/human incident through patterns of destruction mapped across and along the duration of urban conflict, to what Rob Nixon calls the 'slow violence' of environmental transformation (read the introduction of the eponymous book here, pdf).
Last question. How does your approach to research relate to, or differ from, approaches to international politics?
To study conflict as a reality that unfolds across multiple scales, we use the microphysical approach—dealing with details, fragments and ruins—as an entry-point from which we will unpack the larger dynamics of a conflict. We reconstruct singular incidents, locate them in space and time to look for and identify patterns, then study these patterns in relation to long terms and wide-scale environmental transformations. This approach seeks to make connections between, what Marc Bloch of the Annales School called 'micro- and macro-history, between close-ups and extreme long shots' in his thesis on historical method. This topological approach is distinct from a traditional scalar one: the macro (political/strategic/territorial) situation will not be seen a root cause for a myriad set of local human right violations (incidents/tactics). In the complex reality of conflict, singularities are equally the result of 'framing conditions' and also contributing factors to phase transitions that might affect, or 'de-frame' as Latour has put it, changes occurring in wider areas. Instead of nesting smaller scales within larger ones, our analysis will seek to fluidly shift from macro to micro, from political conditions to individual cases, from buildings to environments and this along multiple threads, connection and feedback loops.
While in relation to the single incident it might still be possible to establish a direct, liner connection between the two limit figures of the perpetrator and the victim along the model of (international) criminal law, evidence for environmental violence is more scattered and diffused. Instead, it requires the examination of what we call 'field causalities'—causal ecologies that are non-linear, diffused, simultaneous, and that involve multiple agencies and feedback loops, challenging the immediacy of 'evidence'.
Establishing field causalities requires the examination of force fields and causal ecologies, that are non-linear, diffused, simultaneous and involve multiple agencies and feedback loops. Whereas linear causality entails a focus on sequences of causal events on the model of criminal law that seeks to trace a direct line between the two limit figures of victim and perpetrator field causality involves the spatial arrangement of simultaneous sites, actions and causes. It is inherently relational and thus a spatial concept. By treating space as the medium of relation between separate elements of evidence brought together, we aim to expand the analytical scope of forensic architecture. It is inherently relational and thus a spatial concept. By treating space as the medium of relation between separate elements of evidence brought together, field causalities expands the analytical scope of forensic architecture.
Let me illustrate this a bit. Forms of violence are crucially convertible one to another. Drying fields along the Sahel or the Great Syrian Desert, for example, reach a point in which they can no longer support their farmers, contributing to impoverishment, migration to cities, slumnization and waves of protest that might contribute to the eruption of armed conflict. These layers call for a form of architectural analysis able to shift and synthesize information at different scales—from single incidents as they are registered in the immediate spatial setting, through patterns of violations across the entire urban terrain to 'environmental violence' articulated in the transformation of large territories.
Eyal Weizman is an architect, Professor of Visual Cultures and director of the Centre for Research Architecture at Goldsmiths, University of London. Since 2011 he also directs the European Research Council funded project, Forensic Architecture - on the place of architecture in international humanitarian law. Since 2007 he is a founding member of the architectural collective DAAR in Beit Sahour/Palestine. Weizman has been a professor of architecture at the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna and has also taught at the Bartlett (UCL) in London at the Stadel School in Frankfurt and is a Professeur invité at the École des hautes études en sciences sociales (EHESS) in Paris. He lectured, curated and organised conferences in many institutions worldwide. His books include Mengele's Skull (with Thomas Keenan at Sterenberg Press 2012), ForensicArchitecture (dOCUMENTA13 notebook, 2012), The Least of all Possible Evils (Nottetempo 2009, Verso 2011), Hollow Land (Verso, 2007), A Civilian Occupation (Verso, 2003), the series Territories 1,2 and 3, Yellow Rhythms and many articles in journals, magazines and edited books.
Related links
Facultyprofile at Goldsmith Forensic Architecture homepage Read Weizman's introduction to Forensis (2014) here (pdf) Read Weizman's Forensic Architecture: Notes from Fields and Forums (dOCUMENTA 2012) here (pdf) Read Weizman's Lethal Theory (2009) here (pdf) Read the introduction to Weizman's Hollow Land (2007) here (pdf)
Print version of this Talk (pdf)
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