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학위논문 (박사) -- 서울대학교 대학원 : 사회과학대학 경제학부, 2020. 8. 홍석철. ; This dissertation is composed of three different themes of happiness economics. First of all, happiness economics is the field of study, which has been started by Richard A. Easterlin in 1974. It analyzes the relationship between the individual subjective well-being and economic variables such as income or investigates happiness determinants using economic tools. The theme of each paper is chosen since I think it plays an important role in happiness, while it has not been dealt with much in happiness economics so far. The first chapter examines the impact of health information on satisfaction of life using medical checkup status data. This study uses two methodologies, individual fixed effects and propensity score matching, to control the endogeneity problem that can exist between the checkup and happiness. This study has shown that individuals, on average, show higher life satisfaction when they have a medical checkup. Moreover, if the examination is conducted randomly, the positive effect of checkups gets bigger by eliminating the within under selection. To explicate the possible channel that links checkup and happiness, this paper suggests one hypothesis, uncertainty. The results are reporting that the impact of health screening increases as the uncertainty level of the group goes up. Therefore, we could infer that medical checkups could enhance life satisfaction by alleviating health-related uncertainty. The object of the second paper is to explain the happiness gap between conservatives and liberals by using macroeconomic variables. According to the results, the people who declare themselves as right-wingers are reporting a higher happiness level than the people on the left, even after controlling the effects of all the other factors. To explicate this disparity of happiness, this paper proposes two hypotheses. First is that the left-wingers are unhappier since they are relatively more hurt by income inequality. Second, right-wingers are happier since they feel greater pleasure through economic growth. While both economic factors are related to the happiness gap as the hypotheses predict, inequality plays a more central role in the disparity. It is, therefore, mainly income inequality that could explain the difference in happiness between the right and left-wingers. The last paper is about parental happiness's impact on a child's life satisfaction. Specifically, the study focuses on the impact of parents' average well-being in the past since the goal of the study is to examine how long it lasts in a child's life. The results show that parental happiness could have an impact on a child at most 16 years, even after controlling parents' current life satisfaction. This may imply that people who lived with happier parents are more likely to be happier in the future. Furthermore, to test whether the impact would differ by both parent and children's gender, heterogeneity analysis has been conducted. It is reported that the impact of mother and father is almost similar and there is no difference between daughter and son. This study provides two possible channels that could explain this constantly remaining parent's impact, based on precedent studies. First is genetic factors that can be inherited, and second is behavioral factors. There is a lot of literature devoted to these two determinants showing the possibility that parental happiness could linger on a child's life. ; 본 논문은 행복경제학에 대한 세 가지 다른 주제로 구성된 논문이다. 먼저 행복경제학이란, 1974년 Richard A. Easterlin의 연구로부터 시작된 학문으로 개인의 행복과 경제 변수들 간의 관계를 분석하거나 행복에 영향을 줄 수 있는 요인들을 경제학적으로 분석하는 학문 분야이다. 본 논문은 지금까지 행복경제학에서 많이 다루어지지 않은 요소들 중 저자가 생각하기에 행복에 있어 주요한 요소라 생각하는 세 가지 요인들에 대해 분석한 연구들로 구성된다. 첫 번째 논문은 건강 정보가 삶의 만족도에 미치는 영향력을 분석한 연구로 건강검진 여부 데이터를 활용한 실증 분석 연구이다. 분석에 있어서 수검 여부와 행복 간에 존재할 수 있는 내생성 문제를 해결하기 위해 개인고정효과와 성향점수매치 두 가지 방법을 활용한다. 연구 결과, 개인은 건강검진을 받았을 때 평균적으로 더 높은 삶의 만족도를 보이며, 검진이 무작위로 시행되는 경우 개인의 시간에 따른 하향 선택 편의가 사라짐으로써 긍정적인 효과가 더 크게 나타났다. 또한, 이 영향력의 경로를 설명하기 위해 불확실성에 따른 분석을 한 결과, 불확실성이 큰 그룹일수록 검진의 긍정적 영향력이 상승하였다. 이를 통해 건강 정보의 제공은 수검자의 건강 불확실성 감소를 통해 행복의 상승에 기여할 수 있다는 것을 확인하였다. 두 번째 연구는 정치적 성향에 따른 행복 차이를 거시경제 변수로 설명하고자 한 논문이다. 본 논문의 분석 결과에 따르면, 다른 모든 요소의 영향력을 통제한 이후에도 스스로 정치적 우파 성향이라고 응답한 집단의 경우, 좌파라고 응답한 집단보다 유의미하게 높은 행복도를 보이는 것으로 나타났다. 정치 성향에 따른 집단 간 행복 차이를 설명하기 위해 사회의 소득 불평등과 경제성장이 이 행복 차이에 미치는 영향력을 분석한 결과, 사회에 불평등이 사라지는 경우 두 집단 간의 행복 격차도 사라지는 것으로 나타났다. 즉, 두 집단 간의 행복 차이 중 많은 부분이 불평등에 대한 인식의 차이와 연관되어 있음을 알 수 있다. 마지막 논문은 과거 부모의 행복이 미래 자녀의 행복에 얼마나 오랫동안 영향을 미치는가에 관한 연구이다. 부모의 행복을 특정 시점에 고정해 놓은 뒤 해당 시점의 행복이 미래 자녀의 행복에 미치는 영향을 본 결과, 과거 부모의 행복은 지속해서 자녀의 행복에 영향을 미치며 최대 16년까지 영향력이 지속하는 것을 관찰할 수 있었다. 또한, 이 영향력은 현재의 부모 행복을 통제한 이후에도 유의미한 영향력을 가지는 것으로 나타났다. 아버지와 어머니의 영향력 간에 큰 차이가 나타나지 않았으며, 자녀의 성별에 따라서도 영향력의 차이가 나타나지 않았다. ; Introduction 1 Chapter Ⅰ. Medical Checkup Impact on Satisfaction of Life 1 1. INTRODUCTION 5 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 8 3. DATA AND VARIABLE DESCRIPTIONS 10 4. EMPIRICAL STRATEGY 15 4.1 INDIVIDUAL FIXED EFFECT MODEL 16 4.2 PROPENSITY SCORE MATCHING 17 5. RESULTS 19 5.1 MATCHING RESULT 19 5.2 BASELINE RESULTS 22 6. POSSIBLE CHANNEL 26 6.1 HYPOTHESIS 26 6.2 HYPOTHESIS TESTING 28 7. SUBGROUP ESTIMATIONS 31 8. CONCLUSION 35 REFERENCE 37 APPENDIX 40 Chapter Ⅱ. What Causes Happiness Gap Between Conservatives and Liberals? 41 1. INTRODUCTION 41 2. DATA AND VARIABLE DESCRIPTIONS 45 3. EMPIRICAL STRATEGY 49 4. RESULTS 50 4.1BASELINE RESULTS 50 4.2 ROBUSTNESS CHECK 52 4.3 HETEROGENEITY 55 5. ECONOMIC FACTORS 59 5.1 HYPOTHESES 59 5.2 EMPIRICAL STRATEGY FOR HYPOTHESES TESTING 62 5.3 HYPOTHESES RESULTS 64 6. CONCLUSION 69 REFERENCE 72 APPENDICES 74 Chapter Ⅲ. Parents' Happiness Lingers on Child's Life 81 1. INTRODUCTION 81 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 83 3. DATA AND VARIABLE DESCRIPTIONS 84 4. EMPIRICAL STRATEGY 87 5. RESULTS 88 5.1 BASELINE RESULTS 88 5.2 HETEROGENEITY 91 6. POSSIBLE CHANNELS 93 7. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION 94 REFERENCE 96 Conclusion 99 국문초록 101 ; Doctor

Baitul Maal wat Tamwil (BMT), a model of Islamic microfinance institution (IMFI), has emerged in Indonesia in the last two decades. Although BMTs were not initially created for women, they have embraced women as their primary beneficiaries. The main objective of this study is to examine the link between BMTs and women's empowerment. More specifically, this study aims to address three main problems. First, to observe the origins of BMTs and their affiliation, it investigates their institutional missions and their ties with women's empowerment agendas. Second, it analyzes the particular patterns with which BMTs' empower women clients. Third, to investigate the effects of BMTs' services on women. Employing a qualitative approach, this study explores four BMTs operating in Yogyakarta Special Region, Indonesia. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, document review, and field observations. Participants included BMT managers, founders, and staffs, as well as women clients and experts. This study has three main findings. First, although the majority of BMTs in Yogyakarta predominantly deal with women, from a historical perspective, there is no indication that the BMT movement in this region is related to a women's empowerment agenda. Moreover, none of the BMT institutions in this research specify women in their goals, objectives, or operations. Targeting of women as primary beneficiaries is merely intended for financial sustainability and not gender concerns. BMTs consider women to be 'a rational economic segment', who can enhance the efficiency of programs and contribute to organizational sustainability. Observing the four selected BMTs, it is found that the service orientation and character of each BMT is significantly affected by its primary affiliation. BMTs that are allied with Islamic mass organization are inclined to accentuate Islamic symbols, while BMTs that work with the government and/or international donors use such symbols less regularly. Second, this thesis demonstrates that women's empowerment in BMTs follows various models, dealing with socio-economic, religious, and environmental issues. For socio-economic empowerment, BMTs employ individual and collective empowerment. Individual empowerment, called jemput bola, is widely used by BMTs as their main means of maintaining personal relationships and member loyalty, as well as to oppose the conventional banking sector. This scheme requires BMTs to arrange rigorous meetings between clients and BMT officers. Meanwhile, collective empowerment is generally facilitated through the creation of independent groups of women based on proximity of residency. BMTs also use religious activities as instruments to deliver their mission of da'wah, to attract new members, and to monitor members' business performance. Supported by its international NGO's partners, one BMT institution has pioneered ecological projects that are integrated at the strategic level into its organizational mission and goals. Third, according to clients, the effects of BMT projects on their family and personal lives are mostly positive. Respondents reported that access to BMTs' programs andservices have fostered socio-economic and psychological benefits for women.Economically, positive outcomes have emerged from increased income, savings,and ownership as a consequence of business growth. Meanwhile, access to credit has given women social advantages, such as increased social mobility. Involvement in BMT programs has expanded women's ability to travel to places outside the province. In addition, women's participation in BMT projects has also had positive psychological contributions. Most respondents reported having more self-esteem and dignity as a result of their economic growth. The involvement of women inBMTs' religious programs also improves their religious knowledge and practice.Nevertheless, this study also demonstrates that BMTs may have a negative effect on women; one of the most apparent harmful effects of women's engagement in BMTs is their continuing dependence on loans. The importance of this study lies in several points: 1) It contributes a new understanding of the intersection between microcredit, women's empowerment, religious and cultural problems in a Muslim-majority society. 2) There has been lack of research into the connection between the Islamic microfinance movement and women's issues in a historical and political context; this study helps fill such gaps by expanding the interdisciplinary scope of Islamic microfinance in an Indonesian setting. 3). The findings of this study enrich discussions and debates on Islamic financing and women's empowerment. This work provides the insight that women's empowerment is a universal concept that is applicable to Muslim-majority societies. 4) There has been a dearth of qualitative study studies on BMTs in Indonesia; this study addresses this gap by undertaking a qualitative approach. Future researchers could extend the research findings and reflections of this research and continue discussion of how to develop and integrate the aspects of gender, Islamic values, and microfinance. While this study has investigated the effects of BMT programs on women's lives, particularly in a Javanese setting, future researchers could expand this to the broader location and include the perspectives of spouses and other family members.

Nigeria is still characterized by high reliance on food imports. Malnutrition is widespread in the entire country and rural areas are especially vulnerable to chronic food shortages, malnutrition, unbalanced nutrition, erratic food supply, poor quality foods, high food costs, and even total lack of food. This phenomenon cuts across all age groups and categories of individuals in the rural areas. There is a high level of malnutrition among children in rural Nigeria; the figures differ with geopolitical zones, with 56 percent reported in a rural area of South West and 84.3 percent in three rural communities in the northern part of Nigeria. Nationally, the overall prevalence of stunting, wasting, and underweight are 42.0 percent, 9 percent and 25 percent, respectively. The problem of food and nutrition security in Nigeria has not been adequately and critically analyzed, despite various approaches at addressing the challenge. The enormous amount of money spent in attempting to assure the food security of Nigerians without success calls for a fundamental review of the past approaches and achievements to see what lessons can be learned to re-strategize and develop an approach that will ensure that better progress is made toward achieving the first Millennium Development Goal. Since the majority of Nigerians (70 percent) live in rural areas, an analysis of the food and nutrition security status of rural dwellers will provide a clear picture of what needs to be done to assure food security in Nigeria with the attendant improvements in nutrition status when all the other necessary conditions, such as adequate health and care, are present. The main objective of this knowledge review was to collect and summarize available secondary literature on food and nutrition security in rural Nigeria. The framework for the analysis of food and nutrition security details the factors responsible for low consumption of food and resulting malnutrition. The socioeconomic and political environment at the national and subnational level is the principal determinant of food security, since it influences food availability, stability of food supplies, and access to food, which in turn influence the amount of food consumed. When these factors interact with the health and sanitation environment as well as care practices they determine the nutritional status of the individual. There is a dearth of national surveys providing datasets for the analysis of food and nutrition security in rural Nigeria. Though there have been a number of individual and institutional efforts and attempts at generating databases on food and nutrition security for Nigeria, these efforts are hampered by inadequate funds to implement large-scale surveys. Fundamentally, we find that food insecurity and malnutrition in rural areas of Nigeria result from non implementation and/or faulty implementation of the National Food and Nutrition Policy and National Plan of Action for Food and Nutrition. Other reasons identified include unacceptably high levels of poverty in rural households, low priority for nutrition on the agenda of government and resulting poor funding, poor understanding by policymakers of the content of nutrition programs in relation to other sectors, poor infant and child feeding practices, inadequate access to healthy environment and health services as well as various care practices. The review concludes that the existing knowledge of food and nutrition security in rural areas of Nigeria does not offer detailed information to the household level, at which greater understanding is required to help design interventions that will change the unacceptable food and nutrition situation of rural dwellers in Nigeria. This gap needs to be filled to make progress in changing the food and nutrition security situation of rural dwellers in Nigeria. Identified gaps in knowledge include the issue of mainstreaming nutrition considerations and activities into poverty reduction, agricultural development policies, and food security interventions. There is a need to understand and appreciate the distinctness of nutrition and prioritize its appropriate integration into all sectors and departments working on food security in Nigeria. Similarly, knowledge of the impact of seasonal variations, the environment, and livelihoods on food usage, consumption patterns, food coping strategies, and food and nutrition security status is important for action in Nigeria. The knowledge gaps also include understanding the interconnectedness of gender factors and their roles in achieving household food and nutrition security, and understanding the impact of an integrated approach such as the integration of gender, environment, nutrition and agricultural activities, in achieving livelihoods for women, household food and nutrition security. The review recommends a strategic partnership and collaboration of all stakeholders to produce datasets that will allow for new directions and a plan of action to seek a comprehensive integration of nutrition and coordination of food security interventions among all partners at all levels, particularly in government ministries and agencies. This multi-stakeholder and multidimensional approach is required for an effective mainstreaming, integration and coordination of food and nutrition activities. ; Non-PR ; IFPRI1; GRP32; NSSP ; DSGD

Resumen Técnico Este trabajo apunta a tomar la perspectiva de género y la exploración en la memoria de mujeres y varones de sectores populares como puntos de partida teóricos para realizar una lectura crítica de las encrucijadas de la ciudadanía y la democracia en la coyuntura actual. A partir de lo que consideramos una brecha en lo que al predominio de la democracia como forma dominante del orden político se refiere, abierta en Argentina desde las jornadas del 19 y 20 de diciembre de 2001, nos proponemos realizar una lectura crítica de los límites de las concepciones tradicionales de democracia y ciudadanía, a la luz de la teoría feminista y la mirada histórica como perspectivas desnaturalizadoras del orden establecido. La tarea de investigación se moverá en una doble dirección. Por una parte hacia la indagación teórica relativa a la delimitación de los estudios de género y la función de la memoria como perspectivas críticas ligadas a los deseos emancipatorios de sujetos subalternas y subalternos, y por la otra hacia la producción de conocimiento relativo a las condiciones efectivas bajo las cuales se producen en la Argentina procesos de ciudadanización, cruzados por una serie de tensiones y paradojas que nos proponemos describir y explicar. A partir de la hipótesis de que en el proceso de ciudadanización de mujeres hacen síntoma muchas de las tensiones inherentes a los límites bajo los cuales suele plantearse la noción de ciudadanía democrática, trabajaremos sobre las tensiones entre formalización jurídica y condiciones efectivas, entre normas jurídicas y tradiciones culturales, entre orden internacional y condiciones locales (referidas tanto a la sociedad civil como al movimiento de mujeres), entre derecho y garantía estatal. La cuestión de la reconstrucción de la memoria de los sectores subalternos (varones y mujeres) será realizada a partir de las iluminaciones que hacia el pasado surgen desde el presente, como recuperación de un pasado políticamente significativo y procurador de sentido. La investigación implicará tanto producción conceptual como investigación empírica, en un ámbito de pesquisa multidisciplinar donde se intentará articular: el habitus disciplinar de cada uno/a respecto de la utilización de metodologías específicas, y la construcción de un andamiaje conceptual compartido. Para el caso de sociólogas y sociólogos, se recurrirá a métodos cuali y cuantitativos; las comunicólogas trabajarán privilegiando métodos cualitativos y de análisis social del discurso, en tanto las historiadoras recurrirán a las técnicas habituales de rastreo, crítica e interpretación documental propias de su disciplina. ; Summary Gender perspective and the exploration of women and men of popular sectors will be taken as theoretic point of departure so as to do a critical reading review of the crucial points of citizenship and democracy in the present context. We considered that what happened on the fatal days of 20 and 21 of December, 2001 was a gap in what is considered the predominance of democracy as a dominant form of political order. Taking that point as a departure reference, we intend to do a critical reading of the limits of traditional concepts of citizenship and democracy from the light that feminist theory and history sight as denaturalization ´s perspectives of the establish order offered. The research´ work will move in a double direction. From one side, this will move towards the theoretical inquiry related with the delimitation of gender ´studies and the function of memory as critic perspectives associated to the emancipator wishes of subaltern individual. From the other side, it will move through the production of knowledge related with the concrete conditions in which process of citizenships are produced in Argentine crossed by a series of tensions and paradoxes that we will try to describe and explain. From the hypothesis that in the process of women citizenship lots of tensions that are characteristic of the borders in which the notion of democratic citizenship usually is set out make symptom, we will work around the tensions between juridical forms and concrete conditions, between legal forms and cultural traditions, between international order and local conditions (referred not only to the civil society but also to women movement), between right and guarantee. The re – building of the memory of subaltern sectors (men and women) will be done from the illuminations that from the past appeared in the present, as the recovered of a past politically significant and producer of sense. The investigation will imply not only conceptual production but empirical research as well, in a multidisciplinary sphere where we will try to combine the disciplinary habitus of each one referred to the use of specifics methodologies with the building of a conceptual frame mark shared. For the case of sociologists, qualitative and quantitative methodologies will be required; the comunicologists will work, basically, with qualitative methods and using the social discourse analysis; finally, historians will use the techniques that are specific and usually used in that field of study: search, critic and documental interpretation.

The Chinese healthcare market is a lucrative opportunity for private investors. In recent years, the government is gradually opening up the private healthcare market and encouraging the flow of foreign capital into the sector in various forms of cooperation. In the 12 five-year plan released by the State Council of China by 2012, the government further allowed private insurance and private hospitals to take part in the health sector by offering more flexibilities and preferential treatment to the private sector, aiming to share 20% of the total healthcare market in 2015. The aim of the paper is to examine the role of private hospitals in China and investigate the relationship of factors that influence the inpatient and outpatient utilization of private hospitals in China. Using ecological data from the China Health Statistical Yearbook, data from 2006, 2011 and 2013 were selected for an analysis. Univariate analysis and linear regression model are run on the data with the number of outpatient and inpatient visits as the independent variables and age structure, gender, urban-rural ratio and regional income as the dependent variables for the analysis. The findings show a consistent pattern. The descriptive result indicates an increasing trend in both outpatient and inpatient services to private hospitals. Outpatient visits increased three times from 130.324 to 310.609 (p<0.001) while inpatient visits increased from 2.807 to 22.575 (p<0.001) in the period between 2006 to 2013. The dominant factors influencing the inpatient and outpatient utilization to private hospitals are mainly male, the middle age group (15-65) and people in the Western region. The middle age group accounts for about 7 times (p<0.001) higher utilization rate than the younger and older age groups while the Western region accounts for 60% (p<0.001) higher utilization than the richer Eastern and Middle regions. The result illustrates the gap between inpatient and outpatient hospitals as well as the factors with a higher utilization rate to private hospitals. The analysis shows that middle aged people in the rural and Western area in China tend to have a higher utilization rate to private hospitals. This is attributed to the problem of public hospitals and a lack of primary care that have diverted residents to visit private instead of public hospitals. Additionally, private hospitals in the Western region tend to be tier-2 or lower level hospitals that are smaller in scale and offer more specialized or general acute services. They are not high-end private hospitals in the Eastern region and are therefore more affordable to the general public. The implementation of the New Cooperative Insurance Scheme after health reform has also provided additional security to the residents and encouraged the use of hospitals at different levels. Therefore private health services are not limited to the high-income level groups. The flexibility structure of private hospitals allows them to penetrate to rural areas where public hospitals fail to reach. With increased government support in the future, it is expected that more private health services will be developed. The paper aims to show that private health services are not necessarily high-end services designed for the rich, the profit-seeking and flexible structure allow them to provide health services that are crucial for the lower income groups as well. ; published_or_final_version ; Public Health ; Master ; Master of Public Health

N° ISBN - 978-2-7380-1284-5 ; International audience ; Being the important ingredient of food basket of the common people, the declining productivity of rice and its per capita availability is a policy concern, which has a global connotation. System of rice intensification (SRI) is a relevant innovation, which increases production, reduces yield gap and ensures the household food security for the vulnerable section of small and marginal farmers. It has also tremendous potential for resource conservation; and important aspect for sustainability. The paper attempts to quantify the benefits of SRI and compare its performances with that of conventional practice of cultivation of rice. The relevant information gathered from the state of Tamil Nadu, which is a fore runner in promotion of SRI in India. The four districts of Tamil Nadu representing distinctive features of irrigation system and 58 farmers are selected for the detailed farm survey. Agriculture is dominated by the small farmers having a tiny farm of average size less than 1.4 ha of over 90% of the farmers. Hence, to produce more food from less land and other inputs for livelihood is a necessity. As a pre-requisite of SRI promotion, the farmers' motivation is gauged in a perception survey, which revealed that most of the farmers were aware of SRI, who have perfected its crucial principles. Estimated indicators of success clearly vindicated that the innovative practice has several socio economic as well as bio-physical benefits, including, increase in productivity, input saving and conservation of precious resources. The return to SRI is reasonably high at Rs.14875 per hectare to Rs. 17629 (equivalent US$309 to US$370) across the districts as compared to corresponding figure of Rs.9263 to Rs.14564 (US$192 to US$ 303) under conventional practices. Higher return is attributed to increase in production as well as substantial reduction in cost of cultivation. The most impressive is the savings in water (22% to 39% saving) and seed (as high as 92% saving) resulted to distinctive benefit-cost ratio. The organic supplementation due to compost, green manure and weed incorporation, enhanced soil microbial activities and aeration, often uncounted, the use of solar energy by the plant and time saving due to early transplantation, are some of the uncommon advantages of SRI. The gains to women labour engaged in specialized operations such as transplanting, harvesting and weeding indicate gender equity. In addition, SRI provides opportunity for employment of the idle family labour in rabi (post monsoon) season. The novelty of SRI is that research is inexpensive as the innovation is farmer based and invariant to crop variety (unlike modern method, variety needs not be new and input intensive technology). The estimated technical efficiency using DEAP also clearly show that SRI is more efficient (both in term of TE and economic efficiency). Therefore, having proven tangible benefits, appropriate strategy for upscaling the adoption is a sine-qua-non to achieve sustainable national as well as household food security. The successful models of SRI need to be integrated for generalization. In the changing scenario, given the general acceptance of the practice and willingness to accept, the needed preparedness for implementation of the policy to scale up the adoption will go a long way.

State terror in Asia has long been used to fight what governments have unilaterally declared as terror. Wars and counterinsurgency have long been pursued as a strategy against terrorism in Asia, and the war against terrorism has always been made an excuse by states to promote militarist and authoritarian dictatorships supporting Western expansionist, strategic and economic objectives. Today, the Sept. 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon and the subsequent declaration by the United States of a global war on terrorism has created a pretext for governments to extend and justify the use of draconian national security laws and measures to suppress movements for democracy and human rights. The common features of such laws and actionspast and present-- include: · arbitrary detention without charge or trial; · the criminalization of communities, organizations and individuals by labeling them as terrorist; · the undermining of due process; · the reinforcement of repressive practices, including torture, by state authorities; · restrictions on freedom of movement and return to asylum; · the intensification of all forms of racism and discrimination--including those based on gender, caste and religion--against migrants, refugees and minorities; and · the invasion of privacy through activities like increased surveillance. In responding to perceived threats to national security, the security of individuals, communities and societies are often neglected by the state. There is no mention of the terrorism of poverty which, as Aruna Gnanadason, head of the Justice and Peace Unit of the World Council of Churches, notes, kills more people than any war. It is a form of terrorism that is often neglected, especially in the present era where neo-liberal globalization has worsened the conditions of the already marginalized peoples of the world. Neo-liberal economic policies have resulted in the erosion of Asian peoples standards of living and created structural inequality, insecurity, tensions and conflict brought about by the yawning gap between the rich and the poor. Social injustice and inequities, including state policies that exacerbate poverty, unemployment, landless-ness and lack of social services, are the No. 1 recruiters and breeding ground for so-called terrorists. Thus, when people face severe threats to livelihood, rights and living standards that have been greatly eroded by neo-liberal globalization (it used to be colonialism and feudal oppression), their protests and demands, particularly when voiced by peoples movements, are treated as security threats by the state. The state increases its reliance on the use of force through police/armies that inflict violence on the people. The exercise of state violence is even legalized and justified through national security laws that are meant to establish order. As more and more people resist and seek alternatives to the dehumanizing world order resulting from the policies and practices of neo-liberal globalization, there is a need to widen the democratic space, not restrict it or shrink it further. In this situation, more democratic space is needed for the expression of grievances. Oftentimes, however, the peoples mass organizations, social movements, labor unions, grassroots citizens groups and non-government organizations that articulate peoples demands and alternatives, become the targets of anti-terrorist legislation. Militarism and the adoption and use of draconian laws and measures as a reaction to peoples demands have often been resorted to by states under the garb of curbing terrorism.

Russia's population is expected to age significantly over the next few decades. The coming decline in Russia's working-age population will pose serious social and economic challenges, but it can also open up opportunities. Without adequate adjustments of policies and behaviors, an aging population can impair national growth and fiscal sustainability. These pessimistic forecasts, however, are based on the unrealistic assumption that individuals and government policy will not change. Achieving healthy, active, and prosperous aging will require policy changes across a host of areas. Policies to support women can both limit population aging and increase labor force participation. Changes in behavior and policy can greatly mitigate the impact of aging on growth and fiscal sustainability. Promoting adult education and better age-management human resources policies at the firm level is essential to improve the employment prospects for older workers and raise productivity across the age spectrum. This volume presents research from the World Bank on the impact of demographic trends in Russia. The first section focuses on the macroeconomic impacts of aging and considers how aging has affected gross domestic product (GDP) growth and convergence among Russian regions since the early 1990s; it also offers alternative approaches to forecasting the relationship between aging and growth. The second section, dealing with the relationship of human development outcomes and demographics, discusses how family policies can help women have more children, and still attain greater and longer participation in the labor force. The last part addresses the role of adult education in improving Russia's competitiveness and enabling longer and more productive working lives. A final section pulls together the main conclusions.

Conditional cash transfer (CCT) programs are becoming a popular tool for alleviating short-term poverty and reducing the inter-generational transmission of poverty. More than 30 developing and transition countries have implemented these programs, providing incentives to poor households to make investments in the human capital of their children. Programs vary in scale, transfer size, conditionality's, eligibility, and implementation features. This report is structured around five chapters as follows: the first chapter gives an overview of the program, the context in which it was implemented and available evidence on the impacts of the Female School Stipend Program (FSSP) as well as other CCTs. Chapter two focuses on the questions this evaluation sets out to answer and the methods and information used to answer them. The third chapter presents the results from the analysis and is structured around three evaluation questions regarding average impact, heterogeneity of impacts, and spillover effects. Chapter four performs the robustness checks of the findings, examining whether they are sensitive to preprogram trends, measurement error, endogenous compositional changes, and crowding-out effects. Finally, the conclusion discusses the implications of the results, some limitations of this evaluation, and areas that require further work.

This note assesses the main micro?determinants of informal employment in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region from a human development stand point. It's main purpose is to quantify the patterns of labor informality (defined as the share of all employment with no access to social security) according to age, gender, education level, employment sector, profession, marital status, employment status, and geographic area in a selected group of countries in the region. Results indicate that the size of the public sector and the size of the agriculture sector are perhaps the main correlates of informality in the region. Countries where agricultural employment still constitutes a large share of overall employment (such as Morocco and Yemen) are associated with higher levels of overall informality. On the contrary, countries with larger public sectors and more urbanized such as Egypt, Syria, and Lebanon, display lower levels of overall informality. The existence of a large public sector, still associated with generous benefits and better employment quality, creates an important segmentation between public and private employment in many MENA countries. Informality rates are very high among youth between ages fifteen and twenty-four. After age twenty-four, informality decreases rapidly until individuals reach prime working age (forty to forty?five years). This rapid decrease in informality rates goes hand in hand with a rapid increase in public sector employment, suggesting that informal workers enter into public sector jobs as they move from youth into adulthood. Results also indicate that the average worker in the informal sector is disadvantaged versus the average worker in the formal sector, as they are uncovered against social risks and are generally employed in low-productivity/low pay jobs.

This study contributes to the literature on legal institutions and determinants of adult mortality. The paper explores the relationship between the presence of domestic violence legislation and women-to-men adult mortality rates. Using panel data for about 95 economies between 1990 and 2012, the analysis finds that having domestic violence legislation leads to lower women-to-men adult mortality rates. According to conservative estimations, domestic violence legislation would have saved about 33 million women between 1990 and 2012. The negative relationship between domestic violence legislation and women-to-men adult mortality rates is robust to several checks and also confirmed using the instrumental variables approach.

In 2015, Indonesia stands as an increasingly divided country, unequal in many ways. There is a growing income divide between the richest 10 percent and the rest of the population, and this gap is driven by many other types of inequality in Indonesia.People are divided into haves and have-nots from before birth. Some children are born healthy and grow up well in their early years; many do not. Some children go to school and receive a quality education; many do not. In today's modern and dynamic economy; most do not and are trapped in low-productivity and low-wage jobs. Some families have access to formal safety nets that can protect them from the many shocks that occur in life; many do not. And a fortunate few Indonesians have access to financial and physical assets (such as land and property) that increase their wealth over time. This wealth is passed down from generation to generation, both in the form of money and physical assets, and through greater access to better health and education. As a result, inequalities are being compounded and deepened over time. This report asks why inequality is increasing, why it matters, and what can be done. The first section examines the trend in inequality, which is already relatively high in Indonesia and rising more rapidly than in many neighboring countries. The second section seeks to understand what is driving rising inequality in Indonesia. The final section looks at what can be done to prevent the country from becoming even more divided. This section suggests ways to avoid an Indonesia in which relatively few people are healthy, happy and prosperous, and many more can only aspire to a better life but are unable to attain it.

Inhaltsangabe: Einleitung: Seit dem Ende des zweiten Weltkriegs und dem Beginn der modernen Weltordnung hat die westliche Gesellschaft eine weitreichende Entwicklung durchlebt, die noch immer anhält. Die derzeitige gesellschaftliche Lage zeichnet sich aus durch Umwandlungen von Politik und Kultur, wie die voranschreitende Globalisierung sowie Ausweitung und Entwicklung von Kommunikationstechnologie und biotechnologischer Forschung. Die Entwicklung der westlichen Gesellschaft wird darüber hinaus von einer Problematik begleitet, die immerhin die Hälfte der Menschheit betrifft und daher nicht weniger relevant ist als beispielsweise Terrorismus, Voranschreiten der Reproduktionsmedizin und Umweltzerstörung in einer von Unsicherheiten begleiteten menschlichen Existenz. Diese Problematik findet ihren Ursprung bereits beim Übergang von Agrar- ins Industriezeitalter, im Beginn der Frauenerwerbsarbeit. In der vorindustriellen Zeit war die Mitarbeit der Frau in Privatbetrieben gängig, doch aufgrund der wachsenden Bedeutung des Reproduktionsmittels Arbeit im Zuge der industriellen Revolution, erlangten alle Bereiche des sozialen Lebens, beispielsweise jene der Familie, Erziehung und Kultur, einen gravierenden Wandlungsprozess, da sie als unbezahlte Tätigkeiten an Ansehen verloren. Dies hatte zur Folge, dass das System der gesellschaftlich organisierten Arbeit nicht mit der Institution Familie harmonisierte. Aufgrund ihrer Reproduktionsfähigkeit und gesellschaftlicher Vorurteile, wurde die Verrichtung der Hausarbeit, Kindererziehung und allgemein Familienerhaltung und -versorgung mit der weiblichen Gesellschaftsrolle verknüpft. Während der Mann als patriarchales Familienoberhaupt den Lebensunterhalt verdient, ist die Frau hauptsächlich Hausfrau und in der öffentlichen Sphäre maximal 'Dazuverdienerin'. Da Geld das Medium gesellschaftlicher Austauschprozesse ist, das Hausarbeit schwer bemessen kann, wird im Kapitalismus die Institution Familie marginalisiert, da der entlohnten Arbeit in der Gesellschaft mehr Prestige zukommt. Kurz gesagt: die Frau erhält für ihre Tätigkeit kein angemessenes gesellschaftliches Ansehen, weil im Kapitalismus Hausarbeit und Familienversorgung kein Geld einbringen. Daher besteht zwischen der öffentlichen Sphäre Arbeit und der privaten Sphäre der Familie eine Rangordnung: die private Sphäre muss sich der öffentlichen beugen. Das führt dazu, dass männlich dominierte, öffentliche Sektoren, wie zum Beispiel Politik, Wirtschaft und Naturwissenschaft, hohes Ansehen genießen gegenüber der unbezahlten Tätigkeiten innerhalb der privaten Sphäre von Haushalt und Familie. Dies brachte die Frau in ein Dilemma: der Bereich der Prokreation, Haushalts- und Kinderversorgung wird nicht angemessen honoriert und innerhalb der öffentlichen Sphäre der entlohnten gesellschaftlich organisierten Arbeit wird sie vergleichsweise schlechter bezahlt und zudem in ihrem Qualifikations- bzw. Ausbildungsniveau marginalisiert. Da der ökonomische Erwerb gegenüber der Hausarbeit vorrangig ist, verlor und verliert letztere weiterhin an öffentlicher Anerkennung. Daher befindet sich das weibliche Geschlecht in der westlichen Gesellschaft in dem Dilemma der 'doppelten Vergesellschaftung', da die Frau sowohl in dem privaten als auch öffentlichen Bereich der Gesellschaft eingebunden ist, aber in keiner der beiden Bereiche eine angemessene oder gleichberechtigte Honorierung zugestanden wird. Das patriarchalische Familienmodell lässt die Politik nur ungenügend mit sozialer Gewalt gegen Frauen befassen und schließt sie aus den politischen Feldern wie Parteien, Parlamente und Kabinette aus. Da die öffentliche, politische Sphäre von den Männer beherrscht und die Frau in diesem Bereich lediglich eine Randgruppe darstellt, ist die Relation der privaten zur öffentlichen Sphäre ein Bestandteil feministischer Gesellschaftsanalyse. In kapitalistischen Ländern wird das menschliche Leben sehr stark vom Produktionsfaktor Arbeit und vom Warentausch beeinflusst. Die geschlechtsspezifische Arbeitsmarktsegregation besitzt für die europäische Geschlechter- und Feminismusforschung hohe Relevanz, da die Familie noch immer die grundlegende gesellschaftliche Institution darstellt, ohne die Erziehung der nachfolgenden Generation ist das Fortbestehen der Gesellschaft nicht möglich und keineswegs zu belächeln. Bei weiterer Betrachtung der modernen Öffentlichkeit, scheint sie nach mehr als 200 Jahren kapitalistisch geprägter Entwicklung, eine Politik zu entwickeln, die sich von der Parteipolitik zu politischen und sozialen Protestbewegungen wandelt und danach strebt, eine Politik hervorzubringen, die kollektive Formen von Identität, wie zum Beispiel Homo- und Transsexuelle, Punks sowie religiöse Gruppen, anzuerkennen. Hinsichtlich dessen ist es erschreckend, dass die Frau im Erwerbsleben noch immer nicht emanzipatorisch behandelt, Hausarbeit sozial abgestuft wird und sich an der patriarchalischen Ordnung und der damit einhergehenden ungleichen Honorierung, zumindest aus empirischer Sicht, bis heute nichts verändert hat. Das Gegenteil ist der Fall: der Verdienstunterschied zwischen Frauen und Männern in Deutschland betrug 2009 durchschnittlich 23%. Doch bestehen zwischen den westlichen Ländern untereinander schwer übersehbare Unterschiede. Laut Gender Daten Report betrug der Einkommensunterschied zwischen den Geschlechtern in Schweden 2003 16 Prozent. Dies sind vergleichsweise 7 Prozent weniger als in Deutschland, wo in demselben Jahr der Verdienstunterschied bereits bei 23 Prozent lag. In Schweden hingegen sank dieser bis 2010 auf 6 Prozent und ist nach Angaben des Bundeskanzleramts Österreich der geringste Einkommensunterschied in Europa und bietet Deutschland ein vergleichbares Gegenstück. Zu Fragen ist bei Betrachtung der obigen Daten zweierlei: Woher rührt der geschlechtsspezifische Einkommensunterschied bzw. worin bestehen seine Faktoren? Und wieso sind sie innerhalb Europas so unterschiedlich, wie im Falle Deutschland und Schweden? Zu untersuchen, welche beobachtbaren Faktoren für den Entgeltunterschied zwischen Frauen und Männern sowie der einhergehenden geschlechtsspezifischen Arbeitsmarktsegregation in Deutschland und Schweden verantwortlich sind und woher die Unterschiede zwischen den zwei Nationen herrühren, ist Ziel dieser Arbeit. Der Inhalt setzt sich daher zusammen aus: einer Diskussion über geschlechtsspezifische Arbeitsmarktsegregation und Einkommensunterschiede in Deutschland und Schweden und darüber hinaus wird der Zusammenhang zwischen Einkommensstatus und Geschlecht sowie Einkommensstatus und Familienstatus auf Grundlage einer trivariaten Regression untersucht. Hierbei ist anzumerken, dass Berufe in der Regel dann als segregiert betrachtet werden, wenn sich weniger als 30 Prozent des anderen Geschlechts im jeweiligen Beruf befinden. Es handelt sich dann um männer- und frauentypische Berufe. Einkommensvergleiche und -analysen zwischen den Geschlechtern sind auf fünf Ebenen möglich: auf internationaler Ebene handelt es sich um Vergleiche westlicher Nationen, auf nationaler handelt es sich um politische Maßnahmen zur Abschaffung der Arbeitsmarktsegregation, die lokale Ebene beschäftigt sich mit Arbeitsmarktstrukturen, die Organisationsebene bildet Strategien zur Bekämpfung der Segregation und die individuelle Ebene setzt sich mit Geschlechtsmustern des Arbeitsverhältnisses auseinander. Diese Untersuchung verläuft auf nationaler und internationaler Ebene. Im ersten Kapitel werden familiäre Strukturen, Berufsvorstellungen, Studien zur Arbeitsmarktsegregation sowie Einkommensentwicklung und -ungleichheit in Deutschland analysiert. Hiernach folgt die Untersuchung der Ursachen und Faktoren des Verdienstunterschiedes zwischen Frauen und Männern auf literarischer Grundlage, der durch den sogenannten Gender Pay Gap abgebildet wird. Zudem wird auf Entwicklungen der schwedischen Frauenpartizipation und -erwerbsbeteiligung sowie auf Frauenbeschäftigungsumfang und Armutsrisiko in beiden Ländern eingegangen. Aus temporären und aus Gründen der Überschaubarkeit der vorliegenden Thesis, wird die theoretische Untersuchung im ersten Teil in den 80er Jahren stattfinden und die Entwicklung bis ins Jahr 2009 aufzeigen. Im darauf folgenden Abschnitt wird ein vergleichender Blick zwischen Deutschland und Schweden, insbesondere Armuts- und Reichtumslagen betreffend, gewagt. Ferner werden im zweiten Teil die Einflussfaktoren der Entgeldunterschiede auf Grundlage wissenschaftlicher Thesen empirisch überprüft. Die Basis der Untersuchung bietet das International Social Servey Programme 2002: Family and Changing Gender Roles 3. Ebenfalls aus temporären Gründen und jenen der Überschaubarkeit, findet die empirische Untersuchung lediglich für Deutschland statt. Letztendlich folgt der Untersuchung die Vorstellung gleichstellungspolitischer Maßnahmen beider Länder und eine Beurteilung der Ergebnisse sowie mögliche Zukunftsaussichten sowohl für die betreffende Zielgruppe, als auch für die Gesamtgesellschaft.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Inhaltsverzeichnis: Einleitung1 Teil 1:Entgeltungleichheit in Deutschland und ihre Ursachen5 1.1Beruf und Gehalt in Deutschland5 1.1.1Entwicklung der geschlechtsspezifischen Arbeitsmarktsegregation von 1980 bis 19906 1.1.2Ursachen und theoretische Ansätze9 1.1.3Aktuelle Befunde zu Geschlecht und Einkommen12 1.2Geschlechtsspezifische Arbeitsmarktsegregation in Schweden18 1.3Zusammenhang von Einkommen und Armut22 Teil 2: Gleichstellungspolitische Maßnahmen und ihre Erfolge25 Teil 3: Eine Empirische Untersuchung der geschlechtsspezifischen Einkommensunterschiede in Deutschland30 3.1Explikation der Hypothesen30 3.2Methodisches Vorgehen31 3.2.1Datengrundlage: ALLBUS/ ISSP 200231 3.2.2Operationalisierung der Hypothesen32 3.3Analyse34 3.3.1Analyse: Modus, Median und arithmetisches Mittel34 3.3.2Vorbereitung des Regressionsmodells36 3.4Analyse: multivariate Regression38 3.4.1Regression38 3.4.2Modellformulierung 40 3.4.3Schätzung der Regressionsfunktion41 3.4.4Prüfung der Regressionsfunktion42 3.4.4.1Bestimmtheitsmaß r²43 3.4.4.2F- Statistik43 3.4.4.3Standardfehler der Schätzung44 3.4.5Prüfung der Regressionskoeffizienten44 3.4.5.1T- Test der Regressionskoeffizienten45 3.4.5.2Beta- Wert45 3.5Interpretation der Ergebnisse und Prüfung der Hypothesen47 Teil 4: Fazit und Ausblick48 LiteraturTextprobe:Textprobe: Kapitel 2, Gleichstellungspolitische Maßnahmen und Ihre Erfolge: Die deutsche Bundesregierung Deutschland verfolgt mehrere Strategien und Maßnahmen zur Überwindung der Entgeltungleichheit als zentrales gleichstellungspolitisches Anliegen. Erschreckend ist aber, dass das Bundeskabinett erst seit 1999 die Gleichstellung von Frauen und Männern als Leitprinzip der Regierungstätigkeit ansieht und die Strategie des Gender Mainstreaming fördert, daher bei allen gesellschaftlichen Vorhaben die Interessen beider Geschlechter zu berücksichtigen- obwohl bereits in den 80er Jahren Studien zu dieser Thematik existierten. Diese hätten zu jener Zeit bereits zu Handlungen anspornen müssen. Weshalb dies nicht der Fall war, bleibt fraglich. Zur Förderung der Gleichstellung ist die Zusammenarbeit der Entscheidungsträger aus Politik, Tarifpartner, Arbeitgeber, Arbeitnehmer und Verbände notwendig. Konkrete Ziele sind dabei die finanzielle und soziale Absicherung der Frau, Absicherung des Fachkräftebedarfs der Unternehmer und Abschaffung veralteter Rollenbilder und geschlechtsspezifischer Arbeitsmarktsegregation sowie die langfristige Verringerung der Entgeltungleichheit zwischen den Geschlechtern. Zu den Maßnahmen gehören einerseits die Verkürzung familienbedingter Erwerbsunterbrechungen und andererseits die Veränderung der weiblichen Erwerbsstruktur. Hierfür sind der Ausbau der Kinderbetreuungsmöglichkeiten, besonders für Kinder unter drei Jahren, und die steuerliche Absetzbarkeit der Betreuungskosten sowie der Ausbau des Elterngeldes notwendig, um es Männern und Frauen beiderseits zu ermöglichen, Beruf und Familie zu vereinbaren und die partnerschaftliche Betreuungsaufgabe des Nachwuchses gerecht aufzuteilen, sodass ein kontinuierlicher Erwerbsverlauf der Frau und existenzsichernde Verhältnisse gewährleistet werden können. Ein europaweiter Ländervergleich zeigt, dass der Entgeltunterschied kleiner ist, desto höher die Frauenerwerbstätigkeit und daher Familie und Beruf besser vereinbart werden können. Hierbei geht Schweden mit gutem Beispiel voran: der geschlechtsspezifische Einkommensunterschied ist kleiner und die Erwerbsbeteiligungsquote wesentlich höher als in Deutschland. Das deutsche Steuersystem und familienbezogene Sozialausgaben fördern das männliche Ernährermodell und den Rückzug der Frau aus dem Erwerbsleben. Das führt dazu, dass 2004 in den Familien der Vater zu 90 Prozent als Haupternährer fungierte. Hingegen sind die Steuersysteme anderer Länder individualisiert: in Griechenland, Finnland und Schweden macht es steuerlich keinen Unterschied, ob einer der Partner oder einer der beiden allein das Familieneinkommen bestreiten (vgl. Kröhnert/ Klingholz 2005). Das am 1.1. 2007 in Deutschland eingeführte Elterngeld- Konzept, das durchschnittlich 68 Prozent des Einkommens ersetzt, bietet ein Beispiel hierfür. Die Elternzeit beträgt 12 Monate und verlängert sich um weitere zwei, wenn beide Elternteile diese Zeit in Anspruch nehmen. Damit soll erreicht werden, dass Frauen und Männer in selben Ausmaßen ihre Erwerbstätigkeit aus familiären Gründen unterbrechen, und nicht mehr zum größten Teil oder sogar ausschließlich die Frau. Trotz guter Absichten des Familienministeriums sind die Erfolge sehr gering. Die 2007 gestellten Anträge auf Elterngeld stammen lediglich zu 13 Prozent von Vätern. Zugegebenermaßen waren es davor gerade mal 3,5 Prozent. Von den 13 Prozent der männlichen Antragssteller nehmen aber ein Drittel lediglich die zwei Partnermonate und nur 10 Prozent das gesamte Jahr in Anspruch. Im Vergleich: 89 Prozent der Mütter bleiben das gesamte Jahr daheim. Darüber hinaus bemüht sich die Bundesregierung darum, das Berufswahlspektrum junger Frauen zu erweitern, da die Berufswahl von tradierten Rollenbildern geprägt ist. Projekte hierfür, die in Kooperation mit anderen Entscheidungsträgern stattfinden, sind: Girl`s Day und Komm, mach MINT. Girl`s Day und Komm, mach MINT sind jährlich stattfindende Informationstage der Bundesregierung. Darüber hinaus plant das BMFSFJ, das Instrument Logib (Logib steht für 'Lohngleichheit im Betrieb') in Deutschland einzuführen, das seit 2006 in der Schweiz Anwendung findet. Mithilfe dieses Instruments können Unternehmen im Selbsttest untersuchen, ob und inwieweit sie Einkommensgleichheit gewährleisten. Dabei handelt es sich um eine statistische Regressionsanalyse auf Grundlage der Arbeitsplatz-, Lohn- und Qualifikationsdaten der MitarbeiterInnen. Dadurch sollen Unternehmen zur Durchsetzung der Entgeltgleichheit ambitioniert werden. Die Teilnahme der Unternehmen ist freiwillig, daher ist Logib ein Appell der damaligen deutschen Familienministerin Van der Leyen an die Unternehmen, der zu breiter Kritik geführt hat. Beispielsweise Elke Ferner, Vorsitzende der Arbeitsgruppe Sozialdemokratischer Frauen in der SPD hielt die Politik Van der Leyens im Spiegel- Interview schlichtweg für eine Akzeptanz der Ungleichbehandlung und die stellvertretende Grünen- Fraktionsvorsitzende im Bundestag Krista Sager ist der Meinung, dass ein Computerprogramm kein Ersatz für politische Steuerung sein kann. Andere europäische Staaten setzen hingegen auf Sanktionen statt Appelle. In Frankreich beispielsweise herrscht ein Gesetz zur Entgeltgleichheit. Bei Nichteinhaltung der Verpflichtungen können Sanktionen für die Unternehmen folgen. Die Europäische Kommission hat eine sogenannte Roadmap zur Förderung der Geschlechtergleichstellung in den Jahren 2006 bis 2010 festgelegt, in dieser alle Aktionspartner zur Handlung aufgefordert werden. Zudem wurde eine Arbeitsgruppe auf europäischer Ebene gebildet.

TABLE OF CONTENTS -- Acknowledgements -- Introduction -- 1. The Taboo of Criminological Research amongst Minority Ethnic Groups -- The Origins of Interest n Race and Crime -- Crime and Culture -- Race and Crime in Britain: Discrimination, Policing and the Criminal Justice System -- Taking Culture Out of the Picture: Alexander's Study -- Colonial and Post-Colonial Criminology: Tatum's Theoretical Framework -- 'Blacks Don't Have Culture': Pryce's Participant Observation in Bristol -- De-Essentialising and De-Pathologising: Benson vs Werbner -- The Structural Bias: Deprivationism According to Ballard -- Conclusion: Towards a 'Minority Criminology' -- 2. Theoretical and Methodological Solutions to the 'Race and Crime' Taboo -- Criminality as a migration stage: Mawby and Batta -- Bringing religion into the picture: Macey's bold attempt -- Islam and its 'betrayal': Qurash's transnational study -- The anthropological gaze: Len's ethnography of deviance -- Masculinities and identity: Webster and Imtiaz -- Attachment and commitment to the community: Wardak's approach -- Ethnographic information as a working whole: the 'emic' approach -- Access and multi-sited fieldwork as the key to the 'working whole' -- The sampling and labelling of sub-groups -- Breaking the taboo through methodology: criminology, minority perspectives and anthropology -- 3. Bradford as a case study -- A 'BrAsian' city -- Ethnic disadvantage -- The migration history -- Ethnic resources and networks: the peculiarities of the biraderi system -- 'From textile mills to taxiranks' (Kalra 2000) -- Assertiveness, self-defence and political struggles n the 1980s -- The Rushdie affair and vigilantism -- The climax of tension: 2001 -- Local and global: Bradford post-9/11 -- A community caught between biraderi and the Umma? -- 4. Criminological Discourses: Labelling -- Crime in the community: an endemic problem? -- The labelling process: crime within and without the community -- Many problems, one name: drugs in the community -- Drug-dealing, drug-taking and the chain of criminal activities -- 'Poisoning the community' -- Purity and contamination: haram, halal and makkru -- Crime as a threat to community stability -- 5. Aetiologies of crime -- The Asian economic niche -- Deprivation, discrimination and unemployment -- 'The lure of big things': strain theory -- Demography and education -- The interplay of ethnic resources and networks: the 'out of place culture' -- The erosion of ethnic networks: the generation gap, vertical and horizontal ties, and khidmat -- The risks of excessive bonding and biraderism -- Competing sources: culture, Islam and the West -- Conclusion: theories of community criminologies -- 6. Criminological Discourses: Gender and Deviance -- Pathologising young men: subcultural studies in the British Pakistani context -- 'Double consciousness' or 'torn between two cultures'? -- Women and deviance: unveiling the problem -- Victimhood, agency and double deviance -- Women as an indicator of the level of deviance in the community -- Rude boys' lifestyles: appearances, locations and 'Sharifisation' -- From self defence to heroes: the growth of a 'mafia mentality' -- Conclusion: young people and moral panic -- 7. Criminological discourses: informal social control -- Social control through the family: prevention for girls, retrieval for boys -- Social control through the family: three case studies of parental strategies -- The mother's roles -- 'Home-made rehabilitation': 'village rehab' and the 'marriage cure' -- Means of social control: gossip and scandal -- Importing a communal system of social control -- Between culture and religion: taweez -- Religion as a protective factor -- Purification, reintegration and 'reconversions' -- Popular preaching: Sheikh Ahmed Ali - a case study -- Conclusion: informal control as a partial solution -- 8. Criminological discourses: formal social control -- Mosques: caught between the local and the global -- Madrassas and the understanding of Islam -- Mosques as community centres -- Media -- Local institutions -- Schools -- Prisons -- Policing -- Conclusion: complementarity of.

Health-related stigma is associated with a diversity of communicable and non-communicable diseases and has a resounding effect on the lives of the persons affected, their families, and the society-at-large. In order to effectively address the issue of health-related stigma, it is important to acknowledge its multidimensionality in regards to its existence in a diversity of diseases, the complex intersection of its experiences with that of other social oppressions, and the presence of positive agency among those who are stigmatized. Further, there is a wider call to bring together the knowledge and resources on stigma response from different disease-specific silos to build a unified and integrated stigma reduction approach. Through the exploration of lived experiences of people living with four stigmatized health conditions (HIV, leprosy, schizophrenia and diabetes) in Indonesia, this study aimed to answer the following research question: How can the multi-dimensionality of health-related stigma be understood across the different health conditions, and what is the possibility of a common response to address stigma across different health conditions in Indonesia? This thesis adopted a transdisciplinary research (TDR) approach based on the interactive learning and action (ILA) framework. The studies in this thesis used Socioecological model (SEM) as an overarching multi-level framework to explore the multidimensionality of stigma. The studies and their findings within this thesis have been presented in three parts: Part 1: Understanding the experience of health-related stigma Part 1 of this thesis looked into filling the evidence gap on comprehensive understanding of the experience of health-related stigma across different health conditions, and its intersection with other social inequalities and oppressive identities. First, it showed that people living with the four NCDs can also experience stigma owing to their health condition. Second, it found that stigma originates in the macro and meso levels, while manifests as personal experience in the micro level. It also found that the origin of stigma may be different across health conditions owing to the disease-specific features, the prevalent norms and stereotypes surrounding the disease, and the systemic conditioning that perpetuate and reinforce it. Third, it found that adversities related to gender, socioeconomic status religion, age, comorbidity, disability, and sexuality of participants intersected with health-related stigma in different socioecological levels. Part 2: Overcoming health-related stigma Part 2 of this thesis focused on personal agency and explored the strategies employed by positive deviants to avert stigma in their lives and improve their health-related quality of life. First, the findings uncovered the existence of problem-solving ability and personal agency among stigmatized individuals living with the four health conditions in the form of positive deviance. Second, it found that positive deviance was a determinant of physical, psychological, and social QoL of people living with stigmatized health conditions in Indonesia. Part 3: Prospects of common health-related stigma reduction response Part 3 investigated the prospects of a common response to address health-related stigma across different health conditions by investigating the cross-perspectives of individuals with different health conditions, and finally designing and implementing an intergroup training to foster understanding, collaboration and stigma reduction. First, it found that people living with stigmatized health conditions saw value in coming together for a common cause, and expressed willingness to participate in a common stigma reduction intervention. Second, the training was helpful in improving intergroup perception, willingness to collaborate, and mitigation of felt-stigma among the participants . Conclusion The prospects of collective action and agency among people living with stigmatized health conditions, combined with multifaceted initiatives from the government, civil society, and public health agencies seem to be the way forward to effectively combating health-related stigma in Indonesia, and possibly elsewhere.