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The term "inclusive cities" is increasingly being used as a "catch-all" phrase to signify intent but with little precision in its use. In this note we use "inclusive cities" to mean cities in which we see a commitment to an inclusive politics with the establishment of institutionalized interactions between organized groups of disadvantaged citizens and the state with local government taking a primary role. They are also cities in which governments have undertaken specific measures to secure improved access for low-income and otherwise disadvantaged groups to a range of essential goods and services including secure tenure for housing, inclusion in access to basic services and where required approval of and support for housing improvements. This note begins by considering who is excluded and from what and how. Seven challenges to the achievement of more inclusive cities are discussed: (i) lack of household income and the continuing prevalence of informal incomes; (ii) a lack of state investment capacity; (iii) a lack of political will; (iv) a lack of the basic data needed for identifying and addressing exclusion; (v) a lack of space for participation, especially by the lowest income groups; (vi) a lack of vision for what an inclusive city means within city government; and (vii) the constraints on inclusion from city governments organized sectorally. The note then discusses the metrics and indicators that can help inclusion and that have relevance for the post-2015 sustainable development agenda. These are challenges that governments and communities must tackle through their collective efforts. In terms of collaboration between groups, three particular challenges must be addressed:(i) to avoid being partial in their efforts and so to reach out to all groups in the city through finding forms of engagement that incentivize a breadth of activities drawing in all of those in need; (ii) to set up processes that outlive specific administrations or interests and that provide for continuity in collaboration between civil society and the state in each city; and (iii) to link across cities and city regions. We see a need to think about collaboration and joint efforts between city administration and surrounding municipalities, as well as a need to link experiences and efforts across cities. This should help in ensuring appropriate central government policies, regulatory frameworks, and the redistribution of resources.

Современная глобализация поставила в острой форме проблему измерения рисков человеческой деятельности, которые появились как результат резко возросших производительных возможностей и трудности изменения социальной жизни. Можно говорить о глобальной структуре экономических и политических отношений, связывающих отдельные общества в единую систему. Однако наиболее сложен и противоречив характер глобализации в области культуры, религии, идеологии. В такой ситуации повышается уровень социальной напряженности, что в конечном итоге ставит под вопрос способность той или иной страны сохранять свой суверенитет и территориальную целостность. Учитывая миграционный кризис в Западной Европе, автор пытается раскрыть причину, затрудняющую адаптацию мусульман в европейском культурном пространстве и возможность (невозможность) ассимиляции инокультурных сообществ принимающей культурой. ; Contemporary globalization has put in an acute form the problem of measuring the risks of human activity that have emerged as a result of sharply increased the productive capacity and the difficulty of change of social life. You can talk about the structure of the global economic and political relations binding the individual company in a single system. In the political sphere, this is expressed in the emergence of supranational units of various sizes: military blocs, coalitions, regional associations, international organizations, etc. In the economic sphere enhanced integration of regional and global economic agreements, which increases the role of transnational corporations, the market is becoming a single economic mechanism. However, the most complex and contradictory nature of globalization in the field of culture, religion, ideology. As a result, there are opposite tendencies of revival and separation of national cultures, the emergence of new religious movements and thereby dramatically exacerbating the sociocultural identity. In this situation, increased social tension, this ultimately calls into question the ability of a country to maintain its sovereignty and territorial integrity. Modern Europe suffers significant changes in the ethnic composition of the population, which, in maintaining the current migration from developing regions can lead to irreversible consequences, when the indigenous population of most countries of Western Europe could become a minority, as one aspect of the global demographic processes of the last decades has been the rapid growth of the population, professing the Muslim religion. Given this process, in this article the author tries to reveal the problem of the migration crisis in Western Europe and understand the cause of hindering the adaptation of Muslims in the European cultural space and the ability (inability) assimilating other cultures communities host culture.

This article tackles the subject of how the e-Government in Colombia is a recent activity that tries to determine the best strategies to be approached to the citizen, and to manage that one, is integrated through the Technologies of Information and Communication (TIC) to the daily processes of interest or those in which the government requires their participation. It is analyzed here, the paper of the government when put in the task of spreading the institutional information as a transparency strategy and improvement of the citizen participation. This article shows, besides, the need for existing communication between the users and the government for what the versatility of the technological means is used in the exercise of strengthening the capacity of the citizen to interact without its physical presence in the offices of institutions of government. The used methodology sets off of the description of the experience developed by the Town Council of Manizales in the process of implementation of formalities and online services, and the contrast with the focusing that the United Kingdom has suggested to confront the digital inclusion problem. ; Este artículo aborda el tema de cómo el gobierno electrónico en Colombia es una actividad reciente, que intenta determinar las mejores estrategias para acercarse al ciudadano, y lograr que este, se integre mediante las Tecnologías de Información y Comunicación (TIC) a los procesos cotidianos de su interés o aquellos en los que el gobierno requiere su participación. Se analiza aquí, el papel del gobierno cuando se puso en la tarea de difundir la información institucional como una estrategia de transparencia y mejoramiento de la participación ciudadana. Este artículo muestra, además, la necesidad de comunicación existente entre los usuarios y el gobierno para lo cual se utiliza la versatilidad de los medios tecnológicos en el ejercicio de fortalecer la capacidad del ciudadano para interactuar sin su presencia física en las oficinas de instituciones de gobierno. La metodología utilizada parte de la descripción de la experiencia desarrollada por la Alcaldía de Manizales en el proceso de implementación de trámites y servicios en línea, y el contraste con el enfoque que el Reino Unido ha propuesto para afrontar el problema de inclusión digital.

Monitoring chemical reactions is the key to chemical process control. Today, mainly optical online methods are applied. NMR spectroscopy has a high potential for direct loop process control. Compact NMR instruments based on permanent magnets are robust and relatively inexpensive analyzers, which feature advantages like low cost, low maintenance, ease of use, and cryogen-free operation. Instruments for online NMR measurements equipped with a flow-through cell, possessing a good signal-to-noise-ratio, sufficient robustness, and meeting the requirements for integration into industrial plants (i.e., explosion safety and fully automated data analysis) are currently not available off the rack. Recently, promising benchtop NMR instruments with acceptable performance came to market and process integrated sensors developed on basis of such laboratory instruments are on their way. Intensified continuous processes are in focus of current research. Compared to traditional batch processes, these are giving admittance to new and difficult to produce compounds, leading to better product uniformity, and dras-tically reducing the consumption of raw materials and energy. Flexible (modular) chemical plants can produce different products using the same equipment with short down-times between campaigns, and quick introduction of new products to the market. Typically, such plants have smaller scale than big size facilities for production of basic chemicals but are still capable to produce kilograms to tons of specialty products each day. Such flexible (modular) plants can be provided in the size of 20 ft freight containers and represent a promising approach by their ability of easy transfer to production sites as well as the possibility of increasing production capacity by a simple numbering-up-approach. However, full automation is a prerequisite to realize such benefits of intensified continuous production. In continu-ous flow processes steady automated measurements and tight closed-loop control of the product quality are mandatory. If these are not available, there is a huge risk of producing large amounts of out-of-spec (OOS) prod-ucts. This is addressed in the European Union's Research Project CONSENS (Integrated Control and Sensing) by development and integration of smart sensor modules for process monitoring and control within such modular plant setups.

1. The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity (2011–2020), adopted at the 10th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, sets 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets to be met by 2020 to address biodiversity loss and ensure its sustainable and equitable use. Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 describes what an improved conservation network would look like for marine, terrestrial and inland water areas, including freshwater ecosystems. 2. To date, there is no comprehensive assessment of what needs to be achieved to meet Target 11 for freshwater biodiversity. Reports on implementation often fail to consider explicitly freshwater ecosystem processes and habitats, the pressures upon them, and therefore the full range of requirements and actions needed to sustain them. 3. Here the current progress and key gaps for meeting Aichi Target 11 are assessed by exploring the implications of each of its clauses for freshwater biodiversity. 4. Concerted action on Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 for freshwater biodiversity by 2020 is required in a number of areas: a robust baseline is needed for each of the clauses described here at national and global scales; designation of new protected areas or expansion of existing protected areas to cover known areas of importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, and a representative sample of biodiversity; use of Other Effective Area-Based Conservation Measures (OECMs) in places where designating a protected area is not appropriate; and promoting and implementing better management strategies for fresh water in protected areas that consider its inherent connectivity, contextual vulnerability, and required human and technical capacity. 5. Considering the specific requirements of freshwater systems through Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 has longterm value to the Sustainable Development Goals discussions and global conservation policy agenda into the coming decades. ; VH was funded by a Ramon y Cajal contract (RYC-2013-13979) funded by the Spanish government. IH is grateful to Conservation International for funding his contributions to the 2014 World Parks Congress; the Department of Ichthyology, American Museum of Natural History, New York for granting Research Associate status; and Columbia University, New York for granting Adjunct Research Scientist Status, and allowing access to their library facilities. SL was funded by an ARC DECRA grant DE130100565.

This thesis explores the pivotal role of "reflection" in and on practice, in a workshop process of improving planning practice. The theoretical impetus of this research comes from the recent contributions of ideological critique against communicative planning. Wherein planners and planning in general often function as the scapegoats to the ideology when practice falters. Recent research has even questioned whether we are witnessing an ongoing ideological politicisation of planning by these mechanisms. There is therefore a need to reframe our research from the bottom-up, to examine "real" practice and its ideological influences. Taking into account the recent conceptualisation of "spaces for action", I concur that even though organizational improvements have enhanced "possible spaces for action", the resulting practice is limited by practitioner's reflections on "actual spaces for action". This means that there is a need for a greater understanding of how practitioners reflect in and on their practice. In regards to this, the thesis takes a step back, to contemplate whether the new conceptual framework of "spaces for action" in conjunction with the established theory on "reflective learning" could represent a perspective to challenge contemporary ideological influences on planning. I base this on the argument that a contemporary practice problem for planning is the repeating focus of organizations to response to criticism through the reworking of an ideal of "best" practice. Consequently, I argue that the organizational process of improving is as much influenced by ideological factors in developing "best" practices ideals as practitioners are in their "real" practice. I analyse that both the theoretical contestation of communicative planning theory and the intermediate organizational focus of improving through "good" practices, diverts much needed attention away from actually improving practitioner's capacity to deal with the complexity of "real" practice. As "good" practices focus on "possible spaces of action", improving planners "actual spaces for action" are left virtually unchecked. "Good" practices therefore fall short to the same critique of "best" practice, when faced with the complexity of "real" practice. I conclude that both contemporary theory and practice could benefit from a renewed interest in reflective learning theory, and that further research is needed to develop a system for perpetual organizational learning through the "reflective" potential of their experienced practitioners, especially when faced with criticism to improve. ; M-BYREG

The present study looks at the Brazilian engagement at the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) and seeks to bring insight into the growing participation of an emerging power in peacekeeping. To that end, both conceptual and practical implications of normative behavior in international relations are debated and peacekeeping is seen as a barometer to assess Brazil's global posture. Accordingly, this thesis argues how the country has projected, through MINUSTAH, a distinguished and more proactive peacekeeping profile, and analyzes to which extent this profile has shaped, challenged or endorsed existing rules and practices. Exploring both how peacekeeping becomes discursively articulated by Brazil at the United Nations and what practical meanings it acquires on the ground in Haiti, it is demonstrated that the blue-helmet enterprise offers, at the same time, platforms for Brazil to demonstrate international commitment and capacity, as well as means for the country to become activist in themes it would otherwise have little influence on. The study draws upon social constructivist insights in International Relations, placing particular emphasis on the role of norms in multilateral processes, and argues that peacekeeping is constructed, shaped and re-shaped by normative underpinnings, shared principals and perceptions of appropriate behavior at the global stage. This thesis presents the results of fieldwork conducted in Rio de Janeiro, New York and Port-au-Prince in late 2015 and early 2016, and adopts a qualitative research design where primary empirical data is combined with secondary sources and theoretical insights. It concludes that Brazil's peacekeeping profile, while not set in stone, reflects a balancing act where the country, ambitioning to strengthen its global standing, seeks to demonstrate its belonging and adaptation to the international environment within which it acts; but also to challenge and participate more vigorously in the normative casting of the still Western-dominated realms of peace and security governance. Through the illustrative case of the Brazilian peacekeeping engagement in Haiti, this thesis attempts to contribute to the yet limited academic debate on emerging powers' posture in collective security and conflict resolution arrangements. The study can be of interest to scholars of international relations, peace operations and Brazilian foreign policy. ; M-IR

Abstract Background Health promotion, with a focus on multidimensional upstream factors and an ecological, life-course approach, is establishing itself as the guiding philosophy for addressing public health. Action at the political and programmatic level on the Social Determinants of Health has proven effective for promoting and building public health at all levels but has been particularly evident at the national and international levels – due in large part to available documents and guidelines. Although research and experience establish that health promotion is most effective when settings-based, the development of health promoting policies and programs at the local level is still difficult. This study intended to investigate available knowledge on the development and implementation of health promoting policies and programs at the local level and identify factors most important for facilitating capacity building and outcome achievement. Methods We used a scoping review in order to review the current literature on local policy development and program implementation. Keywords were chosen based on results of a previous literature review. A total of 53 articles were divided into two categories: policy and implementation. Critical analysis was conducted for each article and a summary assembled. Data was charted with specific focus on the aims of the study, data acquisition, key theories/concepts/frameworks used, outcome measures, results, and conclusions. Results The articles included in this study primarily focused on discussing factors that facilitate the development of health promoting policy and the implementation of health promotion programs. Most significant facilitators included: collaborative decision-making, agreement of objectives and goals, local planning and action, effective leadership, building and maintaining trust, availability of resources, a dynamic approach, a realistic time-frame, and trained and knowledgeable staff. Within each of these important facilitating factors, various elements supporting implementation were discussed and highlighted in this study. Conclusion Our results indicate that clear and consistent facilitators exist for supporting health promoting policy development and program implementation at the local level. These results offer a starting point for local action on the Social Determinants of Health and have the potential to contribute to the development of a framework for improving action at the local level.

Abstract Background Biobanks are precariously situated at the intersection of science, genetics, genomics, society, ethics, the law and politics. This multi-disciplinarity has given rise to a new discourse in health research involving diverse stakeholders. Each stakeholder is embedded in a unique context and articulates his/her biobanking activities differently. To researchers, biobanks carry enormous transformative potential in terms of advancing scientific discovery and knowledge. However, in the context of power asymmetries in Africa and a distrust in science born out of historical exploitation, researchers must balance the scientific imperative of collecting, storing and sharing high quality biological samples with obligations to donors/participants, communities, international collaborators, regulatory and ethics authorities. To date, researcher perspectives on biobanking in South Africa have not been explored and documented. Methods In-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with a purposive sample of 21 researchers – 8 in the Western Cape, 3 in Gauteng and 10 in Kwa-Zulu Natal. Interviews lasted approximately 40–60 min and were audiotaped with consent. Thematic analysis of the transcribed interviews was conducted by the co-authors. Results Researchers articulated serious concerns over standardised regulatory approaches that failed to consider the heterogeneity of biobanks. Given that biobanks differ considerably, guidelines and RECs need to stratify risk accordingly and governance processes and structures must be flexible. While RECs were regarded as an important component of the governance structure researchers expressed concern about their expertise in biobanking. Operational management of biobanks was regarded as an ethical imperative and a pre-requisite to building trust during consent processes. While broad general consent was preferred, tiered consent was thought to be more consistent with respect for autonomy and building trust. Material Transfer Agreements (MTAs) were often lacking when biosamples were exported and this was perceived to impact negatively on trust. On the other hand, researchers believed that authentic community engagement would help to build trust. Conclusion Building trust will best be achieved via a system of governance structures and processes that precede the establishment of a biobank and monitor progress from the point of sample collection through to future use, including export. Such governance structures must be robust and must include comprehensive national legislation, policy and contextualised guidelines. Currently such governance infrastructure appears to be lacking in many African countries including South Africa. Capacity development of all .

Plain English summary The article analyses the process of securing permissions for members of the public (we refer to them as "research partners") and academics involved in a qualitative study of public involvement in research (PIR) across eight health sciences projects in England and Wales. All researchers, including research partners, need to obtain a "research passport" from UK NHS trusts where they intend to carry out research. The article presents the experiences and observations of the authors, who all went through the process. Research partners encountered many challenges, as the overall bureaucratic procedures proved burdensome. The effects were felt by the academics too who had to manage the whole process. This influenced the way research partners and academics built social and personal relationships required for the successful conduct of the project. We also discuss the tensions that emerged around the issue of whether research partners should be treated as a professional category on their own, and other issues that influenced the PIR processes. In the concluding section, we make a number of practical recommendations. Project teams should allow enough time to go through all the hurdles and steps required for institutional permissions, and should plan in advance for the right amount of time and capacity needed from project leaders and administrators. Bureaucratic and organisational processes involved in PIR can sometimes produce unanticipated and unwanted negative effects on research partners. Our final recommendation to policy makers is to focus their efforts on making PIR bureaucracy more inclusive and ultimately more democratic. Abstract Background In the growing literature on public involvement in research (PIR), very few works analyse PIR organizational and institutional dimensions in depth. We explore the complex interactions of PIR with institutions and bureaucratic procedures, with a focus on the process of securing institutional permissions for members of the public (we refer to them as "research partners") and academics involved in health research. Methods We employ a collaborative autoethnographic approach to describe the process of validating "research passports" required by UK NHS trusts, and the individual experiences of the authors who went through this journey – research partners and academics involved in a qualitative study of PIR across eight health sciences projects in England and Wales. Results .

The responsibility for mitigation of the ecological effects of urban stormwater runoff has been delegated to local government authorities through the Clean Water Act's National Pollutant Discharge Elimination Systems' Stormwater (NPDES SW), and Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) programs. These programs require that regulated entities reduce the discharge of pollutants from their storm drain systems to the "maximum extent practicable" (MEP), using a combination of structural and non-structural stormwater treatment known as stormwater control measures (SCMs). The MEP regulatory paradigm acknowledges that there is empirical uncertainty regarding SCM pollutant reduction capacity, but that by monitoring, evaluation, and learning, this uncertainty can be reduced with time. The objective of this dissertation is to demonstrate the existing sources and magnitude of variability and uncertainty associated with the use of structural and non-structural SCMs towards the MEP goal, and to examine the extent to which the MEP paradigm of iterative implementation, monitoring, and learning is manifest in the current outcomes of the paradigm in Virginia. To do this, three research objectives were fulfilled. First, the non-structural SCMs employed in Virginia in response to the second phase of the NPDES SW program were catalogued, and the variability in what is considered a "compliant" stormwater program was evaluated. Next, the uncertainty of several commonly used stormwater flow measurement devices were quantified in the laboratory and field, and the importance of this uncertainty for regulatory compliance was discussed. Finally, the third research objective quantified the uncertainty associated with structural SCMs, as a result of measurement error and environmental stochasticity. The impacts of this uncertainty are discussed in the context of the large number of structural SCMs prescribed in TMDL Implementation Plans. The outcomes of this dissertation emphasize the challenge that empirical uncertainty creates for cost-effective spending of local resources on flood control and water quality improvements, while successfully complying with regulatory requirements. The MEP paradigm acknowledged this challenge, and while the findings of this dissertation confirm the flexibility of the MEP paradigm, they suggest that the resulting magnitude of SCM implementation has outpaced the ability to measure and functionally define SCM pollutant removal performance. This gap between implementation, monitoring, and improvement is discussed, and several potential paths forward are suggested. ; Ph. D.

Cases of policy decision-making processes that fail to fully recognize the foreseeable problems facing younger and future generations indicate that current policy governance is vulnerable in terms of intergenerational equity and sustainability. Hence, it is vital to design an effective policy governance system for resolving intergenerational problems; one in which policymakers can consider the long-term impact of their decisions not only on different living generations but also on future generations. To fulfill this task, a participatory policy governance system has been proposed as a way of promoting the input from different generations, and on behalf of future generations in policy decision-making processes in the legislative and administrative sectors. Creating a civic culture for future responsibility at the community level should be also emphasized. Institutionalizing the participatory policy governance system and the culture for future responsibility could help to alleviate increasing generational conflict in Korea during the coming era of slow growth and aging population. - Generational conflicts are increasingly likely to grow stronger in the policy decision-making process as well as in voting. - Indeed, some policy cases even failed to take into account of the fully expected problems and are simply centered on present generations. - Most respondents in all age groups agree on the need for an institutional mechanism that could strengthen younger people's political influence. - Positive responses to the willingness for intergenerational communication and discussion outnumber the negative responses, while 20s remain laid-back. - Efforts to seek intergenerational equity and sustainability encounter challenges such as deepening generational heterogeneity resulting from rapid changes in Korean history, rapid aging of the population, weak social trust, and poor capacity to resolve conflicts. - Efforts are needed to appoint representatives of younger and future generations to the National Assembly through the proportional representation system, to establish a permanent committee for future generations, and to lower the voting age. - Other efforts include establishing a presidential committee for future generations, creating a system of participatory budgeting that includes young people and adolescents, gathering public opinion through direct democratic methods, and enhancing access to policy information. - Improving civic awareness and capabilities through civic movements could serve as a basis for pursuing broader participation, deliberation, and consensus building in governance.

Paralytic Shellfish Toxin blooms are common worldwide, which makes their monitoring crucial in the prevention of poisoning incidents. These toxins can be monitored by a variety of techniques, including mouse bioassay, receptor binding assay, and liquid chromatography with either mass spectrometric or pre- or post-column fluorescence detection. The post-column oxidation liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection method, used routinely in our laboratory, has been shown to be a reliable method for monitoring paralytic shellfish toxins in mussel, scallop, oyster and clam species. However, due to its high sensitivity to naturally fluorescent matrix interferences, when working with unconventional matrices, there may be problems in identifying toxins because of naturally fluorescent interferences that co-elute with the toxin peaks. This can lead to erroneous identification. In this study, in order to overcome this challenge in echinoderm and gastropod matrices, we optimized the conversion of Gonyautoxins 1 and 4 to Neosaxitoxin with 2-mercaptoethanol. We present a new and less time-consuming method with a good recovery (82.2%, RSD 1.1%, n = 3), requiring only a single reaction step. ; This research was partially funded by the Portuguese Fundation of Science and Technology (FCT) project UID/Multi/04423/2013 and by the projects MARBIOTECH (reference NORTE-07-0124-FEDER-000047) within the Scientific Resaerch and Technological Development (SR&TD) Integrated Program. MARVALOR—Building research and innovation capacity for improved management and valorizationof marine resources, supported by the Programa Operacional Regional do Norte (ON.2-O Novo Norte) and NOVOMAR (reference 0687-NOVOMAR-1-P), supported by the European Regional Development Fund. Marisa Silva also acknowledges FCT for the grant SFRH/BD/73269/2010. The spanish research leading to these results has received funding from the following European Fund for Economic and Regional Development (FEDER) cofunded-grants. From Centro para el Desarrollo Tecnológico Industrial (CDTI) and Technological Funds, supported by Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, AGL2012-40185-CO2-01, AGL2014-58210-R, and Consellería de Cultura, Educación e Ordenación Universitaria, GRC2013-016. From CDTI under India&Spain Innovating Program (ISIP) Programme, Spain, IDI-20130304 APTAFOOD. From the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme managed by REA—Research Executive Agency (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement 312184 PHARMASEA.

Исследование хозяйственной деятельности МВД дает возможность по-новому взглянуть на отношения его с другими ведомствами как агента советской экономики. Изучение ведомственной переписки позволяет говорить о конфликте интересов между Министерством внутренних дел, Госпланом и другими наркоматами-министерствами. Противоречия регулировались на высшем партийном и государственном уровнях. Все субъекты советской плановой экономики имели свои интересы, главный из которых обеспечение ресурсами правительственных заданий и своевременное выполнение обязательств со стороны других хозяйственных организаций. В процессе этого, заинтересованные ведомства старались добиться для себя максимально благоприятных условий в рамках напряженного плана. Руководители разного уровня (от министерства до отдельного предприятия), направляя в центр свои обращение с теми или иными просьбами, служили каналом информации о проверке тех директив, которые сталинская высшая бюрократия передавала нижестоящим инстанциям. Разногласия и возникающие на их основе конфликты относительно хозяйственных обязательств, которые руководители наркоматов-министерств считали завышенными, выступали в качестве механизма постоянной корректировки уже принятых решений. Это позволяло сталинской системе реагировать и преодолевать постоянно возникающие препятствия субъективного (личностный фактор исполнителей) и объективного (экономический потенциал страны) свойства. ; The study of Ministry of Internal Affairs economic activities gives an opportunity to look at relationships with other departments and its role as an economy agent. The studying of departmental correspondence materials allows us to speak about the conflict of interests among The Ministry of Internal Affairs, The State Planning Committee and other сommissariat-ministries. Contradictions were settled at the highest party and the state levels. All actors in the Soviet planned economy had their own interests and the most important was provision of resources for the government tasks and timely fulfilment of obligations by other economic organizations. During this process the departments involved tried to obtain more favorable conditions for themselves. Heads of different levels (from the ministries to separate agencies), who sent appeals and requests to the center, served as channels for information on the fulfillment of government directives. The conflicts helped to determine if a plan was impossible to fulfill and to correct figures and decisions. This allowed the Stalinist system to react and overcome contingent problems like a personal dispute with producers, and structural, such as economic capacity. The result was paid with material costs and overextended bureaucratic procedures for coordination of departmental interests.

Este artículo aborda el tema de cómo el gobierno electrónico en Colombia es una actividad reciente, que intenta determinar las mejores estrategias para acercarse al ciudadano, y lograr que este, se integre mediante las Tecnologías de Información y Comunicación (TIC) a los procesos cotidianos de su interés o aquellos en los que el gobierno requiere su participación. Se analiza aquí, el papel del gobierno cuando se puso en la tarea de difundir la información institucional como una estrategia de transparencia y mejoramiento de la participación ciudadana. Este artículo muestra, además, la necesidad de comunicación existente entre los usuarios y el gobierno para lo cual se utiliza la versatilidad de los medios tecnológicos en el ejercicio de fortalecer la capacidad del ciudadano para interactuar sin su presencia física en las oficinas de instituciones de gobierno. La metodología utilizada parte de la descripción de la experiencia desarrollada por la Alcaldía de Manizales en el proceso de implementación de trámites y servicios en línea, y el contraste con el enfoque que el Reino Unido ha propuesto para afrontar el problema de inclusión digital.AbstractThis article tackles the subject of how the e-Government in Colombia is a recent activity that tries to determine the best strategies to be approached to the citizen, and to manage that one, is integrated through the Technologies of Information and Communication (TIC) to the daily processes of interest or those in which the government requires their participation. It is analyzed here, the paper of the government when put in the task of spreading the institutional information as a transparency strategy and improvement of the citizen participation. This article shows, besides, the need for existing communication between the users and the government for what the versatility of the technological means is used in the exercise of strengthening the capacity of the citizen to interact without its physical presence in the offices of institutions of government. The used methodology sets off of the description of the experience developed by the Town Council of Manizales in the process of implementation of formalities and online services, and the contrast with the focusing that the United Kingdom has suggested to confront the digital inclusion problem.