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BACKGROUND: Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a leading cause of disability worldwide. AIMS: To examine the: (a) 12-month prevalence of DSM-IV MDD; (b) proportion aware that they have a problem needing treatment and who want care; (c) proportion of the latter receiving treatment; and (d) proportion of such treatment meeting minimal standards. METHOD: Representative community household surveys from 21 countries as part of the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. RESULTS: Of 51 547 respondents, 4.6% met 12-month criteria for DSM-IV MDD and of these 56.7% reported needing treatment. Among those who recognised their need for treatment, most (71.1%) made at least one visit to a service provider. Among those who received treatment, only 41.0% received treatment that met minimal standards. This resulted in only 16.5% of all individuals with 12-month MDD receiving minimally adequate treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Only a minority of participants with MDD received minimally adequate treatment: 1 in 5 people in high-income and 1 in 27 in low-/lower-middle-income countries. Scaling up care for MDD requires fundamental transformations in community education and outreach, supply of treatment and quality of services. ; The work contained in this paper is carried out in conjunction with the World Health Organization World Mental Health (WMH) Survey Initiative, which is supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH; R01 MH070884), the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, the Pfizer Foundation, the US Public Health Service (R13-MH066849, R01-MH069864, and R01 DA016558), the Fogarty International Center (FIRCA R03-TW006481), the Pan American Health Organization, Eli Lilly and Company, Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical, GlaxoSmithKline, Sanofi Aventis and Bristol-Myers Squibb. We thank the staff of the WMH Data Collection and Data Analysis Coordination Centres for assistance with instrumentation, fieldwork and consultation on data analysis. None of the funders had any role in the design, analysis, interpretation of results or preparation of this paper. A complete list of all within-country and cross-national WMH publications can be found at http://www.hcp.med.harvard.edu/wmh/. The Argentina survey – Estudio Argentino de Epidemiología en Salud Mental (EASM) – was supported by a grant from the Argentinian Ministry of Health (Ministerio de Salud de la Nación). The Bulgarian Epidemiological Study of common mental disorders EPIBUL is supported by the Ministry of Health and the National Center for Public Health Protection. The Chinese World Mental Health Survey Initiative is supported by the Pfizer Foundation. The Colombian National Study of Mental Health (NSMH) is supported by the Ministry of Social Protection. The Mental Health Study Medellín – Colombia was carried out and supported jointly by the Center for Excellence on Research in Mental Health (CES University) and the Secretary of Health of Medellín. The ESEMeD project is funded by the European Commission (Contracts QLG5-1999-01042; SANCO 2004123 and EAHC 20081308), (the Piedmont Region (Italy)), Fondo de Investigación Sanitaria, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Spain (FIS 00/0028), Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnología, Spain (SAF 2000-158-CE), Departament de Salut, Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain, Instituto de Salud Carlos III (CIBER CB06/02/0046, RETICS RD06/0011 REM-TAP), and other local agencies and by an unrestricted educational grant from GlaxoSmithKline. Implementation of the Iraq Mental Health Survey (IMHS) and data entry were carried out by the staff of the Iraqi MOH and MOP with direct support from the Iraqi IMHS team with funding from both the Japanese and European Funds through United Nations Development Group Iraq Trust Fund (UNDG ITF). The Israel National Health Survey is funded by the Ministry of Health with support from the Israel National Institute for Health Policy and Health Services Research and the National Insurance Institute of Israel. The World Mental Health Japan (WMHJ) Survey is supported by the Grant for Research on Psychiatric and Neurological Diseases and Mental Health (H13-SHOGAI-023, H14-TOKUBETSU-026, H16-KOKORO-013) from the Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. The Lebanese National Mental Health Survey (LEBANON) is supported by the Lebanese Ministry of Public Health, the WHO (Lebanon), National Institute of Health/Fogarty International Center (R03 TW006481-01), Sheikh Hamdan Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Award for Medical Sciences, anonymous private donations to IDRAAC, Lebanon, and unrestricted grants from AstraZeneca, Eli Lilly, GlaxoSmithKline, Hikma Pharmaceuticals, Janssen Cilag, Lundbeck, Novartis and Servier. The Mexican National Comorbidity Survey (MNCS) is supported by The National Institute of Psychiatry Ramon de la Fuente (INPRFMDIES 4280) and by the National Council on Science and Technology (CONACyT-G30544-H), with supplemental support from the PanAmerican Health Organization (PAHO). The Psychiatric Enquiry to General Population in Southeast Spain – Murcia (PEGASUS-Murcia) Project has been financed by the Regional Health Authorities of Murcia (Servicio Murciano de Salud and Consejería de Sanidad y Política Social) and Fundación para la Formación e Investigación Sanitarias (FFIS) of Murcia. The Nigerian Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing (NSMHW) is supported by the WHO (Geneva), the WHO (Nigeria), and the Federal Ministry of Health, Abuja, Nigeria. The Peruvian World Mental Health Study was funded by the National Institute of Health of the Ministry of Health of Peru. The Portuguese Mental Health Study was carried out by the Department of Mental Health, Faculty of Medical Sciences, NOVA University of Lisbon, with collaboration of the Portuguese Catholic University, and was funded by Champalimaud Foundation, Gulbenkian Foundation, Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) and Ministry of Health. The Romania WMH study projects 'Policies in Mental Health Area' and 'National Study regarding Mental Health and Services Use' were carried out by National School of Public Health & Health Services Management (former National Institute for Research & Development in Health, present National School of Public Health Management & Professional Development, Bucharest), with technical support of Metro Media Transilvania, the National Institute of Statistics – National Centre for Training in Statistics, SC. Cheyenne Services SRL, Statistics Netherlands and were funded by Ministry of Public Health (former Ministry of Health) with supplemental support of Eli Lilly Romania SRL. The São Paulo Megacity Mental Health Survey is supported by the State of São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) Thematic Project Grant03/00204-3. The Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development supports L.A. (CNPq Grant #307623/2013-0). The US National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R) is supported by the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH; U01-MH60220) with supplemental support from the National Institute of Drug Abuse (NIDA), the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (RWJF; Grant 044708) and the John W. Alden Trust. G.T. is supported by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care South London at King's College London Foundation Trust. G.T. is supported by the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) Emerald project. This paper is an output of the PRogramme for Improving Mental health carE (PRIME). The material has been funded by UK aid from the UK Government, however, the views expressed do not necessarily reflect the UK Government's official policies. The research supported by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Collaboration for Leadership in Applied Health Research and Care South London at King's College London Foundation Trust. The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. The authors acknowledge financial support from the Department of Health via the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre and Dementia Unit awarded to South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust in partnership with King's College London and King's College Hospital NHS Foundation Trust. The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views or policies of the World Health Organization

Despite recent calls in support of cash transfers, there is little rigorous evidence of the relative impacts of cash versus in-kind transfers, especially in humanitarian contexts, where a majority of such programs take place. This paper uses data from a randomized experiment in the Democratic Republic of Congo to assess the relative impacts and costs of equivalently valued cash and voucher transfers. The voucher program distorted households' purchases along both the extensive and intensive margin as compared with unconstrained cash households. Yet there were no differences in food consumption or other measures of well-being, in part due to the fact that voucher households were able to resell part of what they purchased. As there were no significant benefits to vouchers, cash transfers were the more cost effective modality for both the implementing agency and program recipients in this context.

Issues linking climate change and economic growth are now at the centre of discussions regarding development strategies especially in the context of developing countries. This book contributes by analyzing the relationship between economic growth and GHG emissions in India with explicit reference to all major economic sectors. One of the most popular tools for macroeconomic policy analysis is Social Accounting Matrix (SAM). The book presents the methods and estimates of the latest Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) for India, which provides a major data base describing the complete circular flow of income and input-output transactions among the sectors of the economy. The novelty of the book lies in the fact that for the first time a SAM has been prepared for the Indian economy with environmental indicators. A detailed methodology for constructing such an extended SAM is also presented in the book. The environmental social accounting matrix (ESAM) based analysis has been included to show direct and indirect links between economic growth and GHG emissions. The book also includes analysis of factors affecting historical GHG emissions trends in India. The book goes beyond SAM and applies computable general equilibrium (CGE) modelling to derive climate-change policy analysis and simulations. This CGE-based analysis is an important contribution to the current debate surrounding carbon tax and its possible impact on macroeconomic growth. Dr. Barun Deb Palis currently an Assistant Professor at the Institute of Social and Economic Change, Bangalore. He has been working in the field of SAM based CGE modelling for the last 7 years. He has also worked on climate-smart agriculture and land-use planning models for South Asia as a key researcher at the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). He has a long professional affiliation with the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER), working on climate change CGE modeling. He has published papers in journals of international repute with one of his publication being 'A Social Accounting Matrix for India', published in 2012 in Economic Systems Research (Taylor and Francis). His current areas of research interest include various developmental issues and their linkages with climate change, low carbon agriculture, Infrastructure and public utility pricing.Dr. Vijay P Ojhais a Professor of Economics at the Institute of Management Technology, Ghaziabad, India. A Computable General Equilibrium modeler (CGE) by training, he employed the CGE modeling technique to analyze the trade-offs among carbon emissions, economic growth and poverty reduction in India while tenuring as a post-doctoral Commonwealth Fellow at the Environment Department, University of York, United Kingdom in 2004. Ever since, he has been working on climate-change issues using the CGE modeling methodology. He has authored many published reports and academic journal papers His most recent publications are in the Journal of Policy Modeling (Elsevier) and Environment and Development Economics (Cambridge University Press).Dr. Sanjib Pohitis presently working as a Senior Principal Scientist, Senior Fellow at the National Institute of Science, Technology Development Studies (CSIR). He was educated at the Indian Statistical Institute. Previously, he held research positions (Senior Fellow/Chief Economist) at the National Council for Applied Economic Research, New Delhi and the Indian Statistical Institute and was also a visiting scholar at the University of Michigan (Ann Arbor, USA) and the Conference Board of Canada. Dr. Pohit has been a member of several committees of the Government of India and a Council Member of the Gerson Lehman group. He has been a consultant to various national and international bodies, including The World Bank, Asian Development Bank, The Energy Resource Institute, OECD, CUTS, Price Waterhouse Coopers, ICRIER and RIS (New Delhi). Dr. Pohit is an experienced modeler in the area of trade and environment with 20 years of modeling experience. He has he worked in the area of institutional economics, transport economics, input-output models, FDI, informal trade, the automobile industry and South Asian integration. He has co-authored 6 books, and has published more than 100 articles in journals/books. He has presented his research at seminars and conferences in different parts of the world - Japan, Canada, USA, India, Bangladesh, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Singapore and Finland.Dr. Joyashree Roy, an ICSSR National Fellow, is currently a Professor of Economics at Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India. Additionally, she coordinates the Global Change Programme and also directs the Ryoichi Sasakawa Young Leaders Fellowship Fund Project at Jadavpur University. In 2007 she was on the Nobel Peace Prize winning panel -IPCC (Intergovernmental panel on climate change). She has been involved in preparation of Stern Review Report, Global Energy Assessment and many other national and global reports. She has published more than 70 peer-reviewed articles in journals of national and international repute. Her research interests are in resource and environmental economics, particularly in the field of energy demand modelling, economic assessment of application of non-renewable and renewable resources for urban and rural problems, economic and social dimensions of climate change, water resource management and multidisciplinary research on sustainable development, sustainability transition, ecosystem services in the context of coastal ecosystem.

BACKGROUND: The UK Government's implementation in 2008 of the Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (IAPT) initiative in England has hugely increased the availability of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for the treatment of depression and anxiety in primary care. Counselling for depression-a form of person-centred experiential therapy (PCET)-has since been included as an IAPT-approved therapy, but there is no evidence of its efficacy from randomised controlled trials (RCTs), as required for recommendations by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Therefore, we aimed to examine whether PCET is cost effective and non-inferior to CBT in the treatment of moderate and severe depression within the IAPT service. METHODS: This pragmatic, randomised, non-inferiority trial was done in the Sheffield IAPT service in England and recruited participants aged 18 years or older with moderate or severe depression on the Clinical Interview Schedule-Revised. We excluded participants presenting with an organic condition, a previous diagnosis of personality disorder, bipolar disorder, or schizophrenia, drug or alcohol dependency, an elevated clinical risk of suicide, or a long-term physical condition. Eligible participants were randomly assigned (1:1), independently of the research team, and stratified by site with permuted block sizes of two, four, or six, to receive either PCET or CBT by use of a remote, web-based system that revealed therapy after patient details were entered. Those assessing outcomes were masked to treatment allocation. Participants were seen by appropriately trained PCET counsellors and CBT therapists in accordance with the IAPT service delivery model. Depression severity and symptomatology measured by the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) at 6 months post-randomisation was the primary outcome, with the PHQ-9 score at 12 months post-randomisation being a key secondary outcome. These outcomes were analysed in the modified intention-to-treat population, which comprised all randomly assigned patients with complete data, and the per-protocol population, which comprised all participants who did not switch from their randomised treatment and received between four and 20 sessions. Safety was analysed in all randomly assigned patients. The non-inferiority margin was set a priori at 2 PHQ-9 points. Patient safety was monitored throughout the course of therapy, adhering to service risk procedures for monitoring serious adverse events. This trial is registered at the ISRCTN Registry, ISRCTN06461651, and is complete. FINDINGS: From Nov 11, 2014, to Aug 3, 2018, 9898 patients were referred to step three treatments in the Sheffield IAPT service for common mental health problems, of whom 761 (7·7%) were referred to the trial. Of these, we recruited and randomly assigned 510 participants to receive either PCET (n=254) or CBT (n=256). In the PCET group, 138 (54%) participants were female and 116 (46%) were male, and 225 (89%) were White, 16 (6%) were non-White, and 13 (5%) had missing ethnicity data. In the CBT group, 155 (61%) participants were female and 101 (39%) were male, and 226 (88%) were White, 17 (7%) were non-White, and 13 (5%) had missing ethnicity data. The 6-month modified intention-to-treat analysis comprised 401 (79%) of the enrolled participants (201 in the PCET group; 200 in the CBT group) and the 12-month modified intention-to-treat analysis comprised 319 participants (167 in the PCET group; 152 in the CBT group). The 6-month per-protocol analysis comprised 298 participants (154 in the PCET group; 144 in the CBT group). At 6 months post-randomisation, PCET was non-inferior to CBT in the intention-to-treat population (mean PHQ-9 score 12·74 [SD 6·54] in the PCET group and 13·25 [6·35] in the CBT group; adjusted mean difference -0·35 [95% CI -1·53 to 0·84]) and in the per-protocol population (12·73 [SD 6·57] in the PCET group and 12·71 [6·33] in the CBT group; 0·27 [95% CI -1·08 to 1·62]). At 12 months post-randomisation, there was a significant adjusted between-group difference in mean PHQ-9 score in favour of CBT (1·73 [95% CI 0·26-3·19]), with a 95% CI exceeding the 2-point non-inferiority margin. There were two deaths, one death by suicide in the PCET group and one due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in the CBT group. Both were assessed by the responsible clinician to be unrelated to the trial. In terms of using emergency departments for depression-related events, four people (three in the PCET group; one in the CBT group) made more than a single use and six people (three in the PCET group; three in the CBT group) made a single use. One patient in the PCET group had inpatient treatment for a depression-related event. INTERPRETATION: This trial is the first to examine the two most frequently administered psychological therapies in the IAPT service. The finding of non-inferiority of PCET to CBT at 6 months supports the results from large, routine, non-randomised datasets from the IAPT programme. Given the high demand for psychological therapies and the need for patient choice, our findings suggest the need for continued investment in the training and delivery of PCET for improving short-term outcomes, but suggest that PCET might be inferior to CBT at 12 months. FUNDING: British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy Research Foundation.

Introduction. In the 21st century, there is an active involvement of universities in inclusive processes; however, against the backdrop of increasing diversity, new types of inequality arise in higher education. The processes of transformation of organisational cultures in universities and their research agenda under the influence of inclusion need to be studied.The aim of the present research was to analyse the convergence of concepts of academic and inclusive excellence in foreign universities of the world level, the impact of convergence on their missions, the values expressed in official strategies, the research agenda and the infrastructure of scientific collaborations.Methodology and research methods. The authors conducted a content analysis of three strategies of world-class University associations (the Association of American Colleges and Universities, the Association of Universities in Canada, the League of European Research Universities), nine strategies for the development of universities in the USA and Canada, the European Union, and Australia. A scientometric analysis of Web of Science metadata was performed using the VOSViewer software.Results and scientific novelty. The current research confirms the convergence of values of academic excellence and inclusion in research universities. It is revealed that the concept of inclusive excellence of the university is an enriched version of its academic excellence and denotes a set of university strategies and practices aimed at achieving the best results in training, research and services through maintaining diversity and inclusive processes. The world's leading universities are actively involved in the process of creating an inclusive friendly environment and services, which are accessible to all members of the educational process, regardless of their social status and development characteristics. When universities reach academic heights, they recognise inclusion as the next level of their development. In turn, inclusion becomes a factor in the movement of the university towards academic excellence. The key characteristics and contradictions of the convergence of the concepts of inclusive and academic excellence of universities are identified. The local models of inclusive excellence of universities and the contexts, which influence these models, are described. The gaps between educational policies and research agendas of leading universities are revealed. The clusters of international studies on inclusive processes in higher education are highlighted.Practical significance. Russian universities, which implement the federal programme for improvement of international competitiveness based on the values of academic excellence, are developing in accordance with global trends. Therefore, the model of inclusive excellence of the university can be used in practical terms to implement inclusive strategies and overcome social inequality both at the university and outside of it within the framework of a new educational initiative of Russia on academic leadership. ; Введение. В XXI веке, с одной стороны, наблюдается активное включение университетов в инклюзивные процессы, с другой - в системе высшего образования на фоне нарастающего разнообразия возникают новые виды неравенства. Процессы трансформации организационных культур университетов и их исследовательской повестки под влиянием инклюзии нуждаются в изучении.Целью представленного в публикации изыскания является анализ конвергенции концепций академического и инклюзивного совершенства в зарубежных университетах мирового уровня, установление влияния данной конвергенции на их миссии, ценности, выраженные в официальных стратегиях, на исследовательскую повестку и инфраструктуру научных коллабораций.Методология, методы и методики. Проведен контент-анализ трех стратегий ассоциаций университетов мирового уровня (Ассоциация американских колледжей и университетов, Ассоциация университетов Канады, Лига европейских исследовательских университетов), девяти стратегий развития университетов США и Канады, Евросоюза, Австралии. При помощи программного обеспечения VOSViewer осуществлен наукометрический анализ метаданных Web of Science.Результаты и научная новизна. Исследование подтвердило конвергенцию ценностей академического превосходства и инклюзии в исследовательских университетах. Продемонстрировано, что концепция инклюзивного совершенства университета представляет собой обогащенную версию его академического совершенства и обозначает совокупность стратегий и практик вуза, направленных на достижение наилучших результатов в обучении, исследованиях и сервисе через поддержание разнообразия и инклюзивных процессов. Ведущие университеты мира активно включились в процесс формирования инклюзивной дружественной среды и услуг, доступных для всех субъектов образовательного процесса вне зависимости от их социального статуса и особенностей развития. Когда вузы достигают академических вершин, они осознают инклюзию как следующий уровень своего развития. В свою очередь, инклюзия становится фактором движения университета к академическому совершенству. Определены ключевые характеристики и противоречия конвергенции концепций инклюзивного и академического совершенства университетов. Описаны локальные модели инклюзивного совершенства учебных организаций высшей школы и контексты, влияющие на эти модели. Обозначены разрывы между образовательными политиками и исследовательскими повестками ведущих университетов. Выявлены кластеры международных исследований, посвященных инклюзивным процессам в высшем образовании. Практическая значимость. Российские вузы, реализующие федеральную программу повышения международной конкурентоспособности на основе ценностей академического совершенства, развиваются в соответствии с глобальными трендами, поэтому модель инклюзивного совершенства университета может быть использована в практическом плане для внедрения инклюзивных стратегий и преодоления социального неравенства как внутри учебного заведения, так и за его пределами в рамках новой образовательной инициативы России по академическому лидерству. ; The research was carried out with the financial support of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (RFBR) in the framework of the research project No. 19-013-00373 А "Academic Mobility of Students with Disabilities in the Conditions of Higher Education Transformation". ; Исследование выполнено при финансовой поддержке РФФИ в рамках научного проекта 19-013-00373 А «Академическая мобильность студентов с ограниченными возможностями здоровья и инвалидностью в условиях трансформации высшего образования».

Protecting the indigenous food sector through a quality system developed for agri-foodproducts is one of the forms in which Cuban agriculture is striving in its attempts to opposethe effects of globalisation. Consequently, the current agricultural policy implemented inCuba aims at increasing the professionalism in the food sector, among others, throughthe introduction of cyclical training of agricultural workers in the field of manufacturingtechnologies developed for agriculture and by improving their professional qualifications,as well as by an on-going programme of improving the state system of certification ofagri-food products, raising the quality standards of accredited laboratories set up for testingfood quality, as well as improving the work system certification, especially in the field ofthe application of risk analysis techniques and the control of points that are critical to foodproduction. There are numerous sanctions provided for in the Cuban system for failureto implement the recommended agricultural policy and the legislation implementing it.They are contained in Decree No. 182 of 23 February 1998: "On the Standardisation andQuality" and Decree No 267 of 3 September 1999: "Infringement o f the established rulesconcerning standardisation and quality." The author believes that the adopted regulation on the protection of the quality of agri-food products has contributed to the increase in the attractiveness of the Cuban agricultural sector and has also contributed to ensuring an adequate level of food quality and safety. ; Proteger el sector alimentario autóctono mediante un sistema de calidad desarrollado para la agroalimentaciónproductos es una de las formas en que la agricultura cubana lucha en sus intentos de oponerselos efectos de la globalización. En consecuencia, la actual política agrícola implementada enCuba tiene como objetivo incrementar la profesionalidad en el sector alimentario, entre otros, a través dela introducción de la formación cíclica de los trabajadores agrícolas en el campo de la fabricacióntecnologías desarrolladas para la agricultura y mejorando sus calificaciones profesionales,así como por un programa continuo de mejora del sistema estatal de certificación deproductos agroalimentarios, elevando los estándares de calidad de los laboratorios acreditados establecidos para las pruebascalidad alimentaria, así como la mejora de la certificación del sistema de trabajo, especialmente en el ámbito dela aplicación de técnicas de análisis de riesgos y el control de puntos críticos para la alimentaciónproducción. Existen numerosas sanciones previstas en el sistema cubano por incumplimientoaplicar la política agrícola recomendada y la legislación que la aplica.Están contenidos en el Decreto No. 182 de 23 de febrero de 1998: "Sobre la Normalización y Calidad" y Decreto No 267 de 3 de septiembre de 1999: "Incumplimiento de las normas establecidasen materia de normalización y calidad". El autor considera que el reglamento adoptado sobre la protección de la calidad de los productos agroalimentarios ha contribuido al aumento del atractivo del sector agrícola cubano y también ha contribuido a asegurar un nivel adecuado de calidad e inocuidad alimentaria. ; La protezione del settore alimentare nazionale attraverso un sistema di prodotti agroalimentari di qualità è una delle forme di contrasto adottata dai cubani di fronte alla globalizzazione. A tal fine Cuba sta perseguendo una politica agricola volta ad aumentare il livello di professionalità nel settore alimentare: tra l'altro organizzando corsi di formazione periodici per i dipendenti che riguardano le tecnologie di produzione utilizzate in agricoltura e insistendo sulla formazione professionale continua; nonché portando ad un graduale miglioramento del sistema statale di certificazione dei prodotti agroalimentari e della qualità dei laboratori accreditati che controllano la qualità alimentare, come anche di certificazione dei sistemi di lavoro, in particolare per quanto riguarda il ricorso alle tecniche di analisi del rischio e di controllo dei punti critici nel processo di produzione alimentare. Per chi non osserva la politica agricola e la legislazione che la sottende, il sistema cubano prevede numerose sanzioni, contenute nel decreto n. 182 del 23 febbraio 1998: "La standardizzazione e la qualità" e nel decreto n. 267 del 3 settembre 1999: "La violazione delle regole stabilite sulla normalizzazione e la qualità". Secondo l'autore, la regolazione sulla qualità dei prodotti agroalimentari adottata ha contribuito ad aumentare l'attrattività del settore agricolo cubano e ha contribuito a garantire un livello adeguato di qualità e sicurezza alimentare. ; Ochrona rodzimego sektora żywnościowego poprzez system jakości opracowany dla sektora rolno-spożywczego to jeden ze sposobów, w jakie kubańskie rolnictwo stara się przeciwstawić skutkom globalizacji. W konsekwencji obecna polityka rolna na Kubie dąży do zwiększenia profesjonalizmu w sektorze spożywczym m.in. przez prowadzenie cyklicznych szkoleń dla pracowników rolnych w zakresie przetwórstwa, technologii dla rolnictwa i podnoszenie ich kwalifikacji zawodowych, a także przez program doskonalenia państwowego systemu certyfikacji produktów rolno-spożywczych, podnoszenie standardów jakości akredytowanych laboratoriów do badań jakości żywności, a także doskonalenie certyfikacji systemu pracy, zwłaszcza w zakresie stosowanie technik analizy ryzyka i kontroli punktów krytycznych produkcji żywności. Kubański system przewiduje wiele sankcji za nieprzestrzeganie zalecanej polityki rolnej oraz jej aktów prawnych. Są one zawarte w dekrecie nr 182 z 23 lutego 1998 r.: "O normalizacji jakości" i dekrecie nr 267 z 3 września 1999 r.: "Naruszenie ustalonych zasad normalizacji jakości". Zdaniem autora przyjęte rozporządzenie w sprawie ochrony jakości produktów rolno-spożywczych przyczyniło się do wzrostu atrakcyjności kubańskiego sektora rolnego, a także do zapewnienia odpowiedniego poziomu jakości i bezpieczeństwa żywności.

Four years after appearing the first book edition of the glossariumBITri (gB), it faces now a new phase of development, in which this new book version represents a milestone. The first development phase, 2008-2010, was clearly marked by an intensive cooperative work to stand up the clarification enterprise in which the gB is embarked on. Right after such phase, the gB was nurtured through valuable inputs covering essential aspects as semiotics, computation, complexity, etc., by distinguished researchers who have certainly enriched not only this book but the working team who is now before a more ambitious horizon. Besides some improvements in previous articles, the most important additions to the previous edition, incorporated herewith, corresponds to the articles developed in the areas of algorithmic theory, complexity theory, General Theory of Information and Cybersemiotics that we heartily thank to the cherished contributions of Mark Burgin and Søren Brier. Nevertheless, the flesh of the glossariumBITri has been enriched as well through entries, which do not show up in this book since they are still under review or discussion, but they surely will in the next edition. They are, of course, available in the interactive-gB. For this dressing up the naked bones of the gB, we warmly thank the contributions provided by Balu Athreya, Igor Gurevich, Basil Al-Hadithi, Agustín Jiménez, Alexis Rocha, Daniel Gómez, Carlos Sarmiento. The incorporation of some of the topics which are now available, either in this book or in the interactive-gB was simply a must (as algorithmic information), others represent an initiation into fields we have to deepen (as information in biological sciences). But nonetheless, if we take into account all the concepts we have not weaved yet into the network of clarified concepts, metaphors, theories and problems, then we can clearly state that we are at the very beginning. By simply looking into the interactive-gB's list of open voices, which are still empty, or into the number of voice proposals we have not open yet, it is easy to conclude we are before a large and of course open enterprise. One could argue the situation is not as different as before; then why are we saying we are now facing a different horizon? This is entangled with the current rearrangement of BITrum's activities. On the one hand, we have more coherently organised the different endeavours we have been pushing along the years in order to bring about a more effective cooperation among BITrum's members and other stakeholders; on the other hand, gB has been structured in three branches: a) interactive-gB, b) gB-journal, and c) book editions. Through a rationalisation of efforts, this new gB landscape obviously offers a multiplied effect regarding impact, dissemination and educational applications. To cope with the new challenges gB team has been enlarged and put besides other three BITrum's operating units: (i) domusBITae devoted to the deployment of telematic tools for the facilitation of the distributed and interdisciplinary community of researchers and educators cooperating in the development of information studies. (ii) PRIMER, oriented to the promotion, development and underpinning of interdisciplinary studies; and (iii) a Research Unit, integrated by the teams working on specific scientific projects. Through this reorganisation, gB offers a more coherent platform for the clarification and theoretical enterprise BITrum has been aiming at since its beginnings, linking its development to BITrum's information environment (dB), educational activities (PRIMER) and research projects. Such interplay – albeit the autonomy of the respective operations – represents a nurturing flow that will provide a new life to the clarification goals of the gB in connection to real problems and the education of scientist to tackle them. The activities deployed since 2014 under support of Ecuadorian institutions, in both research and education, constitute a powerful balloon to lift up our scientific enterprise. This book in it self represents a sign of it. It is a result of the cooperation agreement signed in 2014 between the University of the Peninsula of Santa Elena (UPSE) and BITrum, which targets at several collaborative activities concerning: the development and co-management – together with the University of León – of the glossariumBITri open journal; the development of educational programs; the cooperation in interdisciplinary research projects. Furthermore, the Ecuadorian National Secretary of Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation (SENESCYT) is supporting in the field of interdisciplinary information studies – through the Prometeo Programme–: the development of theoretical work and practical applications, the training of researchers, the development of scientific networks, etc. On one side, BITrum warmly thanks this support to the interdisciplinary study of information provided by the UPSE and SENESCYT; on the other side, we offer our deep commitment to contribute to the great scientific and educational effort Ecuador is doing since the constitution of 2008. We are convinced that the transdisciplinary capabilities of the information studies offers a toehold for the intense integration of knowledge we nowadays need for coping with the complex challenges our societies that are facing regarding the coverage of basic needs, environment, peace, inequality, urban management, climate change, democratic issues, waste reduction… We can use the language of information to refer to the physical, biological, societal, technological reality, to address theoretical and practical issues. Then we have a fantastical tool for weaving the scientific enterprise in a more integrated fashion.

Relations between the Philippines and northern Australia date back to the early years of European settlement. Filipinos made a significant contribution to the development of north Australia throughout the nineteenth century, while a small number of Australians were involved in commerce in the Philippines. In north Australia, where some Filipinos intermarried with Aboriginal people and European settlers, this heritage is reflected in the incidence of Filipino names in present-day northern communities. In more recent years the Northern Territory, and to a lesser extent northern communities in Western Australia and Queensland, have come to see their futures inextricably linked to developments in the countries to their immediate north, particularly Indonesia and the Philippines, and have sought increasingly to strengthen social, cultural and sporting, as well as commercial, ties. For Australians, some commonalities of language, predominant religion, Western cultural experience, and democratic traditions have contributed to making the Philippines especially attractive as a place to visit and to do business with; for Filipinos, Australia has been seen since the 1970s as a desirable destination for migration and, increasingly, as a source of education and training. Over the past decade, trade between Australia and the Philippines has grown substantially, if from a low base, and the Philippines has become the fourth largest recipient of Australian. development assistance. For north Australia, trade with the Philippines is still small, and dominated by live cattle exports to the Philippines. This is in large part due to the small market and relatively low level of manufacturing activity which north Australia represents, but the infrequency and high cost of shipping and lack of direct air links are also major inhibiting factors. Nevertheless, the possibilities for expanded trade and investment flows, particularly through the provision of services and through joint ventures in small and medium-sized enterprises, appear to be considerable. With the issue of expanded commercial relations primarily in mind, and with a delegation from the Northern Territory about to visit the Philippines in conjunction with Australia's 'All the Best from Australia' presentation in Manila, a workshop on 'North Australia-Philippines Relations' was held at the Australian National University's North Australia Research Unit on 25 September 1998, in association with the Northern Territory University's Centre for Southeast Asian Studies and the NT International Business Council. The workshop followed an earlier conference on 'Government-Business Relations Between Eastern Indonesia and the Northern Territory'. This volume is an outcome of the September 1998 workshop. An opening chapter by Philippines Minister and Consul General in Australia, Edwin Bael, provides an overview of relations between Australia and the Philippines, with particular reference to north Australia and the southern Philippine island of Mindanao (regions which share an interest in the development of the Brunei/ Indonesia! Malaysia/Philippines-East ASEAN Growth Area (BIMP-EAGA). Subsequent chapters by Dennis Shoesmith, R.J. May, and William Brummitt and Frances Perkins (the latter from the Department of Foreign Mfairs and Trade's East Asia Analytical Unit) review, respectively, the historical context of north Australia-Philippines relations and the political and economic contexts of the Philippines. Relations between the Northern Territory and the Philippines are surveyed in the chapter by Ian Watts, from the NT Department of Asian Relations, Trade and Industry (DART!). Darwin-resident businessman Pascual Tantengco then presents the viewpoint of a Filipino businessman operating in north Australia, while papers by Michael Kilgariff (of the NT International Business Council), William Cordingley, Steve Ellison, Chris Healey and Kym Handberg discuss various aspects of north Australian business and academic relations with the Philippines, including the live cattle trade, which has maintained its importance in the Australia-Philippines relationship notwithstanding the effects of the Asian financial crisis (which have severely affected the trade between Australia and Indonesia). Further chapters survey the role and functions of the Australia-Philippines Business Council, the principal features of trade relations between Australia and the Philipines, and the main components of Australia's development assistance programme in the Philippines. Finally, The Philippines Honorary Consul General for the Northern Territory, Robert Matthewson, provides an overview of the workshop proceedings and suggests some possible lines of future development. Collectively, the various papers give some indication of the extent and dynamics of north Australia-Philippines relations and point to the possibilities of a much more detailed study of the relationship. In organizing the workshop and bringing this volume to publication, I am indebted to my longstanding Filipinist NTU colleague, Dennis Shoesmith, and to the encouragement and support received from NARU director Christine Fletcher and NARU staff Janet Sincock, Melissa Sue and Paula Fennel; DARTI officers Ian Watts, Patrick Markwick-Smith, John McCue and Steve Sanderson; director of DFAT's Northern Territory office, Keith Gardiner(who presented the Brurmnitt and Perkins paper in the absence of the author) and Ross Ainsworth, of the Northern Territory Livestock Exporters Association, who was unable to attend the workshop due to commitments in the Philippines. Bill Cordingley, of Meat and Livestock Australia, though not present at the workshop, provided a paper at very short notice, and Aurora Quinn, of the Office of Ethnic Affairs, Department of the Chief Minister, Darwin, kindly agreed to the reproduction of sections of her 'Background on Philippines-born Territorians'. In Canberra, Claire Smith and Allison Ley carried the burden of converting a collection of written and recorded presentations into a publication, with characteristic efficiency.

Public Work Programs (PWPs) can be a useful tool for poverty reduction and social protection provision in Myanmar by presenting a coherent framework to achieve several objectives (seasonal income and food security, disaster recovery, community resilience, social cohesion). For PWPsto be effective and sustainable, design should respond to local conditions and implementation should engage government structures that provide a scalable platform.

Energy security is a cornerstone of Ethiopia's economic and industrial policy. In recent years, the country has gradually developed its renewable energy potential, adding wind, solar, geothermal and hydroelectric capacity to its energy mix. Combined, these energy sources have the potential to generate more than 60,000 megawatts (MW) of electric power.
While Ethiopia has abundant renewable energy sources, with great potential to become a renewable energy hub in the Horn of Africa region, private investment in the sector remains low. With over 60 per cent of the country's population lacking access to electricity,[1] Ethiopia's commitment to pursuing a renewable energy transition and integrating climate resilience into its national development strategies is severely hamstrung by underinvestment and the high debt burden. Collectively, these challenges limit access to non-concessional green and climate finance.
At the international level, Ethiopia faces the challenge of satisfying the stringent requirements set by international financial institutions and climate funds. In 2021, over 88 per cent of the country's total energy supply still comprised fossils, including biofuels and waste, with renewable energy accounting for just over 3 per cent instead (Figure 1).[2]

Figure 1 | Ethiopia's energy mix (2000-2021)



Source: IEA website: Ethiopia: Energy Mix, cit.



Bringing Ethiopia's renewable potential to bear
In its Nationally Determined Contributions, Ethiopia estimates that it would need approximately 316 billion US dollars to achieve its climate goals by 2030.[3] The country's current Energy Development Plan includes expanding access to energy supply, providing rural populations with clean technologies, offering a high-quality electric power service, building a reliable electric power infrastructure, ensuring financial sustainability for the energy sector, attracting private investment, and developing skills and capacity to deliver on the energy development plan.[4]
Implementing the Energy Plan will be key to the country's future trajectory. While Ethiopia has registered impressive GDP growth in recent years, ranging between 6 and 12 per cent per year, achieving the country's developmental vision will require adequate, reliable, affordable, environmentally sustainable, and diverse energy supply options.
Currently, around 90 per cent of Ethiopia's electricity generation comes from hydropower, with wind and thermal sources providing 8 and 2 per cent respectively.[5] To align the country's Energy Development Plan with its Vision 2030,[6] Ethiopia is investing in major energy infrastructure projects like the 4 billion US dollars Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) – Africa's largest hydroelectric project – and the Koysha Hydro Power dam, which will be the second-largest dam in Ethiopia with an anticipated capacity of 2,170 MW. Additional renewable energy projects include the Aysha Wind Farm – a 600 million US dollars project with the potential to generate 300 MW of energy – and the Aluto Langano geothermal energy plant, producing around 7.3 MW of power. Notably, the Aysha wind farm project which was signed between the government of Ethiopia and UAE's AMEA Power is expected to support the creation of 2,000 jobs during the construction and operational phases.[7] Altogether, these projects will significantly boost Ethiopia's power generation, enhance energy access and catalyse investments in agriculture and manufacturing – two critical sectors for "Vision 2030".Mobilising Italy's Mattei Plan for Ethiopia's green transition
Against this backdrop, Italy's recently announced Mattei Plan for Africa has the potential to be a catalyst for Ethiopia's renewable energy development agenda. Italy can support Ethiopia in achieving its energy and climate objectives in several ways: among them, fostering genuine partnerships rooted in mutual respect and reciprocity, investing in both infrastructure and diplomacy, and leveraging its influence in international fora like the G7 while simultaneously mobilising EU member states to support Africa's renewable energy path.
One possible area to enhance Italy-Ethiopia cooperation is through private-sector-led infrastructure development, including the construction of cross-border regional power infrastructures that would position Ethiopia as a regional hub for renewable energy. Beyond creating much-needed jobs and economic opportunities, cross-border regional infrastructure can enhance and deepen regional integration, enabling new forms of economic and political integration to emerge, thereby contributing to peace and stability in a region characterised by growing fragility. Improved regional infrastructure can reduce resource-based conflicts by facilitating equitable distribution and access to resources. An example of a cross-border regional infrastructure project is the 35 billion US dollars investment headed to Ethiopia and Kenya to develop the two countries' geothermal resources in the East African Rift. This project is expected to contribute around 90 per cent of the projected 13 GW in geothermal energy generation in Africa by 2050.[8]
By establishing a strong economic and political foothold in Ethiopia, Italian investors can gain access to a rapidly growing renewable energy market in East Africa while simultaneously positioning Italy as a new regional player, thus helping to solidify Italy's standing in the region.
In light of the urgent need to mobilise substantial climate finance from diverse sources, Italy's Mattei Plan[9] could be a potential policy platform to support Ethiopia's transition to a low-carbon future – with a multiplier impact for sustainable development.Establishing a genuinely equal-to-equal partnership
Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni has indicated that her presidency of the G7 will be characterised by a strong commitment to engage with African countries to "build a cooperation model based on mutually beneficial partnerships, away from paternalistic or predatory logics".[10] While this is an important starting point, the real test is how the Prime Minister matches rhetoric with action. Already, the Mattei Plan has been questioned by critics who describe it as another 'cash for migrants' initiative designed to stop African migrants from coming to Europe.[11] Italian policy makers should resist the temptation to reduce the Mattei Plan to a migration containment policy that effectively reduces African countries to the role of EU 'coastguards'. Instead, the Mattei Plan should position itself as a "partnership of equals" that opens windows of opportunities for a shared future with African countries.
In addition to mobilising public and private sector funding for infrastructure development in support of the continent's green transition, the Mattei Plan should also help African countries build institutional capacity and coordination skills to manage and deploy green finance effectively. This includes capacity-building programmes to help Africans meet the requirements set by international financial institutions to unlock climate financing. Training workshops and capacity-building programmes for government officials and civil society leaders will be key to enhancing Africans' skills to monitor and report on the impact of funded projects. This is crucial because as competition for international green finance intensifies, many African countries vying for a limited pool of resources are left out.Multilateralising the Plan
From a geopolitical perspective, Italy is not the only actor interested in exploiting opportunities that exist in Ethiopia's – and more broadly, in Africa's – renewable sector. Competitors like China, Russia, Iran, UAE, the US, and Germany have invested billions of dollars in renewable energy projects across the continent.
Italy's initial pilot funding of just 5.5 billion euros[12] will unlikely make an impression on Ethiopian policy makers. In addition, due to its limited fiscal space, Italy alone will not be able to bridge Africa's huge financing gap. To cement its position as a trusted development partner, Rome must leverage its global networks and rally Africa's major development partners, including the EU, to work towards reinforced multilateral and cooperative solutions to scale up financial flows and promote economic and political reforms that create the conditions for sustainable and inclusive growth benefiting African countries.
At the recent G7 Summit in Apulia (Italy), G7 leaders committed to accelerate investments in Africa's renewable sector by establishing the "Energy for Growth in Africa".[13] This initiative is expected to boost private financing and the flow of concessional finance to overcome barriers to the development of Africa's renewable energy sector. Building on this and other platforms, Italy can leverage its Presidency of the G7 to call on global financial institutions and EU member states to scale up their support and facilitate access to climate funds for countries like Ethiopia. This diplomatic gesture will signal Italy's commitment to building genuine partnerships with the Global South.Darlington Tshuma is a Researcher in the Mediterranean, Middle East and Africa Programme at the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI).[1] World Bank, Ethiopia's Transformational Approach to Universal Electrification, 8 March 2018, https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/03/08/ethiopias-transformational-approach-to-universal-electrification.[2] International Energy Agency (IEA) website: Ethiopia: Energy Mix, https://www.iea.org/countries/ethiopia/energy-mix.[3] Ethiopia, Updated Nationally Determined Contribution, July 2021, p. 21, https://www.fao.org/faolex/results/details/en/c/LEX-FAOC215805.[4] Ethiopia Ministry of Water and Energy website: Resources, https://www.mowe.gov.et/en/sector/energy-development/resources.[5] Felicity Bradstock, "Ethiopia Looks to Tap Its Massive Renewable Energy Potential", in Oilprice.com, 18 February 2024, https://oilprice.com/Alternative-Energy/Renewable-Energy/Ethiopia-Looks-to-Tap-Its-Massive-Renewable-Energy-Potential.html.[6] Ethiopia Ministry of Planning and Development, 10 Year Development Plan. A Pathway to Prosperity, 2021-2030, January 2021, https://www.mopd.gov.et/media/ten-year-document/ten_year_development_plan.pdf.[7] Felicity Bradstock, "Ethiopia Seeks to Harness Its Enormous Renewable Energy Potential", cit.[8] Pat Davis Szymczak, "Africa to Overtake Europe's Geothermal Capacity by 2030", in Journal of Petroleum Technology, 6 November 2023, https://jpt.spe.org/africa-to-overtake-europe-in-geothermal-capacity-by-2030.[9] Italian Government, Mattei Plan Steering Committee Meets at Palazzo Chigi, 15 March 2024, https://www.governo.it/en/node/25255.[10] G7 Italy website: Italian G7 Presidency, https://www.g7italy.it/en/#Italian-G7-Presidency; Giselda Vagnoni, "Italy to Put Africa Development, AI at Heart of Its G7 Presidency", in Reuters, 5 January 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/africa-ai-be-key-g7-issues-italy-meloni-says-2024-01-04.[11] Fadhel Kaboub, "Is Italy's $6bn Plan for Africa Just PR-Friendly Neo-Colonialism?", in African Arguments, 2 February 2024, https://africanarguments.org/?p=43793.[12] Daniele Fattibene and Stefano Manservisi, "The Mattei Plan for Africa: A Turning Point for Italy's Development Cooperation Policy?", in IAI Commentaries, No. 24|10 (March 2024), https://www.iai.it/en/node/18219.[13] G7, G7 Leaders' Statement on Energy for Growth in Africa, Borgo Egnazia (Apulia), 14 June 2024, https://europa.eu/!9J9Mpt.

The Russian war against Ukraine has had multiple impacts on NATO's deterrence and defence stance vis-à-vis Moscow, which today presents a number of challenges to allies – particularly European ones. The 2022 Madrid summit and the resulting Strategic Concept signalled a substantial departure for the alliance in terms of focus and posture.[1] First, the new Concept represents an unequivocal return to a Russia policy based first and foremost on deterrence and defence, rather than calls for cooperation that had been typical between the end of the Cold War and the Russian illegal annexation of Crimea in 2014.[2] The 2022 Concept stands in stark contrast with this period of détente and instead explicitly points to Russia as "the most significant and direct threat to Allies' security and to peace and stability in the Euro-Atlantic area".[3] This new focus on deterrence and defence is accompanied with an enhancement of NATO's military presence along the northern and eastern flanks.[4]The impact on crisis prevention and management and cooperative security
On the contrary, crisis prevention and management and cooperative security, the other two core tasks featured in the 2022 Strategic Concept, are clearly de-prioritised in comparison with the previous 2010 Concept. First, it is explicitly stated that they serve the overarching goal of collective defence. Second, the sections devoted to these two tasks are worded in a cautious, vague and modest way, especially if compared with the ambitious, concrete and robust section referring to Article 5, which enshrines the principle of collective defence. To make just one example, two long-standing NATO partnerships such as the Mediterranean Dialogue and the Istanbul Cooperation Initiative are not even explicitly mentioned in the Strategic Concept.
It appears somewhat inevitable that the focus on Russia's threat on the eastern flank must be balanced with a de-prioritisation of the southern one.[5] To be sure, terrorism is still formally indicated as a major asymmetric threat to the Alliance; yet, the ruinous NATO withdrawal from Afghanistan and, above all, the war against Ukraine have radically turned NATO's military posture towards the conventional scenario of a peer-to-peer conflict waged by a state actor on the Alliance's eastern border stretching from Scandinavia to the Black Sea. As a result, the crisis prevention and management core task may be relegated to a background role, at least in the short to medium term.[6] This new reality will affect some European allies on the Mediterranean shores as they seek to keep NATO engaged in North Africa and the Middle East.A membership postponed sine die
The war in Ukraine has ushered in a number of unexpected developments with regard to NATO's enlargement, with Finland joining the alliance and Sweden currently in the process of doing so. At the same time, the issue of Ukraine's membership has remained controversial, as it has been since the 2008 Bucharest Summit.[7]
At the 2023 Vilnius summit, allies reiterated that Ukraine might not enter NATO while the conflict with Russia is ongoing, closing the door to such an outcome for the mid-to-long term.[8] On the same occasion, G7 countries gathered in Vilnius pledged long-term military support to Kyiv both as a group and via bilateral agreements, in primis between Washington and Kyiv.[9]
As a result, for the foreseeable future, Article 5 will apply to the current NATO limes and will not include Ukraine as a third country: allies will continue to provide military assistance to Kyiv while refraining from a direct conflict with Russia on Ukrainian territory.The challenges of the new NATO Force Model
The Alliance took several steps in order to meet the collective deterrence and defence goals set up by the new Strategic Concept. Among these, a new NATO Force Model stands out as a particularly ambitious undertaking. Among the initiatives under this model, perhaps the most advertised was the increase of the Rapid Reaction Force to 300,000 troops from the current 40,000 to be deployed within one month.[10] Indeed, NATO is aiming at a force model in which allied troops are divided into three tiers based on their respective readiness level: tier 1 forces (over 100,000) are to be deployable in up to ten days; tier 2 (200,000) in around 10-to-30 days; tier 3 (500,000) in between 30 and 180 days.[11]
This move will, in all likelihood, prove to be as difficult to implement in the short and medium term as it is ambitious. The task is particularly arduous considering the magnitude of the leap required in sheer numbers and, above all, the fact that most NATO countries outside of the US are already under pressure to maintain high readiness across domains as they concurrently make huge investments in the modernisation of their forces and re-stocking of ammunition.[12] Notably, these numbers entail a level of enablers and logistics not seen as necessary during the post-Cold War era marked by crisis management and stability operations. Even at the peak of its military engagement in Afghanistan in 2011, NATO deployed a maximum of 130,000 troops from 51 allied and partner countries,[13] though they did not necessitate the air and naval components, as well as the land heavy equipment, necessary to cope with a peer adversary.
For sure, from an operational point of view, it is much easier to plan and implement a major defence posture in Europe than in Central Asia. Still, military mobility remains a priority issue for NATO, to the point that even non-EU allies such as US, UK, Canada and Norway have joined the PESCO Military Mobility project to improve the related infrastructure and legal framework in Europe.Forward defence in practice
At the same time, the 2022 Summit led to the commitment by NATO to strengthen its Enhanced Forward Presence (EFP) – first established in 2017 with four multi-national battalion-sized battle groups in Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia and Poland[14] – both in size and scope. Indeed, they are going to be upgraded to brigade-sized forces.[15] Moreover, under the enhanced Vigilance Activity (eVA) label, four other multinational battlegroups have been deployed in Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary and Slovakia, led respectively by France, Italy, Hungary and the Czech Republic.
Again, framework nations and other contributing allies are, in many cases, encountering serious hurdles as they attempt to keep a battle-ready force in theatre, given the shortages in troops and equipment that appear to affect all Allies except the US.[16] These land forces are integrated within a broader deterrence and defence posture which includes air policing of the whole European allies' airspace, standing maritime groups activities in the seas adjacent to Europe, and integrated air and missile defence (IAMD).[17] Moreover, the Strategic Concept recognises space and cyber as operational domains where Article 5 may be invoked should an attack against allied assets occur, and sets the goal to integrate space capabilities within the Alliance's deterrence and defence posture by laying the ground for multi-domain operations. Meanwhile, the underwater environment is gaining more attention also within NATO.
Inevitably, NATO's ability to properly bolster its forward defence capabilities represents a crucial element in the credibility of its standing forces along the eastern flank as a conventional deterrent. At the same time, the Alliance is developing new regional plans that aim to blend with those of front-line nations, and testing them via large scale exercises such as Steadfast Defender 24. Still, these plans will require that the new Force Model effectively raises the number of high-readiness troops.[18]Mass and credible deterrence
The Ukraine war has exposed substantial gaps throughout European militaries in terms of capacity: ammunition stocks, number of available weapon systems and the defence industries' ability to quickly ramp up production without clear international coordination and procurement commitments by governments. Ammunition stocks have rarely been a priority among NATO allies and should be brought to a level befitting a protracted, high-intensity conflict such as the one taking place in Ukraine. At the same time, the wide-ranging modernisation drive already underway in many allies' armed forces must deliver exquisite capabilities to the armed forces at scale, especially considering that the technological edge long given for granted by NATO forces has gradually been eroded in key areas, including emerging and disruptive technologies.
The war in Ukraine showed how mass is still a necessary precondition for victory in drawn-out conflicts between peer or near-peer forces. Mass, however, is not simply achieved by a number of troops, but by the amounts and quality of available equipment, large ammunition stocks, the ability to quickly move forces as needed and adequate training beyond élite, front-line troops to bear high levels of attrition. Achieving adequate mass thus requires a concerted effort that transcends the purely numerical dimension, but combines crucial industrial, budgetary and readiness elements.
First, Western and especially European armed forces must be backed by solid industrial capacity. The European Defence and Technological Industrial Base (EDTIB) needs to be able to scale up production of low- and high-end equipment and ammunition in order to avoid the ammunition shortages that were widespread even before Russia's full-scale invasion. The fragmentation of the defence market in Europe, with countries pursuing separate national programmes for systems often answering similar requirements, is an obstacle to the achievement of true economies of scale making European products less competitive.[19] This also means that the scarce funds available for research and development separately at a national level cannot be combined and leveraged together, at a time when much of the military spending is directed to filling post-Cold War gaps.
Second, defence budgets are increasing throughout NATO, though critical gaps accumulated over decades of prioritising stability, peacekeeping and crisis management operations are set to absorb large part of these efforts in the short and medium terms. Many militaries will likely face an arduous task as they seek to prepare for large-scale, protracted and high-intensity conflict against peer- or near-peer level forces while at the same time bringing ammunition and equipment stocks to adequate levels.
Third, while the war in Ukraine presents many traditional features of 20th-century wars, such as attrition and the central role of artillery, it is also witnessing a number of revolutionary developments such as the massive use of uncrewed air vehicles (UAVs). NATO allies must put warfighting readiness back at the top of national priorities, with particular attention to morale and motivation but also training and education of personnel, in a way that favours a flexible and adaptable approach to military operations that transcends domains and requires an increasingly integrated use of wide-ranging technologies.
In conclusion, NATO has taken a number of meaningful steps to maintain a credible deterrent for its members in the face of Russia's war in Ukraine. Still, to prevent an attack to eastern allies by a risk-prone adversary, it must demonstrate to be on the whole capable of effectively responding to full-scale conventional war, and to do so for as long as it takes. This is probably the greatest challenge for the new NATO posture caused by two years of a large-scale, high-intensity war fought by Moscow at its borders.Elio Calcagno is Researcher in the Defence Programme at the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI). Alessandro Marrone is Head of the Defence Programme at IAI. This commentary is a revised and updated version of a chapter written by the same authors for the study Russia-Ukraine War's Strategic Implications, edited by Alessandro Marrone, Rome, IAI, February 2024.[1] NATO, 2022 Strategic Concept, July 2022, https://www.nato.int/strategic-concept.[2] Elio Calcagno, "Dove punta la bussola Nato", in AffarInternazionali, 1 July 2022, https://www.affarinternazionali.it/?p=4236.[3] NATO, 2022 Strategic Concept, cit., point 8.[4] Ibid., point 21.[5] Alessandro Marrone, "NATO's New Strategic Concept: Novelties and Priorities", in IAI Commentaries, No. 22|30 (July 2022), https://www.iai.it/en/node/15667.[6] Enrico Casini and Andrea Manciulli (eds), La guerra tiepida. Il conflitto ucraino e il futuro dei rapporti tra Russia e Occidente, Rome, Luiss University Press, 2023.[7] Andrew Gray, "Bucharest Declaration: NATO's Ukraine Debate Still Haunted by 2008 Summit", in Reuters, 10 July 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/natos-ukraine-debate-still-haunted-by-bucharest-pledge-2023-07-10.[8] Sean Monaghan et al., "What Happened at NATO's Vilnius Summit?", in CSIS Critical Questions, 14 July 2023, https://www.csis.org/node/106347.[9] Laura Kayali, "G7 Countries Pledge Long-Term Support for Ukraine", in Politico, 12 July 2023, https://www.politico.eu/?p=3333672.[10] "NATO to Boost Troops on High Alert to over 300,000 - Stoltenberg", in Reuters, 27 June 2022, https://www.reuters.com/article/instant-article/idUKKBN2O80R0.[11] NATO, New NATO Force Model, June 2022, https://www.nato.int/nato_static_fl2014/assets/pdf/2022/6/pdf/220629-infographic-new-nato-force-model.pdf.[12] IAI interview, 6 September 2023.[13] "Blood and Billions of Dollars: NATO's Long War in Afghanistan", in Reuters, 15 August 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/india/blood-billions-dollars-natos-long-war-afghanistan-2021-08-13.[14] Each Battlegroup is led by a framework nation, respectively US (Poland), Germany (Lithuania), UK (Estonia) and Canada (Latvia).[15] "NATO Reaffirms Plan to Have 'Combat-Ready' Brigades in the Baltic States", in LRT, 11 July 2023, https://www.lrt.lt/en/news-in-english/19/2032611/nato-reaffirms-plan-to-have-combat-ready-brigades-in-the-baltic-states.[16] Robbie Gramer and Jack Detsh, "All Unquiet on NATO's Eastern Flank", in Foreign Policy, 13 April 2023, https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/04/13/nato-eastern-flank-battle-group-russia-poland-latvia-lithuania-estonia.[17] On NATO IAMD see, among others, Alessandro Marrone and Karolina Muti (eds), "Europe's Missile Defence and Italy: Capabilities and Cooperation", in Documenti IAI, No. 21|05 (April 2021), https://www.iai.it/en/node/13072.[18] Ben Barry et al., "The Future of NATO's European Land Forces: Plans, Challenges, Prospects", in IISS Research Papers, June 2023, https://www.iiss.org/en/research-paper/2023/06/the-future-of-natos-european-land-forces.[19] See in this regard Michelangelo Freyrie and Michele Nones, "The Implications for the European Defence Industry", in Alessandro Marrone (ed.), Russia-Ukraine War's Strategic Implications, cit., p. 107-116.

The third meeting of the European Political Community (EPC) in Granada on 5 October[1] gave mixed indications as to its solidity and ability to establish itself within the framework of the European security architecture.[2] The EPC was initiated with the express purpose of filling the political and institutional vacuum created by the Russian invasion of Ukraine at the heart of the previously existing European security architecture. This had long been articulated and somewhat institutionalised around a series of organisations and partnerships such as the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Council of Europe or the NATO-Russia Council; such a setup, however, was fundamentally undermined by Moscow's violation of international law. Against this backdrop, the EPC was launched as an attempt to recreate a multilateral forum capable of gathering together a variety of actors very different from each other but eager to play a central role in the European strategic security discourse.
After the first two summits (in October 2022 in the Czech Republic and in June 2023 in Moldova) had yielded some initial results, the expectations for the meeting in Spain were rather high, especially on the security side. However, the limits of the initiative, in formal and political terms, became much more evident at the Granada summit. At the Granada summit, where involvement of external partners in key neighbourhood areas was limited, the focus of discussions was mostly on migration, and increased overlap with formal EU fora emerged as an obstacle. After a promising start, the outcomes of the Granada summit thus call for a reconsideration of the EPC format.A promising start
The Granada Summit came on the back of the encouraging success of the first two EPC meetings. Established as a political response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine at the suggestion of French President Emmanuel Macron,[3] the EPC took its first steps as a multilateral diplomatic forum aimed at promoting political dialogue and cooperation on the European continent.[4] The first meeting, which was held in Prague in October 2022, achieved important practical results, in particular an EU-led civilian mission to Armenia and Azerbaijan to monitor the crisis in Nagorno-Karabakh, which later led to the creation of the European Union Mission in Armenia (EUMA). But the results achieved at the political level were even more significant: the inclusion of 47 European countries in the new structure, with the sole exception of Russia and Belarus, sent a clear signal of political unity against the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[5] The EPC thus seemed to be the first step towards a profound restructuring of the European security architecture in preparation for the aftermath of the war against Ukraine.[6] The second major achievement was the strategic rapprochement between the EU and the United Kingdom (UK).[7] The newfound dialogue after the tensions arising from the Brexit agreements is a key building block for European cooperation especially in security and defence matters, as the UK's commitment to join the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) also shows.[8] In addition to relaunching relations with EU institutions, there was also a strengthening of bilateral relations between the UK and individual member states, starting with France, with which dialogue on migration was intensified within the framework of the Calais Group. Besides migration, the relationship with the UK can be strategic for EU member states in energy matters as well, as demonstrated by the resumption of cooperation with the UK in the framework of the North Seas Energy Cooperation (NSEC), which already includes EU states and Norway and aims to develop renewable energy.
The second summit, held in Moldova in June 2023, continued along the same lines, although it was more focused on security aspects in a broad sense, including energy and infrastructure. The summit served to reiterate the political and material support for Ukraine, including the decision to proceed with a contribution of 87 million euro to non-military logistical aid from the European Peace Facility, as well as the establishment of a civilian mission in Chișinău.
In both meetings, the topic of security was therefore prominent, and the opportunity to hold bilateral meetings on the sidelines of official summits could be used to include those countries that would be otherwise excluded from the European security debate. Although initially welcomed with some favour by EU institutions, the EPC instead aroused more perplexity in some of the partner countries that were supposed to be part of it, albeit with different motivations. The German leadership was irked at not having been consulted beforehand by French President Macron, while Eastern countries viewed the project as a potentially permanent slowdown in the enlargement process and a possible source of contrast with NATO. Despite these uncertainties, however, due to its focus on strategic cooperation and security, and thanks to its informal structure, the EPC seemed to be off to a promising start.A disappointing present, a future in the balance
As mentioned, however, the recent Granada summit marked instead an abrupt halt to the future development of the EPC. The lack of concrete results, evidenced by the absence of a final communiqué and press conference, highlights the main limitations that may jeopardise the future of the EPC.[9] This latches on to the debate that has existed since the early days of the Community, that is, whether it should be an informal forum for multilateral strategic dialogue primarily aimed at furthering Russia's isolation, or rather a body with clear and defined political objectives. Both solutions present difficulties and obstacles.[10] In the former case, there is a risk of an excess of vagueness that can quickly make the interest fade away once the war against Ukraine is over. This format would also be structurally dependent on the participation of leaders from key neighbouring countries in the meetings, as demonstrated by the absences of Erdoğan and Ilham Aliyev in Granada while the Armenian crisis was raging on.[11] The second, more 'political' model inevitably calls into question the EPC's ties with the EU. A greater and formalised definition of the deliverables in the hands of the EPC would lead to an inevitable involvement of the EU.
An EPC that no longer simply acts as a forum for dialogue may create a conflict of competences with Brussels in those matters that are already strictly regulated at the EU level. This overlap may create tensions and misunderstandings with regard to the role of key EPC countries such as the UK.[12] Already in the early days of the project, friction was reported between the then UK Prime Minister Liz Truss and other European leaders over the choice of name and symbols, with the British government being wary of explicit references to the EU.[13] Ultimately, clarifying the relationship between the EPC and the EU also serves to dispel ambiguities about the enlargement process. The initial coldness with which the EPC was received by the countries interested in EU membership signals the fear that the initiative could be perceived as an attempt to indefinitely postpone their EU accession.Light institutionalisation for greater coherence
The EPC stems from the urgent need to rethink foreign and security policy coordination in Europe in the political and institutional vacuum created by the Russian invasion of Ukraine, with a view to reorganising the European security architecture once the war in Ukraine is over. It can offer a valuable venue to address security crises and launch new initiatives including countries usually on the margins of such initiatives.[14] Above all, the Community seems to take due account of the fact that Europe and the EU do not coincide and are not superimposable in any context. The inclusion of a much larger group of states in the EPC may potentially contribute to bridging this gap in strategic outlooks, broadening the horizon of the European security debate. To overcome the current limitations of the Community, however, managing the participation of all the relevant stakeholders, as well as developing a format that allows flexibility and informality but within a more precise framework for cooperation, will be key.
Increased participation should certainly be encouraged, but taking into consideration that in addition to EU member states, at least three groups of countries stand out, each of them bearing specific necessities. First, it is pivotal that candidate countries to EU membership are involved in the Community but not frustrated by the perception that the ultimate goal of the EPC is to indefinitely postpone their accession process. Should this happen, it could have profound consequences not only on the future of the EPC but on the whole enlargement process. Second, the EPC provides a venue for the consolidation of a renewed partnership with the UK outside the EU's formal remit, to stimulate cooperation at the bilateral level on a broad range of topics, especially in light of the next meeting that will be hosted by the UK in 2024. With a view to maintaining renewed ties with London, the EPC could facilitate not only bilateral meetings between top political figures, but also the equally crucial collateral and preparatory diplomatic activities. Finally, the EPC should try to engage those countries that are currently beyond its current framework, such as MENA countries. Even if they are outside the European geographical space, and are not candidate states, they are key interlocutors for strategic and security reasons. As the recent escalation between Israel and Hamas and the political turmoil in Maghreb show, the region continues to generate significant challenges to European security. The absence of a strategic dialogue with these countries in the framework of the EPC may significantly hamper its capacity to address the whole range of European countries' security concerns.
As far as the EPC's institutionalisation is concerned, high levels of informality and flexibility surely provide an advantage, especially as far as British involvement is concerned, but they also have limitations that became evident at the Granada summit. The lack of clear objectives, which is also the result of a plurality of interests and perspectives, makes it complex to evaluate the effectiveness of the EPC and may perpetuate a situation where the EPC is associated solely to the contingencies of the current international scenario, thus posing substantial questions about its future once the war is over. For the future, it seems extremely difficult to envisage a high degree of institutionalisation of the Community, as this would alienate a substantial number of countries and increase the overlap with the existing European institutional network. Nonetheless, the EPC must outline clear and defined political objectives, evolving from a talking shop to an incubator of concrete projects involving both EU and non-EU countries in areas such as hybrid threats or fostering societal resilience in the Eastern neighbourhood, as well as promoting an enlarged European diplomatic culture. The summit in Granada for example was used as a platform, from the EU side, to announce the launch of a training programme on cybersecurity aimed at extra-EU EPC member states.[15] To facilitate the process of pinpointing the scope of action of the EPC, a number of instruments may be adopted, starting with a clear agenda-setting process to ensure clarity as to what each summit aims to achieve. In this sense, a light institutionalisation process may be instrumental in improving the coordination between meetings, ensuring logical coherence between the summits and relieving the host country of the task of taking on the content and political aspects alone. Coordination and dialogue between the previous, current and next presidencies in the preparation of the agenda of each summit, as well as more regular meetings between government advisers and officials in between summits, could be beneficial. All these actions may help define the identity of the EPC more unambiguously, providing it with a future beyond the current international scenario.Luca Cinciripini is researcher in the EU, Politics and Institutions programme at the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI).[1] European Council, Meeting of the European Political Community, 5 October 2023, https://europa.eu/!7ywQhY.[2] Clea Caulcutt, Nicholas Vinocur and Sarah Anne Aarup, "Shambles in Granada: Mega-gathering of European Leaders Ends with a Whimper", in PoliticoEU, 5 October 2023, https://www.politico.eu/?p=3672678.[3] France, Speech by M. Emmanuel Macron, President of the Republic, at the Closing of the Conference on the Future of Europe, Strasbourg, 9 May 2022, https://uk.ambafrance.org/President-Macron-explains-proposal-for-a-Europ....[4] Alexander Stubb, "The Case for a Confederal Europe", in ECFR View from the Council, 21 June 2022, https://ecfr.eu/article/the-case-for-a-confederal-europe; Arnault Barichella, Xavier Prats-Monné and Jerome Vignon, A European Political Community for a Geopolitical Era, Paris, Institut Jacques Delors & Sciences Po, 24 May 2023, https://institutdelors.eu/en/publications/a-european-political-community....[5] Richard Whitman, "The European Political Community: A Diplomatic Davos in the Making?", in UK in a Changing Europe Commentaries, 4 October 2023, https://ukandeu.ac.uk/?p=54463.[6] Matteo Bonomi and Nicoletta Pirozzi, "Allargamento, vicinato e Comunità Politica Europea", in Focus Euroatlantico, No. 3 (September 2023), p. 64-74, https://www.iai.it/en/node/17457.[7] Thu Nguyen, "European Political Community: From Family Photo to 'Strategic Intimacy'", in Jacques Delors Centre Policy Briefs, 8 November 2022, https://www.delorscentre.eu/en/publications/european-political-community.[8] Peter Jurkovic, "The European Political Community", in UK in a Changing Europe Explainers, 5 October 2023, https://ukandeu.ac.uk/?p=53393; Pepijn Bergsen, Richard G. Whitman and Alice Billon-Galland, "UK-Europe Relations Finally Head in the Right Direction", in Chatham House Expert Comments, 24 January 2023, https://www.chathamhouse.org/node/31047.[9] Jason C. Moyer and Masa Ocvirk, "The Third European Political Community Summit and the Four Rings of European Integration", in Wilson Center Articles, 6 October 2023, https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/third-european-political-community-....[10] Mathieu Droin and Ilke Toygür, "The Granada Summit of the European Political Community: Ambition or Oblivion?", in CSIS Commentaries, 4 October 2023, https://www.csis.org/node/107525.[11] Alice Tidey and Aida Sanchez, "Blow to European Leaders' Summit as Azerbaijan, Turkey are No-shows", in Euronews, 5 October 2023, https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2023/10/05/blow-to-european-leaders-s....[12] Luigi Scazzieri, "Can the European Political Community Be a Bridge between the UK and the EU?", in CER Policy Briefs, 28 April 2023, https://www.cer.eu/node/10365.[13] Mujtaba Rahman, "The European Political Community Is a Big Deal — for EU-UK Relations", in PoliticoEU, 5 October 2022, https://www.politico.eu/?p=2248892.[14] Camille Grand, "No Procedures, No Problem: The European Political Community as a Platform for Security Dialogue", in ECFR Policy Alerts, 4 October 2023, https://ecfr.eu/article/no-procedures-no-problem-the-european-political-....[15] Luigi Scazzieri, "Can the European Political Community Survive?", in CER Insights, 17 October 2023, https://www.cer.eu/node/10603.

Tese de doutoramento em Ciências da Educação, na especialidade de Formação de Professores, apresentada à Faculdade de Psicologia e Ciências da Educação da Universidade de Coimbra ; Num contexto em que uma das principais preocupações na educação é a garantia de qualidade e perante uma situação nacional que apresenta baixos níveis de desempenho dos alunos da educação básica, nomeadamente nas zonas rurais, surge o Programa Todos a Aprender (PTA) como parte integrante de uma política educativa do governo colombiano. O programa tem uma estrutura com cinco componentes básicas (pedagógico, formação situada, condições básicas, gestão educativa e comunicação) e um proceso de formação em cascata, como estratégia para chegar até as instituções educativas, de modo a contribuir para melhoria das práticas docentes e, em consequência, para o fortalecimento das aprendizagens dos alunos. Tendo em conta a importancia deste compromisso nacional, esta investigação visa avaliar o PTA no contexto colombiano, o que implica avaliar a coerência interna (planificação e implementação) e a coerência externa (pertinência no contexto e resultados conseguidos). Portanto, tem por base os seguintes objetivos específicos: identificar a pertinência e relevância do PTA, de acordo com as necessidades do contexto colombiano; determinar a consistencia e coerência interna relativamente à planificação e estruturação; avaliar os processos desenvolvidos na implementação, segundo a sua eficiência; identificar as opiniões dos encarregados da gestão, coordinação e implementação do programa e, por fim, avaliar os resultados previstos e não previstos. O enquadramento teórico da investigaçao integrou dois conceitos chave: a qualidade educativa e a avaliação de programas. Estos referentes foram o ponto de partida para a construção do plano da avaliação multifatorial com base nos presupostos dos métodos mistos de investigação, assumidos como opção metodológica. Nesta linha, a partir de um design de triangulação da informação, na sua variante de modelo multinível, foram aplicadas diferentes técnicas, como a análise documental e instrumentos nas vertientes qualitativa (entrevistas) e quantitativa (questionários), para recolher a perceção dos atores quer relativamente à planificação e estruturação do programa (com uma amostra de 7 pessoas da equipa de gestão e coordenação), quer à sua implementação (com uma amostra de 274 participantes integrada por formadores, tutores e professores). Os resultados da investigação indicaram que o programa é pertinente dado que se adequa às necessidades identificadas no contexto nacional e internacional, embora sejam necessários alguns ajustamentos relativamente às necessidades regionais; no que diz respeito à planificação e estruturação, a triangulação da informação permite concluir que o programa é consistente e apresenta articulação entre as componentes, embora seja importante rever a abrangência do programa e os tempos estabelecidos para o desenvolvimento. A avaliação do processo, na qual se prestou especial atenção à perceção dos atores, apresentou os valores mais positivos, nomeadamane no que diz da eficiência do processo de formação. Consderando a sua ligação com a qualidade e as reformas educativas, destaca-se a perceção positiva sobre as culturas colaborativas desenvolvidas e a satisfação com a profissão e com o papel no PTA. Numa perspetiva metodológica, os resultados desta fase permitiram verificar a qualidade dos intrumentos usados na recolha dos dados além da correlação entre estas diferentes variaveis que fornecem um contributo para explicar a avaliação feita pelos atores do programa. Por fim, uma análise dos produtos do programa, segundo os resultados previstos e não previstos, indicou que embora não se tenha cumprido na totalidade com o objetivo específico do programa fixado en termos quantitativos, foram evidentes as melhorias em aspetos, como a transformação das práticas docentes, conseguida pela disponibilidade para a reflexão e o trabalho em equipa. A comprovar isto mesmo estão os comentarios dos diferentes actores sobre as experiências significativas que têm surgido nas diferentes regiões do país e que são inspiradoras de novas dinámicas de trabalho. Perante os resultados apresentados, conclui-se que o programa tem contribuido para a transformação da qualidade relativamente aos processos de mudança nos docentes e o fortalecimento da sua formação. Contudo ainda não é evidente o compromisso e a capacidade instalada para garantir a sua sustentabilidade no âmbito local e institucional. Por outro lado, confirma-se a validade e, de facto, a necessidade de combinar diferentes propostas teóricas e metologógicas para fazer uma avaliação adequada ao nível da complexidade de um programa como o PTA. Constata-se, também, a necessidade de avaliar os programas através de um sistema multifatorial que integre, para além de aspetos ligados à eficacia, outros fatores que possam explicar a sua eficiência, pertinência e sustentabilidade e fornecer um contributo para um uso prático da avaliação de natureza mais educativa do que política. ; "Programa Todos a Aprender" (PTA) was born as an educational policy of the Colombian government in a context where one of the main concerns about education is quality guarantee and there is a low quality of education; elementary school students have low rates of performance, especially in rural areas. The program has five basic components (pedagogical component, training, basic conditions, educational managment and comunication); it also has a training cascade process, as a estrategy to help the schools, in order to improve the teachers' practice and to enhance the students' learning. Taking into account the significance of this governmental challenge, the current investigation has the purpose of evaluating the program in the Colombian context. To that end, the internal (design and implementation) and external consistency (relevance and coherence with the context and the results achieved) were assessed. The investigation aims to identify the relevance of the program according to the needs of the Colombian context; to identify the consistency and internal coherence of its design and implementation; to evaluate the efficiency of the developed process in the implementation phase; to identify the opinions of the stakeholders; and to evaluate the results, the expected and the unexpected outcomes. The theoretical framework included two key concepts: educational quality and program evaluation. These references were the support for the multifactorial evaluation design based on the Mixed Methods research principles, adopted as the methodological option. Through a triangulation design, multilevel variant, several data collection methods, as documental analysis, and instruments were applied, in the qualitative (interviews) and quantitative (surveys) perspectives in order to know the perception of the stakeholders; the design team (with seven people) and the implementation team (with 274 participants: trainers, tutors and teachers). The results of the investigation indicate that the program is relevant to meet the main needs identified in both the national and the Latin American contexts. However, it is necessary to make some adjustments to meet the regional needs. In relation to the design, the triangulation of the information made it possible to conclude that the program has consistency and there is an articulation between the components. Nevertheless, it is important to verify its broad scope and the time determined for its development. The evaluation process, focused on the stakeholders' perception, shows the most positive values, particularly in regards to the efficiency of the training process. In consideration to its asociation with the quality and educational reforms, the collaborative cultures developed and the satisfaction with the profession and the rol into de PTA had special recognition. From a metodological perspective, the results of this phase demostrated the quality of the methods and instruments applied to the data collection. They also revealed the correlation between these different variables which aim to explain the evaluation of the stakeholders about the program. Finally, the analisys of the program products, in regards to the expected an unexpected results, indicate that it was not possible to achieve the quantitative goal of the program. However, some progress was made in the transformation of the teaching practices and it was achieved by their unwilling to reflect and their teamwork, as evidenced by the feedback of stakeholders about the significative experiences arised in several regions of the country and were inspiration for new work dinamics. On the basis of the above considerations, it can be concluded that the program has also made an important contribution to the transformation of the quality associated with the change process of the teachers and the enhance of their training. However, the commitment and the installed capacity to guarantee the sustainability of the program, both the local and institutional levels, has not been evidenced yet. On the other hand, the validity of making a combination of several theoretical and methodological approaches in order to design an evaluation according to a complex program, like the PTA, was confirmed. It has also been demonstrated the need to evaluate the programs through multifactorial systems which include the effectiveness and other elements able to make an explanation about its efficiency, relevance and sustainability. On this way, it is possible to provide a contribution to make a practical use of evaluation, more educational and less political. ; En un contexto en el que una de las principales preocupaciones en la educación es la garantía de calidad y ante una situación nacional que reporta bajos índices de desempeño de los estudiantes de educación básica, especialmente en zonas rurales, surgió el Programa Todos a Aprender (PTA) como parte de la política educativa gubernamental colombiana. Este programa se estructura en cinco componentes básicos (pedagógico, formación situada, condiciones básicas, gestión educativa y comunicación) y tiene un proceso de formación en cascada, como estrategia de llegada a las instituciones educativas, para contribuir para al mejoramiento de las prácticas de los docentes y en consecuencia, al fortalecimiento de los aprendizajes de los estudiantes. Dadas las implicaciones de esta apuesta nacional, la presente investigación tiene como objetivo evaluar este programa en el contexto colombiano identificando su coherencia interna (diseño e implementación) y su coherencia externa (pertinencia en el contexto y resultados logrados). Específicamente, se pretendía identificar la pertinencia y relevancia del PTA según las necesidades del contexto colombiano; determinar su consistencia y coherencia interna en relación con su diseño; evaluar los procesos desarrollados durante la implementación, en función de su eficiencia; identificar las opiniones de los actores responsables de la gerencia, coordinación e implementación del programa y finalmente, evaluar sus resultados, tanto previstos como no previstos. El marco teórico de la investigación integró dos conceptos clave: la calidad educativa y la evaluación de programas. Estos referentes fueron el punto de partida para la construcción del plan de evaluación multifactorial desde los presupuestos de los métodos mixtos de investigación, asumidos como opción metodológica. En esta línea, mediante un diseño de triangulación, en su variante de modelo multinivel, fueron aplicadas diferentes técnicas como el análisis documental y variados instrumentos, desde las vertientes cualitativa (entrevistas) y cuantitativa (cuestionarios), para recuperar la percepción de los actores tanto del diseño (con una muestra de 7 personas del equipo de gerencia y coordinación), como de la implementación (con una muestra de 274 participantes, entre formadores, tutores y profesores). Los resultados de la investigación sugieren que el programa es pertinente dado que se adecua a las necesidades identificadas en el contexto nacional e incluso internacional, aunque requiere un mayor ajuste en función de las necesidades regionales. En relación con el diseño, la triangulación de la información permitió concluir que el programa es consistente y presenta articulación entre los componentes; sin embargo, es importante revisar su alcance y los tiempos establecidos para su desarrollo. La evaluación del proceso, para lo cual se prestó especial atención a la percepción de los actores, presentó los valores más positivos, especialmente en lo que corresponde a la eficiencia de la cadena de formación. Considerando su asociación con la calidad y las reformas educativas, se destaca la valoración, también positiva, de las culturas colaborativas desarrolladas y la satisfacción con la profesión y con el rol en el PTA. En una perspectiva metodológica, los resultados en esta fase permitieron constatar la calidad de los instrumentos usados para la recolección de los datos, además de la correlación establecida entre estas diferentes variables que contribuyeron a explicar la evaluación que los actores hacen del programa. Un análisis de los productos del programa, de acuerdo con los resultados esperados y no esperados, nos indicó que si bien no se logró cumplir, en su totalidad, con el objetivo específico del programa propuesto en términos cuantitativos, se evidenciaron mejoras en aspectos como la transformación de la práctica docente gracias a la disposición para la reflexión y el trabajo en equipo. Así lo evidenciaron los comentarios de los actores sobre las experiencias significativas que surgieron en las diferentes regiones del país y que inspiraron nuevas dinámicas de trabajo. De todo lo anterior, se concluye que el programa ha contribuido a la transformación de la calidad en relación con los procesos de cambio de los docentes y el fortalecimiento de su formación, aunque aún no se evidencia el suficiente compromiso y la capacidad instalada para garantizar su sustentabilidad tanto en el ámbito local como institucional. De otra parte, se confirmó la validez de conjugar diferentes apuestas teóricas y metodológicas para diseñar una evaluación ajustada a la complejidad de un programa como el PTA. Se constató también la necesidad de evaluar los programas desde sistemas multifactoriales que integren no solo aspectos asociados a la eficacia, sino también otros factores que puedan explicar su eficiencia, pertinencia y sostenibilidad y ofrecer una contribución para un uso práctico de la evaluación de cariz más educativo que político. ; Programme of Exchange & Cooperation For International Studies between Europe and South América

Bullying behaviour can have a negative impact on a child's physical and psychological health. Bullying in the classroom is a challenge for early-childhood educators. Preschool is the first place outside the home where children face social challenges when interacting with their classmates. Child-Friendly Class is the first step and part of the Children Friendly School (CSF) as a UNICEF program and an important Indonesian government policy to prevent the emergence of child bullying behaviour. This study aims to identify needs in the process of developing a Child-Friendly Classroom Management model to anticipate bullying behaviour. This research and development method uses an adaptation of the Rowntree model which includes three stages of the process and data collection techniques using interviews, questionnaires, and observation. The results of this study indicate that the preparation of an effective classroom management guidebook to create child-friendly classes needs to be followed up immediately. Several findings related to teachers' perceptions of classroom management, and child-friendly classes prove that child-friendly classes have not been implemented properly in PAUD institutions, with bullying behaviour still appearing in early childhood in PAUD institutions. PAUD teachers understand that it is important to implement classroom management but so far there has been no manual on how to manage effective classrooms as well as training related to the implementation of effective classroom management. The creation of child-friendly classes is believed to be able to help teachers suppress the emergence of bullying behaviour in early childhood. Keywords: Child-Friendly Classroom Management, Bullying Prevention, Early Childhood Education References: Allday, R. A., Hinkson-Lee, K., Hudson, T. M., Neilsen-Gatti, S., Kleinke, A., & Russel, C. S. (2012). Training General Educators to Increase Behavior-Specific Praise: Effects on Students with EBD. Behavioral Disorders, 37, 87–98. Alsaker, F. D., & Valkanover, S. (2012). The Bernese Program against Victimization in Kindergarten and Elementary School. New Directions for Youth Development, 2012(133), 15–28. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.20004 Arseneault, L., Walsh, E., Trzesniewski, K., Newcombe, R., Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2006). Bullying Victimization Uniquely Contributes to Adjustment Problems in Young Children: A Nationally Representative Cohort Study. PEDIATRICS, 118(1), 130–138. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-2388 Benedict, E., Horner, R. H., & Squires, J. (2007). Assessment and Implementation of Positive Behavior Support in Preschools. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 27, 174–192. Boz, Y. (2008). Turkish student teachers' concerns about teaching. 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(2011). An Examination of New Zealand Teachers' Attributions and Perceptions of Behaviour, Classroom Management, and the Level of Formal Teacher Training Received in Behaviour Management. King, E. (2020). Implications for the child friendly schools policy within Cambodia's cultural and primary school context. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 48(4), 375–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359866X.2019.1645811 Kirves, L., & Sajaniemi, N. (2012). Bullying in early educational settings. Early Child Development and Care,182(3–4), 383–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2011.646724 MacSuga, A. S., & Simonsen, B. (2011). Increasing Teachers' Use of Evidence-Based Classroom Management Strategies through Consultation: Overview and Case Studies. Beyond Behavior, 20, 4–12. Maida, P. (2006). Child-Friendly-School-Manual. UNICEF. Modipane, M., & Themane, M. (2014). Teachers' social capital as a resource for curriculum development: Lessons learnt in the implementation of a Child-Friendly Schools programme. South African Journal of Education, 34(4), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.15700/201412052105 Monks, C. P., Smith, P. K., & Swettenham, J. (2005). Psychological correlates of peer victimisation in preschool: Social cognitive skills, executive function and attachment profiles. Aggressive Behavior, 31(6), 571–588. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20099 Olweus, D. (1994). Bullying at School: Basic Facts and Effects of a School Based Intervention Program. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35(7), 1171–1190. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1994.tb01229.x O'Neill, S. C., & Stephenson, J. (2011). Classroom behaviour management preparation in undergraduate primary teacher education in Australia: A web-based investigation. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 36(10). https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2011v36n10.3 O'Neill, S., & Stephenson, J. (2012). Does classroom management coursework influence pre-service teachers' perceived preparedness or confidence? Teaching and Teacher Education, 28(8), 1131–1143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2012.06.008 Osher, D., Kelly, D. L., Tolani-Brown, N., Shors, L., & Chen, C.-S. (2009). American Institutes for Research 1000 Thomas Jefferson Street , NW Washington, DC 20007-3835. 13. Perren, S., Stadelmann, S., & Von Klitzing, K. (2009). Child and family characteristics as risk factors for peer victimization in kindergarten. Swiss Journal of Educational Research, 36(1), 13–32. https://doi.org/10.24452/sjer.36.1.4806 Reinke, W. M., Lewis-Palmer, T., & Merrell, K. (2008). The Classroom Check-up: A Classwide Teacher Consultation Model for Increasing Praise and Decreasing Disruptive Behavior. School Psychology Review, 37(3), 315–332. PubMed. Repo, L., & Sajaniemi, N. (2015). Prevention of bullying in early educational settings: Pedagogical and organisational factors related to bullying. 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I sistemi bibliotecari delle università in Italia sono stati considerati a lungo inefficienti e dispersivi, con costi alti e risultati bassi. A partire dagli anni Settanta prima nel mondo professionale, poi sempre di più anche nelle autorità accademiche e negli studenti, è cresciuta l'insoddisfazione e quindi il tentativo di miglioramento e della razionalizzazione, anche in conseguenza della introduzione dei sistemi computerizzati nelle biblioteche.Il quadro dei servizi bibliotecari dell'Università di Pisa non si discosta molto dalla media italiana: il sistema delle biblioteche di ateneo si presenta con un grande patrimonio bibliografico, disperso su molte sedi e con servizi discontinui. Rispetto ad altri sistemi universitari le varianti più importanti riguardano la presenza, in pochi chilometri, di altre importanti biblioteche legate all'università e alla ricerca.Da alcuni anni sono state intraprese alcune trasformazioni dei servizi bibliotecari, dal punto di vista istituzionale, organizzativo, informatico. Nel 1987 fu attivata una Commissione di ateneo per le biblioteche, dai cui lavori uscirono alcune proposte di riorganizzazione, basate su un moderato accentramento e sull'introduzione di servizi di base più ampi e servizi innovativi, anche di tipo informatico, più qualificati. Con questa spinta fu varato un nuovo regolamento per le biblioteche e fu istituito un Servizio centrale per le biblioteche, assieme alla costituzione di otto biblioteche centri di servizi, finanziate anche dall'amministrazione centrale.All'inizio del 1999 l'Ateneo, rafforzando le linee di politica bibliotecaria seguite nel corso di dieci anni, ha deliberato un'ulteriore formalizzazione del sistema, basata su:a) modifica dello Statuto, che riconosce come parte del sistema bibliotecario solo le biblioteche organizzate come centri di servizi bibliotecari;b) delineazione delle aggregazioni per arrivare, entro il 1º settembre 2000, alla formazione di 15 biblioteche costituite come centri di servizi bibliotecari coordinate attraverso il Servizio per il sistema bibliotecario di ateneo;c) indicazione di linee guida con gli standard per i servizi bibliotecari e degli obiettivi di massima del sistema.L'indirizzo politico del sistema è dato dagli organi accademici, tramite la Commissione di ateneo per le biblioteche, formata da rappresentanti del Senato accademico e del Consiglio di amministrazione, e integrata da esperti.Il coordinamento tecnico è compito del Servizio per il sistema bibliotecario: il Servizio si occupa direttamente di cataloghi comuni, di proposte di formazione e seminari professionali, di standard, di statistiche e raccolta dati d'insieme, di informatizzazione e basi dati di ateneo, di progetti e obiettivi comuni al sistema, e fornisce il suo supporto alle biblioteche per tutti gli altri aspetti organizzativi e gestionali. Le singole biblioteche, che amministrativamente sono centri di spesa autonomi, hanno un consiglio direttivo, un presidente e un direttore operativo. Sul piano delle risorse umane è stata avviata una risistemazione della pianta organica delle biblioteche previste dal piano; alla base della pianta organica sono stati posti parametri indicativi del bacino di utenza e del carico di lavoro, cioè quattro dei sei utilizzati per l'assegnazione di fondi di ateneo.Sul piano delle risorse finanziarie alle biblioteche riconosciute come centri, oltre ai finanziamenti provenienti dalle facoltà e dai dipartimenti interessati, viene assegnata una quota stabilita sulla base di sei parametri indicativi del bacino di utenza (docenti, studenti), della spesa pro capite, cioè della spesa dei dipartimenti e facoltà in rapporto al loro bacino di utenza, del servizio erogato (ore settimanali di apertura), del carico di lavoro (abbonamenti in corso e nuove acquisizioni).L'ateneo ha stabilito una serie di obiettivi, privilegiando i servizi al pubblico; contestualmente sono state date le indicazioni di massima (linee guida per i servizi bibliotecari) sui compiti del sistema, sui criteri fondamentali, sugli standard dei servizi principali.Parallelamente è stata avviata una attività di formazione del personale, nel quadro della formazione di ateneo del personale tecnico-amministrativo. Nel 1998 si è svolta la prima serie di corsi finalizzati:a) al coinvolgimento di tutto il personale nella prospettiva "di sistema bibliotecario";b) all'orientamento del sistema verso i servizi e gli utenti, con l'obiettivo della qualità:c) al recupero di lacune da una parte e all'accrescimento di competenze professionali dall'altra.Tutti i corsi si sono conclusi con un test, che ha dato luogo a valutazione differenziata del risultato, e con la compilazione da parte dei formati di una scheda di valutazione sui contenuti e sulla qualità del corso seguitoSul versante informatico la situazione attuale è caratterizzata dalla compresenza di vari sistemi distribuiti su più data base, unificati come uscita Web in un metaopac con circa 300.000 registrazioni bibliografiche, che rappresentano il 25% del patrimonio bibliografico dell'ateneo, con punte dal 50% al 90% nelle biblioteche con informatizzazione più consolidata, nelle quali vengono utilizzate più ampiamente procedure informatiche diverse dalla catalogazione, come il prestito, la gestione dei periodici, la gestione degli ordini. A questa situazione si prevede di sostituire entro 12-18 mesi un sistema unico di ateneo, con architettura client/server, database relazionale e interfaccia grafica.Per quanto riguarda il database networking, è stato attivato un server ERL per alcune banche dati di carattere generale. In questo settore è stata attivata una interessante cooperazione con la Scuola normale superiore, la Scuola superiore S.Anna e l'area di ricerca del CNR. Con la Scuola normale e la Biblioteca universitaria è allo studio l'ipotesi di condividere banche dati gestite attraverso Ultranet. La crescita dei nuovi servizi di document delivery ha portato all'attivazione di Ariel nei centri di servizi bibliotecari.Il modello organizzativo che emerge è basato sull'accentramento di indirizzi, criteri, standard, valutazioni, statistiche, gestione informatica e gestione delle banche dati di ateneo, formazione, e sul decentramento nelle 15 biblioteche della gestione dei servizi e del personale.Il fulcro del sistema è rappresentato dalla misurazione dei risultati e dei servizi. È un modello non sacrifica astrattamente il funzionamento dei servizi e le specificità disciplinari, ma si radica nell'esperienza concreta e nella storia delle realtà bibliotecarie dell'ateneo, con l'obiettivo di riorganizzarle secondo la prospettiva del miglioramento della qualità e dell'orientamento all'utente-cliente. ; Italy's university library system has long been considered both inefficient and wasteful, with high costs and poor results. Since the 1970's there has been a growing dissatisfaction with the situation, firstly within the professional world and later increasingly within academic and student circles. As a result, many universities have attempted to both improve and rationalise library systems, thanks also in part to the introduction of computerised systems in libraries. The University of Pisa's library services differ little from those of the average Italian university. The university library system has considerable bibliographic resources, scattered among many centres, with uneven service levels. Compared with other university systems, the most important variable is the presence, within just a few kilometres, of other important libraries linked to the university and to research.The University of Pisa has modified the management and computerisation of its libraries to achieve a comprehensive network of services.Although the process of change, itself a result of a convergence of new policies and management, and professional culture, is still only in progress, it is, however, producing a promising series of results and prospects for the future.The university Committee for libraries, which was set up in 1987, has produced a number of proposals for reorganisation, based on a certain amount of centralisation and on the introduction of more widely based, and also more innovative and advanced computerised services. New rules for libraries, together with a centralised library service, were thus introduced.In early 1999, the university, building on the library policy which pursued in the preceding decade, considered a further development of the system based on:a) modification of the University Statute to recognise only those libraries organised in the central library service as part of the library system;b) a centralisation process to achieve, by September 2000, the establishment of 15 central library services for large subject areas, co-ordinated by the university's library system service;c) a set of guidelines with standards for the library services and the main objectives of the system.The system's policy direction is given by the academic bodies through the university Committee for libraries, which consists of representatives of the academic senate and of the administrative council, with additional input from specialists. Technical co-ordination is the task of the university library system service, which is directly responsible for shared cataloguing, proposals for professional training and seminars, standards and statistics and collection of data as a whole, and computerisation and university databases. It also assists the libraries on all other aspects of management and organisation. The individual libraries, which are financially independent, have a board, a president and a managing director. As regards human resources, a reorganisation of library staff has taken place following the planning of duties.As regards financial resources, all the libraries recognised as centres are financed by the interested faculty and departments, and receive additional University funding on the basis of 6 parameters: number of potential users (teaching staff; students); department/faculty funding per potential user; weekly opening hours; workload (current serials subscriptions; new acquisitions).The University has established a series of objectives considering firstly the public services, then the guidelines for library services, the system's tasks, the essential criteria and the standards for the principal services.Similarly, staff training has initiated courses that aim to involve all the staff in the library system's perspectives, to place the emphasis on services and users to attain the best quality, and to increase professional skills.As regards automation, there are at present various systems and many databases, merged in a Web metaOPAC of some 300.000 bibliographic records representing 25% of the University's collection. In the main libraries the coverage of online catalogues ranges from 50% to 90% and automated systems are in use also for loans, serials control and acquisitions. The University has planned a migration, within 12-18 months, to a single automated system, with client/server architecture and a graphic interface.As regards database networking, we have activated an ERL server with some general databases and also initiated an interesting co-operation programme with the Scuola Normale Superiore, the Scuola Superiore S. Anna and the National Research Council.As regards document delivery, the growth of demand led to the choice of the Ariel system for the central library services.The management model is based on:1) the centralisation of policies, standards, statistics and evaluation, system and database management and staff training;2) the devolution of the management of staff and services to the 15 libraries.Feedback comes from the evaluation of services and results. We can say that this model arises from the concrete experience and the past evolution of university libraries. The objective is to reorganise libraries, improving their quality and user orientation.