Suchergebnisse

Doutoramento em Estudos de Desenvolvimento ; In September 2015, the United Nations (UN) officially adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development together with 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (UN, 2016). The main collective aims of the 17 SDGs are to end poverty, hunger and inequality, to take action on climate change and the environment, improve access to health and education, and build strong institutions and partnerships. More than three years have passed into this 15-year process, and while many countries have started implementing the SDGs, it is becoming increasingly clear that there are a number of issues concerning the implementation of the SDGs, including challenges within the United Nation's Development System (UNDS). The attainment of any sustainable development programme including the three dimensions of sustainable development (social, economic, and environmental) is known to be inherently complex particularly across horizontal and vertical boundaries in policy making processes. Concerns have been expressed at the United Nations through various channels and levels. Member States would like to see more coordination, coherence, effectiveness and efficiency in the operational activities for development within and among all levels of the UNDS. The Secretary-General of the UN is fully committed to repositioning the UNDS to deliver on the 2030 Agenda by becoming more structured and less fragmented to support the achievement of the SDGs and the 2030 Agenda. Similarly, the International Maritime Organization1 (IMO) as part of the UNDS, must be effective through its stakeholders in contributing tangibly towards the implementation of the SDGs in the international maritime transport domain as shipping plays a central role in the world economy. The fulfillment of the SDGs requires a strong commitment by all UN Member States, not least by the Contracting Governments at the IMO. In 2017, the IMO Secretariat stated that IMO is almost two years behind other United Nations system bodies in the implementation of the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs. Since then, progress has been very slow and most of the work was done by the IMO Secretariat with scarce input from IMO stakeholders. This empirical research aims to identify the issues and challenges which the stakeholders at IMO are facing when implementing the United Nation's 2030 Agenda for sustainable development in the international maritime transport domain. This study aims to identify the phenomenon that has contributed to this rather laid-back situation at IMO by shining a light on the issues that have impacted the implementation of the 2030 Agenda from the perspective of IMO and its stakeholders and further identify how these can be addressed. This study introduces grounded theory as the research methodology that was used, explains the research and analytical process undertaken, and presents the key findings based on empirical data gathered from 47 interviews. The main results are presented as a set of six propositions supported by an institutional conceptual framework, all of which have been validated as part of the research process. The first proposition presents the emergent core substantive grounded theory. It explains the phenomenon overwhelming Member States at IMO which has bred inactivity among Member States regarding the achievement of the SDGs at IMO. The other five propositions, which also form part of the substantive grounded theory, suggest how the issues, which can be attributed to the phenomenon explained by the first proposition, could potentially be best addressed. To effectively implement the SDGs, the study identified what needs to be done within IMO and by its stakeholders and concludes that there must be an IMO-led strategy on sustainable development within the context of the 2030 Agenda supported by an appropriate governance structure that sees the introduction of strategic actors for coordinating the implementation of the SDGs at national level. With the support of a Task Force on sustainability, and by also making use of the IMO Member State Audit Scheme2 to create more awareness and ownership, the strategic actors could work towards balancing the three dimensions of sustainable development – the economic, the environmental, and the social dimensions, which were found to be imbalanced in the international shipping domain. The IMO Member State Audit Scheme (IMSAS) aims to provide an audited Member State with a possibility of an assessment of how effectively it implements and administers the mandatory IMO instruments falling under the Scheme (IMO, 2017b). This study also concludes by presenting an Institutional Conceptual Framework developed on the basis of the findings of the empirical research and the resulting six propositions. The Institutional Conceptual Framework, as a platform, brings together the most critical elements that were found to be important and need to be implemented so that issues that this study has raised can be addressed, and the implementation of the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs within the international maritime transport domain can be accelerated and mainstreamed. Since studies of this nature within the context of IMO are very scarce, this research has provided a valuable contribution to the current academic literature and knowledge on sustainable development. The outcome of this doctoral thesis aims to create a better understanding of the potential issues and challenges in relation to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development and the SDGs in the maritime transport domain. These insights are valuable for the stakeholders at IMO in preparing the necessary groundwork for a sustainability course within IMO and at national level, to effectively implement the SDGs. If well engaged, IMO stakeholders can be the frontrunners in contributing towards achieving sustainable development on a global level by mainstreaming the SDGs through the work of IMO and by successfully integrating the economic, social, cultural and environmental dimensions of sustainable development of vital importance in the struggle to eradicate poverty and promote prosperity on a global scale through the maritime transport domain. ; Em setembro de 2015, a Organização das Nações Unidas (ONU) adotou a Agenda 2030 para o Desenvolvimento Sustentável, bem como os 17 Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustentável (ODS) (UN, 2016). A meta global destes 17 objetivos inclui erradicação da pobreza, fome e desigualdades, agir sobre as alterações climáticas e o ambiente, melhorar o acesso à educação e aos cuidados de saúde, construir parcerias e instituições mais robustas. Mais de três anos passaram, neste processo com duração total de quinze, e enquanto muitos países já iniciaram a implementação dos ODS, é cada vez mais claro que existem numerosas questões sobre esta implementação, incluindo desafios dentro do próprio Sistema de Desenvolvimento das Nações Unidas (SDNU). O cumprimento de qualquer programa de desenvolvimento sustentável, incluindo as três dimensões da sustentabilidade (social, económica e ambiental), é um processo inerentemente complexo, particularmente no concerne às fronteiras horizontais e verticais de definição de políticas. A ONU tem vindo a exprimir preocupações aos mais diversos níveis e através de inúmeros canais. Os seus Estados Membros querem mais coordenação, coerência e eficiência por parte do SDNU a nível das atividades operacionais para o desenvolvimento. O Secretário Geral das Nações Unidas está empenhado no reposicionamento do SDNU a nível da implementação dos objetivos da Agenda 2030, tornando-o mais estruturado e reduzindo a sua fragmentação, a fim de apoiar da melhor forma a efetiva realização dos ODS e da Agenda 2030. Paralelamente, a Organização Marítima Internacional3 (OMI), como parte integrante do SDNU, tem de ser eficaz através dos seus stakeholders, de modo a contribuir de forma tangível para implementação dos ODS no domínio do transporte marítimo internacional o qual tem um papel central na economia mundial. O cumprimento dos ODS exige um forte compromisso por parte de todos os estados membros da ONU, e nomeadamente pelos Governos Contratantes da OMI. Em 2017, o Secretariado da OMI reconheceu que a organização está quase dois anos atrás de outros órgãos do sistema das Nações Unidas na implementação da Agenda 2030 e dos ODS e, desde então, o progresso tem sido bastante lento e muito do trabalho realizado deve-se ao Secretariado da OMI, com uma contribuição reduzida por parte dos intervenientes principais na OMI. Esta investigação empírica tem como objetivo identificar as questões e desafios que os stakeholders na OMI enfrentam na implementação da Agenda 2030 das Nações Unidas para o desenvolvimento sustentável, no domínio do transporte marítimo internacional. Este estudo visa também analisar as causas que têm contribuído para a forma descontraída como a situação tem sido tem sido tratada na OMI, evidenciado as questões que estão a afetar a implementação da Agenda 2030 na perspetiva da organização e seus stakeholders, e identificando a forma como podem ser abordadas. Este estudo introduz a teoria fundamentada (Grounded Theory) como metodologia de investigação, explicando o processo de pesquisa e análise implementado, e apresentando as principais constatações extraídas dos dados empíricos recolhidos nas 47 entrevistas realizadas. Os principais resultados são apresentados como um conjunto de seis proposições apoiadas num referencial conceptual institucional, tendo sido validadas como parte do processo de investigação. A primeira proposição apresenta o núcleo emergente da teoria fundamentada substantiva. Explica o fenómeno que envolve os estados membros da IMO, responsável pela sua inatividade a nível dos ODS na OMI. As cinco proposições seguintes, que são parte integrante da teoria fundamentada substantiva, sugerem a forma como as questões encontradas, que resultam em grande medida do fenómeno explicado pela primeira proposição, podem potencialmente ser abordadas. Para uma implementação eficaz dos ODS, o estudo identificou as ações a empreender no âmbito da OMI pelos seus intervenientes principais, concluindo que deve existir uma estratégia liderada pela OMI sobre o desenvolvimento sustentável no contexto da Agenda 2030, apoiando-se numa estrutura de governança apropriada que inclua a introdução de atores estratégicos na coordenação da implementação dos ODS a nível nacional. Com o suporte de um grupo de trabalho sobre sustentabilidade, e fazendo uso do Esquema de Auditoria aos estados membros da OMI4 na criação de sensibilização e apropriação, os intervenientes estratégicos poderão trabalhar no sentido de equilibrar as três dimensões do desenvolvimento sustentável – económica, ambiental e social, que apresentavam desequilíbrios no domínio do transporte marítimo internacional. 4 O Esquema de Auditoria aos Estados Membros da OMI almeja prestar ao Estado Membro Auditado a possibilidade de requerer uma avaliação relativa à efetividade da implementação e administração dos instrumentos obrigatórios que estão no seu âmbito. Este estudo apresenta também como conclusão um referencial conceptual institucional baseado nas constatações mais relevantes da pesquisa empírica bem como nas seis proposições resultantes. A estrutura conceptual institucional, como plataforma, reúne os elementos considerados fundamentais para a abordagem das questões identificadas, de forma a acelerar e integrar a implementação da Agenda 2030 e dos ODS, no domínio do transporte marítimo internacional. Dada a escassez, ou mesmo inexistência de estudos desta natureza, esta pesquisa fornece uma contribuição significativa ao conhecimento e literatura académica na área do desenvolvimento sustentável no contexto da OMI. O resultado desta tese de doutoramento visa criar uma melhor compreensão das potenciais questões e desafios em relação à implementação da Agenda 2030 para o desenvolvimento sustentável e ODS no domínio do transporte marítimo. Esta visão é essencial aos intervenientes na IMO para o estabelecimento das bases necessárias de forma a rumarem na direção da sustentabilidade, tanto a nível da OMI como nacional, de forma a implementar eficazmente os ODS. Os atores principais da OMI, se corretamente envolvidos, podem ser líderes na contribuição para o desenvolvimento sustentável a nível global, incorporando os ODS através do seu trabalho na OMI e integrando com sucesso as dimensões económicas, sociais, culturais e ambientais do desenvolvimento sustentável – de grande relevância para a erradicação da pobreza e estimular a prosperidade a uma escala global através do transporte marítimo. ; info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :농업생명과학대학 농경제사회학부(지역정보전공),2020. 2. Hong Sok(Brian) Kim. ; There is a vicious circle characterizing the economic situation in many rural regions. Farmland abandonment is one of the complex circles and causes economic stagnation, environmental and social problems such as depopulation, row productivities, migration and dropping food supply self-sufficiency and some of the interlinked factors among them. As consequences of these situations, it has been observed that this makes the vicious circle that farmland abandonment is increasing even more and problems of these are getting more serious. Therefore, it is essential to understand value of farmland and its multi-functions and to restrain farmland abandonment along with fostering community capacity in rural area. Moreover, in the theory of neo-endogenous rural development, the importance of local resources such as farmland and community capacity is mentioned as key factors for sustainable rural development. Considering the importance of multi-function of farmland and community capacity, it is necessary for many rural regions to take measurements with multi-dimensional perspective to contribute to maintain the farmland and foster community capacity. However, there is very few researches on discussion of sustainable rural development focusing on farmland and community capacity with empirical studies. Since sustainable rural development has broad contents, there is very few studies focusing on the relationship between multi-function of farmland and sustainable development based on empirical study. Therefore, in this dissertation, it is trying to clarify the effect of direct payment for hilly mountainous area of Japan and community capacity on farmland conservation in order to organize concept of sustainability through role of farmland. It also tries to find out how it links to sustainable rural development. The results and discussion from this dissertation would bring better understanding on the importance of multi-function of farmland as community's asset and territorial integration policy. Furthermore, it would clarify challenges of case of Japan and make them into policy implication for future policy or other countries. Especially, the effective governmental intervention and diversity of stakeholders are key factors for sustainable rural development as mentioned in the theory. This research can indicate specific implication for sustainable rural development by focusing on multi-function of farmland and conservation activities. It would bring academic contribution to the theory development and also the academic field of sustainable rural development policy. In order to maintain farmland, it is well known that community capacity is playing the key role. Even so, the discussion on the relationship between sustainability and role of community capacity are very few with empirical studies. In this point, this dissertation can clarify the importance of community capacity through farmland conservation activities and give implication on community capacity building. First essay is verifying the effect of direct payment for hilly mountainous area and community capacity on restraining farmland abandonment. In this essay, we use panel data and Difference in Differences (DID) estimator to estimate the effect of the policy by comparing treated group with controlled group. At the same time, if the policy brings the effect on reducing rate of farmland abandonment, it is trying to clarify what community's features influence into the effect. As a result, the area of target of the policy has more effect of reducing farmland abandonment compared to non-target area. Moreover, the more share of 65 years old farmers, the more abandonment was restrained. This could be explained that long term accumulation of capacity for collective activities is the key factor to achieve governmental new program with incentives. We conclude that it is necessary to encourage stakeholders by the policy to lead community capacity building for farmland conservation. The second essay is investigating the efficiency of the direct payment for hilly mountainous area since it is one of payment for ecosystem services (PES) and recent discussion is spread in questioning efficiency of the PES. It is generally difficult to measure efficiency of Japanese type of direct payment because it does not aim at specific goals such as kinds of biodiversity or soil condition improvement. Therefore, we utilize flooding damage mitigation effect as standard of efficient use of the direct payment. We assume that if the farmland avoiding abandonment by direct payment can mitigate flooding in some level, it is assumed that the payment on the farmland was executed efficiently. In addition, in the age of climate change, we suppose that flooding damage might increase in the near future. So, we utilize RCP8.5 scenario and calculate damage cost based on the scenario with precipitation. We use panel data and Tobit model to estimate correlation between damage cost and direct payment effect. At the same time, we estimate if community collective activities have influences into disaster mitigation. As a result, the disaster mitigation was observed in both where they are the target area of the direct payment and where they have community's collective farmland conservation activities compared to non-target non-activities area. From this result, it is possible to say that efficient use of direct payment needs community's collective conservation activities. Prediction of damage cost under RCP8.5 scenario shows increasing in almost all the area of the study area. We conclude that it is necessary to confirm importance of multi-function of farmland and conservation activities by the community for maintaining farmland in the age of climate change. These two essays lead conclusions as below. Firstly, it is significant to understand value of multi-function of farmland and restrain farmland abandonment for sustainable rural development because this mentioned multi-function of farmland brings not only production but also disaster mitigation, rural economy opportunities and cultural value on the residents. Secondly, fostering community capacity is key for maintaining farmland with encouraging by governmental intervention. Lastly, the community collective activities bring efficient implementation of governmental intervention. Therefore, in terms of farmland conservation activities with the direct payment, it has to implement with incentive for stakeholders. Japan is one of countries where they face decrease of farmers and new entities. It is necessary to give incentives to new entities not only for individual farmers or large scale of full-time farmers but also private company or part-time farmers and new type of farmers to secure stakeholders. Farmland use should be considered depending on the regional characteristics. In this decade, it is not easy to manage farmland only by large scale farmers or full-time farmers since the number of farmers are decreasing year by year. It is the time to include part-time or small-scale farmers and new type of entities for community farmland maintenance with incentives by the governmental intervention with balanced community self-sustain so that the local resources and higher community capacity make it possible to pursue sustainable rural development. ; 전 세계적으로 경제적 악순환이 발생하고 있으며, 특히 농촌에서 빈번히 관찰되고 있다. 농지 경작 포기는 많은 농촌지역에서 발생하는 경제적 악순환의 과정 중 하나로 농촌경제악화, 인구 감소, 저생산, 인구유출 및 식량자급률 저하 등을 발생시키고 이는 다시 농지 경작 포기 증가로 이어지게 된다. 따라서, 농지의 다면적 기능의 가치를 정확히 이해하고, 경작포기지의 확산을 방지함과 동시에 지역사회역량의 육성이 필수적이다. 또한 소위 지역자원, 즉 여기서의 농지의 다면적 기능의 보전과 지역사회역량의 중요성은 신 내생적 성장이론의 핵심가치 중 하나이며 지속적인 농촌개발의 논의에서 빼놓을 수 없는 요소로서 인식된다. 이러한 중요성에 비추어볼 때, 농지의 다면적 기능을 유지하고 지역사회역량을 육성하는 등의 정책은 비단 일본뿐만 아니라 다른 국가의 농촌지역에서도 유효할 것이다. 그러나 실증연구를 중심으로 한 농촌 발전에 관한 논의는 아직까지는 미비한 현황이다. 이에 본 논문에서는 일본 중산간 지역의 직접지불제도의 유효성과 지역사회역량의 효과를 검증함과 동시에 이들이 지속가능한 농촌개발과 어떻게 연계되고 있는지를 살펴보고자 한다. 연구 결과, 영토 보전적 관점과 농촌지역공동체 재산으로서의 농지의 다면적 기능의 중요성을 재확인하였을 뿐만 아니라, 농촌개발 정책과 다양한 수요자(Stakeholder)의 중요성 역시 실증연구를 통해 입증하였다. 즉, 지속가능한 농촌개발의 주요 요소로는 정부의 효과적인 정책적 개입과 다양한 수요자(Stakeholder)가 꼽히나 그 구체적인 분석은 미흡한 바, 본 연구에서는 지속가능성이 무엇인지를 농지의 다면적 기능과 연관지어 분석하여 지속가능한 농촌개발에 대한 구체적인 제언을 제시하였다. 또한, 농지의 다면적 기능을 유지하기 위해서는 지역사회역량이 중요한 역할을 한다는 점은 선행연구로서 제시되어 있으나, 이에 대한 실증적인 분석은 미흡한 바 본 연구는 지역사회역량을 강조한 신 내생적 성장이론과 그 촉진에 중점을 주어 일본 직불제도의 효과에 관해 실증적으로 분석하였다. 본 논문의 첫번째 연구는 일본의 중산간 지역 등 직접지불제도와 지역사회역량효과를 검정한 것이다. 이 연구는 패널 데이터를 이용한 Difference in differences(DID) 기법을 사용하여 정책대상지역과 비대상 지역 간의 비교를 통해 제도의 효과를 검증하였다. 또한, 직접지불제도가 효과가 있는 경우 구체적으로 어떤 지역사회역량이 영향을 미치는지를 추정하여 결론적으로 지역사회역량을 육성하는 정부정책이 필요하다는 제언을 할 수 있었다. 결과적으로 정책대상지역은 비대상지역과 비교해서 경작 포기지 억제효과를 확인할 수 있었다. 또한, 65세 이상 농가의 비율이 높을수록 경작 포기지 억제효과가 확인되었다. 이는 장년층의 축적이라는 지역사회역량이 정부 정책의 효율성을 높일 수 있음을 의미하며, 또한 정책의 인센티브로 인하여 지역사회활동이 더욱 활발해져 경작 포기지 억제와 연계된다. 이상의 논의에 따라 영토 보존적 정책과 농촌사회 재산으로서의 농지의 다면적 기능의 보전을 위해서는 다수의 농업 종사자가 불가피하며, 이를 장려하기 위한 직접지불제도 대상지역 선정이 필요하리라 생각된다. 경제학적으로 고려하여도 농민이 소유 농지를 포기하지 않고 유지관리하는 인센티브가 필요할 것이다. 두 번째 연구는 최근 논의되고 있는 직접지불제도의 효율성에 대한 연구이다. 일본형 직접 지불제도는 직접적인 효율성을 측정하기 어렵다. 그 이유는 생물 및 토양의 개선이라는 명확한 목표를 설정할 수 없기 때문이다. 따라서 본 연구에서는 농지의 다면적 기능 중 농지의 수해제어효과를 효율성의 기준으로 사용한다. 중산간지역 등 직접지불제도에 의해 경작 포기가 억제된 토양이 수해억제효과를 보였다고 하면 이를 효율적인 직접 지불이 실행되었다고 간주한다. 또한, 최근 예상되는 기후변화로 인해 홍수피해 증가가 예상된다. 본 연구에서는 RCP 8.5 시나리오를 토대로 장래 강수량 예측 데이터에 따라 얼마나 홍수피해액이 증가하는지를 제시하였다. 구체적으로는 패널 데이터를 사용하여 토빗모델에 의해 수해피해액과 정책대상지역간의 관계를 분석하였다. 그리고 직접 지불이 효율적으로 실행된 지역에서는 농촌사회적 특성 중 어느 특성이 강세를 보이는가를 동시에 검증하였다. 결과적으로, 정책대상지역이자 농촌 보전 활동이 활발히 실시되는 농촌공동체를 보유한 지역이 그렇지 않은 지역과 비교하여 수해피해액이 적음을 확인하였다. 이로부터 효율적으로 직불제를 실시하기 위해서는 농촌공동체에서의 활발한 농지보전활동 참여가 중요하다는 사실을 도출할 수 있다. 또한, 장래 예측 강우량에 따르면 당초 예상대로 홍수 피해액이 대부분 모든 지역에서 증가하므로, 기후변동에 직면한 현재 농지의 다면적 기능의 중요성을 재확인하고 농지보전과 농촌공동체 활성화에 힘써야 한다. 이상의 두 연구로부터 본 논문은 다음과 같은 최종 결론을 내렸다. 첫째, 농지의 다면적 기능의 가치를 명확히 이해하고 경작포기자를 억제하는 것이 지속적인 농촌개발에 있어 핵심이라는 점이다. 둘째, 지역사회역량의 육성이 농촌의 다면적 기능 유지 및 관리에 있어서 핵심이라는 점이다. 셋째, 농촌공동체의 공동작업이 존재하는 지역에서는 정부개입의 효율성이 매우 높기에 개인 농가 수 감소에 직면하고 있는 일본으로서는 친척 단위 참가 농업 종사자의 정부지원 및 이에 따른 인센티브 수여가 필요하다는 점이다. 장기적으로 바라보았을 때 농지의 조절을 통한 지역사회의 조정은 반드시 필요하며 설사 이것이 경제학적으로 모순된다 하더라도 농촌공동체의 특성에 의해 농지 이용 정책을 고려해야 할 것이다. 대규모 경영시행 농가, 전업농만의 농지 관리는 현대에서는 어려우며 겸업농가 및 자급적 농가의 존재 역시 지역 전체적인 농지관리에서는 필수 요소라 할 것이다. ; Chapter 1. Introduction 1 1-1. Study Background 1 1-2. Purpose of Study and Contribution of the dissertation 9 1-4. Structure of the thesis 11 Chapter 2. Literature Reviews 13 2-1. Farmland Abandonment 13 2-2. Function of farmland to mitigate of disaster 23 2-3. Direct payment (DP) for hilly mountainous area 26 2-4. Social capital 34 2-5. Multi-function of Farmland in Japan 37 Chapter 3. The Effect of Direct Payment on the Prevention of Farmland Abandonment 39 3-1. Introduction 39 3-2. Agricultural Policy and Rural Development 42 3-3. Data and Methods 51 3-4. Results 63 3-5. Discussion and Conclusion 70 Chapter 4. Efficiency of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) on preservation of farmland in the age of Climate Change 73 4-1. Introduction 73 4-2. Purpose of Study 82 4-3. Data and Methods 82 4-4. Results and Discussion 90 4-5. Conclusion 99 Chapter 5. Conclusion and Policy Implication 103 Bibliography 107 Abstract in Korean 125 ; Doctor

[SPA] La contaminación de las aguas por nitratos es un fenómeno cada vez más acusado, que se manifiesta en un aumento de su concentración en las aguas superficiales y subterráneas, así como en la eutrofización de los embalses, estuarios y aguas litorales. Con el fin de solucionar este problema, se publicó la Directiva 91/676/CEE, de 12 de diciembre, relativa a la protección de las aguas contra la contaminación producida por nitratos de origen agrario. Su fin es establecer las medidas necesarias para prevenir y siempre que sea posible, aminorar o eliminar la contaminación de las aguas subterráneas, evitando el uso inadecuado de abonos nitrogenados, ya sea por excesos en las cantidades aportadas o por épocas inadecuadas de aplicación. El aumento de la superficie de regadío en la Comarca del Campo de Cartagena, que pasó desde las 10.000 ha en los años 80 hasta las 42.000 en la actualidad, ha generado un notable aumento de la entrada de nitrógeno y fósforo de origen agrícola al Mar Menor en las últimas décadas. El auge de las desalobradoras, que vierten salmueras ricas en estos nutrientes, por el problema de fondo de escasez crónica de recursos hídricos en la zona, no ha hecho más que agravar el problema. Todo ello justifica, la necesidad de optimizar las dosis de fertilizantes y fitosanitarios en la Comarca del Campo de Cartagena para minimizar el impacto medioambiental, evitando daños socio-económicos y manteniendo la productividad de los cultivos, lo que constituye la base de los ensayos de la tesis. Se escogió el cultivo de pimiento bajo invernadero por su importancia en la zona. Para el desarrollo de los ensayos se acondicionó un invernadero situado en el Centro Integrado de Formación y Experiencias Agrarias de Torre-Pacheco (Murcia), tipo multicapilla, de dimensiones externas 12 x 36 m, que se dividió en dos bloques paralelos, separados por un foso central de recogida de lixiviados, construyendo en cada uno de los bloques cuatro lixímetros de 40 m3 cada uno, que corresponden a las parcelas elementales de los ensayos. El diseño experimental durante las ocho campañas de cultivo consistió en cuatro ensayos diferentes. Durante los años 1999, 2000 y 2001 se aplicaron los siguientes tratamientos de abonado mineral nitrogenado: 0 g/m2 (T-1); 15 g/m2 (T-2); 30 g/m2 (T-3), y 45 g/m2 (T-4). Durante el año 2002 se aplicó el mismo abonado a todas las parcelas, con una dosis de abonado mineral nitrogenado considerada óptima según los cálculos del Código de Buenas Prácticas Agrarias de la Región de Murcia (C.B.P.A.) de 13 gN/m2. Durante los años 2003, 2004 y 2005 los tratamientos consistieron en ensayar los tres tipos de cultivo existentes en la Comarca: ecológico (0 g/m2 de nitrógeno mineral), integrado (~15 gN/m2) y convencional (~30 gN/m2). El año 2006 el ensayo consistió en realizar solo los dos tipos de cultivo con mejores resultados agroambientales: el ecológico (0 g/m2 de nitrógeno mineral) y el integrado (~15 gN/m2), ya que el cultivo convencional dio niveles más altos de lixiviación de nitratos. Se obtuvieron las siguientes conclusiones: • Programar el riego por el método de la FAO con datos obtenidos de la cubeta en el interior del invernadero permite un 15-20% de agua. • La m.o. incorporada al suelo como parte de la preparación del terreno y la biofumigación fue la responsable de gran parte de la lixiviación de nitratos. La media de nitrato lixiviado para el conjunto de tratamientos asciende a 145,55 kg/ha. • La metodología de discriminación isotópica es válida para detectar la adición de abonos nitrogenados en cultivos ecológicos • La concentración de nitrógeno en frutos puede ser un buen indicador del exceso de abonado nitrogenado. • La variable producción comercializable y lixiviación de nitratos correlacionan negativamente. • Hay un punto óptimo de aplicación de abonado nitrogenado para el cual se obtiene más producción comercializable, por encima y por debajo del cual esta disminuye • El cultivo ecológico fue el que mejores resultados dio de producción y menor lixiviación de nitratos. • El aumento de la dosis de fertilizantes minerales estimuló el crecimiento vegetativo en detrimento de la producción de frutos, dando menores producciones los tratamientos con más abonado nitrogenado. • El C.B.P.A. y la Orden de 16 de junio de 2016, de la Consejería de Agua, Agricultura y Medio Ambiente son buenos indicadores de la dosis de abonado mineral N a aportar en el cultivo, pero tomados los cálculos como valor máximo. • Una reducción en las dosis de N del 50% podría suponer un ahorro anual en torno a 780 €/ha (1 200 000 € en la Región de Murcia ). Por todo ello, los estudios derivados de esta tesis, permiten dar a conocer a los agricultores cómo una reducción a unos determinados niveles en el abonado nitrogenado no supone una reducción en la cantidad y calidad de las cosechas y si en cambio un ahorro en el consumo de fertilizantes, lo que conllevaría una menor lixiviación de nitratos. Los cosecheros se beneficiarán aplicando las recomendaciones derivadas de esta tesis, de una reducción en sus costes de producción y, por su parte, el consumidor se beneficiará de una mayor seguridad del producto, manteniendo la calidad y al mismo tiempo, con estas prácticas, se favorecerá el objetivo medioambiental de reducir la lixiviación de nitratos en la Comarca del Campo de Cartagena, tan importante para la preservación de la laguna del Mar Menor. [ENG] The incorporation of fertilizers into agriculture has been one of the main factors that have increased agricultural production, but currently the excess of chemical fertilization is the main cause of the contamination of aquifers and groundwater. This effect is caused by nitrate, which is not retained in the soil and is affected by strong leaching processes. These processes result in its transfer to underground aquifers, with the consequent contamination and risk to human health. Therefore, in the efficient management of N in agricultural systems there is a challenge: namely, to maintain the rate of growth in productivity while ensuring the sustainability of the environment. Water pollution by nitrate is an increasing phenomenon, since there has been an increase in its concentration in surface and groundwater, as well as in the eutrophication of reservoirs, estuaries, and coastal waters. Therefore, in order to solve this problem and address the growing concern for the environment, the Directive 91/676/EEC was published on 12 December in relation to the protection of waters against pollution caused by nitrate from agricultural sources. The purpose of this Directive is to establish the measures necessary to prevent and, when possible, to reduce or eliminate groundwater contamination, by avoiding the inadequate use - due to either excess quantities or inappropriate application periods - of nitrogen fertilizers. The Directive considers that the main cause of pollution from the diffuse sources which affect waters of the European Union is nitrate from agricultural sources, and therefore it is necessary to reduce these sources. Moreover, it is important to take measures concerning the application to the soil of all nitrogen compounds. Thus, by promoting good agricultural practices, Member States can provide, for all waters, a general level of protection against future pollution. Also, those areas that discharge or drain into waters vulnerable to pollution require special protection. The Directive imposes a number of obligations on Member States, including the implementation of action programs to reduce water pollution due to nitrogen compounds in vulnerable areas and the inclusion of measures to limit the application to the soil of all nitrogen-containing fertilizers, an aspect that is part of this thesis. Within this theme, one of the critical points of the Strategic Plan for Development of the Region of Murcia (2007-2013) considers minimizing the nutrient and phytosanitary discharges to the Mar Menor Lagoon, caused by the development of the agriculture in its basin. This Plan also promotes lines of research that prioritize the main environmental problems in the Region, including an increase in the monitoring and control of fertilizer discharges to the environment, as well as the dissemination of information to the farmers. The growth in the area of irrigated land in the Campo de Cartagena zone, which has increased from 10,000 ha in the 1980s to 42,000 ha today, has led to a notable increase in the entry into the Mar Menor of nitrogen and phosphorus of agricultural origin, in recent decades. The rise in the number of desalination plants, which release brines rich in these nutrients, due to the underlying problem of chronic shortage of water resources in the area, has only aggravated the problem. All the factors pointed out above justify the necessity to optimize the doses of fertilizers and phytosanitary products in the Campo de Cartagena, in order to minimize the environmental impact, avoiding socio-economic damages while maintaining crop productivity. This is the basis for the experimental approach described in this thesis. For this study, the crop chosen was sweet pepper grown under greenhouse conditions, because it is a typical example of the new productive orientations of the commercial agriculture in the Region of Murcia and the south of the Province of Alicante. In these areas, agriculture is highly technical and with an eminently social character. This crop occupied 2,500 ha in 2006, with a progressive reduction to 1,224 ha by 2012. It is cultivated with three management systems which are studied in this Thesis: ecological, integrated, and conventional cultivation. The conventional cultivation is of great interest in the Region of Murcia, and occupies the greatest area within the greenhouses of the Campo de Cartagena, where the experiments were carried out. With these studies, the aim is to demonstrate for the pepper crop under greenhouse conditions, in the Campo de Cartagena, the hypothesis that a surplus of nitrogen fertilizers does not always contribute to an increase in yields, but does increase the risk of diffuse contamination of the groundwater by leaching (Pratt, 1984). Moreover, this leaching will be quantified according to the dose of fertilizer, and the agricultural practices in this crop that can reduce the losses of nitrate into the aquifers will be evaluated. This thesis aims to expand the scientific/technical knowledge of nitrate leaching in the greenhouse cultivation of pepper by systematizing and analyzing the results of three research projects: Project I.N.I.A. SC-99-042, Regional Project RTA-Positivo-03-3, and Project I.N.I.A. RTA-04-035. The duration of our study in this crop (1999-2007), the singular experimental set up with large drainage lysimeters in greenhouse, and the multidisciplinary team involved in this research (from the Regional Ministry of Agriculture, IMIDA, UPCT, CIFEA, LAYMA, SYNGENTA, and KOPPERT) provided an overview of all the important aspects of crop sustainability, irrigation, and leaching over an eight-year period. The findings form the basis of this thesis. Therefore, the idea was to determine the influence of different doses of nitrogen fertilizer (from 0 to 45 g N/m2) and different agricultural practices (organic, integrated, and conventional cultivation) on the leaching of nitrate and on yield, with the aim of establishing the basis of the impact of the greenhouse pepper crop in this zone. Thus, the aim was to develop techniques that minimize the risks of contamination due to excess nitrogen fertilizer, with the consequent environmental, social, and economic benefits. ; Escuela Internacional de Doctorado de la Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena ; Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena ; Programa de Doctorado Técnicas Avanzadas en Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario y Alimentario

Forschungskonzept Das Nachhaltigkeitsleitbild der Agenda 21 und die damit verknüpften Rollenerwartungen an die Privatwirtschaft sind ein Bezugsrahmen der vorliegenden Doktorarbeit. Die Agenda 21, ein zentrales Dokument der UN-Konferenz für Umwelt und Entwicklung (UNCED 1992), und Dokumente der Folgekonferenzen weisen der Privatwirtschaft eine zentrale Rolle bei der Verwirklichung nachhaltiger Entwicklung zu: Wirtschaftsunternehmen sollen Wertschöpfung auf der Grundlage umweltverträglichen Umgangs mit natürlichen Res-sourcen erreichen. Als verantwortungsvolle Unternehmen sollen sie die Interessen ihrer Anspruchsgruppen berücksichtigen, und diese Gruppen sollen ihrerseits die Privatwirt-schaft bei der Realisierung nachhaltiger Entwicklung unterstützen. Regierungsunabhängige Umweltorganisationen erwarten von der Privatwirtschaft umwelt-verträglichen Umgang mit natürlichen Ressourcen und üben entsprechend Druck auf Unternehmen aus. Die Literatur dokumentiert jedoch Konflikte zwischen dem Rollenver-ständnis der Privatwirtschaft und den Erwartungen internationaler Organisationen und zivilgesellschaftlicher Anspruchsgruppen. Seitens der Unternehmen bestehen Zweifel, ob die Anforderungen dieser Akteure angemessen sind und inwieweit sie die ihnen zuge-wiesene Verantwortung übernehmen sollen. Auf diese Problematik bezieht sich die vor-liegende, 2006 bis 2008 durchgeführte qualitative empirische Untersuchung. Das Ziel der Forschungsarbeit war, den Wissensstand zum Umgang kleiner bis mittelgro-ßer Produktionsunternehmen mit ihren Rohstoff liefernden natürlichen Ressourcen zu erweitern - ihrer Rolle in Marktketten, ihrer Beziehungen zu Stakeholdern und die Berück-sichtigung natürlicher Ressourcen durch ihr Management. Als Beispiel ausgewählt wur-den Holzmöbel erzeugende Unternehmen (Möbelhersteller), eine mittelständische Bran-che der holzverarbeitenden Industrie. Da Möbelproduktion hohe Wertschöpfung aus Roh-holz ermöglicht, erschien dieses Beispiel aufschlussreich im Hinblick auf die allgemeine Annahme der Agenda 21, hohe ökonomische Wertschöpfung aus Holz lasse Impulse für nachhaltige Waldwirtschaft erwarten. Die Untersuchung wurde in Regionen mit unter-schiedlichen gesellschaftlichen, volkswirtschaftlichen und insbesondere forst- und holz-wirtschaftlichen Rahmenbedingungen durchgeführt. Forschungsfragen waren: Wie stellt sich "Forst" aus der Sicht von Möbelherstellern dar? In welcher Beziehung stehen Möbelhersteller zu ihren Anspruchsgruppen und wie kom-munizieren sie "Forst" gegenüber diesen Gruppen? Wie berücksichtigen Möbelhersteller "Forst" in ihren Entscheidungen? Der Verfasser stellt diese Forschungsfragen unter den Oberbegriff "Forstrationalität". Das Konstrukt "Forstrationalität" umreißt, wie Entscheidungsträger in der Holzindustrie Wald-bewirtschaftung als ihre Rohstoffbasis wahrnehmen und in Entscheidungen einbeziehen. Es umfasst alle Aspekte der Wahrnehmung und Interpretation sowie des Verhaltens holz-verarbeitender Industrieunternehmen bezüglich ihrer Rohstoffquelle "Forst". Grundlagen hierfür sind Theorien der Ressourcenabhängigkeit (Pfeffer und Salancik 1978/2003; Steimle, 2008) und des Sensemaking (Weick 1995, 2001). Informationen zur Beantwortung der Forschungsfragen wurden in drei Zentren der Möbel-industrie mit unterschiedlichen gesellschaftlichen und forstlichen Rahmenbedingungen in Brasilien und in Deutschland gewonnen: in Rio Branco do Acre (RBA) im brasilianischen Amazonasgebiet; in São Bento do Sul (SBS) in Südbrasilien und in Nordrhein-Westfalen (NRW) in Deutschland. Die drei Regionen in zwei Ländern vergleichende Feldforschung stellte besondere Anforderungen an die Forschungsmethodik. Vorgehen und Aufbau der Erhebungsinstrumente waren in den drei Regionen identisch: Grundlegendes empirisches Wissen vermittelten Inhaltsanalysen von Fachzeitschriften der Möbelwirtschaft (1) sowie die Auswertung von Sekundärinformationen (2). Telefonische Leitfadeninterviews mit Ex-perten (3) beleuchteten die Unternehmensumfelder und gaben allgemeine Hinweise zum Verhalten von Entscheidungsträgern der Möbelindustrie. Das Spektrum der "Forstrationa-litäten" der Entscheidungsträger erschloss sich im persönlichen Kontakt bei Betriebsbesu-chen; in jeder Region wurden zwei Hersteller von Massivholzmöbeln und ein Hersteller von Möbeln aus Holzwerkstoffen ausgewählt (4). Ergebnisse der Fachzeitschriftenanalyse Die quantitative Inhaltsanalyse von Fachzeitschriften diente dazu, das Gesamtspektrum der für den Wirtschaftszweig Möbelindustrie relevanten Fachthemen kennen zu lernen und die relative Bedeutung der Themenfelder "Umweltschutz" sowie "Waldressour-cen/Forstwirtschaft" einzuschätzen. Zusammenfassend konnten folgende Schlüsse gezo-gen werden: 1. Die Themenfelder "Umwelt" und "Forst" interessieren in der Möbelindustrie, erhalten aber in der Fachpresse weniger Raum als Themenfelder wie Wirtschaft, Technologie und Wettbewerb. 2. Im Themenfeld "Umwelt" sind in Deutschland wie in Brasilien Aspekte des eigenen Produktionsstandortes (innerbetrieblicher Umweltschutz) die bedeutendsten Themen der Möbelindustrie. 3. In der brasilianischen Möbelindustrie stehen "forst"-bezogene Aspekte stärker im Fo-kus als in Deutschland. Ergebnisse der regionalen Fallstudien Ergebnisse der Untersuchungsphasen (2) bis (4) stellt die Dissertation in Form von drei regionalen Fallstudien mit identischer Gliederung vor: a) Rahmenbedingungen der Möbel-hersteller b) Nicht-marktliche Anspruchsgruppen c) Lieferanten von Holzprodukten d) Mö-belabnehmer e) Interaktion der Möbelhersteller untereinander f) Forst- und Umweltmana-gement. Die regionalen Fallstudien bestätigen die Einsicht aus der Fachzeitschriftenanalyse, dass die spezifische Situation des gesamten regionalen Sektors "Forst- und Holzwirtschaft" die brasilianischen Möbelhersteller stärker prägt als die in NRW. So fanden in RBA in jünge-rer Zeit einschneidende forst- und umweltpolitische sowie institutionelle Veränderungen statt, die neue Rahmenbedingungen für alle holzbe- und -verarbeitenden Unternehmen gesetzt haben. In der Region SBS beschäftigt "Forst" die Möbelhersteller ebenso wie an-dere Zweige der Holzwirtschaft wegen eingetretener oder in der Zukunft erwarteter Holz-knappheiten sowie angesichts staatlicher Kontrolle der Verwendung von Holz aus legaler Waldnutzung. In NRW werden hingegen die einheimische Waldbewirtschaftung ebenso wie die Verarbeitung von Vorprodukten aus nichttropischen Holzarten als unproblematisch wahrgenommen, forstliche Themen erscheinen nicht als kritisch im Makroumfeld der Mö-belindustrie. In NRW wie in SBS dominiert die Auseinandersetzung mit gesamt- und bran-chenwirtschaftlichen Kerndaten, mit nationalen und internationalen Markttrends sowie mit technologischen Entwicklungen die Agenda der Möbelhersteller. Die Möbelhersteller unterliegen der Aufsicht von Umweltbehörden. Die Kontrolle des in-nerbetrieblichen Umweltschutzes, zum Teil verknüpft mit Arbeitsschutz, zeigte sich in al-len drei Regionen als Schwerpunkt der Aktivität dieser Behörden. Anders als in Deutsch-land unterliegt in Brasilien die Holzbeschaffung durch holzbe- und -verarbeitende Betriebe behördlicher Kontrolle. Die Fachverbände der Möbelindustrie in allen drei Fallstudienregionen definieren als ihre zentrale Aufgabe die Vertretung der Interessen ihrer Mitgliedsunternehmen gegenüber Politik und Gesellschaft. In beiden brasilianischen Fallstudienregionen, in denen forstbe-zogene Probleme die Möbelindustrie intensiv beschäftigen, sehen die Möbelindustriever-bände forstbezogene Angelegenheiten auch als ihre Aufgabe. In RBA agiert der Verband mit dem Ziel, die behördliche Registrierung von Möbelproduzenten des informellen Sek-tors voranzubringen und diese zur Verarbeitung von Holz aus legaler Waldnutzung zu verpflichten. In SBS haben die Möbelfachverbände in Perioden der Holzknappheit der Entwicklung der regionalen Forstwirtschaft und der Holzversorgung der Möbelindustrie große Aufmerksamkeit gewidmet; zur Zeit der Untersuchung drängten andere wirtschaftli-che Probleme die Waldthematik in den Hintergrund. Die durch die Forschungsarbeit erfassten Möbelhersteller stehen selten in direktem Kon-takt mit privaten Umweltorganisationen. Sie nehmen jedoch wahr, dass diese Organisa-tionen die Rahmenbedingungen der Möbelindustrie durch Verbraucherkampagnen, An-forderungen an die ersten Stufen der Forst-Holz-Wertschöpfungsketten und durch politi-sches Lobbying indirekt beeinflussen. Die Abhängigkeit der Möbelhersteller von Holzproduktlieferanten variiert in den drei Un-tersuchungsregionen. In NRW ist diese Abhängigkeit schwach ausgeprägt, weil die Mö-belhersteller Vorprodukte regional wie überregional problemlos einkaufen können und weil auch große Holzlieferanten Ansprüche der Möbelindustrie etwa bezüglich der Qualität, Abmessungen und Vorfertigung von Schnittholz und Holzwerkstoffen berücksichtigen. In Brasilien stellt sich die Situation anders dar. In SBS haben große bis mittelgroße Möbel-hersteller wegen der Unsicherheit der Holzversorgung und der Qualität von Vorprodukten aus Holz Schritte zur Rückwärtsintegration unternommen (eigene Sägewerke, vereinzelt eigene Bewirtschaftung von Kiefern-Plantagen) oder alternative Vorproduktquellen ge-sucht. In RBA stellt die behördlich kontrollierte Forderung, nur Holz aus "ordentlicher Waldwirtschaft" zu verarbeiten, die zu einem großen Teil staatlich geförderten Möbelher-steller des formellen Sektors vor Probleme. Denn ein hoher Anteil des entsprechenden regional verfügbaren Tropenholzes wird in Form von Holzhalbwaren in andere Regionen Brasiliens verkauft oder exportiert. Für die Möbelhersteller in RBA sind die Einkaufspreise hochwertiger Holzvorprodukte, insbesondere wenn diese aus zertifiziertem Holz erzeugt werden, deshalb in den letzten Jahren stark gestiegen, während die Möbelpreise aufgrund der Konkurrenz zahlreicher kleiner informeller Produzenten, aber auch durch das Angebot kostengünstig produzierter Serienmöbel aus Südbrasilien unter Druck stehen. Nur wenige gut organisierte Möbelhersteller in RBA scheinen bislang tragfähige Strategien zu verfol-gen, um diesem Dilemma zu begegnen. Die Beziehung von Möbelherstellern zu ihren Abnehmern ist in allen drei Fallstudienregio-nen durch Abhängigkeiten der Möbelhersteller geprägt. In RBA hängen formell registrierte Möbelhersteller stark von öffentlichen Aufträgen ab. In SBS sind Möbelhersteller von der Serienproduktion für den Exportmarkt abhängig; vielfach geben Auslandskunden die Mo-delle vor und haben großen Einfluss auf die Möbelpreisbestimmung. Beim Möbelabsatz im Inland stehen die Hersteller in NRW wie in SBS großen Einkaufsverbänden oder Kon-zernunternehmen des Möbeleinzelhandels gegenüber. In allen drei Regionen erhält die Möbelindustrie von ihren unmittelbaren Möbelabnehmern wie von Endverbrauchern nur schwache "Forst"-Signale - die Herkunft des für die angebo-tenen Möbel verarbeiteten Holzes aus "legaler" oder "nachhaltiger" Waldbewirtschaftung ist allenfalls ein nachrangiges Einkaufskriterium bzw. ist sie nur in Marktnischen relevant. Eine Ausnahme bilden die öffentlichen Auftraggeber in RBA, deren Möbelbeschaffung explizit den Aufbau nachhaltiger regionaler Forst-Holz-Wertschöpfungsketten in Acre stüt-zen soll. Experten der drei Untersuchungsregionen bezeichneten die Interaktion von Möbelherstel-lern untereinander als wenig kollegial, sondern wettbewerbsgeprägt. Unternehmen koope-rierten primär in für den Wettbewerb wenig relevanten Bereichen (z.B. gemeinsame Mes-sebesuche im Ausland). Die Initiative zu intensiverer Kooperation gehe häufig von Ver-bänden oder staatlichen Organisationen aus. Die Unternehmensbesichtigungen und Gespräche mit Experten zeigten, dass die in die Untersuchung einbezogenen Möbelhersteller nicht über ein systematisch aufgebautes Umweltmanagement verfügen. Die Beschäftigung mit Umweltproblemen orientiere sich vorwiegend an den für sie relevanten umweltrechtlichen Vorschriften. In NRW befolgen die Möbelhersteller nach Experteneinschätzung durchweg die Umweltauflagen; ihre Pro-duktionsbetriebe unterliegen strengen Kontrollen der Umweltbehörden. In Brasilien um-fassen behördliche Umweltschutzanforderungen für Möbelhersteller zusätzlich zum inner-betrieblichen Umweltschutz auch die Auflage, die Holzherkunft aus legaler Waldnutzung nachzuweisen. Bezüglich der Umsetzung der Umweltschutzanforderungen auf betriebli-cher Ebene ergab sich in beiden brasilianischen Regionen ein differenziertes Bild. Theoriebezogene Ergebnisinterpretation Der Verfasser versuchte zu verstehen, wie Unternehmer und Manager in der holzverar-beitenden Industrie das eigene Umfeld wahrnehmen und deuten, wie sie Entscheidungen treffen und begründen. Im Fokus stand die Forstrationalität von Entscheidungsträgern in möbelerzeugenden Unternehmen. Von ihm verfolgte Interpretationsansätze waren: 1. die Unterscheidung von Anlässen forstbezogenen Verhaltens der Möbelhersteller; 2. die Unterscheidung von Verhaltensbezugsebenen und Zeithorizonten; 3. die Prüfung, inwieweit das spezifische Verhalten bezüglich der für die Möbelher-stellung beanspruchten natürlichen Ressource Wald generellen Verhaltensmu-stern von Entscheidungsträgern in Produktionsunternehmen entspricht. Zu (1) Anlässe forstbezogenen Verhaltens Gefragt werden kann nach der wahrgenommenen Dringlichkeit forstbezogener Signale, die ein Möbelhersteller aus seinem Umfeld erhält: Können Anspruchsgruppen aus seiner Sicht ein bestimmtes forstbezogenes Verhalten verlangen bzw. erzwingen? Die Fallstudi-en legen den Schluss nahe, dass Möbelhersteller Einflüsse von Produktketten-externen Anspruchsgruppen wahrnehmen und reflektieren. Die Intensität wahrgenommener An-sprüche ist jedoch offenbar nur selten so hoch, dass sie Reaktionen der Möbelhersteller auslöst. In der Untersuchung erkennbar waren aber Verhaltensänderungen brasilianischer Möbelhersteller nach Einführung der DOF-Dokumentation zum Nachweis der Beschaffung von Holz aus legalen Quellen. Im Umkehrschluss lässt sich vermuten, dass Möbelherstel-ler forstbezogene Themen aus ihren Umfeldern vorwiegend als Signale wahrnehmen, die sie ihrem Selbstverständnis entsprechend individuell bewertet mit ihren Strategien ver-knüpfen, die sie aber auch ignorieren können. Die Art der für die Herstellung eines Möbelstücks verwendeten Holzvorprodukte bzw. die Materialkombination lenkt die Aufmerksamkeit von Möbelkäufern mehr oder minder stark auf den Bezug zum "Forst", wodurch auch die Forstrationalität der Möbelhersteller beein-flusst wird. In der Untersuchung ergaben sich diesbezüglich Unterschiede des Selbstver-ständnisses und der Marketingkommunikation zwischen Herstellern von Möbeln aus Holzwerkstoffen und aus Massivholz, bei den letzteren wiederum bezüglich der Möbelher-stellung aus Tropenholz oder nicht-tropischen Holzarten. Hersteller von Massivholzmö-beln stellten häufig einen Bezug ihrer Möbel zur Natur oder zum Wald her. Dabei betonten Hersteller von Tropenholzmöbeln die Individualität einzigartiger Holzarten aus artenrei-chen Naturwäldern; Hersteller von Möbeln aus nicht-tropischen Holzarten hingegen hoben die Herkunft der Möbelhölzer aus nachhaltig bewirtschafteten "nicht-tropischen" Wäldern hervor. Hersteller von Holzwerkstoffmöbeln argumentierten "ökologisch" mit den Vorteilen hoher Holzausbeute bei der Herstellung und Verarbeitung von Holzwerkstoffen, wodurch Waldressourcen geschont würden. Die brasilianischen Möbelhersteller sehen sich mit Ungewissheiten der Holzversorgung konfrontiert; sie interpretieren diese unterschiedlich, auch innerhalb der beiden Fallstudi-enregionen. In allen drei Untersuchungsregionen bekannten sich die in die Untersuchung einbezogenen Möbelhersteller zur Verarbeitung von Holz aus unbedenklichen Quellen. Sie erwarten Absatzrisiken für den Fall diesbezüglicher Zweifel ihrer Abnehmer. Gegen-wärtig sei kritisches Hinterfragen der Herkunft von Möbelhölzern seitens der Möbelab-nehmer jedoch selten und beziehe sich vorwiegend auf Tropenholz. Zu (2) Verhaltensbezugsebenen und Zeithorizonte Waldbewirtschaftung ist nur in wenigen Fällen ein eigenes Tätigkeitsfeld von Möbelher-stellern. Mit ihrem forstbezogenen Verhalten ergreifen Möbelhersteller folglich in der Re-gel nicht unmittelbar forstwirtschaftliche Maßnahmen, sondern beeinflussen diese indirekt oder reagieren auf die von anderen Akteuren gesetzten Forstthemen. Dies erfolgt zum einen durch Auswahl der für die Möbelproduktion eingesetzten Materialien und deren Be-schaffung, also durch ein direkt an die Möbelproduktion gebundenes Verhalten. Zum an-deren geschieht dies durch den Umgang und die Kommunikation mit Anspruchsgruppen im unmittelbaren Umfeld und im Makroumfeld. Materialorientiertes Verhalten und die Be-ziehungen zu Anspruchsgruppen stehen jedoch nicht isoliert nebeneinander, sondern können miteinander verknüpft sein, etwa weil bei Materialwahl-Entscheidungen das Ver-trauen zu Lieferanten und Abnehmerpräferenzen berücksichtigt werden. Mit Blick auf die Zeithorizonte der Entscheidungen von Möbelherstellern machte die Ana-lyse deutlich, dass in deren Kurzfristperspektive Forstrationalität von untergeordneter Be-deutung ist und andere Aspekte der Unternehmensumfelder im Vordergrund stehen (z.B. Holzversorgung für das aktuelle Produktionsprogramm und Wettbewerb). In der mittel- und langfristigen Zeitperspektive hingegen erhalten forstbezogene Überlegungen und Maßnahmen (wie Einsatz alternativer Holzvorprodukte oder Verwendung von Holz aus zertifizierter Waldbewirtschaftung) größeres Gewicht. Zu (3) Spiegelt Forstrationalität generelle Verhaltensmuster? Etliche der in der Forschungsarbeit registrierten Ausprägungen von Forstrationalität der Möbelhersteller lassen sich allgemeinen Verhaltensmustern von Entscheidungsträgern in Wirtschaftsunternehmen zuordnen: Legitimation: Die in die Untersuchung einbezogenen Möbelhersteller in allen drei Unter-suchungsregionen hoben hervor, ihr eigenes forstbezogenes Verhalten, insbesondere die Wahl der verarbeiteten Holzvorprodukte, sei gesetzeskonform und ökologisch unbedenk-lich. Diesen Standpunkt vertraten sie unabhängig von ihren jeweiligen Möglichkeiten, die Rohstoffquellen der beschafften Materialien zu beurteilen und zu beeinflussen. Anpassung: Die Möbelhersteller reagieren auf Anforderungen aus ihren Umfeldern, etwa auf behördliche Vorschriften und Kontrollen, Kritik von Umweltschutzverbänden, Nachfra-ge von Verbrauchern oder veränderte Wettbewerbsbedingungen. Solche Reaktionen schließen auch das forstbezogene Verhalten ein, wobei Vermeidung (zum Beispiel Ver-zicht auf die Verarbeitung von Tropenholz) ein alternatives oder komplementäres Verhal-ten sein kann. Antizipation: Unternehmen entwickeln Antizipationsstrategien, um sich auf erwartete zu-künftige Herausforderungen, Risiken und Chancen frühzeitig einzustellen. Dieses Verhal-ten zeigten Möbelhersteller in allen drei Untersuchungsregionen, etwa in ihrem Umgang mit der Forst-Holz-Produktketten-Zertifizierung oder der Erprobung neuer Holzarten und Holzwerkstoffe. Innovation: Sie ist eine Form der Umsetzung von Anpassung und Antizipation, ist aber für die Massivholz-Möbelhersteller auch eine eigenständige Verhaltensform. Zum Teil haben sie dabei Aspekte der Waldbewirtschaftung (besonders deutlich bei den Möbelherstellern in SBS, die Plantagenbewirtschaftung als neues Geschäftsfeld integriert haben) und der Weiterentwicklung ihrer Rohstoffbasis von vornherein im Blick, zum Teil ergeben sich se-kundäre Effekte für die Forstwirtschaft. Die vorliegende Untersuchung zur "Forstrationalität" holzverarbeitender Unternehmen hat gezeigt, dass Möbelhersteller Stärken und Schwächen der Waldnutzung in ihrer Standort-region wahrnehmen und forstbezogene Entscheidungen reflektiert treffen. Wie sie ent-scheiden, hängt von den Rahmenbedingungen der Industrie, dem Verhalten ihrer An-spruchsgruppen, von den spezifischen Unternehmensstrategien, auch von Wertvorstel-lungen der Eigentümer und Manager ab. Ihnen stehen bestimmte staatliche und private Anspruchsgruppen mit Erwartungen gegenüber, die dem Konzept nachhaltiger Entwick-lung der Agenda 21 entsprechen. Die Unternehmensbeispiele der Fallstudien zeigen ein-zelne Ansatzpunkte für die Verwirklichung nachhaltiger Entwicklung in waldreichen Re-gionen durch die Herstellung von Möbeln. Jedoch erscheint das gegenwärtige forstbezo-gene Verhalten der Möbelhersteller nicht umfassend nachhaltigkeitsorientiert, sondern pragmatisch selektiv abgestimmt auf die Erfordernisse, Interessen und Handlungsmög-lichkeiten der Unternehmen. Potenzial der Möbelindustrie, höhere Wertschöpfung durch immaterielle Phasen der Produktion (ihr Marketing, speziell die Produktgestaltung) zu erreichen, ist vorhanden. Auf der Grundlage neutraler Nachhaltigkeitsüberprüfung in der Holzwertschöpfungskette durch anerkannte Forstzertifizierungs-Systeme könnten von Holzmöbelherstellern durchaus stärkere Impulse für die Entwicklung und Aufrechterhal-tung nachhaltiger Forstwirtschaft ausgehen. Abschließend seien die theoretischen Erklärungsansätze Ressourcenabhängigkeit und Sensemaking angesprochen, denen in dieser Forschungsarbeit gefolgt wurde. Der Zu-sammenhang zwischen beiden ist bereits aus Pfeffer (1978) ableitbar. Steimle (2008) stellt diesen Zusammenhang explizit her, um das Nachhaltigkeitsverhalten von Unter-nehmen theoretisch zu erklären. Auch der Verfasser kombinierte beide Ansätze: Das Konzept der Ressourcenabhängigkeit war hilfreich bei der Analyse der Umfeldeinbettung der Möbelhersteller und bei der Interpretation ihrer Beziehungen zu bestimmten An-spruchsgruppen; der Sensemaking-Ansatz erleichterte es, die Umfeldwahrnehmung aus Sicht der Entscheidungsträger in der Möbelindustrie und ihr forstbezogenes Verhalten zu verstehen. ; Research concept The guideline to sustainability provided by Agenda 21, and the associated expectations of private enterprise with respect to their role in sustainability, represent a frame of reference for the study presented in this Ph.D. thesis. Agenda 21, a central document of the United Nations Conference on Climate and Development (UNCED 1992), and documents pro-duced by the following conferences attribute a central role to private enterprise in the real-isation of sustainable development. Commercial enterprises are expected to create value on the basis of an environmentally acceptable use of natural resources. Responsible en-terprises should accommodate the interests of the respective stakeholder groups, and these groups should in turn support private enterprise in the achievement of sustainable development. Non-governmental environmental organisations' expectations of private enterprise revolve around the environmentally appropriate use of natural resources and, accordingly, they exert pressure on businesses to do so. Nevertheless, the literature documents conflicts between commercial enterprise's understanding of its role and the expectations of interna-tional organisations and civil stakeholder groups. From the perspective of enterprise, doubts exist over whether the demands of these actors are reasonable and over the ex-tent to which commercial enterprise should assume the responsibility attributed to it. The objective of this study was to deepen the knowledge of the use by small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) of the natural resources providing the raw materials necessary for their production activities – their role in market chains, their relationships with stake-holders and the consideration given to the management of natural resources. Enterprises manufacturing wood furniture were chosen for the study, as a representative example of an SME branch within the wood processing industry. As furniture production facilitates high value creation from raw wood, this example was deemed to be revealing with respect to the general assumption of Agenda 21 that high economic value creation from wood generates impulses for sustainable forestry. The investigation was carried out in regions with contrasting social, economic and especially forest and wood industry framework con-ditions. The research questions were: How do furniture manufacturers perceive 'forestry'? What is the relationship between furniture producers and the corresponding stakeholder groups, and how do they communicate 'forestry' to these groups? How do furniture producers ac-count for 'forestry' in their decisions? The author posed these questions under the overarching concept 'forest rationality.' The 'forest rationality' construct outlines how decision makers in the wood industry perceive forest management as the basis of their raw material supply, and how they account for it within decision making. It incorporates all aspects of the perception and interpretation, as well as the behaviour of wood processing enterprises with respect to the source of their raw material, 'forestry.' The basis for this is theories relating to resource dependence (Pfeffer and Salancik 1978, 2003; Steimle, 2008) and 'sensemaking' (Weick 1995, 2001). The information used to answer the research questions was obtained from three centres of the furniture industry in Brazil and in Germany, each with different social and forestry framework conditions. The three centres were in Rio Branco do Acre (RBA) in the Bra-zilian Amazon, in São Bento do Sul (SBS) in southern Brazil and in Nordrhein-Westfalen (NRW) in Germany. The comparative data collection carried out in the three regions posed particular demands in terms of the research methods. The approach chosen and the design of the data collection instruments were identical in the three regions. Funda-mental empirical knowledge was provided by means of a content analysis of furniture in-dustry journals (1) and the evaluation of secondary information (2). Guided telephone interviews with experts (3) illuminated the environments in which the enterprises operate and provided general insights into the behaviour of decision makers in the furniture in-dustry. The spectrum of forestry reasoning of the decision makers was further developed through personal contact made during visits to companies. In each region two producers of solid wood furniture and a producer of furniture from derived timber products were se-lected (4). Results of the journal analysis The quantitative content analysis of industry journals served to provide information about the overall spectrum of issues relevant for the furniture industry, and allowed for an as-sessment of the relative significance of the issues 'environmental protection' and 'forest resources/forestry.' The conclusions may be summarised as follows: 1. The issues 'environment' and 'forestry' are of interest within the furniture sector, but receive less attention in the industry press than topics such as economics, technology and competition. 2. In the furniture industry in both Germany and Brazil, the most important themes under the heading 'environment' are aspects concerning the local production site (enterprise-internal environmental protection). 3. 'Forestry'-related aspects are the focus of greater attention within the Brazilian fur-niture industry than the German. Results of the regional case studies The results of the research phases (2) to (4) are presented in the dissertation in the form of three regional case studies with an identical structure, namely a) the framework condi-tions affecting furniture manufacturers, b) non-market stakeholder groups, c) suppliers of wood products, d) furniture consumers, e) interaction between furniture manufacturers, f) forest and environmental management. The regional case studies confirmed the view provided by the analysis of the industry press that the specific situation of the entire regional 'forestry and wood industry' affects the Brazilian furniture manufacturers more so than those in NRW. In RBA there have re-cently been drastic changes in forestry and environmental policy, as well as institutional changes, which have generated new framework conditions for all wood producing and processing enterprises. In the SBS region 'forestry' occupies furniture manufacturers as much as other branches of the wood sector due to existing or expected future shortages of wood, and as a consequence of state control over the use of wood from legitimate forestry. In NRW, on the other hand, native forest management and the processing of materials derived from non-tropical tree species are considered to be unproblematic, and forestry-related themes do not appear to be critical in the macro-environment of the furni-ture industry. In NRW and in SBS the issue of core economic data for the sector as a whole, and branches within the sector, of national and international market trends and of technological developments dominate the agenda of the furniture manufacturers. The furniture manufacturers are subject to restrictions imposed by environmental authori-ties. The control of enterprise-internal environmental protection, linked in part with work safety, was identified as a focus of the activities of these authorities in all three regions. Unlike in Germany, in Brazil the sourcing of wood by wood processing enterprises is sub-ject to official control. The representative associations within the furniture industry in all three case study regions define as their central task the representation of the interests of their member organisa-tions to policy makers and society. In both Brazilian case study regions, in which forestry-related problems greatly occupy the furniture industry, the furniture industry associations also view forestry-related matters as being within their remit. In RBA the responsible as-sociation is seeking to advance the official registration of furniture manufacturers within the informal sector and to oblige them to process only wood obtained from legal sources. In SBS the furniture associations have focused considerable attention on the development of regional forestry and the supply of wood to the furniture industry in periods of wood shortage. At the time of this study, however, other economic problems had pushed the issue of forestry into the background. It was observed that the furniture producers studied as part of the research are rarely in direct contact with private environmental organisations. However, they are aware that these organisations indirectly influence the framework conditions affecting the furniture industry through consumer campaigns, by placing demands on the first links of the forest-wood value chain and through political lobbying. The dependence of the furniture producers on the suppliers of wood products varies be-tween the three study regions. This dependency is weak in NRW because the furniture manufacturers can source materials regionally and beyond without any difficulties, and because large wood suppliers take into consideration the demands of the furniture in-dustry with respect to quality, dimensions and the preparation of sawn wood and derived timber materials. This contrasts with the situation in Brazil. In SBS large to moderately large furniture manufacturers have taken a number of steps towards backward vertical integration (establishment of own sawmills, in some cases resorting to the management of pine plantations) or have sought alternative sources of pre-finished materials. The rea-sons for this are the uncertainty of the wood supply and the quality of the pre-finished wood products. In RBA the statutory requirement that only wood derived from 'legitimate sources' be used in manufacturing poses problems for the largely state-sponsored furni-ture manufacturers in the formal sector. A large proportion of the regionally available tropical wood is sold in or exported to other regions of Brazil in the form of part-wood goods. The prices paid by furniture manufacturers for high quality pre-finished wood pro-ducts, particularly those made of certified wood, have increased considerably in recent years, whereas furniture prices are under great pressure due to competition from numer-ous small, informal manufacturers and as a result of the supply of cheaply manufactured, mass produced furniture from southern Brazil. As yet, only a few well-organised furniture manufacturers in RBA appear to have adopted a strategy capable of countering this di-lemma. In all three regions the relationship between furniture manufacturers and their customers is characterised by dependencies of the furniture manufacturers. In RBA formally regis-tered furniture manufacturers are greatly dependent upon public contracts. In SBS furni-ture manufacturers are dependent upon mass production for the export market, with inter-national customers often specifying the models and exerting a considerable influence on price setting. In terms of national sales, the manufacturers in NRW and in SBS are pitted against the large purchasing associations and groups within the furniture retail industry. In all three regions the furniture industry receives only weak 'forestry' signals from its di-rect costumers and end users – that the wood used in the furniture provided is sourced from 'legal' or 'sustainable' forest management is, at best, a subordinate purchase cri-terion, or is only relevant in niches within the market. The public clients in RBA are an exception as their furniture acquisitions are explicitly intended to support the development of sustainable regional forest-wood value chains in Acre. Experts from the three research regions characterised the interaction between furniture manufacturers as competitive, with little cooperation evident. Any cooperation between the enterprises occurs primarily in those areas that are of little relevance for competition (e.g., visits to exhibitions abroad). Initiatives prompting intensive cooperation often stem from associations or governmental organisations. The visits to the enterprises in the three regions and discussions with the experts revealed that the furniture manufacturers involved in the study do not possess a systematically de-veloped system of environmental management. Consideration of environmental problems is oriented primarily towards the relevant environmental regulations. According to the ex-perts, in NRW the furniture manufacturers adhere to the rules. Their production facilities are subject to strict controls by the environmental authorities. In Brazil the statutory envi-ronmental regulations for furniture manufacturers include not only the enterprise-internal environmental protection stipulations but also the means to demonstrate that the wood used stems from legal sources. The implementation of the environmental protection re-quirements at operational level was found to be variable in the two Brazilian regions. Interpretation of the results in a theoretical context The author sought to understand how entrepreneurs and managers in the wood process-ing industry perceive and interpret their own environment; how they make and justify deci-sions. The focus was on the forestry reasoning exhibited by decision makers in furniture manufacturing enterprises. The interpretative approaches followed were: 1. The differentiation of motives for forestry-relevant behaviour displayed by furniture manufacturers; 2. The differentiation of behavioural planes of reference and time horizons; 3. The examination of the extent to which the specific behaviour with respect to the forest resource, as the principal source of the raw material used in the manufac-ture of furniture, corresponds to the general behavioural patterns of decision mak-ers in manufacturing enterprises. On (1) motives for forestry-related behaviour One might enquire as to the perceived urgency of the forestry-related signals that a furni-ture manufacturer receives from his environment: can, as far as the manufacturer is con-cerned, stakeholder groups demand or even force a certain forestry-related behaviour? The case studies suggest that furniture manufacturers perceive and take into consider-ation influences exerted by stakeholder groups external to the product chain. It would ap-pear, however, that the intensity of the perceived demands is rarely so high as to cause a reaction on the part of the manufacturers. Changes in the behaviour of Brazilian manufac-turers did become evident in the study after the introduction of the DOF documentation requiring that they be able to prove the wood they use is sourced legally. Conversely, it can be assumed that furniture manufacturers predominantly perceive forestry-related themes within their environment as signals, which they assess individually on the basis of their own beliefs and either integrate within their strategies or ignore. The type of pre-finished wood product – or combination of materials – used in the manu-facture of a piece of furniture serves to focus the attention of furniture buyers onto the relationship with 'forestry' to a greater or lesser extent, through which the forestry reason-ing of the manufacturers is also influenced. The investigation revealed differences in understanding and in marketing approaches between the manufacturers of furniture made of derived timber products and those of furniture made from solid wood; and in the latter case there was a further distinction between users of tropical and non-tropical tree spe-cies. The manufacturers of solid wood furniture often draw a link between their furniture and nature or the forest. Manufacturers of furniture made with tropical wood emphasise the individuality of unique types of wood stemming from natural forests rich in species. The manufacturers of furniture using non-tropical species, alternatively, accentuate the fact that their wood stems from sustainably managed 'non-tropical' forests. Manufacturers using derived timber products base their 'ecological' arguments on the advantages of the low levels of waste in the production and processing of derived timber products, as a re-sult of which forest resources are used more efficiently. The Brazilian furniture manufacturers are concerned by the uncertainties surrounding the supply of wood. The associated problems are perceived differently by different manufac-turers, even within the two case study regions. In all three study regions the furniture manufacturers involved in the study avowed the use of wood from legitimate sources, and expect risks to their sales if their customers were to have doubts in this regard. At present there is little critical scrutiny of the origins of the wood used in furniture by the consumer, however, and that which exists focuses predominantly on the use of tropical wood. On (2) behavioural planes of reference and time horizons In only very few cases is forest management an activity undertaken by furniture manufac-turers. The forestry-related behaviour of the furniture manufacturers does not involve di-rect participation in forest management operations, but rather in influencing these indi-rectly, or in reacting to the forest issues taken up by other actors. This is expressed in the choice of the materials used in furniture manufacture, and in their procurement; that is, through behaviour linked directly to furniture manufacture. It is also expressed in the communication with stakeholder groups situated in the enterprises' immediate surround-ings and in their macro-environment. Material-oriented behaviour and the relationship with stakeholder groups are not independent issues but may be linked; for example, because in decisions concerning material selection the manufacturer's trust in the supplier and the preferences of the consumers are taken into consideration. In terms of the time horizons of the decisions made by furniture manufacturers, the analy-sis made clear that forestry reasoning plays a subordinate role in their short term perspec-tive, and that other aspects are of greater importance for the enterprises in question (e.g., wood supply for the current production programme and competition). Forestry-related considerations and measures (e.g., the use of alternative pre-finished wood products or the use of certified wood) are afforded greater weighting in the medium to long term. On (3) whether forest rationality reflects general patterns of behaviour Many of the forms of forest rationality of the furniture manufacturers identified in the re-search can be matched to general behavioural patterns of decision makers in commercial enterprises: Legitimacy: The furniture manufacturers from all three regions involved in the study em-phasised that their own forestry-related behaviour complies with the law and is ecologi-cally sound, particularly the choice of pre-finished wood products. They adopted this posi-tion irrespective of their abilities to judge or influence the sources of the raw materials pro-cured. Adaptation: The furniture manufactures react to demands from their environment, such as statutory regulations and controls, criticism from environmental protection associations, requests from customers and altered competition conditions. Such reactions also incorpo-rate their forestry-related behaviour, with avoidance (e.g., avoiding the use of tropical wood) a possible alternative or complementary behaviour. Anticipation: Enterprises develop anticipation strategies in order to prepare in advance for expected future challenges, risks and opportunities. This behaviour was exhibited by furni-ture manufacturers in all three study areas; for example, in their manner of dealing with forest-wood product chain certification and in the testing of new wood types and derived timber products. Innovation: Innovation is a form of manifestation of adaptation and anticipation, but is also a distinct form of behaviour in the case of the manufacturers of solid wood furniture. They have, to a certain extent, aspects of forest management (particularly evident in the case of the furniture manufacturers in SBS that have integrated plantation management as a new area of operations) and the further development of their raw material base firmly in focus from the outset. There are also secondary effects for forestry. This study of the 'forest rationality' of wood processing enterprises shows that furniture manufacturers perceive the strengths and weaknesses associated with forest utilisation in their regions, and that they reflect carefully on forestry-related decisions. The decisions they make depend on the framework conditions within the industry, the behaviour of the associated stakeholder groups, the strategy of the specific enterprise and on the ideals of the owners and managers. They are confronted by the expectations of certain state and private stakeholder groups; expectations that correspond with the concept of sustainable development espoused by Agenda 21. The enterprises included in the case studies re-vealed individual starting points for the achievement of sustainable development in forest-rich regions through the production of furniture. However, the current forestry-related be-haviour of the manufacturers is not comprehensively geared towards sustainability. Rather it is pragmatically selective, tailored to the needs, interests and possible courses of action available to the respective enterprise. The potential for furniture manufacturers to achieve greater value creation in the non-material phases of the production process (marketing, and especially product design) exists. On the basis of neutral sustainability assessments in the wood value creation chain, carried out by recognised forestry certification systems, it is certainly possible for manufacturers of wood furniture to create greater impulses for the development and maintenance of sustainable forestry. Finally, to the theoretical approaches offering a potential explanation considered in the study, namely resource dependence and 'sensemaking.' The connection between the two could already be inferred from Pfeffer (1978). Steimle (2008) revealed the link between the two explicitly, in order to explain theoretically the sustainability behaviour of enter-prises. The author of this study also combined both approaches. The concept of resource dependence was helpful in the analysis of how embedded manufacturers are in their envi-ronment, and in the interpretation of their relationship with certain stakeholder groups. The 'sensemaking' approach rendered it easier to understand the perception by decision mak-ers in the industry of their business environment and their forestry-related behaviour.

On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization declared a pandemic of the COVID-19 coronavirus disease that was first recognized in China in late 2019. Among the primary effects caused by the pandemic, there was the dissemination of health preventive measures such as physical distancing, travel restrictions, self-isolation, quarantines, and facility closures. This includes the global disruption of socio-economic systems including the postponement or cancellation of various public events (e.g., sporting, cultural, or religious), supply shortages and fears of the same, schools and universities closure, evacuation of foreign citizens, a rise of unemployment, changes in the international aid schemes, misinformation, and incidents of discrimination toward people affected by or suspected of having the COVID-19 disease. The pandemic has brought to the fore unpreparedness in critical areas that require attention, amid prospects and challenges. Moreover, considerable reorganization efforts are required with implications for assets, resources, norms, and value systems. COVID-19 is challenging the concept of globalization and stimulating responses at the levels of local and regional socio-economic systems that lead to the mobilization of assets that have been unrecognized earlier on, such as various forms of economic capital, social capital, cultural capital, human capital, and creative capital. For example, through digital channels, local groups are forming to create schemes of support for physical and mental wellbeing. These emerging exchanges lead to various social and technological innovations by building on skills and assets that are less important in the free-market economy, such as empathy, skills for crafts, making and fixing; locally grown microgreens; and micromanufacturing. Isolation and local living are also making it much harder to ignore the civic responsibilities towards communities, meant as individuals, vulnerable groups, and local businesses. Whilst the pandemic is limiting physical participation, this challenging time is uncovering alternative ways of mutual support, which may create long-term benefits for socio-economic systems, including environmental and biodiversity protection, reduction of the air pollution, and climate action. The pandemic's threat to public health will hopefully be overcome with implications for disruption for an extended period that we are unable to forecast at this stage. It is key to focus on studies recognizing the activities and interventions leading to the recovery of socio-economic systems after the pandemic. Reflecting and planning on how societies and economies will go back to "business as usual" requires new forms of communication and cooperation, imaginative design thinking, new styles of management, as well as new tools and forms of participation in various public policies. Many questions related to the care of the vulnerable, economic restart, and the risk of future pandemics, to mention but a few, are already occupying the academic, scientific, experts, and activist communities, who have started to imagine the "new normal."

Der zweite Tagungsband des Netzwerks bildet nicht nur vielfältige Ergebnisse der Hochschulforschung ab, sondern beschäftigt sich auch mit der Verortung dieser Forschung selbst. Er beinhaltet Beiträge aus verschiedenen Disziplinen und setzt unterschiedliche Forschungszugänge und -intentionen voraus. So werden Erkenntnisgewinn, Forschungsrelevanz und der angewandte Forschungsbezug sowie die Praxis in den Beiträgen diskutiert und dargestellt. Der Tagungsband liefert damit einen Beitrag zur aktuellen und zukünftigen (Weiter-)Entwicklung auf der System- oder Institutionenebene unter Berücksichtigung der handelnden Akteur*innen. (DIPF/Orig.)

As the Singapore government acts on the environmental impact of climate change, it is time to consider how the country's environmental histories fit into The Singapore Story. This has the potential to help Singaporeans better navigate an environmentally uncertain and volatile future.

The socio-economic context in the Kyrgyz Republic is complex. In terms of GDP per capita (PPP) the Kyrgyz Republic ranks among the poorest countries in the world. This position is reflected in the high national poverty rate of 25.4% but less so in the rate of undernourishment (6.4%) where the country performs comparatively better (Table 1). A recent feature of Kyrgyz society has been the high rate of outmigration, with an estimated 0.5% of the population leaving the country every year between 2010–2015. Linked to this has been the rise in household reliance on remittances for income, with remittance income estimated to be equivalent to 28.5% of GDP in 2019. The Kyrgyz Republic's national economy has rapidly transitioned away from agriculture, constituting 14.6% of GDP in 2017 compared with 54.2% from the service sector. However, a large proportion of the population remain dependent on agriculture for subsistence and this remains a major employer. A wide variety of natural hazards also affect the Kyrgyz Republic. Earthquakes are common and have led to loss of life and significant damage to infrastructure and livelihoods, typically occurring every 5–10 years. Climate related hazards are also common and diverse. These include drought, land and mudslides, flash floods, and glacier lake outburst floods (GLOFs), all of which contribute to significant levels of disaster risk. In the context of high social vulnerability and hazard exposure the emerging impacts of climate change are of potential significance. The Kyrgyz Republic has identified climate change impacts as a significant challenge to its development goals and has identified its commitment to climate change adaptation through its First Nationally Determined Contribution (2016) and Updated Nationally Determined Contribution (2020). In 2016 the Republic released its Third National Communication to the UNFCCC (NC3), directed by the State Agency for Environment Protection and Forestry under the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic. The country has identified its water, energy, agriculture and infrastructure sectors as the most vulnerable to climate change

International audience This paper focuses on the issues of sustainable entrepreneurship using an example of South Korea (also known as the Republic of Korea). Mainly, it is tackling the problem of preserving the vulnerable agricultural sector and its social structure according to South Korean general course for increasing the openness of the economy. We build upon the historical approach, economic and comparative analysis in order to classify and formulate the features of the South Korean agrarian model. Moreover, we analyze how this model is applied for the stages of the state agricultural policy, including the foreign trade component, domestic support measures for agriculture. Our results reveal the importance of the gradualness and flexibility of the transition to a market efficiency model with the active use of non-market methods and the preservation of selective protection of the domestic market from commodity imports. It becomes apparent that following the FAO approaches to the concept of food security, South Korea uses the policy of combining self-sufficiency and imports, increasingly diversifying the structure of consumed food products.

The Country Opinion Survey in Vietnam assists the World Bank Group (WBG) in gaining a better understanding of how stakeholders in Vietnam perceive the WBG. It provides the WBG with systematic feedback from national and local governments, multilateral/bilateral agencies, media, academia, the private sector, and civil society in Vietnam on 1) their views regarding the general environment in Vietnam; 2) their overall attitudes toward the WBG in Vietnam; 3) overall impressions of the WBG's effectiveness and results, knowledge work and activities, and communication and information sharing in Vietnam; and 4) their perceptions of the WBG's future role in Vietnam.

Contrary to what is still often believed, the climate and trade communities have a lot in common: a common problem (a global "public good") common foes (vested interests using protection for slowing down climate change policies) and common friends (firms delivering goods, services and equipments which are both cleaner and cheaper). They have thus many reasons to buttress each other. The climate community would enormously benefit from adopting the principle of "national treatment" which would legitimize and discipline the use of carbon border taxes adjustment and the principle of "most-favored nation" which would ban carbon tariffs the main effect of which would be to fuel a dual world economy of clean countries trading between themselves and dirty countries trading between themselves at a great cost for climate change. And, the trade community would enormously benefit from a climate community capable to design instruments supporting the adjustment efforts to be made by carbon-intensive firms much better than instruments such as antidumping or safeguards which have proved to be ineffective and perverse. That said, implementing these principles will be difficult. The paper focuses on two key problems. First, the way carbon border taxes are defined has a huge impact on the joint outcome from climate change, trade and development perspectives. Second, the multilateral climate change regime could easily become too complex to be manageable. Focusing on carbon-intensive sectors and building "clusters" of production processes considered as having "like carbon-intensity" are the two main ways for keeping the regime manageable. Developing them in a multilateral framework would make them more transparent and unbiased.

Contrary to what is still often believed, the climate and trade communities have a lot in common: a common problem (a global "public good") common foes (vested interests using protection for slowing down climate change policies) and common friends (firms delivering goods, services and equipments which are both cleaner and cheaper). They have thus many reasons to buttress each other. The climate community would enormously benefit from adopting the principle of "national treatment" which would legitimize and discipline the use of carbon border taxes adjustment and the principle of "most-favored nation" which would ban carbon tariffs the main effect of which would be to fuel a dual world economy of clean countries trading between themselves and dirty countries trading between themselves at a great cost for climate change. And, the trade community would enormously benefit from a climate community capable to design instruments supporting the adjustment efforts to be made by carbon-intensive firms much better than instruments such as antidumping or safeguards which have proved to be ineffective and perverse. That said, implementing these principles will be difficult. The paper focuses on two key problems. First, the way carbon border taxes are defined has a huge impact on the joint outcome from climate change, trade and development perspectives. Second, the multilateral climate change regime could easily become too complex to be manageable. Focusing on carbon-intensive sectors and building "clusters" of production processes considered as having "like carbon-intensity" are the two main ways for keeping the regime manageable. Developing them in a multilateral framework would make them more transparent and unbiased.

Tajikistan is one of the world's most remittance-dependent economies, receiving net remittance inflows equivalent to approximately 40 percent of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Falling remittance inflows was one of the main transmission channels through which the 2008-09 global economic crisis adversely impacted the economy. Conversely, the pickup in growth since 2009 can also be traced to the rebound in remittance inflows (primarily from Russia, where more than 90 percent of Tajik migrants work), which reached 42 percent of GDP in 2010 and an estimated 40 percent of GDP in 2011. As the World Bank's 2011 country economic memorandum has argued, future growth in Tajikistan will depend crucially on increasing efficiency and raising private investment rates. Remittances are likely to grow more slowly than the earlier trend over the last 5-6 years, but could nonetheless be a major contributor to future growth if more go into private investment than in the past.

The Lao PDR economy continues to grow vigorously at 8 percent this year despite the impact of typhoons and slower growth in the global economy. That being said, the country's growth estimate was revised slightly downwards to 8 percent from an early estimate of 8.6 percent to account for (i) the adverse impact on agriculture by the typhoons Haima and Nock ten during the second half of the year as well as the adverse impact of the current flooding in Thailand on Lao PDR's tourism and trade sectors; (ii) an upward revision of 2010 Goss Domestic Product (GDP) due to a higher than anticipated output of electricity generation from the Nam Theun 2 project; and (iii) the commencement of operations at the Nam Ngum 2 hydropower dam. The mining sector's contribution to growth in 2011 is expected to slow according to company production plans and actual outputs in the first 3 quarters of this year. The manufacturing sector is projected to grow at 15 percent driven by garment, construction materials, and food and beverage production. The garment sector started shifting production towards higher value-added products and began benefiting this year from the European Union (EU) relaxing material sourcing regulations for LDCs. The services sector is also benefiting from higher domestic demand, particularly for wholesale, retail trading and telecommunications. With significant challenges and risks ahead - increasing uncertainties, particularly on signs of spreads of debt concerns in Europe, over-heating in emerging economies (high inflation) and price volatility, global economic growth is projected to slow in 2011 and 2012. Emerging and developing economies are projected to experience healthy growth in the near term. Challenges lie on two main fronts, i.e. rebalancing from public to private demand, particularly in advanced economies and rebalancing domestic demand, particularly in emerging and developing economies in order to promote resilience to external shocks and further reduce inflationary pressures. This paper bases its country-level projections for Lao PDR's Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and export demand on International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank's projections (EAP Update Nov-2011) for the regional and global economic outlook and commodity prices.

This book will suggest new agendas for identity and heritage studies by means of presenting contentious issues facing archaeology and heritage management in a globalized world. The book is not only present the variability of heritage objectives and experiences in the New and Old World, and opens a discussion, in a shrinking world, to look beyond national and regional contexts. If the heritage sector and archaeology are to remain relevant in our contemporary world and the near future, there are a number of questions concerning the politics, practices and narratives related to heritage and identity that must be addressed. Questions of relevance in an affluent, cosmopolitan setting are at odds with those relevant for a region emerging from civil war or ethnic strife, or a national minority battling oppression or ethnic cleansing. A premise is that heritage represents a broad scope of empirically and theoretically sound interpretations - that heritage is a response to contemporary forces, as much as data. It is therefore necessary constantly to evaluate what is scientifically accurate as well as what is valid and relevant and what can have a contemporary impact. Dr. Peter F. Biehlis a Professor of Anthropology and the current Chair of the Department of Anthropology at the University at Buffalo. He is also Director of the Institute for European and Mediterranean Archaeology (IEMA) and is an executive board member for the European Association of Archaeologists (EAA). He has developed an international Master's Program in Cultural Heritage with the Sorbonne University and teaches an introduction course to cultural heritage and an advanced course on digital heritage. He is the organizer of the interdisciplinary symposium 'The Future of Heritage: Laws, Ethics and Sustainability' which is funded by the Baldy Center for Law and Social Policy of the University at Buffalo. He is the representative for the organization of the EAA meeting in Istanbul 2014 which is planned to run under topic of 'Archaeology, Heritage and Tourism'. He directs the international West Mound research project at Çatalhöyük in Turkey and supervises a PhD on heritage management in Turkey. He also co-directs the Sinking Ponds Excavation project near Buffalo, which includes a heritage management project in collaboration with the Seneca tribe. He has published widely on Neolithic and Copper Age Europe and Near East, archaeological method and theory, cognitive archaeology and the social meaning of visual imagery and representation, archaeology of cult and religion, museums and archaeological collections, and multimedia in archaeology. Dr. Douglas C. Comeris President of Cultural Site Research and Management (CSRM) and the CSRM Foundation, and Co-President of the International Committee on Archaeological Heritage Management (ICAHM) for ICOMOS. A Fulbright Scholar in cultural resource management, he served for 15 years as Chief of the United States National Park Service Applied Archaeology Center and nine years as Chair of the Maryland Governor's Advisory Committee on Archaeology. After two terms on the Board of Trustees for the United States Committee for ICOMOS (US/ICOMOS), he now represents the Society for American Archaeology (SAA) on the Board. He is Senior Editor of the Conservation and Preservation Section of the Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology, Senior Editor for the Springer Press/ICAHM publication series Multidisciplinary Perspectives in Archaeological Heritage Management, Fellow at the Whiting School of Engineering, The Johns Hopkins University, and Visiting Independent Advisor with the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory at Caltech (JPL/NASA). He has published extensively on archaeology, aerial and satellite remote sensing, and heritage management, and has conducted research and provided management , tourism, and interpretive planning and design at numerous archaeological sand historic sites on five continents. Dr. Christopher Prescottis Professor of Archaeology and Head-of Research at the Department of Archaeology, Conservation and History, University of Oslo, Norway, and Docent at Gothenburg's University, Sweden. He has served as section and program leader in Bergen and Oslo, as well as Head-of-Department for archaeology, conservation and art history (Oslo). From 1997 to 2002 he was dean of studies at the humanities faculty, University of Oslo. He was editor-in-chief of the Norwegian Archaeological Review from 1997 to 2001, and has edited several anthologies. He has published articles and monographs concerning Neolithic to Early Iron Age prehistory in Scandinavia and Italy, history of archaeology and theoretical and political issues. Prescott has been on the board of numerous rescue archaeological projects, and has participated in several public outreach initiatives (exhibitions, lectures, media appearances), and he has also worked on issues concerning illicit trade in antiquities and questions concerning how to train archaeologists and conduct outreach in a population becoming increasingly heterogeneous due to migration. Dr. Hilary A. Soderlanddirects the PhD in Law Program at the University of Washington School of Law and teaches interdisciplinary courses to law as well as social science and humanities graduate students. Specializing in archaeology, cultural heritage, and the law, Soderland received her MPhil and PhD from the University of Cambridge and her Juris Doctorate (JD) from the University of California-Berkeley's Boalt Hall School of Law. A Registered Professional Archaeologist, her publications include articles, commissioned work, and a co-edited book manuscript concerning archaeology legislation,cultural heritage law, repatriation, and archaeological resource protection and heritage management. She has been a Visiting Scholar at the American Bar Foundation in Chicago and at Tel Aviv University's Cegla Center for Interdisciplinary Research of the Law. Her museum work on three continents has encompassed curation, accessioning protocol, exhibition preparation, and legal compliance. For the Society for American Archaeology, she co-founded and served as co-chair of the Heritage Values Interest Group and she currently serves on the Committee on Ethics, the International Governmental Affairs Committee, and as a legal advisor to the Repatriation Committee. Soderland also is a manuscript reviewer and editorial board advisor for journals in the fields of anthropology, law, cultural heritage, and museology. Her professional service further includes pro bono legal work.