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After 1984 and following economic liberalisation, income inequality in Mexico has increased. Some of the main factors that have contributed to this trend are the relative expansion of the average income in the service sector in relation to the agricultural and manufacturing sectors, which is consistent with arguments such as the rise of services and the reduction of rents in the traded sector, the increase in skill premium, which is in keeping with the skill enhancing trade hypothesis, the fall in unionisation rates and capital concentration. On the other hand, between 1998 and 2002, inequality fell gradually and some of the factors driving this trend are the decrease in returns to skill and union premium, the stabilisation of unionisation rates and a faster movement of low income individuals to higher income activities. This trend is consistent with arguments suggesting temporary adverse effects and cycles in the evolution of income inequality over the longer-run. Households re-composition and transfer income are factors that mitigate inequality, whereas deterioration of the agricultural sector and capital concentration are persistent sources of income dispersion. Econometric analysis with aggregated data finds that the fall in unionisation rates increases inequality and international investment channelled into labour-intensive production has distributional effects. In addition, after a certain level of education its expansion decreases inequality, and decentralised government expenditure benefits income distribution. The study also finds that the relationship between growth and inequality became negative by the late 1980s.

Africanist scholars and African governments are caught in a land policy dilemma. Both neoclassical economic theory and Marxist theory assert that increased concentration of landholding is a precondition to development (Berry, 1988). Neoclassical economic theory demonstrates that, in a market economy, individuals who can use land more productively will bid land away from those whose uses are less valuable. Increased production results from both increased productivity per acre from the change to users with higher managerial skill, and from possible economies of scale in production processes. Likewise, Marxist theory asserts that increased concentration of landholding is central to the formation of the capitalist class, through exploitation of displaced labor and increased use of capital in production (Berry, 1988).

Africanist scholars and African governments are caught in a land policy dilemma. Both neoclassical economic theory and Marxist theory assert that increased concentration of landholding is a precondition to development (Berry, 1988). Neoclassical economic theory demonstrates that, in a market economy, individuals who can use land more productively will bid land away from those whose uses are less valuable. Increased production results from both increased productivity per acre from the change to users with higher managerial skill, and from possible economies of scale in production processes. Likewise, Marxist theory asserts that increased concentration of landholding is central to the formation of the capitalist class, through exploitation of displaced labor and increased use of capital in production (Berry, 1988).

An examination of the impact of recent changes in large-scale migration to the US focuses on variations in entry-point cities. The shift from mostly European migrants to increasing numbers of Hispanic & Asian migrants is analyzed from (1) the position that large-scale immigration is ultimately beneficial for the migrants, the US, & the countries of origin; & (2) the view that recent immigration is a serious national problem. It is argued that spatial concentration exacerbates the negative effects of low skills & low incomes, & the spatial segregation of new immigrants leads to segregation in other areas of life & ultimately a divided society. The role of entry-point cities as way stations to the larger integrated society is changing, & there is evidence that cities like Los Angeles are seeing emerging spatial concentrations of immigrants similar to inner-city concentrations of black poverty. New arrivals are trapped in poverty & isolation in neighborhoods where ethnic groups compete for housing space &, without social intervention, are faced with a downward spiral into hopelessness. 2 Tables, 7 Figures. J. Lindroth

The literature on China indicates that the concentration of economic activities in China is less than in other industrialized countries. Institutional limits are largely held responsible for this finding (e.g. the Hukou system); firms and workers are not able to take full advantage of the benefits from agglomeration economies. China is changing rapidly, however, also in this respect. We show that, by using the methodology developed by Davis and Dingel (2013), high-skilled workers in high-skill intensive sectors sort into larger locations. We demonstrate this for regions, agglomerations, cities, and for skills, occupations, and sectors. The results are strongest for cities and skills, followed by agglomerations and occupations, respectively. Between 2000 and 2010 this sorting process has become stronger, which we interpret as an indication that institutional limitations in China against further agglomeration weaken, and that the consensus in the literature that "Chinese cities are too small" needs some qualification.

The article dwells upon core goals of teaching a foreign language to students of nonlinguistic concentrations with due consideration of the Government strategic objectives to join global information space and modernization of the education, as well as upon possibilities, benefits and drawbacks of introducing various forms of information communicatory technologies in teaching foreign languages at a high school ; В статье рассматриваются основные цели преподавания иностранного языка студентам нелингвистических специальностей с учетом стратегических задач государства по вхождению в глобальное информационное пространство и модернизации системы образования, описываются возможности, преимущества и недостатки введения различных форм информационно-коммуникативных технологий на занятиях по иностранному языку в вузе

Abstract
Welding fumes vary in composition depending on the materials and processes used, and while health outcomes in full-time welders have been widely studied, limited research on apprentices exists. Besides, few data are available for metals such as vanadium and antimony. This study aimed to look at individual metals present in welding fumes in the learning environment of apprentice welders. Forty-three welders and 41 controls were chosen from trade programmes at the Northern Alberta Institute of Technology. Ambient and personal air samples were collected at days 0, 1, 7, and 50 of their training and analysed for mass and metal concentrations using Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. Results showed increases in particle and metal concentrations as apprentices progressed throughout their education and that concentrations at day 50 were similar to levels found in the literature for professional welders. Variable concentrations indicate that some individuals may not properly use the local exhaust ventilation system. Other possible explanation for variations are the position of the sampler on the shoulder, the time spent welding and in each welding position, and the skills of the welders. Strong relationships were observed between particle and metal concentrations, suggesting that these relationships could be used to estimate metal exposure in welders from particle exposure. Welding processes were the most important determinant of exposure in apprentice welders, with Metal Core Arc Welding producing the largest particle concentrations followed by oxyacetylene cutting, and Gas Metal Arc Welding. Health risk assessment showed that welder apprentices are at risk for overexposure to manganese, which suggests that professional welders should be monitored for manganese as they are exposed more than apprentices. Training in proper positioning of local exhaust ventilation system and proper use of respirators are recommended in training facilities.

Abstract Over the 1980–1990 period, employment in producer services industries in the nonmetropolitan United States increased substantially. This growth resulted in the development of nonmetropolitan growth nodes in producer services industries. A growth node refers to a nonmetropolitan area that contains a greater than average concentration of employment in a particular industry sector relative to other nonmetropolitan areas. Moreover, this industry concentration not only increases over time, but also represents an important source of employment growth within the area. With nonmetropolitan counties as the spatial unit of analysis, 317 growth nodes in producer services industries are identified for the 1980–1990 period. Access to workers with clerical and administrative support skills, access to highly educated workers, higher earnings per employed worker, access to recreational amenities, and proximity to metropolitan areas were associated with the development of nonmetropolitan growth nodes in producer services industries during this period.

Holocaust literary memoirs by women reveal distinct gendered differences in the experience of men and women in Nazi concentration camps. These differences are the result of obvious biological differences (e.g., childbirth, menstruation), as well as subtle socially derived differences (e.g., household and mothering skills), which simultaneously disadvantaged and empowered the women. While women's literary memoirs unequivocally demonstrate the inherent perversity of Nazism, they also evoke issues that spark controversies related to gender-based analyses. As in other literary memoirs, women's memoirs raise the persistent challenge of art to express the unimaginable and unthinkable.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to extend recent literature regarding the effects of competition on racial earnings by examining the effects of global competition on racial wages of union and non‐union workers of different skill levels. Additionally, it is intended that inference be drawn regarding whether global competition is a viable means to eliminate racial wage discrimination.Design/methodology/approachThis paper utilizes quantile regression to examine the effect of global competition on the racial wage gap of workers in high‐ and low‐concentration industries at different points along the earnings distribution. Additionally, the analysis utilizes the highest level of import penetration in each industry over the sample period to examine whether global competition is a viable means to eliminate racial wage discrimination.FindingsIn concentrated industries, non‐union whites at most skill levels receive a substantial wage premium compared with their black counterparts. Further, imports reduce racial earnings inequality by significantly decreasing the wages of low‐ and medium‐skill non‐union whites. However, imports cannot mitigate racial earnings discrimination for non‐union workers at most skill levels.Practical implicationsThese findings suggest that, if market forces cannot alleviate racial wage discrimination, government anti‐discriminatory policies may be a necessary measure.Originality/valueNo previous study has examined the effect of global competition on the racial wage gap of workers of different skill levels. Further, no study has empirically tested whether international competition is a viable means to eliminate racial wage discrimination.

AbstractDeterminants of foreigner outmigration from host countries have attracted considerable attention. However, minimal research examines the influence of firms' working environments. Although the third largest economy, Japan's inability to attract skilled foreign labour remains a concern. This study is the first to investigate the effect of Japanese firms' labour segmentation practices on foreign workers' outmigration intentions. Segmentation refers to firms' concentration on foreigner‐specific skills, regarding foreign labour as complementary to local workers. This is widely practised because of immigration policy's avoidance of substituting Japanese labour or causing unemployment. The findings suggest that although foreigner‐specific skills are highly valued in Japan, segmentation could significantly increase foreign workers' outmigration intention. The lifetime employment system in Japan, job satisfaction and original migration motivations also affect outmigration. The results indicate that Japanese policies encouraging firms to employ foreign workers as complementary may harm its attractiveness to skilled foreign labour.

Driving is an intuitive task that requires skills, constant alertness and vigilance for unexpected events. The driving task also requires long concentration spans focusing on the entire task for prolonged periods, and sophisticated negotiation skills with other road users, including wild animals. Modern motor vehicles include an array of smart assistive and autonomous driving systems capable of subsuming some, most, or in limited cases, all of the driving task. Building these smart automotive systems requires software developers with highly technical software engineering skills, and now a lawyer's in-depth knowledge of traffic legislation as well. This paper presents an approach for deconstructing the complicated legalese of traffic law and representing its requirements and flow. Our approach (de)constructs road rules in legal terminology and specifies them in structured English logic that is expressed as Boolean logic for automation and Lawmaps for visualisation. We demonstrate an example using these tools leading to the construction and validation of a Bayesian Network model. We strongly believe these tools to be approachable by programmers and the general public, useful in development of Artificial Intelligence to underpin motor vehicle smart systems, and in validation to ensure these systems are considerate of the law when making decisions.

Driving is an intuitive task that requires skill, constant alertness and vigilance for unexpected events. The driving task also requires long concentration spans, focusing on the entire task for prolonged periods, and sophisticated negotiation skills with other road users including wild animals. Modern motor vehicles include an array of smart assistive and autonomous driving systems capable of subsuming some, most, or in limited cases, all of the driving task. Building these smart automotive systems requires software developers with highly technical software engineering skills, and now a lawyer's in-depth knowledge of traffic legislation as well. This article presents an approach for deconstructing the complicated legalese of traffic law and representing its requirements and flow. Our approach (de)constructs road rules in legal terminology and specifies them in 'structured English logic' that is expressed as 'Boolean logic' for automation and 'Lawmaps' for visualization. We demonstrate an example using these tools leading to the construction and validation of a 'Bayesian Network model'. We strongly believe these tools to be approachable by programmers and the general public, useful in development of Artificial Intelligence to underpin motor vehicle smart systems, and in validation to ensure these systems are considerate of the law when making decisions. ; false

This note extends some of the points developed in Kara (2018, 2019) so as to explore new avenues for an efficient university management. The particular avenues we will explore center around certain processes that we think are fundamental, namely the processes of accumulation, concentration and deepening of knowledge, experience, skills/capabilities and expertise that facilitate or give rise to scientific output. One can suggest policies that could influence those processes and help the university to achieve its objectives. Such policies could be derived through properly formulated and solved optimization problems involving objective functions and constraints of the university. The objective functions to be formulated should properly take into account the possible paths in the world of science and realistically reflect the university's short and long term target and preferences. We will make some suggestions for constructing objective functions incorporating the objectives of the university. ; Bu kısa makale (not), Kara (2018,2019) kapsamında geliştirilen bazı fikirlerden hareketle, etkin üniversite yönetimi ile ilgili yeni bir açılım getirmeyi denemektedir. Söz konusu açılım, bilgi, tecrübe, yeterlik ve yetkinliklerle ilgili birikme, yoğunlaşma ve derinleşme süreçlerine odaklanmakta; bu süreçleri etkileyerek, üniversiteyi amaçlarına taşıyacak bazı politikalara işaret etmektedir. Bu politikalar, üniversitenin amaç fonksiyonları ve kısıtlarına dayalı, doğru formüle edilmiş optimizasyon problemlerinin çözümlerinden türetilebilirler. Formüle edilecek amaç fonksiyonlarının, üniversitenin kısa ve uzun dönem hedef ve tercihlerini, dünya bilimindeki doğrultuları da dikkate alarak, gerçekçi bir tarzda yansıtmaları gerekir. Makalede, üniversitenin amaçlarını temsil edecek amaç fonksiyonlarının kurgusu ile ilgili bazı önerilerde de bulunulmaktadır.