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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kanchagarahatti Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 736 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 66 per cent in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 20 ha by rock outcrop and 14 per cent others (Habitation and waterbodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 13 soil series and 17 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 6 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  About 59 per cent area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands, 6 per cent area is nearly level (0-1% slope) and 1 per cent has gently sloping (3-5%) soils.  An area of about 1 per cent is severely (e3), 59 per cent area is moderately (e2) and 6 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) soils in the microwatershed.  About an area of 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 11 percent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 19 per cent is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 56 (8) 129 (18) Guava - 34 (5) Maize 34 (5) 150 (20) Sapota - 34 (5) Bajra 34 (5) 150 (20) Pomegranate - 89 (12) Groundnut 34 (5) 95 (13) Musambi 55 (8) 34 (5) Sunflower 55 (8) 34 (5) Lime 55 (8) 34 (5) Redgram - 89 (12) Amla 34 (5) 150 (20) Bengal gram 55 (8) - Cashew - 1 (<1) Cotton 55 (8) 0.4 (<1) Jackfruit - 34 (5) Chilli 34 (5) 150 (20) Jamun - 55 (8) Tomato 34 (5) 95 (13) Custard apple 89 (12) 95 (13) Brinjal 34 (5) 95 (13) Tamarind - 55 (8) Onion 34 (5) 95 (13) Mulberry - 34 (5) Bhendi 34 (5) 150 (20) Marigold 34 (5) 150 (20) Drumstick - 89 (12) Chrysanthemum 34 (5) 150 (20) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified 7 LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kanchagarahatti is located at North latitude 160 50' 54.027" and 160 48' 23.674" and East longitude 770 6' 23.176'' and 770 4' 18.487" covering an area of about 735.99 ha coming under Kanchagarahalli, Anakasugura, Balajinagar and Tanagundhi villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Kanchagarahatti micro watersheds of Thanagunda sub-watershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 32 total respondents, 12 (37.50 %) were marginal, 11 (34.38%)were small and 6 (18.75 %) were Semi medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 113 (62.78%) men and 67 (37.22 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (40.56%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 52.22 per cent illiterates, 43.33 per cent pre university education and 5.56 per cent attained graduation.  About, 96.88 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 60.00 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 93.75 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 53.13 per cent possess TV, 56.25 per cent possess mixer grinder, 93.75 per cent possess mobile phones and 15.63 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 56.25 per cent of the households possess plough and 21.88 per cent possess bullock cart.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 3.13 per cent possess local cow and 6.25 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own men and women labour availability in the micro watershed was 14.00 each, while the hired labour (men) availability was 1.32.  Further, 3.13 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 1.67 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1800.00 kms for about 8.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 86.57 per cent (36.15 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 8.96 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 1.00 live bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 3.13 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Jowar, Cotton, Groundnut and 0 and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 93.75 percent possessed bank account and 93.75 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 96.88 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 40.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 60.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Jowar, Cotton and Groundnut was Rs.21638.12, 44304.47, 40345.78 and 49788.04 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.80, 1: 0.30, 1: 0.70 and 1: 0.70 respectively.  Further, 59.38 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 35265.63 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 19171.88 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 1 horticulture trees and 92 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 8406.25 for land development, Rs.1531.25 for adoption of improved crop production activities.  Source of funds raised from own sources for land development was 84.38 per cent and for improved crop production was 56.25 per cent.  Regarding marketing channels, 90.63 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 90.63 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (93.75%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 84.38 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 71.88 per cent of the households and 40.63 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 96.88 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 62.50 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the household's possessed BPL card. 3  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (59.38%), pulses (56.25%) and are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (93.75%) wild animal menace on farm field (43.75%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (25.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (71.88%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (81.25%), high rate of interest on credit (50.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (78.13%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (40.63%), inadequate extension services (46.88%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market(40.63%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Mavanahalli-1Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 361 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 403 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 5 ha area is covered by railway line, 323 ha area is covered by mining/industrial and 31 ha area is covered by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 8 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 336 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 12 per cent of area is shallow (25-50 cm), 150 cm).  About 12 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy soils, 19 per cent loamy soils and 62 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  An area of 50 per cent is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 32 per cent area is medium (101-150 mm/m) and 13 per cent of area is very low (0.75%), 56 per cent area is medium (0.5-0.75%) and 2 per cent area is low (57 kg/ha) and 61 per cent of area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium content.  Available sulphur content is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 39 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in an area of 55 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 67 (19) 137 (38) Guava - 67 (19) Maize 67 (19) 137 (38) Sapota - 67 (19) Bajra 67 (19) 137 (38) Pomegranate - 146 (40) Groundnut - 67 (19) Musambi - 146 (40) Sunflower - 146 (40) Lime - 146 (40) Redgram - 204 (57) Amla 67 (19) - Bengal gram - 137 (38) Cashew - - Cotton - 146 (40) Jackfruit - 67 (19) Chilli - 146 (40) Jamun - - Tomato - 67 (19) Custard apple - 146 (40) Brinjal - 67 (19) Tamarind - - Onion - 67 (19) Mulberry - 67 (19) Bhendi - 146 (40) Marigold - 146 (40) Drumstick - 67 (19) Chrysanthemum - 146 (40) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Mavanahalli-1 is located at North latitude 160 31' 9.304" and 160 29' 12.155" and East longitude 770 19' 56.248'' and 770 19' 1.502" covering an area of about 343.08 ha coming under Mavinahalli and Kadechoora villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Mavanahalli-1 micro watersheds of Kadechur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 3 (8.57 %) were marginal, 20 (57.14%)were small, 5 (14.29 %) were Semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 110 (60.44%) men and 72 (39.56 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (50.00%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 40.66 per cent illiterates, 1.10 percent were functional literates, 57.69 per cent pre university education and 5.49 per cent attained graduation.  About, 82.86 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 62.09 per cent of the household members.  In the study area and 68.57 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 82.86 per cent possess TV, 82.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 94.29 per cent possess mobile phones and 20.00 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 25.71 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 20.00 per cent possess bullock cart and 14.29 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.57 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.69, women available in the micro watershed was 1.60, hired labour (men) available was 6.03 and hired labour (women) available was 7.86.  Further, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 9.34 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 1114.17 kms for about 4.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 89.09 per cent (48.98 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 10.91 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 3.00 live bore wells and 4.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 8.57 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut and Sorghum and cropping intensity was recorded as 91.38 per cent.  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 100.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 34.29 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 16.67 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 158.33 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 77.27 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut and Sorghum was Rs.56915.69 , 33986.70, 39587.88 and 28264.01 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.70, 1: 1.20, 1: 1.10 and 1: 1.30 respectively.  Further, 60.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 17.14 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 81191.43 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 49574.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 8 horticulture trees and 32 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 45.71 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 11685.71 for land development and Rs. 371.43 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 77.14 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 80.00 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 2.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 71.43 per cent of the households and 22.86 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 74.29 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 97.14 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 34.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 94.29 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 2.86 per cent of the household's possessed APL card and 0.00 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.29%), pulses (88.57%) and oilseeds (57.14%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (82.86%) wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (74.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (62.86%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (60.00%), high rate of interest on credit (42.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (60.00%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (40.00%), inadequate extension services (45.71%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (51.43%), Less rainfall (80.00%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (25.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yagapur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 458 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 362 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 75 ha by rock outcrops and 22 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 4 soil series and 7 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 362 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 5 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100 - >150 cm) and 74 per cent soils are very shallow to moderately shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 13 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 64 per cent area very low (0.75%) in organic carbon content.  About 71 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 8 per cent is high (> 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area 5 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) and 74 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in available potassium in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low ( 20 ppm) in 7 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient ( 0.6 ppm) in 40 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 56(12) Guava - - Maize - 56(12) Sapota - - Bajra - 56(12) Pomegranate - 9(2) Groundnut - 47(10) Musambi - 9(2) Sunflower - 9(2) Lime - 9(2) Redgram - 9(2) Amla - 47(10) Bengal gram - 9(2) Cashew - - Cotton - 9(2) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 56(12) Jamun - - Tomato - 47(10) Custard apple - 56(12) Brinjal - 47(10) Tamarind - - Onion - 47(10) Mulberry - - Bhendi - 56(12) Marigold - 56(12) Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - 56(12) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and sub marginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yagapur is located at North latitude 160 54' 58.168" and 160 53' 42.955" and East longitude 770 9' 3.054'' and 770 6' 57.985" covering an area of about 397.22 ha coming under Yakkihalli and Baggalamadu Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 respondents, 14 (40.00%) were marginal, 11(31.43%) were small and 5 (14.29%) were semi medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 90 (58.82%) men and 63 (41.18%) were women.  Majority of the respondents (39.22%) were in the age group of 35-60 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 49.02 per cent illiterates and only 3.92 per cent attained graduation.  About, 82.86 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 50.33 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 71.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 5.71 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 80.00 per cent possess TV, 31.43 per cent possess mixer grinder and 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 25.71 per cent of the households possess plough.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 14.29 per cent possess local cow.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.63, women available in the micro watershed was 1.20, hired labour (men) available and hired labour (women) available was 4.86.  Further, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 0.65 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 550.00 kms for about 6.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (35.41 ha), 77.94 per cent of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 16.34 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 3.00 bore wells and 1.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 8.57 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Jowar and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 99.76 per cent.  The sample households possessed 91.43 per cent bank account and 28.57 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 62.86 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 90.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks.  Majority of the respondents (100.00 %) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Jowar and Green gram was Rs.32172.54, 19269.10, 71297.18, 22469.37 and 21568.85 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.20, 1: 0.80, 1: 1.10, 1: 2.10 and 1:1.10 respectively.  Further, 20.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 135674.29 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 47760.00 comes from agriculture.  The total number of horticultural trees grown (both field and backyard) by the sampled households were coconut (15) in the fields and forest species were grown 7 teak trees, 40 neem trees together in both field and backyard.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 485.71 for land development and Rs. 1428.57 for creation of irrigation facility.  Source of funds raised from own sources for land development was 11.43 and for irrigation facility was 2.86 per cent.  Regarding marketing channels, 65.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 14.29 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders.  Further, 51.43 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (48.57 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 77.14 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 71.43 per cent of the households and 37.14 per cent households has LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households. 3  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households. In the study area, 62.86 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card. Cereals (97.14%), pulses (88.57%), oilseeds (74.29%) were adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (80.00%) wild animal menace on farm field (60.00%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (74.29%), inadequacy of irrigation water (65.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (77.14%), high rate of interest on credit (74.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (74.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (22.86%), inadequate extension services (2.86%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (25.71%), Less rainfall (5.71%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/TV/Mobile) (5.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Holandgira Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 678 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 587 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 43 ha is covered by rock outcrops and 49 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  About 587 ha area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent of area is shallow (25-50 cm), 150 cm).  About 11 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 76 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 18 per cent is medium (51-100 mm/m), 0.75%) in organic carbon content of the soil.  About 17 per cent of area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus content of the soil and 69 per cent of area is high (>57 kg/ha) in the microwatershed.  Available potassium content is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in 47 per cent area, low (337 kg/ha) in 32 per cent area in the microwatershed.  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in 86 per cent area and deficient (0.6 ppm) in 48 per cent area in the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 113 (17) 367 (54) Guava - 66 (10) Maize 66 (10) 414 (61) Sapota - 66 (10) Bajra 66 (10) 414 (61) Pomegranate - 203 (30) Groundnut - 70 (10) Musambi 47 (7) 156 (23) Sunflower 47 (7) 156 (23) Lime 47 (7) 156 (23) Redgram - 476 (70) Amla 66 (10) 4 (<1) Bengal gram 104 (15) 306 (45) Cashew - - Cotton 47 (7) 156 (26) Jackfruit - 66 (10) Chilli 66 (10) 141 (21) Jamun - 47 (7) Tomato 66 (10) 4 (<1) Custard apple 47 (7) 160 (23) Brinjal 66 (10) 4 (<1) Tamarind 47 (7) - Onion 66 (10) 4 (<1) Mulberry - 66 (10) Bhendi 66 (10) 141 (21) Marigold 66 (10) 141 (21) Drumstick - 170 (25) Chrysanthemum 66 (10) 141 (21) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Holandgira is located at North latitude 160 50' 44.924" and 160 49' 4.393" and East longitude 760 58' 44.548'' and 760 57' 5.599" covering an area of about 690.33 ha coming under Holamkera and Bannahatti villages of Chithapura taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Holandgira micro watersheds of Hadagimadara subwatershed, Chithapura taluk & Kalaburagi District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 farmers were sampled in Holandgira micro-watershed among households surveyed 13 (36.11%) were marginal, 13 (36.11%) were small and 7 (19.44 %) were semi medium farmers. 3 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 110 (55.28%) men and 89 (44.72 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.7, marginal farmers were 5.3, small farmers were 5.5 and semi medium farmers were 6.7.  Majority of the respondents (52.26%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 59.30 per cent illiterates, 0.50 percent were functional literates, 40.21 per cent pre university education and 2.51 per cent attained graduation.  About, 83.33 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.78 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 62.31 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 58.33 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 11.11 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 97.22 per cent possess TV, 63.89 per cent possess mixer grinder, 100.00 per cent possess mobile phones and 8.33 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 25.00 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 41.67 per cent possess plough and 80.56 per cent possess Weeder.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 8.33 per cent possess local cow and 2.78 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.83, women available in the micro watershed was 1.56, hired labour (men) available was 11.83 and hired labour (women) available was 9.94. 2  In the study area, about 2.01 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 320.00 kms for about 4.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 65.99 per cent (39.08 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 34.01 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 12.00 live bore wells and 12.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 33.33 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Sorghum and Sugarcane and cropping intensity was recorded as 84.22 per cent.  Out of the sample households 91.67 percent possessed bank account and 27.78 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 27.78 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 60.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 120.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (90.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 45.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Sorghum and Sugarcane was Rs.35406.45, 39207.70, 47585.57, 30949.51 and 32109.45 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30, 1: 1.40, 1: 1.60, 1: 1.30 and 1:2.40 respectively.  Further, 41.67 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 19.44 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 105138.89 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 77055.56 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 7 horticulture trees and 56 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 10361.11 for land development and Rs. 1027.78 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 16.67 per cent depends on own funds and 47.22 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 30.56 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 86.11 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (91.67%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.67 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 119.44 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 75.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.22%), pulses (94.44%) and oilseeds (30.56%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (100.00 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (94.44%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (50.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (66.67%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chesmicals (63.89%), high rate of interest on credit (91.67%), low price for the agricultural commodities (94.44 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (83.33%), inadequate extension services (63.89 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80.56%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Wankasambar-1 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behaviour and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 408 ha in Wankasambar-1 microwatershed in Yadgir taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as droughtprone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 87 per cent is covered by soils, 13 per cent by rock lands and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 8 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is 120-150 days starting from the 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops were assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire land area of the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent soils are shallow (25-50 cm), 27 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm), 18 per cent are moderately deep (75-100 cm) and about 31 per cent soils are deep (100-150 cm) to very deep (>150 cm) soils.  About 12 per cent of the area has clayey soils, 52 per cent loamy soils and 23 per cent sandy soils at the surface.  Entire area of about 87 per cent has non-gravelly.  About 15 per cent of the area has soils that are very high (>200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 31 per cent medium (101-150 mm/m), 27 per cent low (51-100 mm/m) and about 14 per cent very low (0.75%) in organic carbon.  An area of 28 per cent has soils that are low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  About 337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in about 1.0 ppm) in about 3 per cent area of the microwatershed.  Entire area has soils that are sufficient (>4.5 ppm) in available iron.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Entire area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc.  The land suitability for 26 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Wankasambar-1 microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 252 (62) Sapota - 40 (10) Maize - 118 (29) Guava - 40 (10) Red gram - 174 (43) Pomegranate - 174 (43) Bajra - 298 (73) Jackfruit - 23 (6) Ground nut - 135 (33) Jamun - 100 (24) Sunflower - 157 (39) Musambi - 174 (43) Cotton 31 (8) 222 (54) Lime - 174 (43) Bengalgram 31 (8) 221 (54) Cashew - - Chilli - 269 (66) Custard apple - 252 (62) Tomato - 135 (33) Amla - 252 (62) Drumstick - 174 (43) Tamarind - 100 (24) Mulberry - 23 (60) Marigold - 269 (66) Mango - 23 (6) Chrysanthemum - 269 (66) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops that helps in maintaining the ecological balance in the microwatershed  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. The survey was conducted in Wankasambar-1 is located at North latitude 160 38' 15.368" and 160 36' 24.117" and East longitude 770 23' 18.585'' and 770 21' 27.725" covering an area of about 407.81 ha coming under Vankasambara, Sambara and VadavataVillages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Wankasambar-1 micro watersheds of Turk Madhawar sub-watershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 farmers were sampled in Wankasambar-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 5 (14.71%) were marginal, 19 (55.88%) were small, 3 (8.82 %) were semi medium and 1 (2.94 %) were medium farmers. 6 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 78 (54.55%) men and 65 (45.45 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (37.06%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 44.76 per cent illiterates, 53.86 per cent pre university education and 4.20 per cent attained graduation.  About, 79.41 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 8.82 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 57.34 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 17.65 percent possess thatched house and 82.35 per cent of the households possess katcha house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 61.76 per cent possess TV, 38.24 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.06 per cent possess mobile phones and 20.59 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 17.65 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 35.29 per cent possess plough, 2.94 per cent possess Sprayer, 76.47 per cent possess Weeder, 8.82 per cent possess Chaff Cutter and 2.94 per cent possess JCB/Hitachi.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 14.71 per cent possess local cow and 8.82 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.38, women available in the micro watershed was 1.22, hired labour (men) available was 7.41 and hired labour (women) available was 12.41.  Further, 85.29 per cent of the household opined that hired labour was adequate. 2  In the study area, about 2.80 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 495.00 kms for about 3.75 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 92.88 per cent (39.84 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 7.12 per cent area is irrigated land.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 2.94 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Paddy, Maize and Groundnut and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 85.29 percent possessed bank account and 73.53 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 47.06 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 12.50 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Paddy, Maize and Groundnut was Rs.22085.73, 32319.65, 27386.33, 12694.39 and 39182.72 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.90, 1: 1.90, 1: 1.40, 1: 2.50 and 1:1.10 respectively.  Further, 23.53 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 101457.35 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57680.88 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 60 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 79.41 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 7941.18 for land development and Rs. 12029.41 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 34.29 per cent depends on own funds and 5.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 41.18 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 44.12 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 50.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (38.24%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.35 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 85.29 per cent of the households and 11.76 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 76.47 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 67.65 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (94.12%), pulses (94.12%) and oilseeds (47.06%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (82.35%) wild animal menace on farm field (85.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (79.41%), inadequacy of irrigation water (79.41%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.35%), high rate of interest on credit (79.41%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.29%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (64.71%), inadequate extension services (58.82%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (64.71 %) and less rainfall (2.94 %). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Paspol-1 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 522 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 508 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 14 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 11 soil series and 13 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 13 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (150 cm).  About 13 per cent area in the microwatershed has sandy, 38 per cent area loamy and 47 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Maximum of 69 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 0.75%) in 4.5 ppm) in available iron and 17 per cent is deficient (<4.5 ppm).  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 144(28) 298(57) Guava - 130(25) Maize 16(3) 427(82) Sapota - 130(25) Bajra 16(3) 427(82) Pomegranate - 288(55) Groundnut - 204(39) Musambi 127(24) 160(31) Sunflower 98(19) 189(36) Lime 127(24) 160(30) Redgram - 288(55) Amla 16(3) 427(82) Bengal gram 158(30) 285(55) Cashew - 16(3) Cotton 98(19) 344(66) Jackfruit - 130(25) Chilli - 443(85) Jamun - 158(30) Tomato 16(3) 396(76) Custard apple 287(55) 155(30) Brinjal 48(9) 394(76) Tamarind - 158(30) Onion 46(9) 298(57) Mulberry - 204(39) Bhendi 77(15) 366(70) Marigold - 443(85) Drumstick - 288(55) Chrysanthemum - 443(85) Mango - 2(<1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Paspol-1 is located at North latitude 160 47' 31.324" and 160 45' 26.562" and East longitude 770 18' 25.677'' and 770 16' 42.31" covering an area of about 522.02 ha coming under Pasapoola, Arakera. K and Gabapura Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Paspol-1 micro watersheds of Gopalapur subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 36 farmers were sampled in Paspol-1 micro-watershed among households surveyed 14 (38.89%) were marginal, 11 (30.56%) were small, 3 (8.33 %) were semi medium, 3 (8.33 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 103 (55.08%) men and 84 (44.92%) were women. The average population of landless was 4.2, marginal farmers were 4.9, small farmers were 5.5, semi medium farmers 6.7 and medium farmers were 5.7.  Majority of the respondents (41.71%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 57.75 per cent illiterates, 34.77 per cent pre university education and 4.81 per cent attained graduation.  About, 94.44 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 2.78 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 67.38 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 61.11 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 22.22 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 72.22 per cent possess TV, 11.11 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.67 per cent possess mobile phones and 19.44 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 50.00 per cent of the households possess plough, 2.78 per cent possess tractor, 25.00 per cent possess bullock cart and 36.11 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 2.78 per cent possess local cow and 11.11 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.88, women available in the micro watershed was 1.38, hired labour (men) available was 15.13 and hired labour (women) available was 12.25.  Further, 2.78 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 3.21 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 2400.00 kms for about 6.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 70.53 per cent (36.83 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 29.47 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 5.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 16.67 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.11 per cent.  Out of the sample households 91.67 percent possessed bank account and 52.78 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 91.67 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 20.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 65.00 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.30292.60, 56128.76, 44689.05, 54769.64 and 42769.64 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30, 1: 1.30, 1: 1.10, 1: 1.30 and 1:1.90 respectively.  Further, 44.44 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.78 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 121635.56 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 67850.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 2 horticulture trees and 29 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1277.78 for land development and Rs. 6944.44 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 2.63 per cent depends on own funds.  Regarding marketing channels, 91.67 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 91.67 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (44.44%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 83.33 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 77.78 per cent of the households and 22.22 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 91.67 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 61.11 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (102.78%), pulses (97.22%) and oilseeds (30.56%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (72.22%) wild animal menace on farm field (77.78%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (86.11%), inadequacy of irrigation water (47.22%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (86.11%), high rate of interest on credit (86.11%), low price for the agricultural commodities (83.33%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (80.56%), inadequate extension services (58.33%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market(77.78%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Thanagunda-Rs Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 825 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 666 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 74 ha by rock outcrops and about 79 ha by others (Habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 81 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 42 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep to very deep (100- >150 cm), 18 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100), whereas 20 per cent soils are very shallow and shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 4 per cent soils are medium (101-150 mm/m) and 34 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) and very low (0.75%), 32 percent is medium (0.50-0.75%) and 44 percent is low (57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of 337kg/ha) and 80 percent is medium (145- 337kg/ha) in available potassium.  An area of about 13 percent is high (>20ppm), 11 percent is medium (10-20ppm) and 56 percent area is low (4.5ppm) in an area of 80 per cent and 1 per cent is deficient (<4.5ppm) in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc content is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 333(40) 165(20) Guava - 150(18) Maize 150(18) 348(42) Sapota - 150(18) Bajra 150(18) 348(42) Pomegranate - 344(42) Groundnut 11(1) 138(17) Musambi 194(24) 150(18) Sunflower 194(24) 149(18) Lime 194(24) 150(18) Redgram - 497(60) Amla 150(18) 194(24) Bengal gram 194(24) - Cashew - 103(12) Cotton 194(24) 138(17) Jackfruit - 150(18) Chilli 150(18) 194(24) Jamun - 194(24) Tomato 150(18) - Custard apple 309(37) 35(4) Brinjal 150(18) - Tamarind - 194(24) Onion 150(18) - Mulberry - 150(18) Bhendi 150(18) 194(24) Marigold 150(18) 194(24) Drumstick - 344(42) Chrysanthemum 150(18) 194(24) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Thanagunda Rs is located at North latitude 160 48' 47.81" and 160 47' 9.546" and East longitude 770 5' 45.378'' and 770 3' 22.977" covering an area of about 824.88 ha coming under Tanagundhi, Thumakura and Kanchagarahalli villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 respondents, 7 (20.59%) were marginal, 14 (41.18%) were small and 7 (20.59%) were semi medium, 1 (2.94%) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 114 (63.69%) men and 65 (36.31%) were women. Majority of the respondents (41.90%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 40.22 per cent illiterates and only 4.47 per cent attained graduation.  About, 73.53 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.88 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 62.57 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 85.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 8.82 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 73.53 per cent possess TV, 58.82 per cent possess mixer grinder and 102.94 per cent possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 32.35 per cent of the households possess plough and only 14.71 per cent sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.88 per cent possess local cow and 2.94 per cent possess buffalo respectively.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.71, women available in the micro watershed was 1.53, hired labour (men) available was 9.38 and hired labour (women) available was 7.91.  Further, 14.71 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 2.23 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 2720.00 kms for about 7.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (40.65 ha), 85.67 per cent of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 12.33 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 2.00 bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 5.88 per cent of the households. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Jowar and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  The sample households possessed 76.47 per cent bank account and 38.24 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 38.24 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 53.85 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 38.46 per cent from Cooperative bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00 %) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Jowar and Paddy was Rs.29628.77, 33083.33, 60299.77, 40188.22 and 40549.18 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30, 1: 1.04, 1: 0.60, 1: 0.70 and 1:1.10 respectively.  Further, 35.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 70561.76 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57885.29 comes from agriculture.  The total number of horticultural trees grown (both field and backyard) by the sampled households were coconut (2) and Mango (4) trees in the fields, and forest species have grown 49 neem trees, 12 tamarind trees, 1 banyan trees together in both field and backyard.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1597.06 for land development, Rs. 88.24 for creation of irrigation facility, Rs.2470.59 for adoption of improved crop production and Rs.235.29 adoption of improved livestock management.  Source of funds raised from own sources for land development was 38.24 per cent, for irrigation facility was 2.94 per cent, for improved crop production was 32.35 per cent and for improved livestock adoption was 11.8 per cent.  Regarding marketing channels, 82.35 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 2.94 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders.  Further, 44.12 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (41.18 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.35 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 32.35 per cent of the households and 64.71 per cent households has LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households. 3  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 26.47 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 94.12 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 5.88 per cent do not possess PDS card.  Cereals (58.82%), pulses (50.00%), oilseeds (26.47%) were adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.29%) wild animal menace on farm field (85.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (55.88%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (79.41%), high rate of interest on credit (85.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.35%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (55.88%), inadequate extension services (85.29%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (79.41%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 725 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 84 per cent in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 1 per cent by quarry, about 15 per cent rock outcrop and others (Habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 19 soil phases (management units) and 10 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 9 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very shallow (150 cm) soils in the microwatershed.  About 27 per cent are sandy soils, 18 per cent soils are loamy and 40 per cent are clayey soils at the surface.  About 72 per cent is non-gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area of the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3% slope) soils.  An area of about 80 per cent area is moderately eroded (e2) and 5 per cent is slightly eroded (e1) soils in the microwatershed.  About an area of 0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 71 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 13 per cent is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 79 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha) and 6 per cent is high (>337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Entire area is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 1 per cent area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 12 (2) 258 (38) Guava - 138 (20) Maize 12 (2) 258 (38) Sapota - 138 (20) Bajra 12 (2) 258 (38) Pomegranate - 152 (22) Groundnut - 179 (26) Musambi - 152 (22) Sunflower - 152 (22) Lime - 152 (22) Redgram - 165 (24) Amla 12 (2) 231 (34) Bengal gram - 14 (2) Cashew - 12 (2) Cotton - 220 (32) Jackfruit - 138 (20) Chilli 12 (2) 245 (36) Jamun - - Tomato 12 (2) 231 (34) Custard apple 12 (2) 245 (36) Brinjal 12 (2) 231 (34) Tamarind - - Onion 12 (2) 231 (34) Mulberry - 138 (20) Bhendi 12 (2) 245 (36) Marigold 12 (2) 245 (36) Drumstick - 138 (20) Chrysanthemum 12 (2) 245 (36) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified 10 LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Yadgir-2 is located at North latitude 160 55' 12.82" and 160 57' 2.63" and East longitude 770 10' 16.89'' and 770 12' 22.38" covering an area of about 681.09 ha coming under Ramathirtha, Alur. B and Bheemanahalli villages of Chithapura taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir-2 micro watersheds of Chikka Alur subwatershed, Chithapura taluk & Kalaburagi District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgir-2 micro-watershed among households surveyed 10 (28.57%) were marginal, 13 (37.14%) were small, 5 (14.29 %) were semi medium and 2 (5.71 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 94 (58.39%) men and 66 (40.99 %) were women. The average population of landless was 5.2, marginal farmers were 3.4, small farmers were 5, semi medium farmers were 4.8 and medium farmers were 6.  Majority of the respondents (43.48%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 47.83 per cent illiterates, 0.62 percent were functional literates, 48.45 per cent pre university education and 4.35 per cent attained graduation.  About, 65.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 28.57 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 42.24 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 77.14 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 2.86 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 65.71 per cent possess TV, 62.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.14 per cent possess mobile phones and 17.14 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 37.14 per cent of the households possess plough, 25.71 per cent possess bullock cart and 11.43 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.71 per cent possess local cow and 2.86 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.54, women available in the micro watershed was 1.26, hired labour (men) available was 8.03 and hired labour (women) available was 7.43  Further, 14.29 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 1.86 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 2040.00 kms for about 7.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (48.30 ha) of the area is under dry condition.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 98.13 per cent.  Out of the sample households 82.86 percent possessed bank account and 40.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 45.71 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 6.25 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 43.75 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 87.50 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, while, only 12.50 per cent respondents opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil their requirement.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram and Jowar was Rs.19867.45 and 17752.28 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30 and 1: 2.00 respectively.  Further, 22.86 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 57361.43 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 36361.43 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 12 horticulture trees and 66 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1800.00 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 45.71 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 85.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 28.57 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (45.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.71 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 45.71 per cent of the households and 54.29 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 100.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households. 3  In the study area, 45.71 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (100.00%) and oilseeds (48.57%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (88.57 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.71%), high rate of interest on credit (85.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (85.71 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (88.57%), inadequate extension services (88.57 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (80.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Ashanal-4 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 452 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 402 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 30 ha in the microwatershed is covered by rock outcrops and about 20 ha by others (habitation and water bodies). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 10 soil phases (management units) and 6 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 52 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are moderately deep to very deep (75 - >150 cm) and 37 per cent soils are shallow to moderately shallow (25-75 cm).  About 15 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy soils and 74 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  Entire area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 30 per cent is low (51-100 mm/m) and 14 per cent area very low (9.0).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire area of the microwatershed is dominantly 4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 204(45) 135(30) Sapota - 33(7) Maize - 339(75) Pomegranate - 237(52) Bajra - 339(75) Musambi 55(12) 182 (40) Groundnut - 33(7) Lime 55(12) 182(40) Sunflower 110(24) 127(28) Amla - 339(75) Redgram - 237(52) Cashew - - Bengal gram 204(45) 102(23) Jackfruit - 33(7) Cotton 110(24) 196(44) Jamun - 204(45) Chilli - 339(73) Custard apple 237(52) 102(23) Tomato - 190(42) Tamarind - 204(45) Drumstick - 237(52) Mulberry - 33(7) Mango - - Marigold - 339(75) Guava - 33(7) Chrysanthemum - 339(75) Brinjal 149(33) 190(42) Bhendi 237(52) 102(23) Onion 182(40) 102(23)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Ashanal-4 is located at North latitude 160 48' 11.49" and 160 46' 0.097" and East longitude 770 12' 45.296'' and 770 11' 8.211" covering an area of about 451.34 ha coming under Kurakumbala, Mundaragi and Ashinala villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 respondents, 7 (20.59%) were marginal, 14(41.18%) were small and 7 (20.59%) were semi medium and 1 (2.94%) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 114 (63.69%) men and 65 (36.31%) were women. Majority of the respondents (41.90%) were in the age group of 35-60 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 40.22 per cent illiterates and only 4.47 per cent attained graduation.  About, 73.53 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 5.88 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 62.57 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 85.29 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 8.82 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 73.53 per cent possess TV, 58.82 per cent possess mixer grinder and 102.94 per cent possess mobile phones.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 32.35 per cent of the households possess plough and only 14.71 per cent sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 5.88 per cent possess local cow and 2.94 per cent possess buffalo respectively.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.71, women available in the micro watershed was 1.53, hired labour (men) available was 9.38 and hired labour (women) available was 7.91.  Further, 14.71 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season.  In the study area, about 2.23 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 2720.00 kms for about 7.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents (40.65 ha), 85.67 per cent of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 12.33 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 2.00 bore wells among the sampled households. Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 5.88 per cent of the households. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Jowar and Paddy and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  The sample households possessed 76.47 per cent bank account and 38.24 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 38.24 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources. Among the credit borrowed by households, 53.85 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 38.46 per cent from Cooperative bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00 %) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 100.00 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Jowar and Paddy was Rs.29628.77, 33083.33, 60299.77, 40188.22 and 40549.18 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.30, 1: 1.00, 1: 0.60, 1: 0.70 and 1:1.10 respectively.  Further, 35.29 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 70561.76 in micro-watershed, of which Rs. 57885.29 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown horticulture crops was coconut (2) and Mango (4) trees in the fields and forest species have grown 49 neem trees, 12 tamarind trees, 1 banyan trees together in both field and backyard.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1597.06 for land development, Rs. 88.24 for creation of irrigation facility, Rs.2470.59 for adoption of improved crop production and Rs.235.29 adoption of improved livestock management.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, from own sources for land development was 38.24, for irrigation facility was 2.94 per cent, for improved crop production was 32.35 per cent and for improved livestock management was 11.8 per cent.  Regarding marketing channels, 82.35 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 2.94 per cent have sold by Agents/Traders.  Further, 44.12 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (41.18 %) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.35 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Firewood connection was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 32.35 per cent of the households and 64.71 per cent households has LPG.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 26.47 per cent of the households possess toilet facility. 3  Regarding possession of PDS card, 94.12 per cent of the households possessed BPL card and 5.88 per cent do not possess PDS card. Cereals (58.82%), pulses (50.00%), oilseeds (26.47%) were adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (85.29%) wild animal menace on farm field (85.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (55.88%), inadequacy of irrigation water (85.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (79.41%), high rate of interest on credit (85.29%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.35%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (55.88%), inadequate extension services (85.29%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (79.41%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Hire Wadarkal microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 708 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south–west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 90 per cent is covered by soils, 7 per cent by rock outcrops and 3 per cent is by habitation and settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 16 soil series and 29 soil phases (management units) and 8 Land Management Units.  The length of crop growing period is 0.75%) in 17 per cent area.  An area of about 30 per cent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 60 per cent is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm) in 23 per cent area of the microwatershed.  An area of about 68 per cent is low (1.0 ppm) in available boron content.  An area of about 48 per cent is sufficient (>4.5 ppm) and 42 per cent is deficient (1.0 ppm) in available manganese content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is sufficient (>0.2 ppm) in available copper content.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc content.  The land suitability for 31 major crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 54(8) 231(33) Sapota 38(5) 353(50) Maize 54(8) 231(33) Pomegranate 38(5) 353(50) Bajra 101(14) 425(60) Guava 38(5) 354(50) Groundnut 81(11) 456(64) Jackfruit 38(5) 353(50) Sunflower 38(5) 114(16) Jamun - 340(48) Cotton - 249(35) Musambi 38(5) 353(50) Red gram 38(5) 78(11) Lime 38(5) 353(50) Bengalgram 16(2) 170(24) Cashew 4(1) 364(51) Chilli 42(6) 231(33) Custard apple 100(14) 500(70) Tomato 57(8) 215(30) Amla 89(13) 511(72) Brinjal 79(11) 256(36) Tamarind 61(9) 405(51) Onion 64(9) 259(36) Marigold 38(5) 247(35) Bhendi 64(9) 221(31) Chrysanthemum 38(5) 247(35) Drumstick 43(6) 135(19) Jasmine 38(5) 247(35) Mulberry 62(9) 405(57) Crossandra 38(5) 199(28) Mango - 61(9)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 8 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Hire Wadarkal is located at North latitude 760 17' 36.021" and 760 16' 17.724" and East longitude 150 36' 59.965" and 150 36' 5.239" covering an area of about 118.69 ha coming under Hirebommanala village of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Hire Wadarkal micro watersheds of Katagihalli subwatershed, Koppala taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 40 farmers were sampled in Hire Wadarkal micro-watershed among households surveyed 5 (12.50%) were marginal, 13 (32.50%) were small, 10 (25.00 %) were semi medium and 7 (17.50 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 116 (54.98%) men and 95 (45.02 %) were women. The average population of landless was 5.2, marginal farmers were 4.2, small farmers were 4.8, semi medium farmers were 5.7 and medium farmers were 6.4.  Majority of the respondents (36.02%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 16.11 per cent illiterates, 84.83 per cent pre university education and 2.84 per cent attained graduation.  About, 77.50 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 17.50 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 43.13 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 47.50 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 17.50 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 87.50 per cent possess TV, 80.00 per cent possess mixer grinder, 87.50 per cent possess mobile phones and 15.00 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 27.50 per cent of the households possess plough, 17.50 per cent possess bullock cart and 10.00 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 17.50 per cent possess local cow and 2.50 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.75, women available in the micro watershed was 1.98, hired labour (men) available was 7.58 and hired labour (women) available was 11.68.  Further, 55.00 per cent of the households opined that hired labour was inadequate during the agricultural season. 2  In the study area, about 0.47 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 400.00 kms for about 2.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 65.25 per cent (63.50 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 34.75 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 20.00 live bore wells and 20.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 50.00 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Maize, Bajra, Sunflower, Red gram and Groundut and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 90.00 percent possessed bank account and 50.00 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 90.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 31.58 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 47.37 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 78.95 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bajra, Sunflower, Red gram and Groundut was Rs.33772.11, 24265.59, 35980.72, 59003.81 and 58133.96 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.98, 1: 1.10, 1: 1.00, 1: 0.90 and 1:0.80 respectively.  Further, 50.00 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.50 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 67232.50 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 42770.00 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 6 horticulture trees and 35 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 60.00 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5775.00 for land development and Rs. 3525.00 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 40.00 per cent depends on own funds.  Regarding marketing channels, 80.00 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 12.50 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 40.00 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity. 3  Majority of the farmers (62.50%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 72.50 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 82.50 per cent of the households and 17.50 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 80.00 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 35.00 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (62.50%), pulses (57.50%) and oilseeds (47.50%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (67.50%) wild animal menace on farm field (60.00%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (47.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.00%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (70.00%), high rate of interest on credit (70.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (72.50%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (67.50%), inadequate extension services (15.00%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (60.00%), Less rainfall (5.00%) and Source of Agri-technology information (Newspaper/ TV/Mobile) (5.00%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Kodlur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 200 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 199 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and about 1 ha cover by railway line. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 5 soil series and 5 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 100 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 37 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are very deep (>150 cm), 2 per cent soils are moderately deep (75-100), whereas 61 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) in the microwatershed.  Entire cultivated area is clayey soils at the surface.  Entire cultivated area is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 2 per cent soils are medium (101-150 mm/m) and 61 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire cultivated area is very gently sloping (1-3% slope) lands in the microwatershed.  Entire cultivated area has moderately (e2) eroded lands in the microwatershed.  An area of about 29 per cent is slightly alkaline (pH 7.3-7.8) and about 70 per cent is moderately alkaline (pH 7.8-8.4).  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%) and 78 percent is medium (0.50-0.75%) in organic carbon content.  An area of 94 percent is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 5 percent soils are high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 73 percent is high (>337kg/ha) and about 14 percent is medium (145-337kg/ha) in available potassium.  Available sulphur content is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 89 per cent and deficient (<4.5 ppm) in about 11 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc content is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 199(100) Guava - - Maize - 199(100) Sapota - - Bajra - 199(100) Pomegranate - 3(2) Groundnut - 121(61) Musambi - 3(2) Sunflower - 3(2) Lime - 3(2) Redgram - 78(39) Amla - 124(62) Bengal gram 3(2) 68(34) Cashew - - Cotton - 5(2) Jackfruit - 124(62) Chilli - 124(62) Jamun - 124(62) Tomato - 121(61) Custard apple - 124(62) Brinjal - 121(61) Tamarind - - Onion - 121(61) Mulberry - - Bhendi - 124(62) Marigold - 124(62) Drumstick - 3(2) Chrysanthemum - 124(62) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Kodlur is located at North latitude 160 29' 30.929" and 160 28' 29.229" and East longitude 770 18' 0.612'' and 770 16' 18.842" covering an area of about 209.18 ha coming unde Badiyala Village of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Kodlur micro watersheds of Kodlur sub-watershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample of 34 farmers were sampled in Kodlur micro-watershed among households surveyed 5 (14.71%) were marginal, 9 (26.47%) were small, 11 (32.35 %) were semi medium and 4 (11.76 %) were medium farmers. 5 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 71 (45.81%) men and 84 (54.19 %) were women. The average population of landless was 3.8, marginal farmers were 4.6, small farmers were 4.9, semi medium farmers were 4.8 and medium farmers were 4.  Majority of the respondents (38.71%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 23.87 per cent illiterates, 78.06 per cent pre university education and 5.81 per cent attained graduation.  About, 14.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 70.59 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 9.03 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 73.53 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 8.82 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 82.35 per cent possess TV, 58.82 per cent possess mixer grinder, 97.06 per cent possess mobile phones and 11.76 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 23.53 per cent of the households possess plough, 20.59 per cent possess bullock cart.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.34, women available in the micro watershed was 1.17, hired labour (men) available was 10.69 and hired labour (women) available was 22.07.  In the study area, about 0.65 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 700.00 kms for about 4.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 100.00 per cent (63.79 ha) of the area is under dry condition. 2  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Jowar and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 73.53 percent possessed bank account and 73.53 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 91.18 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 5.26 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 6.14 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 21.43 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton and Jowar was Rs.25663.10, 25267.86 and 32839.59, with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.98, 1: 1.03 and 1: 0.79 respectively.  Further, 17.65 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 5.88 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 68147.06 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 43970.59 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 2 horticulture trees and 21 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  About 20.59 per cent of the households shown interest to cultivate horticultural crops.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 8852.94 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 58.82 per cent depends on own funds and 17.65 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 79.41 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 11.76 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 8.82 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (85.29%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 85.29 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 94.12 per cent of the households and 8.82 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households. 3  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 47.06 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 100.00 per cent of the households possessed BPL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (38.24%), pulses (44.12%) and oilseeds (32.35%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (44.12%) wild animal menace on farm field (35.29%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (44.12%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55.88%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (82.35%), high rate of interest on credit (79.41%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.35%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (82.35%), inadequate extension services (14.71%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (67.65%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Rogalapur Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 618 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 556 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 62 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 13 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 10 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 3 per cent is medium (101-150 mm/m), 15 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 13 per cent area very low (57 kg/ha), 78 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 387(63) 91(15) Guava - - Maize - 477(77) Sapota - - Bajra - 478(77) Pomegranate - 387(63) Groundnut - 91(15) Musambi 292(47) 94(15) Sunflower 292(47) 94(15) Lime 292(47) 94(15) Redgram - 387(63) Amla - 478(77) Bengal gram 387(63) 91(15) Cashew - - Cotton 292(47) 185(30) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 478(77) Jamun - 387(63) Tomato - 364(59) Custard apple 387(63) 91(15) Brinjal 156(25) 321(52) Tamarind - 387(63) Onion 368(59) 91(15) Mulberry - - Bhendi 156(25) 321(52) Marigold - 478(77) Drumstick - 387(63) Chrysanthemum - 478(77) Mango - 62(10)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Rogalapur is located at North latitude 160 44' 14.656" and 160 42' 25.406" and East longitude 770 12' 38.501 and 770 10' 14.78" covering an area of about 617.94 ha coming under Pogalapura, Kuyyalura and Mushthuru villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Rogalapur micro watersheds of Haligeri subwatershed, Yadagiri taluk, Yadagiri District indicated that, out of the total sample of 35 total respondents, 12 (34.29 %) were marginal, 10 (28.57%) were small and 10 (28.57 %) were Semi medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 106 (58.56%) men and 75 (41.44 %) were women.  Majority of the respondents (37.57%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 51.93 per cent illiterates, 0.55 percent was functional literates, 9.39 per cent pre university education and 3.87 per cent attained graduation.  About, 68.57 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 22.86 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural laborers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 30.39 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 60.00 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 31.43 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 48.57 per cent possess TV, 22.86 per cent possess mixer grinder, 91.43 per cent possess mobile phones and 51.43 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 34.29 per cent of the households possess plough, 5.71 per cent possess tractor, 2.86 per cent possess bullock cart and 20.00 per cent possess sprayer.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 34.29 per cent possess local cow and 8.57 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.17, women available in the micro watershed was 1.5, hired labour (men) available was 9.58 and hired labour (women) available was 7.25.  In the study area, about 0.55 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 700.00 kms for about 48.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 53.35 per cent (35.43 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 44.02 per cent area is irrigated land. 2  There were 4.00 live bore wells and 5.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore/open well was the major source of irrigation for 11.43 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Redgram, Cotton, Paddy, Groundnut and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 85.71 percent possessed bank account and 28.57 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 11.43 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 50.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 50 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  Regarding the opinion on institutional sources of credit, 46.67 per cent of the households opined that credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations, 20.00 per cent higher rate of interest and 33.33 per cent Forced to sell the produce at low price to repay loan in time.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Redgram, Cotton, Paddy, Groundnut and Green gram was Rs.18334.91 , 33748.35, 37527.77, 45424.48, and 25758.41 with benefit cost ratio of 1: 1.2, 1: 2.1, 1: 3.4, 1:0.8 and 1:1.9, respectively.  Further, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 8.57 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The farmer has annual gross expenditure of Rs. 162406.36 in micro-watershed, of which Rs. 30228.57 is from agriculture itself.  Sampled households have grown 4 horticulture trees and 84 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 1742.86 for land development.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, the sources of finance raised from bank as a loan and from own sources for land development were 11.43 per cent.  Regarding marketing channels, 60.00 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants, while, 31.43 per cent have sold in regulated markets.  Further, 82.86 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (62.86%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 91.43 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing. 3  About, 2.86 per cent of farmers practicing Farm Pond and 5.71 per cent of farmers practicing Bore Well Recharge Pit as soil and water conservation structures.  Fire wood was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 60.00 per cent of the households and 28.57 per cent households has LPG connection.  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 91.43 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 54.29 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 97.14 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 2.86 per cent of the household's possessed APL card.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (100.00%), pulses (100.00%) and oilseeds (22.86%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil (91.43%) wild animal menace on farm field ( 85.71%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (91.43%), inadequacy of irrigation water (65.71%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (91.43%), high rate of interest on credit (80.00%), low price for the agricultural commodities (97.14%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (62.86%), inadequate extension services (34.29%) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (65.71%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Yadgir Rf-3 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 563 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 78 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 432 ha by rock outcrops and 53 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 2 soil series and 3 soil phases (management units) and 2 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Small area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 7 per cent area is shallow (25-50 cm) and 7 per cent area is very deep (>150 cm) soil.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is loamy soils at the surface.  Entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 7 per cent area is very low (57 kg/ha), 7 per cent area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 5 per area is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 29 (5) 8 (2) Guava - - Maize - 38 (7) Sapota - - Bajra - 38 (7) Pomegranate - 38(7) Groundnut - - Musambi 8 (2) 29(5) Sunflower - 38 (7) Lime 8 (2) 29 (5) Redgram - 38 (7) Amla - 38 (7) Bengal gram 38 (7) - Cashew - - Cotton - 37 (7) Jackfruit - - Chilli - 38 (7) Jamun - 38 (7) Tomato - 8 (2) Custard apple 38 (7) - Brinjal 29 (5) 8 (2) Tamarind - 38 (7) Onion 29 (5) 8 (2) Mulberry - - Bhendi 38 (7) - Marigold - 38 (7) Drumstick - 38 (7) Chrysanthemum - 38 (7) Mango - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. The survey was conducted in Yadgir Rf-3 is located at North latitude 160 49' 45.372" and 160 48' 2.856" and East longitude 770 15' 19.29'' and 770 13' 43.732" covering an area of about 562.73 ha coming under Belagera and Ashinal Villages of Yadagiri taluk.  Socio-economic analysis of Yadgir Rf-3 micro watersheds of Bewanahalli subwatershed, Yadgiri taluk & District indicated that, out of the total sample 35 farmers were sampled in Yadgir Rf-3 micro-watershed among households surveyed 21 (60.00%) were marginal, 7 (20.00%) were small and 3 (8.57 %) were semi medium farmers. 4 landless farmers were also interviewed for the survey.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 119 (55.87%) men and 94 (44.13 %) were women. The average population of landless was 5.5, marginal farmers were 6.1, small farmers were 5.7 and semi medium farmers were 7.7.  Majority of the respondents (51.64%) were in the age group of 16-35 years.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, there were 53.05 per cent of illiterates, 17.84 per cent of them had primary school education, 8.45 per cent high school education, 5.63 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.47 per cent of them had Diploma, 8.45 per cent attained graduation and 5.63 them had other education.  About, 85.71 per cent of household heads practicing agriculture and 14.29 per cent of the household heads were engaged as agricultural labourers.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 57.28 per cent of the household members.  In the study area, 45.71 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 37.14 per cent possess pucca house.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 68.57 per cent possess TV, 20.00 per cent possess mixer grinder, 85.71 per cent possess mobile phones and 28.57 per cent possess motor cycles.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 20.00 per cent of the households possess Bullock Cart, 54.29 per cent possess plough and 40.00 per cent possess Seed/Fertilizer Drill and Sprinkler, 34.29 per cent possess Sprayer, 45.71 per cent possess Weeder, 2.86 per cent possess tractor, 2.86 per cent possess Sprinkler and 0.00 per cent possess drip system.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 25.71 per cent possess local cow and 14.29 per cent possess buffalo.  The average labour availability in the study area showed that, own labour men available in the micro watershed was 7.30, women available in the micro watershed was 1.82, hired labour (men) available was 1.94 and hired labour (women) available was 9.61. 2  In the study area, about 0.47 per cent of the respondents migrated from the micro watershed in search of jobs with an average distance of 600.00 kms for about 12.00 months.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 54.07 per cent (24.16 ha) of the area is under dry condition and the remaining 18.33 per cent area is irrigated land.  There were 6.00 live bore wells and 6.00 dry bore wells among the sampled households.  Bore well was the major source of irrigation for 17.14 per cent of the households.  The major crops grown by sample farmers are Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram and cropping intensity was recorded as 100.00 per cent.  Out of the sample households 100.00 percent possessed bank account and 51.43 per cent of them have savings in the account.  About 100.00 per cent of the respondents borrowed credit from various sources.  Among the credit borrowed by households, 25.00 per cent have borrowed loan from commercial banks and 68.75 per cent from co-operative/Grameena bank.  Majority of the respondents (100.00%) have borrowed loan for agriculture purpose.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Red gram, Cotton, Groundnut, Paddy and Green gram was Rs.73666.65, 52458.81, 92951.51, 101578.39 and 40439.00 with benefit cost ratio of 1:0.90, 1: 1.50, 1: 1.30, 1: 0.90, and 1:2.50 respectively.  Further, 48.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 2.86 per cent of the households have opined that the green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income of the farmers was Rs. 177206.29 in microwatershed, of which Rs. 57692.86 comes from agriculture.  Sampled households have grown 27 horticulture trees and 24 forestry trees together in the fields and back yards.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5285.71 for land development and Rs. 13000.00 for irrigation facility.  Source of funds for additional investment is concerned, 14.29 per cent depends on own funds and 2.86 per cent depends on bank loan for land development activities.  Regarding marketing channels, 105.71 per cent of the households have sold agricultural produce to the local/village merchants.  Further, 105.71 per cent of the households have used tractor for the transport of agriculture commodity.  Majority of the farmers (25.71%) have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the watershed and 82.86 per cent of the households were interested towards soil testing.  Fire was the major source of fuel for domestic use for 80.00 per cent of the households and 20.00 per cent households has LPG connection. 3  Piped supply was the major source for drinking water for 94.29 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100.00 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 31.43 per cent of the households possess toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 91.43 per cent of the households possessed BPL card, 5.71 per cent of the household's possessed APL card and 2.86 per cent of the household's were not having ration cards.  Households opined that, the requirement of cereals (97.14%), pulses (97.14%) and oilseeds (62.86%) are adequate for consumption.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by (80.00 %) per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (62.86%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (80.00%), inadequacy of irrigation water (34.29%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (88.57%), high rate of interest on credit (82.86%), low price for the agricultural commodities (80.00 %), lack of marketing facilities in the area (54.29%), inadequate extension services (42.86 %) and lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (74.29%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Il lavoro di tesi si pone l'obiettivo di effettuare un'analisi critica del costo del lavoro in Italia, componente del mercato del lavoro fondamentale nel determinare i livelli occupazionali di un'economia, dato che influenza l'allocazione delle risorse tra i fattori della produzione all'interno di un paese e le condizioni di competitività dello stesso sullo scenario internazionale. La struttura e l'evoluzione del costo del lavoro e delle retribuzioni costituiscono, infatti, elementi importanti del mercato del lavoro, che rispecchiano l'offerta di lavoro dei singoli individui e la domanda di lavoro da parte delle imprese. Dal lato delle imprese il costo del lavoro è uno dei principali fattori determinanti della competitività (insieme al costo del capitale e all'innovazione tecnologica); dal lato dei lavoratori dipendenti il compenso percepito per il proprio lavoro, normalmente denominato retribuzione o salario, rappresenta in genere la principale fonte di reddito e quindi incide in modo rilevante sulla capacità di spesa o di risparmio. La ragione che ci induce ad affrontare un simile tema va ricercata nel particolare rilievo che ha acquisito il tema del costo del lavoro all'interno del recente dibattito politico ed economico, a seguito della grave crisi che ha colpito molti comparti dell'industria italiana. Al giorno d'oggi, il costo del lavoro è più che mai un problema strutturale che sollecita interventi diretti a garantire maggiori margini di competitività alle imprese, senza tuttavia andare contro alla garanzia costituzionale della retribuzione proporzionata e sufficiente. Fra i diversi aspetti posti al centro dell'analisi si possono individuare due correnti che recentemente hanno avuto una maggiore attenzione rispetto ad altre: la prima è quella dei divari nei livelli del costo del lavoro fra i paesi europei e dei loro riflessi sulla competitività economica delle imprese, la seconda è quella della elevata tassazione che grava sul lavoro, ovvero la questione del "cuneo fiscale". La rilevanza di questi temi va ricondotta anche alla crisi economica e alla particolare attenzione con cui si guarda all'andamento della competitività delle imprese italiane e alle prospettive di crescita dei settori più esposti alla competizione internazionale. Infatti, la globalizzazione da un lato e la crisi economico-finanziaria dall'altro hanno causato delle profonde trasformazioni nel nostro sistema economico e sociale accelerando la trasformazione della struttura produttiva delle economie avanzate, portando all'abbandono di diversi settori da parte di molti paesi e favorendo spinti processi di delocalizzazione che hanno aumentato la concorrenza fra i lavoratori a più basso salario, contribuito all'aumento delle diseguaglianze nella distribuzione del reddito, penalizzando in particolare i redditi dei ceti medio-bassi. Tuttavia, negli ultimi anni la posizione competitiva dei maggiori paesi si sta nuovamente modificando in misura sostanziale. A causa dell'aumento del costo del lavoro cinese, infatti, si sta verificando un cambiamento delle convenienze relative. Di conseguenza, anche in Italia, sia pure su scala ridotta, si contano le prime esperienze di reshoring degli investimenti. L'importanza del livello e della struttura del costo del lavoro a livello nazionale e internazionale, quindi, ne giustifica la centralità all'interno del dibattito politico. In particolare, nel corso degli ultimi anni è stato frequentemente posto l'accento sul tema della fiscalità sui redditi da lavoro: l'esigenza di ridurre il cuneo fiscale pone al centro dell'agenda dei Governi il tema del rispettivo finanziamento. Le strade da percorrere passano inevitabilmente per una ricomposizione della struttura fiscale o per una fase di ricomposizione e razionalizzazione della spesa pubblica. Nel primo capitolo, a partire da una schema analitico sulla composizione del costo del lavoro dipendente, così come definito nel regolamento (CE) n. 1737/2005 del 21 ottobre 2005, si è improntato un dibattito sul tax wedge e sugli effetti che un'elevata tassazione possa avere sul mercato del lavoro e sulla crescita economica del paese. Un aspetto importante che è emerso è che la pressione fiscale apparente in Italia, ovvero quella che non tiene conto della dimensione dell'economia sommersa e dell'evasione fiscale, è tra le più alte tra i paesi OCSE e ha presentato di recente una perniciosa dinamica crescente. Pur nell'incertezza dei dati comparativi, si ritiene che la situazione dell'Italia in ambito europeo si caratterizzi per un'elevata incidenza della tassazione sul lavoro e degli oneri sociali, in presenza di un differenziale negativo dei livelli retributivi lordi e netti rispetto agli altri paesi dell'Unione Europea. A fronte di questa situazione, nel corso della legislatura, è emersa l'esigenza di agire, nell'ambito delle politiche per l'occupazione, verso una progressiva riduzione della pressione fiscale sul lavoro e dei costi non salariali dello stesso. Tale linea politica, come quella più generale di riduzione del carico fiscale complessivo, si è dovuta peraltro confrontare con l'obiettivo prioritario dell'equilibrio finanziario dei sistemi di previdenza sociale. Nel secondo capitolo, dopo aver espresso alcune considerazioni sul forte aumento dei contributi sociali verificatosi negli ultimi decenni in Europa e su come tale tendenza sia all'origine di un livello del costo del lavoro che indebolisce la struttura produttiva e causa disoccupazione, al fine di impostare correttamente lo studio degli effetti dei contributi sociali sul mercato del lavoro e dell'eventualità che il finanziamento del sistema previdenziale introduca forme di tassazione nascosta, ci si è soffermati sulle tecniche dirette di riduzione del costo del lavoro che il Governo ha approvato a partire dal Decreto legge n. 66/2014 tramite le "Misure urgenti per la competitività e la giustizia sociale" e successivamente grazie agli interventi diretti sul mercato del lavoro attuati attraverso il Jobs Act e la legge di Stabilità 2015. Tali tecniche sono di carattere strutturale, che comportano una riduzione intersettoriale e stabile nel tempo del carico contributivo e quelle di carattere agevolativo, direttamente legati alla creazione di nuovi posti di lavoro ed aventi operatività limitata a periodi, aree territoriali e settori limitati. In particolare, gli interventi di carattere strutturale sono concentrati sulla riduzione di alcune voci della contribuzione a carico dei datori di lavoro, con particolare riferimento ai contributi sociali, ciò al fine di diminuire il cuneo fiscale e contributivo, cioè la forbice tra il costo del lavoro per le imprese, a cui concorrono i contributi versati dal lavoratore e dal datore di lavoro, e quanto effettivamente percepito come retribuzione netta dal lavoratore. Agli interventi di carattere strutturale si sono accompagnate misure di incentivazione economica direttamente collegate alle assunzioni effettuate dalle imprese, volte ad aumentarne la convenienza economica, riducendo, tramite la leva contributiva e fiscale, il costo del lavoro almeno nella fase iniziale del rapporto. Più in generale altri interventi hanno previsto agevolazioni fiscali o contributive per un limitato periodo, al fine di ridurre il costo del lavoro per imprese di settori in difficoltà. Il capitolo affronta, inoltre, la questione del decentramento contrattuale, soprattutto alla luce degli studi che mirano a studiare gli effetti della tassazione sul mercato del lavoro della presenza dei sindacati, un fattore che può imporre rigidità al mercato del lavoro e che può ostacolare, in teoria, il meccanismo di aggiustamento tra domanda e offerta di lavoro. In particolare, negli ultimi anni le politiche di sostegno alla produttività del lavoro hanno cercato di coniugare la riduzione del cuneo fiscale con il decentramento contrattuale, autorizzando, in tal modo, uno spostamento della struttura retributiva in direzione di una valorizzazione del salario variabile, a scapito della parte fissa della retribuzione, che comporta sì la possibilità di un alleggerimento del costo del lavoro, ma anche una chiara erosione della "funzione solidaristica" del CCNL. Inoltre, partendo dalle considerazioni svolte sui legami che intercorrono tra i contributi sociali versati e i benefici attesi e da alcuni studi in cui si analizzano gli effetti di una possibile completa privatizzazione del sistema previdenziale, è stata compiuta un'analisi sulle regole che stanno alla base del funzionamento dei diversi sistemi pensionistici e si è evinto che, data la molteplice natura a cui assolve il risparmio previdenziale, appare preferibile un sistema previdenziale misto, quale appunto quello italiano, rispetto a un sistema puro costituito da una sola delle due alternative, a capitalizzazione o a ripartizione. Le distorsioni sembrerebbero derivare, invece, dalla presenza di un'aliquota per i lavoratori dipendenti alta e costante nel tempo e dalla cattiva allocazione del portafoglio previdenziale, quando si considera la differenza tra il tasso di rendimento di mercato di un sistema a capitalizzazione e quello generato in un sistema a ripartizione; questi, pertanto, sarebbero i principali problemi da affrontare. Nel terzo capitolo, infine, l'analisi si concentra sulle tecniche indirette di riduzione del costo del lavoro, ovvero quelle che vanno a toccare gli aspetti legati alla flessibilità in entrata e in uscita del rapporto di lavoro, oltre che il ruolo degli ammortizzatori sociali. Il licenziamento motivato da finalità di riduzione dei costi, la trasformazione del rapporto di lavoro da tempo pieno ad orario "ridotto, modulato o flessibile", lo jus variandi nella disciplina delle mansioni, le strategie di esternalizzazione aziendale sono tutti aspetti indirettamente legati alla finalità ultima non tanto rivolta alla tutela dei lavoratori, quanto al sostegno al sistema produttivo nel suo complesso, dove la "produttività" sembra assurgere a interesse pubblico generale per il suo ruolo funzionale al rilancio della competitività dell'impresa. L'attenzione si è spostata poi sul ruolo degli ammortizzatori sociali, ovvero di tutta quella serie di misure che hanno l'obiettivo di offrire sostegno economico ai lavoratori che hanno perso il posto di lavoro e alle quali ricorrono le aziende che si trovano in crisi e che devono provvedere a riorganizzazione la loro struttura e, dunque, a ridimensionare il costo del lavoro. In ultima analisi, considerando che la correlazione positiva tra pressione fiscale complessiva e livello del cuneo fiscale è caratterizzata da una diversa distribuzione del carico fiscale tra fattori della produzione, consumi e patrimonio, l'attenzione è stata rivolta al tema del tax shift, ovvero sull'opportunità di una riforma fiscale orientata a un sostanziale spostamento del carico fiscale "dalle persone - alle cose - alle case", che al di là dei contenti etici e filosofici dell'argomento, pare essere un orientamento seguito a livello comunitario al fine di ridefinire l'intera politica fiscale in chiave di riequilibrio economico e di riduzione del cuneo fiscale sul lavoro. L'affermazione del Primo Ministro belga Guy Verhofstadt, ovvero che "l'interesse per il tax shifting è sicuramente legato al fatto che i paesi dell'Unione Europea nel loro insieme, e a dispetto degli impegni assunti in senso contrario, hanno in genere avuto un successo limitato nel ridurre l'onere fiscale complessivo. Di qui, l'interesse per le formule che non prevedono tagli alla spesa pubblica, ma semplicemente il cambiamento del modo in cui viene innalzato il livello delle entrate", fa infine, riflettere sulla circostanza che a livello nazionale una riduzione in generale della pressione fiscale e in particolare del costo del lavoro e del cuneo fiscale non può essere perseguita se non attraverso una strategia di ricomposizione della spesa pubblica unita a una politica di lotta all'evasione fiscale che possa liberare risorse aggiuntive restituite poi ai contribuenti mediante la riduzione delle aliquote.

En la transformación de las relaciones económicas para lograr mayores oportunidades en el mercado, el emprendimiento ha sido un tema de estudio desde los años treinta del siglo XX. Su orientación ha dependido de las condiciones socioeconómicas de los países: mientras que en las economías industrializadas ha significado alcanzar altos niveles de competitividad y con estos lograr altos niveles de crecimiento económico al que se vincula la mejora de la calidad de vida de las personas, en países pobres como los de América Latina ha sido una alternativa para aquellos que no tienen opción de conseguir empleo, o generar alternativas de vida para un grupo de población que muchas veces está en condiciones de marginalidad. Por consiguiente, en estos últimos países los planes de desarrollo que han abordado el emprendimiento han procurado que desde la infancia se desarrolle el espíritu emprendedor, es decir el desarrollo de actitudes y habilidades para la creación de nuevas actividades. En el caso particular de Colombia, las políticas orientadas a promover la formación en emprendimiento nacen en el año 2012, con la ley 1014, en la que se establece que el espíritu emprendedor y el desarrollo de una cultura posibilita: habilidades para crear, liderar y sostener unidades de negocio e identificar oportunidades de negocio y capacidad para manejar un negocio. Sin casos como el de las universidades de Bogotá, ha sido un mero espacio académico para potenciar la creación de pequeñas empresas con bajos niveles de conocimiento, desarrollo tecnológico e innovación, las cuales difícilmente son sostenibles en el tiempo. La mayoría de las iniciativas surgidas han sido consecuencia de experiencias personales, familiares, o por oportunidades con la expectativa de creación de riqueza individual, las cuales no favorecen la solución de problemas como el desempleo, la inequidad, el desarrollo económico de localidades y/o regiones. Por lo anterior, la presente investigación propone que para crear empresas innovadoras, competitivas y sostenibles se requiere que el emprendimiento surja de universidades abiertas, con una visión global, donde el conocimiento y la investigación sean ejes fundamentales en la formación de empresarios que aporten a la transformación de su entorno. Es por ello, que la propuesta resultado de esta investigación rescata aquellas propuestas del proceso emprendedor planteado por Hernández (1999) con visión holística, sistémica y humanista en el que la identificación de la oportunidad de negocio tenga en cuenta primero a la sociedad y al ser humano como actor de transformación en el contexto económico y social. Formar emprendedores en una universidad tradicional, basada en competencias profesionales para la vida laboral y el desarrollo de iniciativas individuales y el logro de riqueza y éxito personal, no 10 posibilita que surjan empresas para el desarrollo económico y social endógeno. En ciudades como Bogotá, donde habitan personas de diversos lugares del país, con escasas oportunidades de empleo, pero que a la vez, es el centro de la economía del país, también falta mayor articulación entre los agentes presentes en la meta, meso, macro y la microeconomía. En consecuencia, existe la oportunidad para que los emprendedores universitarios de la ciudad, sean futuros empresarios formados en una universidades abiertas, donde el conocimiento y el desarrollo tecnológico sean aprovechados para crear empresas innovadoras y competitivas desde lo local y regional con visión global. En Mondragon Unibertsitatea, el modelo de formación de los emprendedores, los estudiantes cuentan con diversas alternativas de conocimiento por la articulación que tiene la universidad con la sociedad, el gobierno y las empresas, lo que les permite, desarrollar iniciativas empresariales con visión local y perspectiva internacional, como parte fundamental para existan empresas sostenibles. El modelo propuesto en esta investigación para las Universidades de Bogotá esté basado en la aproximación que las universidades abiertas como la de Mondragón hacen del emprendimiento. En consecuencia, existe la oportunidad para que los emprendedores universitarios de la ciudad, sean futuros empresarios formados en universidades abiertas, donde el conocimiento y el desarrollo tecnológico sean aprovechados para crear empresas innovadoras y competitivas desde lo local y regional con visión global. En Mondragon Unibertsitatea, el modelo de formación de los emprendedores, los estudiantes cuentan con diversas alternativas de conocimiento por la articulación que tiene la universidad con la sociedad, el gobierno y las empresas, lo que les permite, desarrollar iniciativas empresariales con visión local y perspectiva internacional, como parte fundamental para que existan empresas sostenibles. El modelo propuesto en esta investigación para las Universidades de Bogotá está basado en la aproximación que las universidades abiertas como Mondragón Unibertsitatea, hacen del emprendimiento. ; Harreman ekonomikoen eraldaketan merkatuan aukera handiagoak lortzeko, ekintzailetasuna, ikerketa gaia izan da XX. Mendeko hirugarren hamarkadatik. Bere orientazioa herrien baldintza sozioekonomikoen mende egon da: ekonomia industrializatuetan lehiakortasun maila altuak lortu dira eta horren ondorioz, hazkunde ekonomikoa gorantz joan da eta honek eragin zuzena izan du pertsonen bizi-kalitatearen hobekuntzan.Amerika latindarreko bezalako herri pobreetan berriz, ekintzailetasuna alternatiba bat izan da enplegua lortzeko aukerarik ez dutenentzat edo askotan marjinaltasun egoeran dagoen biztanleria talde batentzat. Beraz, azken herri hauetan, ekintzailetasuna bultzatu duten garapen planek haurtzarotik saiatu dira izpiritu ekintzailea garatzen; hau da, jarduera berriak sortzeko beharrezkoak diren jarrera eta tresnen garapena bultzatzen. Kolonbiaren kasu partikularrean, ekintzailetasunean formakuntza sustatzeko bideratuta dauden politikak, 2012an jaio ziren, 1014 legearekin. Lege honetan ezartzen da, izpiritu ekintzaileak eta kultura baten garapenak honako hau ahalbideratzen dutela: negozio unitateak sortzeko, lideratzeko eta mantentzeko trebetasuna izatea eta baita negozio bat maneiatzeko ahalmena izatea ere. Dena dela, Bogotako unibertsitateko bezalako kasuen esperientziak, gune akademikora besterik ez dira mugatu. Egia da, baliagarriak izan direla ezagutza maila eskasa eta garapen teknologikoa eta berrikuntza baxua dituzten enpresa txikien sorrera bultzatzeko, baina enpresa hauei oso zaila egingo zaie iraunkorrak izatea denboran zehar. Sortutako iniziatiba gehienak, esperientzia pertsonalen, familia esperientzien edo aberastasun pertsonalaren sorreraren espektatibaren aukeren ondorioa izan dira. Hauek ez dituzte konpontzen langabezia, ekitate falta eta herrialde edota eskualdeen garapen ekonomikoa. Aurrekoa kontuan harturik, ikerketa honek beharrezkotzat jotzen du ekintzailetasuna unibertsitate irekiaren ikuspegitik jorratzea. Honen helburua, enpresa berritzaileak, lehiakorrak eta iraunkorrak lortzea izango litzateke. Unibertsitate hauek, ikuspegi orokorrekoak izango dira eta ezagutza eta ikerkuntza enpresarioen oinarrizko ardatzak kontsideratuko dira eta enpresarioek, bere ingurunea aldatzeko ekarpenak egiteko gaitasuna izango dute. Horregatik, ikerketa honen proposamenaren emaitzak, Hernández-ek (1999) planteatutako prozesu ekintzailearen hainbat proposamen berreskuratzen ditu: ikuspegi holistikoa, sistemikoa eta humanista dituztenak hain zuzen ere. Hauetan, negozioaren aukeraren identifikazioak, lehenengo, gizartea eta gizakia edukiko ditu kontuan, eraldaketaren aktore bezala, testuinguru ekonomiko eta sozialean. Norberaren beharrei erantzungo dieten langileak sortzea helburu duen unibertsitate tradizional batetan hezi diren ekintzaileek oso zail daukate inguruko garapen sozio-ekonomikoa garatzen lagunduko 12 duten enpesak sortzea. Bogota bezalako hiriburutan, herrialdeko ekonomia muina izanagatik ere, herrialde horretako leku ezberdineko pertsonak bizi dira eta hauek sarri lanerako aukera eskasak dituzte. Gainera meta, meso, makro eta mikroekonomia ordezkatzen duen ajente ezberdinen artean ere koordinazio falta nabari da Bogotan eta horrek ere enpresa eragileak sortzea asko zailtzen du. Hala ere, aukera dago, etorkizuneko ekintzaileak unibertsitate irekietan hez daitezen, non ezagutza eta garapen teknologikoa aprobetxatzen diren enpresa berritzaile eta lehiakorrak sortzeko eta baita herri zein herrialde ikuspegi orokor bat dutenak. Mondragon Unibertsitatean, ekintzaileen formakuntza eredua, gizartearekin, gobernuarekin eta enpresekin dago artikulatuta. Gainera, eskualdearen garapena ardatz duten enpresak sortzen dira nazioarteko ikuspegia ahaztu gabe, enpresa jasangarriak izateko bokazioz. Ikerketa honetan proposatutako eredua Bogotako Unibertsitatearentzat, oinarrituta dago Mondragon bezalako Unibertsitate irekiak ekintzailetasunekiko egiten duten hurbilketan. ; Entrepreneurship has been a subject of study since the 30´s during the transformation of economical relations in order to achieve greater market opportunities. It has been driven by the socio-economic conditions of every country: whereas in industrialized economies it has meant high levels of competitiveness and thus, high levels of economic growth together with an improvement in the quality of life of its people; in poor countries like the ones in Latin America, it has been an option for those who have no chance to get a job, or to create alternatives for a population group that is often in marginal conditions. Therefore, in the latter countries developing plans addressed to entrepreneurship have tried to spread an entrepreneurial spirit by growing attitudes and skills in the creation of new activities already from childhood. In the case of Colombia, policies to promote education in entrepreneurship started in 2012, with the Law 1014, in which it is stated that the entrepreneurial spirit and the development of a culture facilitates: skills to create, lead and support business units, ability to identify business opportunities and to manage a business. However, in the universities of Bogotá these policies have reduced to an academic space to promote the creation of small companies with low level of knowledge, technological development and innovation, which are difficult to sustain over time. Most of the new initiatives were the result of familiar personal experiences, or due to opportunities with the expectation of creating individual wealth, which do not favor the solution of problems such as unemployment, inequality, economic growth of regions and communities. Consequently, this research suggests that in order to create innovative, competitive and sustainable companies, it is required that entrepreneurship arises from open minded universities with a global view, where knowledge and research are the foundations in the education of entrepreneurs who will contribute to the transformation of their environment. For this reason, the result of this investigation rescues the proposals of the entrepreneurial process raised by Hernandez (1999) with a holistic, systemic and humanistic vision in which identifying business opportunities considers first the society and the human being as an actor of the transformation in the economic and social context. Training entrepreneurs in a traditional university based on the professional competences for working life and to the development of individual initiatives for economic and social development of endogenous. In cities like Bogotá where people from all over the country live with limited employment opportunities, but at the same time, is the center of the economy greather coordination among the agents present in the meta, meso, macro and microeconomy. Consequently, there is an 14 opportunity for prospective entrepreneurs if the city to be trained in open universities, where knowledge and technological development are harnessed to create innovative and competitive companies with local, regional or local global prospects. In the Mondragon Unibertsitatea, there is a training model for entrepreneurs. The students have different knowledge alternative with a joint university with society, government and companies, allowing them to develop business initiatives with local insight and perspective internationally, as a key part of sustainable enterprises there. The proposed model in this research for the Universities in Bogotá is based in the approximation of entrepreneurship made by open universities like Mondragon Unibertsitatea.