Suchergebnisse

"Serial no. 112-165"--Pt. 25. ; "Serial no. 112-159"--Pt. 23. ; "Serial no. 112-158"--Pt. 22. ; "Serial no. 112-157"--Pt. 21. ; "Serial no. 112-151"--Pt. 20. ; "Serial no. 112-141"--Pt. 19. ; "Serial no. 112-133"--Pt. 18. ; "Serial no. 112-128"--Pt. 17. ; "Serial no. 112-124"--Pt. 16. ; "Serial no. 112-113"--Pt. 15. ; "Serial no. 112-106"--Pt. 14. ; "Serial no. 112-97"--Pt. 13. ; "Serial no. 112-83"--Pt. 12. ; "Serial no. 112-77"--Pt. 11. ; "Serial no. 112-63"--Pt. 10. ; "Serial no. 112-57"--Pt. 9. ; "Serial no. 112-49"--Pt. 8. ; "Serial no. 112-47"--Pt. 7. ; "Serial no. 112-45"--Pt. 6. ; "Serial no. 112-41"--Pt. 5. ; "Serial no. 112-37"--Pt. 4. ; "Serial no. 112-35"--Pt. 3. ; "Serial no. 112-31"--Pt. 2. ; "Serial no. 112-22"--Pt. 1. ; Pts. 7, 14, 20, 21, 25 shipping list nos. unavailable. ; Shipping list nos.: 2011-0075-P (pt. 1), 2011-0426-P (pt. 2), 2012-0166-P (pt. 3), 2012-0073-P (pt. 4), 2012-0001-P (pt. 5), 2012-0100-P (pt. 6), 2012-0132-P (pt. 8), 2012-0282-P (pt. 9), 2013-0241-P (pt. 10), 2013-0220-P (pt. 11), 2013-0133-P (pt. 12), 2013-0012-P (pt. 13), 2013-0183-P (pt. 15), 2013-0136-P (pt. 16), 2013-0168-P (pt. 17), 2013-0222-P (pt. 18), 2013-0216-P (pt. 19), 2013-0245-P (pt. 20), 2013-0230-P (pt. 22), 2013-0314-P (pt. 23). ; "Second session, July 16, 2012"--Pt. 25. ; "Second session, July 10, 2012"--Pt. 23. ; "Second session, June 29, 2012"--Pt. 22. ; "Second session, June 28, 2012"--Pt. 21. ; "Second session, June 19, 2012"--Pt. 20. ; "Second session, May 9, 2012"--Pt. 19. ; "Second session, March 28, 2012"--Pt. 18. ; "Second session, March 20, 2012"--Pt. 17. ; "Second session, March 7, 2012"--Pt. 16. ; "Second session, February 8, 2012"--Pt. 15. ; "December 2, 2011"--Pt. 14. ; "October 13, 2011"--Pt. 13. ; "September 14, 2011"--Pt. 12. ; "July 15 & 21, 2011"--Pt. 11. ; "June 16, 2011"--Pt. 10. ; "June 3, 2011"--Pt. 9. ; "May 23, 2011"--Pt. 8. ; "May 13, 2011"--Pt. 7. ; "May 5, 2011"--Pt. 6. ; "April 15, 2011"--Pt. 5. ; "April 13, 2011"--Pt. 4. ; "April 7, 2011"--Pt. 3. ; "April 4, 2011"--Pt. 2. ; "March 17, 2011"--Pt. 1. ; Includes bibliographical references. ; pt. 21. A focus on the new proposal by the Environmental Protection Agency to tighten national standards for fine particulate matter in the ambient air -- pt. 22. EPA greenhouse gas regulations -- pt. 23. A focus on alternative fuels and vehicles, both the challenges and the opportunities -- pt. 25. PEA's proposed greenhouse gas new source performance standards for utilities and the impact this regulation will have no jobs. ; pt. 12. Impacts of the Environmental Protection Agency's new and proposed power sector regulations on electric reliability -- pt. 13. Electric transmission issues, including topics related to the siting, planning and allocation of costs for electricity transmission infrastructure -- pt. 14. Expediting the Keystone XL pipeline, energy security and jobs -- pt. 15. What EPA's utility MACT rule will cost U.S. consumers -- pt. 16. A focus on rising gasoline prices -- pt. 17. A focus on the future of energy technology with an emphasis on Canadian oil sands -- pt. 18. A focus on legislative responses to rising gasoline prices -- pt. 19. Focus on H.R. 4273, the Resolving Environmental and Grid Reliability Conflicts Act of 2012, and H.R. --- , the Hydropower Regulatory Efficiency Act of 2012 -- pt. 20. A focus on EPA's greenhouse gas regulations -- ; pt. 1. A focus on oil supplies, gasoline prices, and jobs in the Gulf of Mexico -- pt. 2. China's energy portfolio and the implications for jobs and energy prices in the United States -- pt. 3. Transparency in regulatory analysis of impacts on the Nation Act of 2011 -- pt. 4. H.R. --- , the Jobs and Energy Permitting Act of 2011 -- pt. 5. Recent E.P.A. rulemakings relating to boilers, cement manufacturing plants, and utilities -- pt. 6. Challenges and opportunities for alternative transportation fuels and vehicles -- pt. 7. Discussion draft of H.R. ,̲̲̲̲̲̲̲̲̲ the Jobs and Energy Permitting Act of 2011 -- pt. 8. Discussion draft of H.R. --- , the North American Made Energy Security Act of 2011 -- pt. 9. H.R. 909, a roadmap for America's energy future -- Pt. 10. Pipeline safety oversight -- pt. 11. The Pipeline Infrastructure and Community Protection Act of 2011 -- ; Mode of access: Internet.

[ES] La contratación del estudio geotécnico en fase de proyecto de grandes desmontes en roca de obras lineales, en España, se legisla por los Pliegos de prescripciones técnicas particulares realizados por la entidad que saca a concurso la licitación de toda la obra lineal, en los que se cita la forma de abordar el estudio geotécnico del corredor, tanto de los desmontes como de los terraplenes, desde un punto de vista genérico. Esto genera una serie de problemas de indefinición a la hora de realizar los estudios geotécnicos particulares para grandes desmontes en materiales rocosos alterados, y que no exista por parte de las empresas licitantes un criterio común, a la hora de abordar los trabajos de estos estudios, ni en cuanto a forma ni en conclusiones finales. La presente tesis trata de dar una respuesta a esta indefinición, proponiéndose una metodología que abarque los distintos pasos a seguir, para su estudio en fase de proyecto. Estos pasos de forma resumida son: - Estudio Geológico previo de gabinete. - Reconocimientos de campo in situ: Prospección Geofísica en base al método de Sísmica de Refracción, Sondeos a rotación con extracción de testigo continuo, y calicatas, con la definición en todos los trabajos, de sus particularidades concretas. - Propuesta de relación de ensayos de laboratorio, que definan los parámetros característicos a usar, tanto para el estudio de la estabilidad de las secciones tipo definidas en proyecto, como para posibles reutilizaciones de los materiales excavados en otros usos de obra. - Definición de los diversos criterios de rotura, adoptándose el postulado por los autores Hoek&Brown, con aplicación de los programas informáticos Roclab y software de nueva creación que se presenta en esta tesis y que lleva por nombre Tratamiento de Columnas Geotécnicas. - Justificación del análisis de la estabilidad de las secciones transversales adoptadas en proyecto, con la utilización del Software de calculo de estabilidad (Geoslope-w), que usa el método de rotura propuesto por los autores Morgenstern-Price y justificado en la presente tesis. - Selección del criterio de aceptación o rechazo de la sección tipo planteada para el desmonte en fase de proyecto, en base al factor de seguridad obtenido. Finalmente a modo de ejemplo y aplicando toda la metodología desarrollada, se han estudiado las secciones de los desmontes de mayor entidad del proyecto de construcción de la futura Autovía EX.- A4, Cáceres-Badajoz, tramo Villar del Rey-Botoa, justificando para las mismas su aceptación. ; [EN] In Spain, contracting of geotechnical studies, in project phase, for large rock clearings in linear building works is legislated by specific "technical specification documents" made by the entity who puts the whole linear building work out to tender. In these "technical specification documents" is defined the way to approach the geotechnical study, as for the clearings as for the fills, from a generic point of view. This originates a kind of "definition" issues in order to make the geotechnical studies for large clearings in altered rock material and, as consequence of that, the bidding companies do not use a common criterion neither in the procedures nor in the final conclusions of these studies. The aim of this thesis is clarify these "definition" issues detected through a proposed methodology based on several steps upon the study in project phase. These steps are shortly described as follow: - Previous office geological study. - Field reconnaissance "on site": Geophysical prospecting based on refraction seismic method, rotary test drilling with core simple extraction and soil pits, including specific features in the definition of every work. - Proposal of laboratory tests account to define the specific parameters to use, as for the study of stability of every type section defined in the project as for possible reuse of the material dug out of the soil in other different works and activities. - Definition of different failure surfaces criteria, adopting Hoek & Brown postulate, using both "Roclab" software and the new "Tratamiento de Columnas Geotecnicas" software presented in this thesis. - Stability analysis proof of cross sections defined in the Project phase by "Geoslope-w" slope stability calculation software, where it is followed the failure surfaces method proposed by Morgenstern-Price that has also been justified in this thesis. - Selection of the acceptance-rejection criteria for the section type defined in the clearing in project phase, based on the obtained safety factor. Finally, to illustrate this, and applying all the methodology defined, the sections of the major clearings of the building project "Autovia EX.- A4, Caceres-Badajoz, tramo Villar del Rey-Botoa" have been tested and, as consequence of the results, accepted.

Esta investigación titulada "La atención estatal a los jóvenes desvinculados del conflicto armado: el Hogar José", surgió de una experiencia de intervención profesional con personas que estuvieron vinculadas al conflicto armado colombiano. Las preguntas que la guiaron fueron cómo opera el Programa de Atención a Niños, Niñas y Adolescentes Desvinculados de los Grupos Armados Irregulares, propuesto por el Instituto de Bienestar Familiar ICBF y de qué manera ellos viven la experiencia de desvinculación. Metodológicamente el proyecto implicó un ejercicio etnográfico en una de las instituciones encargadas de "operar" este programa: el Hogar José. La observación de la cotidianidad de este Hogar se acompañó de entrevistas a profundidad a los jóvenes desvinculados y al equipo encargado de atenderlos, así como de la construcción de un archivo sobre la historia del programa. Teóricamente, el Programa y el Hogar José fueron analizados a la luz de los conceptos de "institución disciplinar" e "institución total" postulados por Irving Goffman (1956) y Michael Foucault (1989). Los discursos que subyacen a este Programa son Doctrina de la Protección Integral a la Infancia, la política de desmovilización, las sombras de la Doctrina de la Situación Irregular y la evidencia de la tradición cristiana en el campo de la educación y reeducación de los más jóvenes. Esto configuró un escenario en tensión en donde es posible concluir que a través de la institución se está promoviendo una forma de ciudadanía infantil que se podría calificar como "ciudadanía neoliberal", pero que la definición del joven desvinculado y sus problemáticas continúa construyéndose a partir de todos estos discursos. Para el análisis de la práctica institucional fue necesario situar los actores, el escenario y la naturaleza de sus acciones. En general, el Hogar opera a través de una serie de acciones heterogéneas como la definición del joven y sus problemáticas y del establecimiento de rutinas y normas. Estas acciones son nombradas por el equipo como "acompañamiento" e "intervención", y en última instancia suponen que en cada interacción con el joven, este debe ser transformado. Entre tanto los jóvenes reivindican su experiencia como actores armados y como actores políticos. Ellos viven el programa como un escalón hacia los beneficios de la desvinculación que les otorga el gobierno cuando sean mayores de edad y controvierten que los definan como víctimas de reclutamiento y que los traten como si fuesen niños. / Abstract. This research work entitled "Hogar José: State services for demobilized youth", came about from the professional intervention with people linked to the Colombian armed conflict. The main questions guiding this research were how the "Programa de Atención a Niños, Niñas y Adolescentes Desvinculados de los Grupos Armados Irregulares" (Children and Teens Demobilized from Irregular Armed Forces Care Program), proposed by the "Instituto Colombiano de Bienestar Familiar ICBF" (Family Welfare Colombian Institute) works and how they live the experience of demobilization. Methodologically speaking, the project required an ethnographic exercise in one of the institutions in charge of putting the program in practice: Hogar José (José Home). Together with the daily observation of the home routine, deep interviews to the demobilized boys and girls and the personnel in charge of their care were performed, and an archive of the program"s history was created. From a theoretical standpoint, the program and the institution were analyzed under the concepts of "disciplinary institution" and "total institution" by Irving Goffman (1956) and Michael Foucault (1989). The subjacent discourses of the program are the Comprehensive Protection Doctrine; the demobilization policy; remnants of the Irregular Situation Doctrine; and the evidence of the Christian tradition in the education or reeducation of the youth. All this created a tense scenario where it was possible to conclude that a new children citizenship, that could be called "Neoliberal Citizenship", is being promoted through the institution, but the definition of the demobilized youth and his/her problematic is still being built on the aforementioned discourses. The analysis of the institutional practices required to set the individuals, the scenario, and the nature of their actions. Generally speaking, the Hogar, works through a series of heterogeneous procedures originating in the definition of the youth, their problematic and the establishment of a routine and a series of rules. The team calls these actions "Advising" and "Intervention". In the end, they assume a relationship where every interaction with the boy or girl must leave him/her transformed. In the meantime, the children claim their experience as armed actors, as well as political actors. They undergo the program as a stepping stone towards other government benefits granted to them as demobilized once they become of legal age and rejects their definition as victims of forced recruitment and their treatment as children. ; Maestría

Environmental positive externalities from public provision, such as the benefits yielded from the public measure of nature conservation, are often not internalized. Potential sub-optimal public service provision can be expected from such a condition, leading to inefficiency, if the benefits at a greater territorial scale are not acknowledged. This holds particularly true for intergovernmental fiscal relations in a decentralizing multi-tiered governmental system. Moreover, in developing countries the fiscal capacities to perform measures of ecological public functions are limited with their fiscal needs for these functions often appearing to outweigh their fiscal capacities. Research at the interface of the economic theory of fiscal federalism, the sustainability concept, and policies related to conservation and the environment is relatively new. Furthermore, in the literature on environmental federalism the emphasis tends to be comparatively less on the benefits of positive environmental externalities. The essential contribution of this study is an extension of this research field that is still in its infancy by applying the specific case of Indonesia as the context, on account of this tropical country"s ecological significance as well as its recent developments during the fiscal decentralization process. The overall aim of this study is to assess the possibilities of ecological fiscal transfers as a set of instruments in the public sector to internalize environmental externalities. To this end, the study traces the development as well as the current state of intergovernmental fiscal transfers in Indonesia in terms of ecological purposes. On the basis of this knowledge, the study offers new policy perspectives by proposing a number of policy options for ecological fiscal transfers in the context of the functioning fiscal transfer system and institutions between the national and the subnational (province and local) governments as well as among jurisdictions at the same governmental level. The incorporation of an explicit ecological indicator into general-purpose transfers is the first option. The second option is derived from a revenue-sharing arrangement. In this arrangement, two sub-options are proposed: first, shared revenues from taxes are distributed on the basis of the ecological indicator and, second, shared revenues from natural resources are earmarked for environmental purposes. Finally, the third option suggests an extension of existing specific-purpose transfers for the environment. The potential and limitations of the respective options are addressed. Additionally, a short treatment is given to the discourse on the possible mobilization of fiscal resources in the context of tropical deforestation and global climate change. The research concentrates mainly on the first option, namely the incorporation of an ecological indicator into the structure of general-purpose transfer allocation. In order to substantiate an explicit ecological dimension in the transfer, it extends the present area-based approach by introducing a protected area indicator while maintaining the remaining socio-economic indicators in the fiscal need calculation. The parameter values of area-related indicators are adjusted and subject to the properties of the existing formula. The simulation at the provincial level yields the following results. First, more provinces lose rather than gain from the introduced ecological fiscal transfer when compared to the fiscal transfer that they received in the reference fiscal year. Second, on average the winning provinces obtain a higher level of transfer from the introduction of an ecological indicator in the fiscal need calculation. The extent of the average decreases for the losing provinces, however, it is lower compared to the extent of the average gain by their winning counterparts. In terms of spatial configurations of the general-purpose transfer with an ecological indicator, provinces in Papua would benefit most from the new fiscal regime whereas provinces in Java and Sulawesi, with a few exceptions, would suffer a transfer reduction. Kalimantan and Sumatera show a mixed pattern of winning and losing provinces. The analysis on the equalization effects of the general-purpose transfers makes the following important contributions. It suggests that, first, the transfers are equalizing and, second, the introduction of the protected area indicator into the structure of these transfers plays a significant role in the equalizing effect, particularly in the presence of provinces with a very high fiscal capacity and when the area variable is also controlled. All of these new insights are imperative in the design of fiscal policy which intends to integrate explicit ecological aspects into the instruments of intergovernmental fiscal transfers. Since a formula-based fiscal transfer distribution is intrinsically zero-sum, the aforementioned configuration of winning and losing jurisdictions is conceivable. Among other future perspectives, it is the task of further research to explore ecological fiscal transfer instruments and associated measures that on the one hand seek to induce the losing provinces to join their winning counterparts and, on the other hand, are still subject to the requirements of the rational fiscal transfer mechanism.

This study analyzes the cultural imagery of the Manggaraian SpeechCommunities (MSC) in "Nominal Marking System (NMS) of Bahasa Manggaraiand Its Interrelation with Naming Systems of Entity (NSE): A CulturalLinguistic Study". The result of the analysis is useful for both the academic worldand the life of the society, especially the MSC.The study conducted in Manggarai Regency, Flores, East Nusa TenggaraProvince, is qualitative. The data were obtained through observation, elicitation,interview, documentation study, listening, and note taking. For this reason, a numberof questions were prepared in a written form. The data obtained were analyzedthrough steps of selection, listing, translation, and interpretation of the formallinguistic meaning and cultural imagery of the MSC. The result of the data analysisis informally reported and verbally described.To analyze the data, the Cultural Linguistic Theory was applied andsupported by the structural and the dynamic theories. To know the chance and toinspire the study, a number of previous studies were reviewed. To easily understand,direct, and limit the discussion of the study, a number of basic concepts weredefined.Syntactically and semantically, there are four kinds of nominal markers(NMs) of BM. NMs in the forms of personal pronouns (PP): hau 'you SG', hia/hi'he/she', meu 'you-PLUR', and ise 'they' mark proper nouns (PN) as theSubject/Agent or Object/Patient in a clause bearing the meaning of subject or objectposition of a clause and not common nouns (CN). NMs in the forms of de/ di/ disemark the noun (CN/pronoun or PN) as the possessor of the possessed noun in aclause bearing the meaning of possession. NMs in the forms of le/ li/ lise mark thenoun (CN/pronoun or PN) as the agent diathesis of an action targeted to a noun asthe patient diathesis in a clause bearing the meaning of addition or the target/localityof an action. And NMs in the forms of ge/ gi/ gise mark the noun (CN/pronoun orPN) added to another noun or become the target/locality of an action taking place ina clause bearing the meaning of addition or the target/locality of an action.Beside the four meanings above, NMS of BM also bears a number of themeanings, as stated in the following. The meaning of kinship intimacy is marked bythe PN marking the kinship names. The meanings of individual and grouprepresentations are revealed by the singular PN itself simultaneously by the plural PN. The meaning of priority to a majority group is revealed by the morpheme of theSubject Pronominal Copy fused in one of clause functions (Predicator, Object, andAdverb). The meaning of group of representation is revealed by plural markers onthe singular PN representing other PN that is physically absent from a clause.The NMS of BM has its own phonological and graphological characteristics.Phonology deals with the pronunciation and graphology with the writing of the NMand the noun marked in a clause.The four NMs are grouped into two on the basis of the noun marked, i.e.Common Nominal Markers (CNM), covering de, le, and ge and Proper NominalMarkers (PNM), covering NM in the forms of PP, PNM of possessive di/ dise, PNMof agent diathesis li/ lise, and PNM of combined/targeted gi/ gise. The four PNMsare also grouped into two based on the number of the proper noun (PN) marked, i.ethe singular PNM: hau, hia/ hi, di, li, gi, and the plural PNM: meu, ise, dise, lise,gise.Other linguistic facts in BM seem to appear, such as the common syntacticpattern of BM: Predicator (V) – Object/Patient (N) – Subject/Agent (N), SubjectPronominal Copy, Possessive Pronominal Copy, and nominal repetitions meaningplural in BM are not found.The NSE is given to entities humans, domestic animals: dogs and horses,static objects made by human: cleave and whip, and objects of natural environment:rocks, trees, water sources, and wild animals. The MSC has four kinds of names, i.e.Manggaraian Names (MN), Catholic/Christian Names, Kinship Term Names, andPseudonyms. The interrelation between the NMS and the NSE bears a number ofcultural imageries: differentiation, animacy, honorific, solidarity, identity, prestige,democracy, and work. Initial consonant, especially in proper names, is consideredimpolite, cruel, strong, energetic, while initial vowels polite or gentle.The NMS of BM has undergone significant changed. The change has onlyoccurred on the lexicons, such as changing from BM to BI, even English. The NSEof the MSC has changed significantly. The MN has changed its phonologicalcharacteristics, the number of unit names, the tendency of the children's namesfollowing their fathers' names, the decrease in assonance practice in proper namesand some pseudonyms, naming of dogs is not only based on the colour of their fur,the declination of the practice of naming a cleave and a whip, and the PN of theobjects of the natural environment.

In France, the general practice activity is the main focus point within the French HealthCare system. Unfortunately, too many few students aim to have a career as a General Practitioner which is therefore not enough to guarantee the good efficiency of our HealthCare system. Five years after the Epreuves Classantes Nationales were put in place, which acts as a Specialized Studies Diploma for the GP activity, we have been studding the students' choice regarding their motivations in embracing a GP career as well their motivations in choosing their geographical area to study. A survey has been submitted to the 178 interns who started their GP training in 2009 at the University of Grenoble, Clermont-Ferrand and Creteil (this survey offered an analysis with an allowed rate of 5% of error). The result of this survey did show that 89% of the medical students (and those who are the best quoted) chose to become a GP as a first choice. Despite the fact that we can't really know what is the students' motivation to chose the location of the studies, our survey did show that they uppermost pick up the area depending on the best quality of life it offers as well for family matters and regional development. On the other hand some students might choose a different location and University due to the negative aspect of the quality of training, intern guidance and supervision in some Universities. The two third of our studied population did consider settling down as a GP with their own surgery after a period of covering for another GP or after been employed by a surgery. The last third became as well GP but more specialised within the A&E department and/or Geriatrics. At this point, we can't claim that the "Epreuves Classantes Nationales" have been involved in the improvement of the image of the medical general practice but they pointed out that most of the students became GP as their own choice. One can wonder if the government of each region could contribute to even out regional disparities. Improving a region makes it more profitable for everyone and offers a better attraction to new GP's. The Universities will have to work hard and improve their communication and attraction towards the students to keep them after the 6 first years of studies from leaving for better Universities or better areas, especially when the offer and demand is such high. More studies are needed to get more details for the choice of location and the impact of the image among the French universities. ; En France, la médecine générale est la médecine de premier recours. Or, les vocations pour cette spécialité sont insuffisantes pour garantir l'organisation du système de soins. Cinq ans après l'instauration de l'Examen National Classant et du Diplôme d'Études Spécialisées en Médecine Générale, nous nous sommes interrogés sur les motivations des étudiants à choisir cette filière et leur lieu de formation. Nous avons soumis un questionnaire aux 178 internes de médecine générale issus des ECN 2009 dans les facultés de Grenoble, Clermont-Ferrand et Créteil. L'analyse a été descriptive et comparative avec un risque d'erreur fixé à 5%. Le choix de la filière médecine générale est motivé pour 89% de notre population. Des étudiants très bien classés choisissent cette filière. Faute de pouvoir préciser les facteurs qui permettent aux étudiants de faire leur choix de localisation, nous retiendrons qu'ils privilégient la qualité de vie. Leur choix est complexe et multifactoriel, dicté essentiellement par les contraintes familiales, l'aménité régionale et le développement territorial local. Les caractéristiques pédagogiques des différentes UFR sembleraient plutôt un facteur d'exclusion. Près de deux tiers de la population étudiée envisage une installation en cabinet libéral après parfois une période de remplacement ou de salariat. Le dernier tiers se répartit essentiellement entre médecine d'urgence et gériatrie. On ne peut pas encore affirmer que les ECN ont permis de revaloriser la médecine générale, ils ont néanmoins permis de mettre en évidence que l'engagement dans la médecine générale est volontaire. Les régions peuvent probablement jouer un rôle essentiel dans le choix. Rendre une région attractive à l'ensemble de la population la rendra attractive aux futurs généralistes. Soumises à la loi de l'offre et de la demande, les facultés vont devoir soigner leur communication à destination des futurs internes pour limiter la fuite des étudiants qu'elles ont formés pendant 6 ans. La généralisation du stage de 2e cycle en médecine générale fait partie de cette stratégie. Des études ultérieures devront préciser les facteurs de choix de localisation et analyser la notion de réputation des facultés.

En las últimas décadas se ha construido una nueva imagen del mundo rural pampeano que ha complejizado el análisis con nuevos temas, métodos y fuentes. En estos estudios si bien los pulperos y pulperías están presentes siempre figuran de manera lateral o complementaria. En este trabajo me propuse profundizar el estudio de pulperos y pulperías rurales una vez reconocida su influencia en materia económica, política y social tanto en la campaña en su conjunto como hacia el interior de los pueblos. El tema elegido entonces responde a la necesidad de un estudio exclusivo y exhaustivo sobre un grupo que entendemos ha cumplido una función muy relevante como elemento central en la expansión, ocupación y estructuración de la sociedad rural bonaerense al igual que lo fueron las estancias, los fuertes y las parroquias. La expansión y consolidación de la campaña bonaerense ha sido acompañada por el despliegue comercial en las últimas décadas del siglo XVIII. Podemos hablar de un fenómeno de retroalimentación entre comerciantes y explotaciones ganaderas protagonizado con frecuencia por las mismas personas. En este sentido las pulperías contribuyeron a la formación de pueblos, la ocupación de nuevas tierras y el desarrollo de relaciones pacíficas con los pueblos originarios, aunque a veces fueron agentes disruptores. Nos queda claro que las pulperías eran engranajes importantes dentro de la economía local y ubicaban a sus propietarios por encima de la mayoría de los productores. Sin embargo muchos pulperos también eran productores o viceversa y esa diversificación les permitía disminuir los riesgos y las posibilidades de "naufragio". Creemos haber matizado y en algunos casos rechazado algunas de las imágenes literarias que en general configuraron una visión muy negativa de los pulperos y sus negocios. El pulpero no era muy distinto a su clientela y formaba parte de las costumbres predominantes de la campaña más allá de tener, en muchos casos, una posición económica más holgada. En este sentido, muchos pulperos fueron vecinos referentes en sus pueblos cumpliendo distintas funciones más allá de la fundamental que era el abastecimiento de bienes básicos, ocuparon cargos en el andamiaje institucional y se erigieron en la "voz del pueblo". La posición privilegiada de algunos pulperos les permitía evadir el peso de la justicia y cuando ocupaban cargos sacar provecho de ellos. Esto refuerza la idea de connivencia entre comercializadores locales y el aparato institucional local en torno al usufructo del tráfico de cueros que cada vez se hacía más rentable. ; A new image of the pampas countryside which has deepen analysis with new topics, methods and sources have been built in recent decades. These studies while the pulperos and pulperías are always present contains side or supplementary way. In this work I decided to extend the investigation of pulperos and rural pulperías recognized once its influence on economic, political and social both in the campaign as a whole towaqrds the interior of the peoples. The theme chosen then responds to the need for a unique study and extensive envelope a group we understand has fulfilled a role as a central element in the expansion, occupation and structuring of the Buenos Aires rural society as were the rooms, the strong and the parishes. The expansion and consolidation of the Buenos Aires campaign has been accompanied by the commercial deployment in the last decades of the 18th century. We can speak of a starred feedback between businesses and farms phenomenon often by the same people. In this sense the pulperías helped peoples training, the occupation of new land and the development of peaceful relations with the aborigines, although sometimes were agents disruptors. Us clearly that the pulperías were important gear of the local economy and placed their owners than most of the producers. However, many pulperos were also producers or vice versa and that diversification allowed them to reduce the risks and the potential for "shipwreck". We believe having tinged and in some cases rejected some literary images that in general set up a very negative view of the pulperos and their businesses. The pulpero was not very different to its clientele and was part of the prevailing customs of the campaign more than have, in many cases, a more ample economic position. In this sense, many pulperos were relating neighbors in their villages perform various duties beyond the fundamental being the supply of basic goods, occupied positions in the institutional scaffolding and erected in the "voice of the people". The privileged position of some pulperos allowed them to evade justice weight and when positions take advantage of them. This reinforces the idea of collusion between marketers premises and the local institutional apparatus in the usufruct of leather that increasingly more profitable traffic. ; Fil: Carrera, Julián. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

This thesis is divided into three parts. The first part is constituted by chapter 2 and chapter 3 in which we consider models that describe the evolution of a stock and the evolution of interest rates. Using Wishart processes, these models belong to affine class and extend multidimensional Heston model. We study the intrinsic properties and we consider the evaluation of vanilla options. After having recalled evaluation methods, we introduce approximation methods that provide closed formula for the asymptotic smile. These methods make easier the calibration procedure and allow an analysis of the parameters. The second part, from chapter 4 to chapter 6, studies mortality and longevity risks. First, we recall general concepts of longevity risk and the main challenges we have to tackle. Then, we study a model of mortality that takes into account age and other individual features that could explain mortality. This mortality model is calibrated on specific data what allows a study of the impact on mortality of different characteristics. Finally, we introduce a microscopic model for population dynamic in order to study the evolution in the future of an age-and-trait-structured population. Each person can be affected by different events: birth, death and evolution of his features. Moreover, this model takes into account of the stochastic evolution of the demographic rates in the time. We study a micro/macro link providing good macroscopic properties for this microscopic model. The last part, constituted by chapter 7 and chapter 8, deals with applications of the previous models. The first application concerns demography: the association of the microscopic model for population dynamic and the mortality model provide demographic projections of the French population. We consider the retirement issue by analyzing the solutions of an immigration policy and a reform about the start age of retirement. The second application refers to insurance life products associating longevity and interest rate risks that have been detailed in the previous parts of the thesis. We study the basis risk generated by the heterogeneity of portfolio. Moreover, we introduce the Life Nominal Chooser Swaption (LNCS), a derivative product in insurance life for the transfer of financial risks. The design of the Life Nominal Chooser Swaption is very interesting allowing an assurance owning a portfolio to transfer his interest rate risk to a bank. ; Cette thèse se divise en trois parties. La première partie est constituée des chapitres 2 et 3 dans laquelle nous considérons des modèles qui décrivent l'évolution d'un sous-jacent dans le monde des actions ainsi que l'évolution des taux d'intérêt. Ces modèles, qui utilisent les processus de Wishart, appartiennent à la classe affine et généralisent les modèles de Heston multi-dimensionnels. Nous étudions les propriétés intrinsèques de ces modèles et nous nous intéressons à l'évaluation des options vanilles. Après avoir rappelé certaines méthodes d'évaluation, nous introduisons des méthodes d'approximation fournissant des formules fermées du smile asymptotique. Ces méthodes facilitent la procédure de calibration et permettent une analyse intéressante des paramètres. La deuxième partie, du chapitre 4 au chapitre 6, étudie les risques de mortalité et de longévité. Nous rappelons tout d'abord les concepts généraux du risque de longévité et un ensemble de problématiques sous-jacentes à ce risque. Nous présentons ensuite un modèle de mortalité individuelle qui tient compte de l'âge et d'autres caractéristiques de l'individu qui sont explicatives de mortalité. Nous calibrons le modèle de mortalité et nous analysons l'influence des certaines caractéristiques individuelles. Enfin, nous introduisons un modèle microscopique de dynamique de population qui permet de modéliser l'évolution dans le temps d'une population structurée par âge et par traits. Chaque individu évolue dans le temps et est susceptible de donner naissance à un enfant, de changer de caractéristiques et de décéder. Ce modèle tient compte de l'évolution, éventuellement stochastique, des taux démographiques individuels dans le temps. Nous décrivons aussi un lien micro/macro qui fournit à ce modèle microscopique de bonnes propriétés macroscopiques. La troisième partie, concernant les chapitres 7 et 8, s'intéresse aux applications des modélisations précédentes. La première application est une application démographique puisque le modèle microscopique de dynamique de population permet d'effectuer des projections démographiques de la population française. Nous mettons aussi en place une étude démographique du problème des retraites en analysant les solutions d'une politique d'immigration et d'une réforme sur l'âge de départ à la retraite. La deuxième application concerne l'étude des produits d'assurance-vie associant les risques de longévité et de taux d'intérêt qui ont été étudiés en détails dans les deux premières parties de la thèse. Nous nous intéressons tout d'abord à l'étude du risque de base qui est généré par l'hétérogénéité des portefeuilles de rentes. De plus, nous introduisons la Life Nominal Chooser Swaption (LNCS) qui est un produit de transfert de risque des produits d'assurance-vie : ce produit a une structure très intéressante et permet à une assurance détenant un portefeuille de rente de transférer intégralement son risque de taux d'intérêt à une banque.

Whether the results of fiscal transfers have positive or negative implications depends upon the incentives that transfer systems create for both central and local governments. The complexity and ambiguity of the relationship between fiscal transfers and tax revenues of local governments is one of the main causes why research projects, even in the same country, come to different results. This investigation is seriously questioning the often stated substitution effect based only on an analysis of aggregated data and finally rejects in the qualitative part of this research (using survey techniques) a substitution effect in the majority of the assessed municipalities. While most theories are modeling governments as tax-maximizers (Leviathan) or as being prone to fiscal laziness, this investigation shows that mayors react to a whole set of incentives. Most mayors react rational and rather pragmatically in respect to the incentives and constraints which are established by the particular context of a municipality, the central government and their own personality/identity/interests. While the yield on property tax in Peru is low, there are no signs that increases in transfers have had, on average, a negative impact on their revenue generation. On an individual basis there exist mayors who are revenue maximizers, others who are substituting revenues and others who show apathy. Many engage in property tax. While rural or small municipalities have limited potential, property taxes are the main revenue sources for the Peruvian urban municipalities, rising on average 10% during the last five years. The property tax in Peru accounts for less than 0.2% of GDP, which compared to the Latin American average, is extremely low. In 2002, property tax was collecting nationwide about 10% of the overall budget of local governments. In 2006, the share was closer to 6% due to windfall transfers. The property tax can enhance accountability at the local level and has important impacts on urban spatial development. It is also important considering that most charges or transfers are earmarked such that property tax yields can cover discretionary finances. The intergovernmental fiscal transfers can be described as a patchwork of political liabilities of the past rather than connected with thorough compensation or service improvement functions. The fiscal base of local governments in Peru remains small for the municipalities and the incentive structure to enhance property tax revenues is far from optimal. The central government and sector institutions, which are in the Peruvian institutional design of the property tax responsible for the enablement environment, can reinforce local tax efforts. In the past the central government permanently changed the rules of the game, giving municipalities reduced predictability of policy choices. There are no relevant signs that a stronger property tax is captured by Peruvian interest groups. Since the central government has responsibility for tax regulation and partly valuation there has been little debate about financial issues on the local political agenda. Most council members are therefore not familiar with tax issues. If the central government did not set the tax rate and valuation then there would probably be a more vigorous public debate and an electorate that was better informed about local politics. Elected mayors (as political and administrative leaders) are not counterbalanced and held in check by an active council and/or by vigorous local political parties. Local politics are concentrated on the mayor, electoral rules, the institutional design and political culture – all of which are not helpful in increasing the degree of influence that citizens and associations have upon collective decision-making at the local level. The many alternations between democracy and autocracy have not been helpful in building strong institutions at the local level. Property tax revenues react slowly and the institutional context matters because an effective tax system as a public good can only be created if actors have long time horizons. The property tax has a substantial revenue potential, however, since municipalities are going through a transfer bonanza, it is especially difficult to make a plea for increasing their own revenue base. Local governments should be the proponents of property tax reform, but they have, in Peru, little policy clout because the municipal associations are dispersed and there exists little relevant information concerning important local policy issues. ; Ob die Auswirkungen von Fiskaltransfers auf die Generierung von lokalen Steuereinnahmen positiv oder negativ sind, wird in der akademischen Literatur weiterhin offen diskutiert. Die Komplexität und Ambivalenz der Fiskalbeziehungen zwischen Gebietsköperschaften und Zentralregierung führt manchmal selbst innerhalb eines gleichen Landes zu unterschiedlichen Ergebnissen. Die hier vorliegende Untersuchung hinterfragt kritisch den oft postulierten Effekt in dem Eigeneinahmen durch Transferzahlungen substituiert werden. Während die meisten wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten Regierungen entweder als tax-maximizers (Leviathan) oder als fiscal lazy darstellen, zeigt diese Untersuchung, dass die meisten Bürgermeister spezifisch auf eine Vielzahl von Anreizen rational und pragmatisch reagieren. Obwohl die Eigeneinnahmen der Lokalregierungen in Peru generell niedrig sind, kann ein direkter Zusammenhang zwischen kontinuierlich ansteigenden Grundsteuereinnahmen und Fiskalzuweisungen eher verneint werden. Die Anreizstruktur in Peru zur Generierung von lokalen Steuereinnahmen ist hinderlich und teilweise sogar kontraproduktiv. Die Zentralregierung und gewisse Spezialinstitutionen spielen in Peru wichtige Funktionen hinsichtlich lokaler Steuergenerierung und sind mitverantwortlich für die positive Gestaltung der Anreizstruktur.

En las últimas décadas se ha construido una nueva imagen del mundo rural pampeano que ha complejizado el análisis con nuevos temas, métodos y fuentes. En estos estudios si bien los pulperos y pulperías están presentes siempre figuran de manera lateral o complementaria. En este trabajo me propuse profundizar el estudio de pulperos y pulperías rurales una vez reconocida su influencia en materia económica, política y social tanto en la campaña en su conjunto como hacia el interior de los pueblos. El tema elegido entonces responde a la necesidad de un estudio exclusivo y exhaustivo sobre un grupo que entendemos ha cumplido una función muy relevante como elemento central en la expansión, ocupación y estructuración de la sociedad rural bonaerense al igual que lo fueron las estancias, los fuertes y las parroquias. La expansión y consolidación de la campaña bonaerense ha sido acompañada por el despliegue comercial en las últimas décadas del siglo XVIII. Podemos hablar de un fenómeno de retroalimentación entre comerciantes y explotaciones ganaderas protagonizado con frecuencia por las mismas personas. En este sentido las pulperías contribuyeron a la formación de pueblos, la ocupación de nuevas tierras y el desarrollo de relaciones pacíficas con los pueblos originarios, aunque a veces fueron agentes disruptores. Nos queda claro que las pulperías eran engranajes importantes dentro de la economía local y ubicaban a sus propietarios por encima de la mayoría de los productores. Sin embargo muchos pulperos también eran productores o viceversa y esa diversificación les permitía disminuir los riesgos y las posibilidades de "naufragio". Creemos haber matizado y en algunos casos rechazado algunas de las imágenes literarias que en general configuraron una visión muy negativa de los pulperos y sus negocios. El pulpero no era muy distinto a su clientela y formaba parte de las costumbres predominantes de la campaña más allá de tener, en muchos casos, una posición económica más holgada. En este sentido, muchos pulperos fueron vecinos referentes en sus pueblos cumpliendo distintas funciones más allá de la fundamental que era el abastecimiento de bienes básicos, ocuparon cargos en el andamiaje institucional y se erigieron en la "voz del pueblo". La posición privilegiada de algunos pulperos les permitía evadir el peso de la justicia y cuando ocupaban cargos sacar provecho de ellos. Esto refuerza la idea de connivencia entre comercializadores locales y el aparato institucional local en torno al usufructo del tráfico de cueros que cada vez se hacía más rentable. ; A new image of the pampas countryside which has deepen analysis with new topics, methods and sources have been built in recent decades. These studies while the pulperos and pulperías are always present contains side or supplementary way. In this work I decided to extend the investigation of pulperos and rural pulperías recognized once its influence on economic, political and social both in the campaign as a whole towaqrds the interior of the peoples. The theme chosen then responds to the need for a unique study and extensive envelope a group we understand has fulfilled a role as a central element in the expansion, occupation and structuring of the Buenos Aires rural society as were the rooms, the strong and the parishes. The expansion and consolidation of the Buenos Aires campaign has been accompanied by the commercial deployment in the last decades of the 18th century. We can speak of a starred feedback between businesses and farms phenomenon often by the same people. In this sense the pulperías helped peoples training, the occupation of new land and the development of peaceful relations with the aborigines, although sometimes were agents disruptors. Us clearly that the pulperías were important gear of the local economy and placed their owners than most of the producers. However, many pulperos were also producers or vice versa and that diversification allowed them to reduce the risks and the potential for "shipwreck". We believe having tinged and in some cases rejected some literary images that in general set up a very negative view of the pulperos and their businesses. The pulpero was not very different to its clientele and was part of the prevailing customs of the campaign more than have, in many cases, a more ample economic position. In this sense, many pulperos were relating neighbors in their villages perform various duties beyond the fundamental being the supply of basic goods, occupied positions in the institutional scaffolding and erected in the "voice of the people". The privileged position of some pulperos allowed them to evade justice weight and when positions take advantage of them. This reinforces the idea of collusion between marketers premises and the local institutional apparatus in the usufruct of leather that increasingly more profitable traffic. ; Fil: Carrera, Julián. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

Se presenta un análisis de contexto sociopolítico de la salud, en el que se evidencian los efectos perversos que se ciernen sobre la enfermería de hoy en Colombia, producto de las políticas públicas y de seguridad social que el actual modelo neoliberal ha diseñado y puesto en práctica a través de la Ley100 de 1993y de todas sus reglamentaciones, que desdibujaron la salud como derecho y la convirtieron en jugosa mercancía para el sector rentista. En este contexto surge la primera premisa, que se argumenta para evidenciar que "las condiciones en que estamos ejerciendo los cuidados de enfermería en nuestro medio son de pauperización y alto conflicto social, político y económico, aspectos que permean la vida familiar, profesional, institucional y social del gremio de enfermería y que han puesto en alto riesgo el ejercicio del cuidado de la salud como un bien público y todo lo que hasta hoy hemos conquistado en el reconocimiento social de la profesión y en el cuerpo de conocimiento disciplinar. Todo ello está obligando a ejercer un cuidado en la adversidad. Como consecuencia de este contexto, surge la segunda premisa, en la que se argumenta que "un cuidado caracterizado por una expropiación de su esencia y de su sujeto está llevando a desvirtuar la esencia del rol profesional. Estas circunstancias se expresan en el retorno de viejas formas de exclusión o enajenación, o en la presencia de nuevas, por las que pasa la acción social de los y las profesionales de enfermería, quienes están constreñidos(as) por los miedos que genera una vida en prolongada crisis social, política y económica, como la que vivimos en Colombia". La parte final del artículo contiene una serie de propuestas que orientan la pregunta: ¿Hacia dónde direccionar la gobernabilidad del cuidado? Se parte del principio de que el mundo de la enfermería no es el mundo del rentismo. La enfermería enarbola una filosofía humanista que promueve la solidaridad, el reconocimiento a la diferencia y el derecho a la igualdad, entre otros; por ello opta por el camino de la resistencia con tres compromisos: 1) resignificar el acto de cuidado, 2) trabajar por una educación y una pedagogía en enfermería que potencien las libertades y 3) reconstruir la imagen social de enfermería. ; An analysis of the social and political context on health is presented, where there is evidence of the perverse effect that surrounds nursing today in Colombia, as a result of public policies and those of social security that the current neo liberal model has designed and implemented with the 100th Law dated 1993 and all its norms, which changed the right to health in a juicy merchandise for the "for profit" industry. In this context a first premise arises, which is argued to show how "the conditions under which we are providing nursing care in our market are awful and under high social, political and economic conflict, aspects that permeate family life, professional life, institutions and the world of nursing while putting at high risk the practice of health care, distancing it from being a public good. All achievements in terms of social recognition for the profession and for the practice and the discipline have also been placed at risk. All is forcing one to provide care in the "midst of adversity". As a result of such an environment, a second premise arises, that argues that "care characterized by the expropriation of its essence and of its subject is leading one to erode the essence of the role for a professional. These circumstances are expressed when we return to old ways of exclusion or alienation, or in the presence of new ways of expressing social action by the nursing professionals, who have been limited by the means available that generate a way of life in prolonged social, political and economic crisis, which is the way of life for Colombia today". The final part of the article contains a series of proposals that are geared to tackling the question: Where should we orient the governance of care? We start from the principle that the nursing world is not a for profit world. Nursing has a flagship of humanistic philosophy that promotes solidarity, that recognizes differences and the right to equality, among others; that is why it opts for the path of least resistance with three commitments: 1) redefining the meaning of care, 2) working towards an education and pedagogy in nursing that leverages liberties and 3) reconstructing the image of social nursing.

O presente trabalho pretende visibilizar a presença de Hellen Howitt na enfermagem latino-americana. Paralelamente, procura fazer uma análise sobre a influência política do Serviço Cooperativo Interamericano de Saúde Pública na enfermagem da região e sobre a presença de organizações religiosas, especialmente, estadunidenses, em vários países latinoamericanos. Helen Howitt, enfermeira canadense formada na Universidade de Alberta, foi enviada em 1942 para a OPS com a missão de assessorar o Ministério do Trabalho, Higiene e Providência Social da Colômbia. Mais tarde, participou no projeto de abertura e organização da Escola Nacional Superior de Enfermeiras, sendo a primeira Diretora dessa instituição. Helen Howitt foi diretora da Escola de Enfermagem do Hospital Santo Tomás da Zona do Canal de Panamá entre 1933 e 1938, depois foi fundadora e primeira diretora da Escola Nacional Superior de Enfermeiras da Colômbia entre os anos 1943 e 1951; posteriormente, da Escola Nacional de Enfermeiras da Bolívia entre 1953 e 1959, quando foi convidada a desempenhar um cargo similar na Venezuela. Em todos esses países trabalhou como consultora do respectivo Ministério da Saúde, através de acordos com o Serviço Cooperativo Interamericano de Saúde Pública. A Fundação Rockefeller oferece bolsas para todos os países latinos. Na Escola do Hospital Santo Tomás de Panamá tinha estudantes de toda a América Central, Venezuela, Colômbia, Equador e Argentina. A Fundação queria padronizar a enfermagem em toda América Latina. Primeiro chegou à Venezuela; e as enfermeiras formadas na Panamá guiaram esse movimento na América Latina; onde tentaram fundar escolas. ; Este trabajo se propone hacer visible la presencia de Helen Howitt en la enfermería latinoamericana. Paralelamente pretende hacer un análisis de la influencia política del Servicio Cooperativo Interamericano de Salud Pública en la enfermería de la región y la presencia de organizaciones religiosas, especialmente norteamericanas, en varios países latinoamericanos. Helen Howitt, enfermera canadiense egresada de la Universidad de Alberta, fue enviada en 1942 por la Organización Panamericana de la Salud, OPS para que asesorara en Colombia al Ministerio de Trabajo, Higiene y Previsión Social. Pasó a formar parte del proyecto de apertura y organización de la Escuela Nacional Superior de Enfermeras, y fue su primera directora. Helen Howitt fue directora de la Escuela de Enfermería del Hospital Santo Tomás de la Zona del Canal de Panamá entre 1933 y 1938, luego fundadora y primera directora de la Escuela Nacional Superior de Enfermeras de Colombia entre los años 1943 y 1951; posteriormente de la Escuela Nacional de Enfermeras de Bolivia entre 1953 y 1959, cuando fue invitada a cumplir un cargo similar en Venezuela. A todos estos países llegó primero como consultora del respectivo Ministerio de Salud, a través de convenios con el Servicio Cooperativo Interamericano de Salud Pública. La Fundación Rockefeller daba becas para todos los países latinos. En la Escuela del Hospital Santo Tomás de Panamá había estudiantes de toda la América Central, Venezuela, Colombia, hasta del Ecuador y la Argentina. La Rockefeller quería unificar la enfermería en toda Latinoamérica. Llegó primero a Venezuela; y las enfermeras que se graduaron en Panamá fueron las líderes en América Latina, donde trataron de fundar escuelas. ; This work's purpose is to make more visible Hellen Howitt's presence in Latin American nursing. At the same time it pretends to make an analysis on the political influence of the Interamerican Cooperative Public Health Services in nursing in the region and the presence of religious organizations, especially North American ones in several Latin American countries. Helen Howitt, a Canadian nurse who graduated from the University of Alberta, was sent in 1942 by the PAHO (Pan American Health Organization) to advise the Colombian Ministry of Labor, Hygiene and Social Provision. She became part of the opening and organization project of the Escuela Nacional Superior de Enfermeras (National Nursing School) where she be-come their first director. Helen Howitt was director of the Nursing School of Santo Tomás Hospital in the Panamá Canal zone between 1933 and 1938, later she became the founder and first director of Colombia's National Nursing School between 1943 and 1951; afterwards of Bolivia's National Nursing School between 1953 and 1959, when she was invited to fulfill a similar position in Venezuela. She arrived to all these countries first as consultant of the respective Ministry of Health, through Agreements with the Interamerican Cooperative Public Health Services. The Rockefeller Foundation used to provide scholarships to all Latin American countries, At Santo Tomas Hospital School in Panama there used to be students from all parts in Central America, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Argentina. The Rockefeller Foundation wanted to unify nursing throughout Latin America. It first arrived in Venezuela and nurses who graduated in Panama were leaders in Latin America where they tried to open schools.

En las últimas décadas se ha construido una nueva imagen del mundo rural pampeano que ha complejizado el análisis con nuevos temas, métodos y fuentes. En estos estudios si bien los pulperos y pulperías están presentes siempre figuran de manera lateral o complementaria. En este trabajo me propuse profundizar el estudio de pulperos y pulperías rurales una vez reconocida su influencia en materia económica, política y social tanto en la campaña en su conjunto como hacia el interior de los pueblos. El tema elegido entonces responde a la necesidad de un estudio exclusivo y exhaustivo sobre un grupo que entendemos ha cumplido una función muy relevante como elemento central en la expansión, ocupación y estructuración de la sociedad rural bonaerense al igual que lo fueron las estancias, los fuertes y las parroquias. La expansión y consolidación de la campaña bonaerense ha sido acompañada por el despliegue comercial en las últimas décadas del siglo XVIII. Podemos hablar de un fenómeno de retroalimentación entre comerciantes y explotaciones ganaderas protagonizado con frecuencia por las mismas personas. En este sentido las pulperías contribuyeron a la formación de pueblos, la ocupación de nuevas tierras y el desarrollo de relaciones pacíficas con los pueblos originarios, aunque a veces fueron agentes disruptores. Nos queda claro que las pulperías eran engranajes importantes dentro de la economía local y ubicaban a sus propietarios por encima de la mayoría de los productores. Sin embargo muchos pulperos también eran productores o viceversa y esa diversificación les permitía disminuir los riesgos y las posibilidades de "naufragio". Creemos haber matizado y en algunos casos rechazado algunas de las imágenes literarias que en general configuraron una visión muy negativa de los pulperos y sus negocios. El pulpero no era muy distinto a su clientela y formaba parte de las costumbres predominantes de la campaña más allá de tener, en muchos casos, una posición económica más holgada. En este sentido, muchos pulperos fueron vecinos referentes en sus pueblos cumpliendo distintas funciones más allá de la fundamental que era el abastecimiento de bienes básicos, ocuparon cargos en el andamiaje institucional y se erigieron en la "voz del pueblo". La posición privilegiada de algunos pulperos les permitía evadir el peso de la justicia y cuando ocupaban cargos sacar provecho de ellos. Esto refuerza la idea de connivencia entre comercializadores locales y el aparato institucional local en torno al usufructo del tráfico de cueros que cada vez se hacía más rentable. ; A new image of the pampas countryside which has deepen analysis with new topics, methods and sources have been built in recent decades. These studies while the pulperos and pulperías are always present contains side or supplementary way. In this work I decided to extend the investigation of pulperos and rural pulperías recognized once its influence on economic, political and social both in the campaign as a whole towaqrds the interior of the peoples. The theme chosen then responds to the need for a unique study and extensive envelope a group we understand has fulfilled a role as a central element in the expansion, occupation and structuring of the Buenos Aires rural society as were the rooms, the strong and the parishes. The expansion and consolidation of the Buenos Aires campaign has been accompanied by the commercial deployment in the last decades of the 18th century. We can speak of a starred feedback between businesses and farms phenomenon often by the same people. In this sense the pulperías helped peoples training, the occupation of new land and the development of peaceful relations with the aborigines, although sometimes were agents disruptors. Us clearly that the pulperías were important gear of the local economy and placed their owners than most of the producers. However, many pulperos were also producers or vice versa and that diversification allowed them to reduce the risks and the potential for "shipwreck". We believe having tinged and in some cases rejected some literary images that in general set up a very negative view of the pulperos and their businesses. The pulpero was not very different to its clientele and was part of the prevailing customs of the campaign more than have, in many cases, a more ample economic position. In this sense, many pulperos were relating neighbors in their villages perform various duties beyond the fundamental being the supply of basic goods, occupied positions in the institutional scaffolding and erected in the "voice of the people". The privileged position of some pulperos allowed them to evade justice weight and when positions take advantage of them. This reinforces the idea of collusion between marketers premises and the local institutional apparatus in the usufruct of leather that increasingly more profitable traffic. ; Fil: Carrera, Julián. Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación; Argentina.

Background/Aim. The main goal of every health policy is not merely the establishment of the health system sustainability, but the accessibility of health services to the whole population, as well. This objective is shared in European Union countries, and the consequence is the implementation of National Health Accounts (NHA). NHA, as a tool for evidence-based management, provides data regarding financial flow in health at national level and alows international comparability. The aim of this study was to determine Serbian overall health spending patterns by National Health Accounts, and to determine health care indices to provide policy makers with internationally comparable health indicators. Methods. A retrospective analysis of healthcare expenditures was obtained from the published final financial reports of relevant state institutions during a period of 2003 to 2006. The various sources of data on healthcare expenditures were connected according to instructions by the OECD 'A System of Health Accounts (SHA)' Version 1.0. Results. The obtained results showed: health expenditures in Serbia made up 8.6%, 8.3%, 8.7% and 9 % of the GDP in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006, respectively; the Health Insurance Fund was a predominant financing source of the public sector with 93% in 2006; the largest part of the total health expenditures went towards hospitals and for health services; the expenditure per capita in 2006 was 365 US$; Serbian population finances the state institutions 'out of pocket' with 21.28% of their sources, which was 7.3% of the total healthcare expenditures, and the private institutions with 78.72% of their financial sources, which is 27% of the total healthcare expenditures. In 2006 Serbia allocated financial resources out of GDP in the amount similar to the European Unity, while comparing to the countries of the region, these funds were less only than in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This allocating of financial resources in total, however, was low as the consequence of relatively low level of GDP in Serbia. Conclusion. Establishing NHA provided a pattern of national healtcare spending and allowed a comparison of healthcare system in Serbia with the systems of other countries. analyzing a period 2003-2006 revealed a similarity between Serbia and the countries of the European Unity in regard to the level of average financial resources allocation for healthcare expressed as a percentage of GDP, as well as in regard to financiers in the system of healthcare. A high purchasing power disparity, however, in healthcare services was observed between the population of Serbia and other European countries. ; Uvod/Cilj. Glavni cilj zdravstvene politike svake zemlje jeste postizanje finansijske održivosti samog zdravstvenog sistema, kao i obezbeđenje veće dostupnosti zdravstvenim uslugama celom stanovništvu. U ostvarivanju ovog cilja zemlje Evropske unije ustanovile su i u svoje zdravstvene sisteme implementirale Nacionalne zdravstvene račune (NZR). Kao alatka za menadžment u zdravstvu na osnovu dokaza, NZR pruža podatke o finansijskim tokovima u zdravstvu na nacionalnom nivou i omogućuje međunarodno poređenje. Cilj ovog rada bio je da se pomoću NZR ispitaju finansijski tokovi u zdravstvenom sistemu Republike Srbije, utvrdi obrazac zdravstvene potrošnje i odrede zdravstveni indikatori koji će omogućiti poređenje zdravstvenog sistema Srbije sa sistemima drugih zemalja. Metode. Izvršena je retrospektivna analiza zdravstvenih i finansijskih statističkih podataka iz završnih izveštaja relevantnih državnih institucija u periodu od 2003. do 2006. godine. Mnogostruki izvori podataka o zdravstvenoj potrošnji analizirani su po metodologiji NZR i uputstvu Organisation for Economic, Cooperation and Development (OECD) 'System of Health Accounts (SHA)' Version 1.0. Rezultati. Ukupna izdvajanja za zdravstvo činila su 8,6% bruto domaćeg proizvoda (BDP) u 2003. godini, 8,3% BDP u 2004, 8,7% BDP u 2005. i 9% BDP u 2006. godini. Republički zavod za zdravstveno osiguranje (RZZO) bio je predominantni finansijer u javnom sektoru finansijera u zdravstvu sa 93% učešća u 2006. godini. Najveći deo finansijskih sredstava usmeravan je u bolnice i za usluge lečenja. Izdvajanje po glavi stanovnika u 2006. godini u Srbiji bilo je 356 dolara. Od ukupnih sopstvenih sredstava, stanovništvo Srbije finansiralo je državne ustanove sa 21,28%, što iznosi 7,3% od ukupnih rashoda za zdravstvo, a privatne sa 78,72%, što iznosi 27% od ukupnih rashoda za zdravstvo. Srbija je 2006. godine imala slična izdvajanja BDP sa prosekom Evropske unije, a od zemalja u regionu manje je izdvajala od Bosne i Hercegovine. Međutim, ova izdvajanja u apsolutnom iznosu predstavljaju mala sredstva, što je posledica relativno niskog nivoa BDP Srbije. Zaključak. Uspostavom NZR utvrđen je obrazac zdravstvene potrošnje u Republici Srbiji i omogućeno je poređenje njenog zdravstvenog sistema sa sistemima drugih zemalja. U periodu 2003-2006. godina uočena je sličnost između Srbije i zemalja Evropske unije u visini prosečnih izdvajanja za zdravstvenu zaštitu, iskazana kao procenat od BDP, kao i u odnosu finansijera u zdravstvenom sistemu. Međutim, utvrđen je veliki disparitet u kupovnoj moći zdravstvenih usluga između stanovništva Srbije i stanovništva ostalih evropskih zemalja.

One of the main focuses of recent Chinese urban development is the creation and retrofitting of public spaces driven by the market force and demand. However, researches concerning human and cultural influences on shaping public spaces have been scanty. There still exist many undefined ambiguous planning aspects institutionally and legislatively. This is an explanatory research to address interactions, incorporations and interrelationship between the lived environment and its peoples. It is knowledge-seeking and normative. Theoretically, public space in a Chinese context is conceptualized; empirically, a selected case is inquired. The research has unfolded a comparatively complete understanding of China's planning evolution and on-going practices. Data collection emphasizes the concept of 'people' and 'space'. First-hand data is derived from the intensive fieldwork and observatory and participatory documentations. The ample detailed authentic empirical data empowers space syntax as a strong analysis tool in decoding how human's activities influence the public space. Findings fall into two categories but interdependent. Firstly, it discloses the studied settlement as a generic, organic and incremental development model. Its growth and established environment is evolutionary and incremental, based on its intrinsic traditions, life values and available resources. As a self-sustaining settlement, it highlights certain vernacular traits of spatial development out of lifestyles and cultural practices. Its spatial articulation appears as a process parallel to socio-economic transitions. Secondly, crucial planning aspects are theoretically summarized to address the existing gap between current planning methodology and practicalities. It pinpoints several most significant and particular issues, namely, disintegrated land use system and urban planning; missing of urban design in the planning system, loss of a human-responsive environment resulted from standardized planning and under-estimation of heritage in urban development. The research challenges present Chinese planning laws and regulations through urban public space study; and pinpoints to yield certain growth leverage for planning and development. Thus, planning is able to empower inhabitants to make decisions along the process of shaping and sustaining their space. Therefore, it discusses not only legislative issues, concerning land use planning, urban design and heritage conservation. It leads to a pivotal proposal, i.e., the integration of human and their social spaces in formulating a new spatial strategy. It expects to inform policymakers of underpinning social values and cultural practices in reconfiguring postmodern Chinese spatiality. It propounds that social context endemic to communities shall be integrated as a crucial tool in spatial strategy design, hence to strengthen spatial attributes and improve life quality. ; Diese Forschungsarbeit hat erläuternden Charakter und konzentriert sich wissenssuchend und normativ auf ein aktuelles, reales Phänomen. Die zentrale Forschungsfrage lautet: "Wie wird menschliche Umwelterfahrung durch das Leben und kulturelle Handlungen geprägt?" In der modernen chinesischen Stadtentwicklung gibt es nur wenige Forschungsarbeiten über menschliche und kulturelle Einflüsse auf den öffentlichen Raum. Der öffentliche Raum erscheint allgemein als wenig erforschtes Thema. Zudem lässt sich beobachten, dass dieser Begriff bei Entscheidungsträgern, Fachleuten und in der Öffentlichkeit einen jeweils unterschiedlichen Bedeutungsumfang hat. Darüber hinaus ist Städtebau in China weder legitimiert noch in die Stadtplanung integriert. In den letzen zwei Jahrzehnten hat sich jedoch ein dringender Bedarf an weiterer Forschung auf diesem Gebiet entwickelt. Dieser Bedarf ist praxisbezogen und verflochten mit der sozio-räumlichen Restrukturierung im Rahmen des sozioökonomischen Wandels in China. Diese Dissertation besteht aus zwei Teilen, in denen jeweils theoretische und normative Herangehensweisen verwendet werden: der theoretischen Erhebung und der empirischen Untersuchung. Der theoretische Teil beginnt mit einer kritischen Bewertung der historischen Entwicklung der chinesischen Stadtplanung und der diesbezüglichen Gesetzgebung. Er untersucht die Bedeutung und Begriffsdefinition öffentlichen Raumes in den drei Zeitabschnitten kaiserliches China (vor 1919), sozialistisches China unter Mao (1949 bis 1976) und modernes China im ökonomischen Wandel (1978 bis heute). Im Zusammenhang mit den im theoretischen Teil gewonnenen Erkenntnissen erscheint die Fallstudie als geeignetes Instrument zur Untersuchung, wie menschliche Bräuche zur Konzeptionalisierung von Räumen genutzt werden und welche intrinsische Räumlichkeit von einer bestimmten Gesellschaft erzeugt wird. Folglich konzentriert sich die empirische Untersuchung auf Aktivitäten von Menschen im öffentlichen Raum und auf die kulturellen Bräuche und Werte, die ihre gelebte Umwelt beeinflussen. Aufgrund des durch den Forschungsansatz und den gewählten Schwerpunkt vorgegebenen Rahmens sowie der Art der untersuchten Daten wird "Space Syntax" als Analysewerkzeug für die erste Stufe der Datenverarbeitung eingesetzt. Es werden hierbei nur Daten verwendet, die durch mehrere Quellen gestützt sind, um die Gültigkeit und Verlässlichkeit der Ergebnisse zu gewährleisten. In diesem Zusammenhang hat sich die systematische, zielgerichtete Beobachtung verbunden mit Interviews als leistungsfähige Methode erwiesen, um menschliches Verhalten im öffentlichen Raum zu untersuchen. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen, dass sowohl die jeweiligen Regierungsbehörden als auch der Konfuzianismus die Entwicklung des öffentlichen Raumes deutlich beeinflusst haben. Öffentlicher Raum wurde im chinesischen Kontext begrifflich definiert, was eine der Voraussetzungen für die zukünftige Gestaltung des städtischen Raumes im Einklang mit kulturellen Werten und Bräuchen ist. Die betrachtete Siedlung wurde bezüglich der Gliederung des öffentlichen Raumes hinsichtlich der Lebensbräuche der Bewohner untersucht. Für die Beziehung zwischen dem Raum und seinen Einwohnern wurde ein zuverlässiges, deduktives Modell aufgestellt. Die Ergebnisse bestätigen eine signifikante Synergie zwischen Raumstruktur und sozialer Kultur. Auf der technischen Ebene wurde ein anwendbares Landnutzungsmuster bezüglich der Planung von öffentlichem Raum auf Stadtteilniveau ausgearbeitet. Dieses basiert auf der aktuellen nationalen Gesetzgebung, wurde aber um einen adaptiven Planungsansatz erweitert. Die Forschungsergebnisse bestätigen den dringenden Bedarf an einer zusätzlichen räumlichen Planungsstrategie zur Koordinierung von Menschen und ihrem sozialen Raum in China. Insbesondere wurden die vier wichtigsten Lücken zwischen der Planungsmethodologie und der realen Umsetzung identifiziert: 1) Das Landnutzungssystem ist nicht in die Stadtplanung integriert. Es fehlt ein systematischer und ganzheitlicher Planungsansatz. Landnutzungsplanung regelt das Management und die Überwachung der Durchführung nicht rechtsverbindlich. 2) Im gesamten Planungssystem Chinas fehlen aufgrund historischer und kultureller Aspekte städetbauliche Gesichtspunkte. Erschwerend kommen mangelnder Wettbewerb bei der Landnutzungsplanung, unzureichend qualifizierte lokale Fachplaner sowie mangelndes Problembewusstsein der Öffentlichkeit hinzu. 3) Die standardisierte Planung verursacht einen Verlust des "human-responsive environment". 4) Die Bedeutung von Kulturdenkmälern für die Stadtentwicklung wird unterschätzt. Folglich sind Kulturdenkmäler keine Ziele aktueller Planungen.