Electricity undeniably holds a predominant place in modern societies. It is one of the engines of economic growth and countless end uses depend on the flow of electrons. Faced with the challenges of climate change, various medium- and long-term objectives serve to guide political action towards the decarbonization of the predominantly fossil fuel-based electricity production mix. The evolution of the European mix in particular is marked by the integration of a growing share of intermittent renewable resources. The strong climatic dependence of this mode of production, destined to grow in the future, nevertheless raises questions about the operation of the power system. How will the strong interdependence between interconnected systems evolve in the face of the variable geographical distribution of intermittent generation? What are the flexibility/cooperation needs associated with this evolution? To what extent could climate uncertainty impact long-term objectives? Through prospective modeling of energy systems, it is possible to identify, over a finite time horizon and under various constraints, an optimal architecture of commodity flows and technologies (current and future) leading to the satisfaction of final demand at minimum total cost. In the context of interconnected systems and including renewable generation, this long-term exploration is made more complex due to climate variability and various forms of induced uncertainties. This thesis is part of the Clim2Power project gathering 12 research teams across Europe and aiming at translating climate projection data into operational data for the different actors of the power sector. We are developing a new bottom-up optimization model of the European electricity system (eTIMES-EU). It provides a detailed description of its infrastructure and its intra-day operation, which is used to discuss its long-term evolution. Through it, we propose an original approach to address the impact of climate variability on electricity demand, solar, wind and hydro resources in contrasting scenarios for the European electricity mix until 2050. These scenarios, formulated around different levels of commitment to decarbonisation, integrate assumptions on future demand levels, technology availability, use of interconnections and national policies regarding coal and nuclear resources. In addition, we propose a numerical approach that addresses multi-regional problem solving. It allows, thanks to Lagrangian relaxation, to deal with equivalent sub-problems that are easier to solve and provides a heuristic in the resolution of the global problem. ; L'électricité tient indéniablement une place prépondérante dans les sociétés modernes. Elle constitue un des moteurs de la croissance économique et innombrables sont aujourd'hui les usages finaux dépendant des flux d'électrons. Face aux défis du changement climatique, différents objectifs à moyen ou long terme servent à guider l'action politique vers la décarbonisation du mix de production électrique majoritairement fossile. L'évolution du mix européen en particulier est marquée par l'intégration d'une part croissante de moyens renouvelables intermittents. La forte dépendance climatique de ce mode de production, vouée à croître dans le futur, soulève néanmoins des questions sur l'opération du système électrique. Comment la forte interdépendance entre les systèmes interconnectés évoluera-t-elle face à la distribution géographique variable de la production intermittente ? Quels sont les besoins de flexibilité/de coopération associés à cette évolution ? Dans quelle mesure l'incertitude climatique pourrait-elle affecter les objectifs de long terme ? A travers la modélisation prospective des systèmes énergétiques, il est possible d'identifier sur un horizon temporel fini et sous diverses contraintes, une architecture optimale des flux de commodités et des technologies (actuelles et futures) conduisant à une satisfaction de la demande finale à un coût total minimal. Dans le cadre de systèmes interconnectés incluant de la production renouvelable, cette exploration à long terme est rendue plus complexe du fait de la variabilité climatique et des différentes formes d'incertitudes induites. Cette thèse s'inscrit dans le cadre du projet Clim2Power regroupant 12 équipes de recherche à travers toute l'Europe et visant à traduire des données de projections climatiques en données opérationnelles pour les différents acteurs du secteur électrique. Nous y développons un nouveau modèle d'optimisation bottom-up de type MARKAL TIMES du système électrique européen (eTIMES-EU). Il réalise une description détaillée de son infrastructure et de son fonctionnement infra-journalier servant à discuter son évolution à long terme. A travers celui-ci, nous proposons une approche originale pour traiter de l'incidence de la variabilité climatique sur la demande électrique, les ressources solaires, éoliennes et hydrauliques dans des scénarios contrastés portant sur le mix électrique européen à l'horizon 2050. Ces scénarios, formulés autour de différents niveaux d'engagement dans la décarbonisation, intègrent des hypothèses sur les niveaux de demande futurs, la disponibilité des technologies, l'utilisation des interconnexions et les politiques nationales face aux moyens charbon et nucléaire. Nous proposons de plus une approche numérique qui traite de la résolution des problèmes multi-régions. Elle permet, grâce à la relaxation lagrangienne, de traiter des sous problèmes équivalents plus faciles à résoudre et fournissant une heuristique dans la résolution du problème global.
Afghanistan is an ancient country with rich natural resources and rich traditional medicine. The country is known as a resource base for many wild-collected medicinal and aromatic plants that are well recognized in regional and international markets. Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) in Afghanistan represent important health and economic components of the country's biodiversity. The country has a high floristic diversity ; it is estimated that there are about 5,000 species of flowering plants with many of them endemic. Afghanistan is a landlocked country and situated in the subtropical ; dry zones of Southwest Asia that has continental types of climate characterized by desert ; steppe ; and highland temperature and precipitation regimes. The main part of the land cover of Afghanistan ; 30,243,985 ha ; is made up of rangeland (47%) ; which is the main habitat for MAPs. The sharp climatic seasonality gives rise to the extensive development in Afghanistan of peculiar diversity of vegetation Wild collection of MAPs has a long history in the country and it contributes to traditional medicine and the local economies of the populations. Afghanistan exports each year around 50 medicinal and aromatic plant raw materials to different countries. Analysis of the export of MAP products shows ; that the exports of MAPs has been increased sharply from 2008 to 2016. Within the study period ; an annual average growth rate (AAGR) of 16.2% in comparison to 2.4% in the volumes of exports in global trade was observed Increases in the collection of medicinal plants ; long lasting war ; a breakdown of the governmental and local systems of monitoring ; poverty ; climate change and the susceptibility of Afghanistan to desertification are the main threats to natural MAP resources. Much of the wild flora of the country is experiencing a significant decline on account of habitat loss and degradation. Government agencies have played a limited role in conservation work over the last four decades ; therefore the present status of the natural resources of wild MAPs is a great concern. This study has been conducted with the objectives of resource analysis of potential species of MAPs ; and evaluating approaches for sustainable resource management of wild medicinal plants. In this study ; four species (Glycyrrihiza sp. Ferula sp. ; Cuminum sp. ; and Bunium sp.) have been screened out as the potentially viable products among the wild collections in Afghanistan. In order to conduct this study ; four aspects of natural resources were evaluated through appropriate frameworks: status of resources and conservation measures ; socioeconomic ; trade and marketing ; and technological proficiencies for the processing and standardization of products. Every aspect comprises certain criteria (in total 25 variables) ; which were scored according to their relative significance through focusing on defined benchmarks. Based on the study of the distribution pattern of the selected MAPs ; Herat province was targeted in this study. The dataset has been analyzed with the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS). The histograms produced by SPSS analysis ; demonstrate the status of every criterion for the species studied in all 15 districts of the province. It depicts that the abundance and state of conservation of Glycyrrhiza sp. and Cuminum sp. are in a relatively better status compared to the two other plants ; though the status of Ferula sp. is critical. The study reveals ; that districts of Chesht-e-Sharif ; Kohsan ; and Pashtun Zarghun have the highest potentials in conservation ; trade and marketing ; and opportunities for the improvement of the supply chain and quality of the products. In contrast ; Obe ; Zandajan ; Kushk-e-Kohna ; Kushk-e-Robat Sangi and Adraskan are the poorest districts in this regard ; respectively. The study demonstrates that the risk of the threat to the selected species is high in the following order: Ferula sp.> Bunium sp. > Cuminum sp.> Glycyrrhiza sp. It also depicts ; that the potential for sustainable management for the species varies in the following order: Glycyrrhiza sp. > Bunium sp. > Ferula sp.> Cuminum sp. To analyze the relationship between certain specific criteria ; structural equation modeling (SEM) has been used. SEM reveals that abundance of the species in all cases have significant partial regression coefficients on the potential for sustainable management (0.33 ; 0.48 ; 1.07 ; 0.2 ; respectively). This signifies that the physical capacity of resources enhances the attraction of more investments by the different stakeholders in different segments of the supply chain. Meanwhile ; abilities and skills for technological proficiencies have a negative regression coefficient effect on potential for sustainable management. Some other SEM has been studied of the relationship between different variables with the aim of the quantification of different factors effects. Based on the finding of the study ; different approaches for the sustainable resource management have been discussed. Among them are updating discussed strategies ; developing action plans with the focus to realities ; engagement of the community in sustainable resource management ; establishing collaboration between stakeholders in the area of biodiversity and natural resources ; generation of evidence-based information about MAPs ; establishing certification system ; and capacity enhancement of communities ; collectors and other relevant technical staff.
In order to create an optimal land use model and reduce the impact of erosion on agricultural land, a number of land conservation measures need to be introduced. The most effective set of measures that minimizes the manifestation of water erosion in erosion-hazardous areas is the contouring-reclamation organization of the territory. This complex of activities combines a protective reclamation structure that interacts with the terrain and soil protection technology of growing crops.In general, at the end of the 1980s, projects of contouring-reclamation organization of the territory were developed for sites that had a negative erosion effect throughout the territory of Ukraine. However, with the beginning of the 1990s, the practical implementation of measures to restructure the territory was suspended due to political transformations and lack of funds.In practice, one of the most striking examples of the implementation of design decisions is the territory of Lisnosankivsky village council of the Kupyansk district, whose Kharkiv territory is characterized by significant manifestations of erosion. For three decades, the staff of the soil protection laboratory conducted experiments on these sites. The possibility of achieving sustainable ecological indicators of soil erosion at field crop rotation -1.8 t / ha and soil protection crop rotation -1.5 t / ha was established.Similar objects that were implemented and implemented in the Kupyansk district of the Kharkiv region, were partially implemented on other erosion-hazardous sites in Polissya, Forest-steppe and Steppe regions of Ukraine. Today, most of these activities have exhausted their laid-out exploitation resources, some of the protected areas were destroyed as a result of the lack of state control, constant change of owners and the lack of motivation of actual land users.The negative manifestation of water erosion on arable land is characteristic not only for the territory of Ukraine. This process is widespread in different countries where the soil, relief and climatic conditions have similar characteristics of water erosion.One of the most successful foreign experience in minimizing the effects of water erosion, under similar conditions, on agricultural land is realized in the United States of America. Since the 1970s, agricultural producers (farmers) have attracted erosion-hazardous areas to cultivate and have grown crops that are in high demand on the market. Such activities have led to negative consequences. The biggest erosion problem in the early 1980s was the state of Missouri. The state of the state has a wide range of soils and terrain, which is characterized by the characteristics of water erosion and the development of a subtropical network.To stop, minimize the effects of water erosion in the United States began research and implementation of soil protection measures. In 1985, the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) was approved. The purpose of this program was to withdraw from the cultivation of erosion-hazardous areas for 10-15 years, the development and implementation of contour-melioration organization of the territory. The funding for the CRP program was supposed by the tax on land sales. The result of this program for 30 years is the preservation of 9 billion tons of fertile soil from erosion, as well as reduced flushing of mineral fertilizers by 85%.The best results for soil conservation and minimization of the effects of water erosion across the state were achieved in Missouri. The soil washed in 2007 from 1 acre (0,405 hectares) and amounted to 4.2 tons and 5.3 tons for cultivating crops. That is, almost twice in 25 years. Approximate structure of the land fund was 1/3 of arable land, 1/3 of pasture and hayfields, and 1/3 of forest lands. This structure was achieved through the reservation of agricultural land.Domestic and foreign experience of the embodiment of contour-reclamation organization of the territory in areas with manifestation of erosion processes, testifies to the possibility of using them under arable land. However, these sites will require constant monitoring and restrictions on use.It has been practically confirmed that the key measure in the preserved soils from water erosion, in the presence of contour-land reclamation organization of the territory, will depend on the correct economic activity of the actual land user.Repeated introduction into active cultivation of erosion sites will adversely affect soil fertility and crop yield. Elimination of the consequences caused by erosion on agricultural land will not be comparable to the profits gained from cultivating crops.Keywords: сontour-land reclamation organization, erosion, water erosion, agrolandscape, land protection. ; Розглянуто історичні передумови впровадження контурно-меліоративної організації території в Україні і ефективність функціонування аналогічних об'єктів на сільськогосподарських землях штатів США, які мають схожі ґрунтово-кліматичні особливості та прояв ерозійних процесів. Запропоновано ряд заходів, спрямованих на зниження проявів ерозії ґрунтів на сільськогосподарських землях та оптимізації агроландшафтів.Ключові слова. Контурно-меліоративна організація території, ерозія, водна ерозія, агроландшафт, охорона земель.
Organizational production of agricultural products is used to preserve the natural environment and to preserve the quality of the products. The development of organic wines in the light of 100 years and over the course of the period has become insane, as for the correct organization of it, you can preserve ecological, social, and commercial transfers. The organizational structure has become a warehouse part of the bio-economy and circular economy, which is a priority for the economic development of the European Union, the USA, Great Britain, the Great Britain, the Republic of Korea, Japan, and the United States of America.For determining the prospects and problems of organic production of agricultural products, general scientific methods were used such as publicity, systematization, analysis, and synthesis, of the scientific literature and normative documents. For an additional analysis of regulatory documents, a procedure for certifying the authorities of the United States, the European Union and Ukraine has been established.Ukraine, in turn, began to take the first steps towards organic production in the late 1990s. It was at this time that she began to grow organic grain and opened export lines for its transportation to other countries, mainly Europe. Ukraine remains a leader in the production and export of organic cereals. Export competitive advantages of national agar products are lower production costs and logistics support.Ukraine continues to increase its organic production capacity - an increasing number of operators are appearing in this sector of agricultural production. As of 2019, the share of organic production of crop products in Ukraine is 1.4% (5th place in the world in terms of growth rate of organic agriculture), which is 467.9 thousand hectares of the total area of agricultural land in 32, 7 million hectares, as well as 470 operators of organic production. The dynamics of changes in organic agricultural production in Ukraine indicates a general trend of increasing their number, but in some periods, there is a decrease due to the economic and political situation in the country and changes in legislation in this area.Ukraine has significant advantages of organic production, which include a high level of soil fertility, favorable climatic conditions, traditional orientation as an agrarian state. Also, the price of Ukrainian products is lower than the minimum price of organic products of European countries. In the organic production of crops use methods that optimize the biological activity of soils, provide a balanced supply of nutrients to plants.At the same time, there are problems in Ukraine that hinder the development of organic production. In particular, the diversity of the territory in terms of the level of pollution of environmental components, lack of practical application of innovations and modern technologies of agricultural production. The lack of state support for organic producers and state certification system (including qualified specialists for its implementation).Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine of October 21, 2020, № 1032 "On approval of the Procedure for certification of organic production and / or circulation of organic products and amendments to the resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine of October 23, 2019, № 970" approved the stages of certification.Was made the comparison of approaches to the certification of agricultural enterprises in Ukraine shows that they meet European and American standards. However, the absence of a state certification body that certifies organic producers and accredits private certification bodies makes it impossible for state control over organic market operators and the functioning of state certification. The current certification system in Ukraine does not cover the issue of soil contamination or other components of environment, which may affect the quality and safety of organic products. In Ukraine, enterprises in various sectors of the economy use outdated technologies, which can cause soil contamination of agricultural lands, and, accordingly, affect the quality of organic products.Currently, the Laws of Ukraine and the Cabinet of Ministers do not require: the location of the organic agricultural enterprise; content of harmful substances in the soil (including the content of radionuclides and pesticide residues); content in the soil of nutrients that can ensure the production of quality agricultural products and confirm the activities of the farm aimed at maintaining soil fertility.To guarantee the quality of organic products, it is advisable in the certification procedure to consider the level of fertility and soil contamination of agricultural lands, as well as the availability of sources of environmental pollution in the location of the organic producer. Given the above, it is advisable to introduce criteria for assessing the compliance of soils with the requirements of organic production. This approach can guarantee the safety and quality of organic products.During the organization of organic production of agricultural products in Ukraine, the issues of criteria for assessing compliance with regulatory requirements, documentation to be kept by the operator of organic production, etc. ; Органічне виробництво сільськогосподарської продукції створює умови для збереження навколишнього природного середовища та забезпечення якості продуктів харчування. З метою ефективного впровадження та розвитку ринку органічної сільськогосподарської продукції в Україні актуальним є дослідження підходів до сертифікації в Україні та світі. Завданням цієї роботи було встановлення перспектив та проблем органічного виробництва сільськогосподарської продукції в Україні. Для проведення досліджень було використано загальнонаукові методи, зокрема, узагальнення, систематизація, аналіз та синтез наукової літератури та нормативних документів.Було показано, що в Україні до переваг ведення органічного виробництва відносяться високий рівень родючості грунтів і сприятливі кліматичні умови. Проблемами, які перешкоджають розвитку органічного виробництва, є строкатість території за рівнем забруднення компонентів довкілля, відсутність держаної системи сертифікації та кваліфікованих спеціалістів для її проведення. Порівняння підходів до сертифікації сільськогосподарських підприємств в Україні та інших розвинутих державах показало відповідність національних підходів європейським та американським стандартам. Проте відсутність державного сертифікаційного органу унеможливлює державний контроль за операторами органічного ринку та функціонування державної сертифікації вцілому. З метою гарантування якості органічної продукції у процедурі сертифікації потрібно враховувати рівень родючості і забруднення грунтів сільськогосподарських угідь, а також наявність джерел забруднення навколишнього природного середовища території розміщення оператора органічного виробництва.Для організації органічного виробництва сільськогосподарської продукції в Україні відкритими залишаються питання критеріїв оцінювання відповідності операторів органічного виробництва нормативним вимогам документації, тощо.
Dottorato di ricerca in Ortoflorofrutticoltura ; La comunità scientifica internazionale concorda che i cambiamenti climatici in atto, sono causa delle attività antropiche. Si stima che annualmente l'agricoltura influisca mediamente con le emissioni in atmosfera di gas serra in modo diretto ed indiretto, ad una quota compresa tra 9~12 Pg CO2 eq yr-1, pari a circa al 24% delle emissioni globali. Nel settore agricolo la variabilità e le incertezze su come i cicli biogeochimici del suolo, influenzino tali emissioni, limitano le attuali politiche di mitigazione a scala regionale, in quanto, le emissioni di GHG sono fortemente influenzate dal tipo di coltura, dalle condizioni climatiche e dalle pratiche agricole locali. Nella Provincia di Viterbo, che ricopre una superficie pari a circa 2.810 km2, caratterizzata da un clima tipicamente mediterraneo con siccità estiva, ci sono stati pochi studi approfonditi riguardanti il bilancio del carbonio che si determina durante la coltivazione delle colture erbacee. In questo contesto, per quantificare e contrastare i flussi di gas serra responsabili dei cambiamenti climatici, la ricerca effettuata nell'ambito di questo lavoro, ha riguardato la misura ed il monitoraggio dei flussi di carbonio (Net Ecosystem Exchange) a livello di sito sperimentale con la tecnica eddy covariance, determinando il bilancio del carbonio, (NECB) per le annate agrarie a partire dal 2009 sino al 2013. A livello regionale, si è stimato, per l'anno 2009, il flusso di NEE, durante la coltivazione del frumento duro (Triticum durum Desf.) e del trifoglio incarnato (Trifolium incarnatum L.), colture agrarie caratteristiche del panorama agricolo della Provincia di Viterbo. Per determinare la distribuzione spaziale dei flussi sono state utilizzate immagini satellitari LANDSAT ed il modello di simulazione DNDC 9.5. Le informazioni agronomiche utilizzate come input dal modello per la simulazione regionale sono state estratte da un database di pratiche agronomiche, realizzato durante il dottorato, il quale raccoglie dettagliate informazioni sulla gestione colturale utilizzata nella Provincia di Viterbo. I risultati ottenuti a livello di sito ci hanno permesso di comprendere come le colture di erbai e di trifoglio sono dei sink, con un range che varia da -25,65 g C equivalenti m-2 a -464,78 g C equivalenti m-2, in quanto riescono a immagazzinare nell'agroecosistema più carbonio di quanto ne perdono, mentre il frumento duro si è rivelato una fonte di carbonio (source) ma con valori molto bassi pari a 16,05 g C equivalenti m-2. Il caso di studio sviluppato a livello regionale ha permesso di valutare la distribuzione spaziale dei flussi di NEE nella provincia di Viterbo. Questa applicazione preliminare ha consentito una maggiore comprensione, di come le pratiche agricole, associate alla gestione delle colture erbacee prese in esame, possano influire tali flussi, diminuendo in parte le incertezze dovute alle variabili che entrano a far parte nei cicli biogeochimici del terreno, migliorando la comprensione delle dinamiche dei flussi dei gas serra nel settore agricolo della Provincia di Viterbo. Questa ricerca con dovuti approfondimenti potrebbe essere un punto di partenza, per possibili attuazioni di strategie volte alla riduzione e mitigazione, dell'impatto negativo che hanno i gas serra rilasciati dal settore agricolo nei cambiamenti climatici. ; The international scientific community agrees that climate changes are caused by human activities. It is estimated that annually agriculture affects atmospheric emissions of greenhouse gases directly and indirectly, to a share between 9 ~ 12 Pg CO2 eq yr-1, approximately 24% of global emissions. In the agricultural sector the variability and uncertainty of how the biogeochemical cycles of the soil affect the fluxes of such emissions, are not well known and are currently under investigation, since GHG emissions are strongly influenced by the type of crop, climatic conditions and the local agricultural practices. In the agricultural sector of the province of Viterbo, that covers an area of approximately 2.810 km2, characterized by a Mediterranean climate with dry summer, there have been a few studies taking into account the fluxes of carbon that are determined during the cultivation of field crops. In this context, in order to quantify and to contrast the fluxes responsible for climate change, the research carried out in these years of study, has measured and monitored carbon fluxes (Net Ecosystem Exchange) at the experimental site with the eddy covariance technique, defining the carbon balance, (NECB) for the agricultural years from 2009 until 2013. At the regional level, the fluxes of NEE were estimated during the cultivation of durum wheat (Durum wheat Desf.) and crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.), two characteristic crops of agricultural landscape of Viterbo. To determine the spatial fluxes of NEE, images from LANDSAT 2009 satellite and the DNDC 9.5 simulation model have been used. The information used as agricultural inputs in the model to simulate at the regional level was extracted from the database of crop management, assembled during this PhD research. This database contains information about agronomic practices characteristic for the Province of Viterbo, applied during the crops cultivation. The results obtained at the site allowed us to understand how the fodder crop and grassland are sink of carbon, with a range that varies from -25.65 g C m-2 equivalent to -464.78 g C m-2 equivalent, because they can store more carbon in the agro ecosystem than they lose, while durum wheat has revealed a carbon source but with very low values 16.05 g C m-2 equivalent. At the regional simulation the spatial distribution of the fluxes of NEE has allowed to understand how farming practices, associated with the management of the examined field crops, may affect these fluxes, partly by reducing the uncertainties due to the variables that become part in biogeochemical cycles of the soil, improving the understanding of the dynamics of the fluxes of greenhouse gases in the agricultural sector of the Province of Viterbo. This research with further in-depth analysis could be a starting point for possible implementations of reduction strategies and mitigation in agriculture landscape in Central Italy.
With 2015 marking the transition from the Millennium to the Sustainable Development Goals, the international community can celebrate many development successes since 2000. Three key challenges stand out: the depth of remaining poverty, the unevenness in shared prosperity, and the persistent disparities in non-income dimensions of development. First, the policy discourse needs to focus more directly on the poorest among the poor. While pockets of ultra-poverty exist around the world, Sub-Saharan Africa is home to most of the deeply poor. To make depth a more central element in policy formulation, easy-to-communicate measures are needed, and this note attempts a step in this direction with person-equivalent measures of poverty. Second, the eradication of poverty in all of its forms requires steady growth of the incomes of the bottom 40 percent. Yet, economic growth, a key driver of shared prosperity, may not be as buoyant as before the global financial crisis. Third, unequal progress in non-income dimensions of development requires addressing widespread inequality of opportunity, which transmits poverty across generations and erodes the pace and sustainability of progress for the bottom 40. To meet these challenges, three ingredients are core to the policy agenda: sustaining broad-based growth, investing in human development, and insuring the poor and vulnerable against emerging risks.
The main impetus for this report (and for the reports prepared for the other six growth poles) is a request received from the Ministry of Regional Development and Public Administration. The request came within the context of on-going preparations for the 2014-2020 Programming period, with Energy Efficiency being one the major themes of the Europe 2020 strategy, and a critical priority for all EU Member Countries. Within Romania, local authorities that will want to access energy efficiency funds under the 2014-2020 Regional Operational Program will need to first prepare energy efficiency strategies. The TRACE tool is specifically targeted at local authorities, and is a good instrument for drafting such strategies. After the 1989 Revolution, Romania began its transition from a centralized system to a market-based economy. Today the country is a member of the European Union (EU) and NATO. After more than a decade of economic restructuring and political change, the country has taken significant steps toward catching up with the economic performance of more developed EU countries. Although radical reforms brought about significant changes in recent years, the standard of living of Romanians is still behind the EU average. The transition period after the end of the communist regime has led to significant changes in the social and economic life of the residents of Craiova. Some of these developments have positively affected people's life, whereas a few came along with inconveniences and difficulties. During the first years of transition the city attracted people from parts of Dolj County and from elsewhere in Romania. This process led to severe de-population in the rural areas of Dolj County. At the same time, due to economic constraints, some of the urban population of Craiova moved to the wider metropolitan area. Like every other city in the country, municipal buildings in Craiova require proper measures toward improving energy efficiency - particularly in health care and education facilities managed by the city government. A benchmarking of the municipal building stock, along with audit and retrofit measures, should be performed in order to identify the highest energy savings potential and proper intervention measures. As for the water sector, although the system covers the entire city and most of the households in Craiova have water meters, there are high losses in the network. In addition, in order to improve the overall efficiency of the water system, oversized pumps needs to be replaced with smaller, energy-efficient ones. Finally, although selective collection has been implemented in Craiova, there is more that can be done about improving recycling rates.
In fragile-ecosystem arid and semi-arid land, climatic variations, water scarcity and human pressure accelerate ongoing degradation of natural resources. In order to implement sustainable management, the ecological state of the land must be known and diachronic studies to monitor and assess desertification processes are indispensable in this respect. The present study is developed in the frame of WADIS-MAR (www.wadismar.eu). This is one of the five Demonstration Projects implemented within the Regional Programme "Sustainable Water Integrated Management (SWIM)" (www.swim-sm.eu ), funded by the European Commission and which aims to contribute to the effective implementation and extensive dissemination of sustainable water management policies and practices in the Southern Mediterranean Region. The WADIS-MAR Project concerns the realization of an integrated water harvesting and artificial aquifer recharge techniques in two watersheds in Maghreb Region: Oued Biskra in Algeria and wadi Oum Zessar in Tunisia. The WADIS MAR Project is coordinated by the Desertification Research Center of the University of Sassari in partnership with the University of Barcelona (Spain), Institut des Régions Arides (Tunisia) and Agence Nationale des Ressources Hydrauliques (Algeria) and the international organization Observatorie du Sahara et du Sahel. The project is coordinated by Prof. Giorgio Ghiglieri. The project aims at the promotion of an integrated, sustainable water harvesting and agriculture management in two watersheds in Tunisia and Algeria. As agriculture and animal husbandry are the two main economic activities in these areas, demand and pressure on natural resources increase in order to cope with increasing population's needs. In arid and semiarid study areas of Algeria and Tunisia, sustainable development of agriculture and resources management require the understanding of these dynamics as it withstands monitoring of desertification processes. Vegetation is the first indicator of decay in the ecosystem functions as it is sensitive to any disturbance, as well as soil characteristics and dynamics as it is edaphically related to the former. Satellite remote sensing of land affected by sand encroachment and salinity is a useful tool for decision support through detection and evaluation of desertification indicating features. Land cover, land use, soil salinization and sand encroachment are examples of such indicators that if integrated in a diachronic assessment, can provide quantitative and qualitative information on the ecological state of the land, particularly degradation tendencies. In recent literature, detecting and mapping features in saline and sandy environments with remotely sensed imagery has been reported successful through the use of both multispectral and hyperspectral imagery, yet the limitations to both image types maintain "no agreed-on best approach to this technology for monitoring and mapping soil salinity and sand encroachment". Problems regarding the image classification of features in these particular areas have been reported by several researchers, either with statistical or neural/connectionist algorithms for both fuzzy and hard classifications methods. In this research, salt and sand features were assessed through both visual interpretation and automated classification approaches, employing historical and present Landsat imagery (from 1984 to 2015). The decision tree analysis was chosen because of its high flexibility of input data range and type, the easiness of class extraction through non-parametric, multi-stage classification. It makes no a priori assumption on class distribution, unlike traditional statistical classifiers. The visual interpretation mapping of land cover and land use was undergone according to acknowledged standard nomenclature and methodology, such as CORINE land cover or AFRICOVER 2000, Global Land Cove 2000 etc. The automated one implies a decision tree (DT) classifier and an unsupervised classification applied to the principal components (PC) extracted from Knepper ratios composite in order to assess their validity for the change detection analysis. In the Tunisian study area, it was possible to conduct a thorough ground truth survey resulting in a record of 400 ground truth points containing several information layers (ground survey sheet information on various land components, photographs, reports in various file formats) stored within the a shareable standalone geodatabase. Spectral data were also acquired in situ using the handheld ASD FieldSpec 3 Jr. Full Range (350 – 2500 nm) spectroradiometer and samples were taken for X-ray diffraction analysis. The sampling sites were chosen on the basis of a geomorphological analysis, ancillary data and the previously interpreted land cover/land use map, specifically generated for this study employing Landsat 7 and 8 imagery. The spectral campaign has enabled the acquisition of spectral reflectance measurements of 34 points, of which 14 points for saline surfaces (9 samples); 10 points for sand encroachment areas (10 samples); 3 points for typical vegetation (halophyte and psammophyte) and 7 points for mixed surfaces. Five of the eleven indices employed in the Decision Tree construction were constructed throughout the current study, among which we propose also a salinity index (SMI) for the extraction of highly saline areas. Their application have resulted in an accuracy of more than 80%. For the error estimation phase, the interpreted land cover/use map (both areas) and ground truth data (Oum Zessar area only) supported the results of the 1984 to 2014 salt – affected areas diachronic analysis obtained through both automatic methods. Although IsoDATA classification maps applied to Knepper ratios Principal Component Analysis has proven its good potential as an approach of fast automated, user-independent classifier, accuracy assessment has shown that decision tree outstood it and was proven to have a substantial advantage over the former. The employment of the Decision Tree classifier has proven to be more flexible and adequate for the extraction of highly and moderately saline areas and major land cover types, as it allows multi-source information and higher user control, with an accuracy of more than 80%. Integrating results with ancillary spatial data, we could argue driving forces, anthropic vs natural, as well as source areas, and understand and estimate the metrics of desertification processes. In the Biskra area (Algeria), results indicate that the expansion of irrigated farmland in the past three decades contributes to an ongoing secondary salinization of soils, with an increase of over 75%. In the Oum Zessar area (Tunisia), there was substantial change in several landscape components in the last decades, related to increased anthropic pressure and settlement, agricultural policies and national development strategies. One of the most concerning aspects is the expansion of sand encroached areas over the last three decades of around 27%.
The thesis studies ski resorts planned and built at high altitude after the Second World War in the Franco-Italian Alps.The two national contexts, different for economic history, politics and geographical location, now share similar problems, which look to the future of a tourism model based on mass attendance, long stays and an offer concentrated around skiing. Indeed, climatic hazards, changes in the modes and times of tourist use, ageing of structures and infrastructures, are only some of the challenges which these places are facing today. Several researchers from various disciplines then suggested that the station could be rethought in continuity with the territory, the latter included in its economic, geographical or administrative nature.The research aims at investigating these questions in the field of architecture and through a historical study. By questioning the relationships established between the station and the territory (in its spatial, environmental and landscape components) during the design, construction and evolution process, the wish is to go beyond a reading of high mountain tourist establishments as decontextualized objects.Working on the spatial coordinate of the territory, we formulate the hypothesis that the establishment of winter sports resorts has led to large-scale transformations, and that, at the same time, the environmental, historical, economic and geomorphological characteristics of the sites concerned have played an active role in the design and construction process.Working on the temporal coordinate of the territory, we assume that the history of the winter sports resorts built in the 1960s and 1970s is only one step in the long process of transforming high-altitude sites for tourism. In this perspective, the history of activities preceding tourism, located in the same places, plays a decisive role.We rely on a method developed by environmental historians such as William Cronon, who considers the history of a territory as the result of interactions between human actions and natural data over a long period of time. The work is carried out through the study of four cases: Pila and Sansicario, in the Italian Alps; Chamrousse and La Plagne in the French Alps. We mobilize a corpus mainly constituted by documents belonging to different archival collections (local authorities, architects and urban planners, technicians), which we process by analyzing textual, graphic and cartographic documents, as well as by re-drawing and constructing chronosystem systemic timelines.In addition to give a contribution to the understanding of the history of tourism development in high mountain areas, we hope, through this work, to contribute to the debate on the methodological issues of research in the history of architecture. ; La thèse étudie les stations de sports d'hiver planifiées et construites en haute altitude après la Seconde Guerre mondiale dans les Alpes franco-italiennes.Les deux contextes nationaux, différents du fait de leurs histoires économiques, politiques et situations géographiques, partagent aujourd'hui des problèmes similaires. Ceux-ci concernent le futur d'un modèle touristique basé sur une fréquentation massive, de longs séjours et une offre concentrée autour de la pratique du ski. En effet, l'aléa climatique, le changement dans les modes et les temps de la fréquentation touristique, le vieillissement des structures et infrastructures, représentent seulement une partie des enjeux auxquels ces lieux se confrontent. Plusieurs chercheurs provenant de diverses disciplines suggèrent alors de repenser la station comme étant en continuité avec le territoire d'implantation, ce dernier compris dans sa nature économique, géographique ou administrative.La recherche, menée dans le domaine de l'architecture, souhaite contribuer à la réflexion autour de ces questionnements par une étude historique. En interrogeant les relations établies entre la station et le territoire (dans ses composantes spatiales, environnementales, paysagères), durant le processus de conception, de construction et d'évolution, nous souhaitons aller au-delà d'une lecture des établissements touristiques de haute montagne considérés comme des objets décontextualisés.En nous appuyant sur la coordonnée spatiale du territoire, nous formulons l'hypothèse que l'implantation des stations de sports d'hiver a entrainé des transformations à grande échelle, et que, en même temps, les caractères environnementaux, historiques, économiques, géomorphologiques des sites concernés ont joué un rôle actif dans le processus de conception et construction.À partir de la coordonnée temporelle du territoire, nous supposons que l'histoire des stations de sports d'hiver construites dans les années 1960 et 1970 n'est qu'une étape dans le processus long de transformation touristique des sites de haute altitude. Dans cette perspective, l'histoire des activités précédentes au tourisme, implantées sur les mêmes lieux, joue un rôle décisif.Le travail se déroule à travers l'étude de quatre cas : Pila et Sansicario, dans les Alpes italiennes ; Chamrousse et La Plagne dans les Alpes françaises. Pour cela, nous nous appuyons sur une méthode mise en place par les historiens de l'environnement, tels que William Cronon, qui considèrent l'histoire d'un territoire comme le résultat des interactions entre activités humaines et données naturelles, sur un temps long. Nous mobilisons un corpus principalement constitué de documents appartenant à différents fonds d'archives (des collectivités territoriales, des architectes et urbanistes, des techniciens), que nous traitons par l'analyse de documents textuels, graphiques et cartographiques qui le composent, ainsi que par le re-dessin et la construction de frises chrono-systémiques.Au-delà de contribuer à la compréhension de l'histoire de la mise en tourisme des territoires de haute montagne nous souhaitons, par ce travail, participer à la réflexion autour des enjeux méthodologiques de la recherche en histoire de l'architecture.
The non-renewable nature of fossil fuels combined with the high level of participation within transportation sector in the total consumption of primary energy and atmospheric pollution, have become the primary forces propelling research of alternative sources for vehicles, mainly those sources derived from biomass. This has resulted in an increased environmental consciousness that seeks to replace fossil fuels or to provide blends that reduce their overall consumption. Mainly searching for these sources in agribusiness, and taking into account that tropical countries play lead roles here in Colombia is where the greatest variety of plant species can be found and where the environmental conditions make production of these more advantageous. The global energy problem leads to express the scope, opportunities and threats that the use and partial replacement of conventional fossil fuels by biofuels or agrofuels represent for the development of a country, focusing in Colombia as a case study. The growing importance of new energy sources, (which can be derived from a variety of crops) and raw materials, which demands high biomass amounts, must generate some level of concern about the possible harmful effects of deforestation, jungle loss and replacement of crop fields essential for human diet (food safety). Not to mention the challenges in the climatic, geographical and physical fields, i.e. on whole nations' economies (Cortés et al., 2009) . Today, these new energy sources are the new financial, political and even environmental strategies. Their importance is such that currently there are more than 30 raw materials being tested worldwide. Despite this big boost they still do not provide a solution to the global energy crisis (Cortés and Álvarez, 1998). The possibility of using biofuels in the development of cars and engines, has been considered from the very beginning, but only as a result of the current energy and environmental situation, do conditions exist for the shaping of a global biofuels industry. The development of alternate energy has allowed the concepts of biofuel and energy crops gain importance every day, with greater strength in agricultural and energy policies of both industrialized and developing countries. The motivating factors have been, among others, the evident depletion of fossil fuels, the periodic oil crisis and the so-called greenhouse effect caused by the accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere. Despite of this, it is important to recognize that biofuels will not end industrialized countries oil dependency, because there will not be enough land and water to meet the energy requirements of the automotive industry. As a result, in order to prevent irreversible changes and reduce the impact of greenhouse gases on Earth's climate, many countries, including Colombia, have developed strategies to diversify energy production by using renewable sources. The first strategy has been replacing Oil-Derived Fuels with biofuels thus defining a reduction of CO2 emissions generated by mobile sources. It is therefore imperative to begin using alternative energies, that is to say those considered clean and renewable. For this reason biofuels could be a valid choice. Therefore, the use of renewable energy sources as an alternative to fossil fuels is a key strategy to reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Consejo Nacional de Política Económica y Social (CONPES, 2008) It is at this stage that recently a dialogue, debate and confrontation regarding biofuels have been facilitated which allows for the development of new technologies and refineries to produce them. Such importance is not only the result of a sudden leap in scientific knowledge, although that has taken place, but rather it is a leap in governments funding, which seem concerned about oil prices rising and geostrategic dependence on them. Whatever the reason, if funding continues, in the short term a new generation of biofuels could be available. Despite the enthusiasm, promotion and advocacy, there is a question: are biofuels a technical and economically viable energy and environmental option for replacing future fuel imports? But at the same time with the promotion and incentives (legal, regulatory, fiscal and financial framework), of alcohol fuels and bio-oils, employment rates will see a positive impact in farming regions. It is necessary not only to encourage biofuels production but also define programs that support the new refineries' biomass needs, so that the price of raw materials with dual purpose (food and biofuel) is not affected. Certainly for Colombia it is necessary to diversify its raw materials portfolio for anhydrous alcohol and biodiesel production, incentivize the research and development of proprietary technology programs that produce biofuels at competitive levels for the domestic demand in the short and medium term and, in the long term to start exports. In order to delay the depletion of reserves, to avoid the rising cost of imports, reduce gas emissions and the impact of particulate matter into the atmosphere, the policies of replacing energy sources, for the Colombian biofuel industry, provide an excellent opportunity due to the oil rising price, i.e. energy vulnerability risk decreasing. In general, the text aims to illustrate the production and replacement of fossil fuels with bioenergy (ethanol, biodiesel), the progress, uncertainties and problems resulting from these processes for new energies generation and use, mainly with regards to the food safety and environmental consequences of poor countries. In particular, it presents the political, regulatory and legal framework, by which the Colombian government promotes the production and use of biofuels.
The main impetus for this report (and for the reports prepared for the other six growth poles) is a request received from the Ministry of Regional Development and Public Administration. The request came within the context of on-going preparations for the 2014-2020 programming period, with energy efficiency being one the major themes of the Europe 2020 strategy, and a critical priority for all EU member countries. Within Romania, local authorities that will want to access energy efficiency funds under the 2014-2020 Regional Operational Program will need to first prepare energy efficiency strategies. The TRACE tool is specifically targeted at local authorities, and is a good instrument for drafting such strategies after the 1989 Revolution; Romania began its transition from a centralized system to a market-run economy. Today the country is a member of the European Union (EU) and NATO. After more than a decade of economic restructuring and political change, the country has taken significant steps to catch up with the economic performance of more developed EU countries. Although radical reforms brought about significant changes, the standard of living of Romanians is still behind the EU average. Cluj-Napoca (Cluj) is one of cities where such disparities are less pronounced, as the region is more developed and prosperous than most regions in the country. Cluj has developed quite well in the past few years, and it has become one of the most flourishing cities in the country, having a good growing potential. At present, the city is an important economic center, home to several local brands that have become famous nationwide as well as in Europe. Moreover, Cluj is known today as the 'capital' of the IT sector in the country, due to an aggressive expansion of this field in recent years.
Mauritius has been a success story since independence, moving from low income to uppermiddle-income status. Close public-private partnerships facilitated private sector-led growth in astable macroeconomic and institutional environment. The government implemented an activeindustrial policy to support private sector competitiveness while exploiting global trade nichescreated by preferential access arrangements. As a result, savings were high and reinvested indiversifying the economy. Starting as a mono-cropped, inward-looking economy, Mauritiusmoved toward an export oriented and diversified economy producing textiles, tourism, financialand ICT services. Mauritius is now at a crossroads. On the one hand, it can pursue a path where reinvigorated public investment boosts economic growth and reinforced public assistance enhancesredistribution. On the other hand, it can select a path where private sector identifies constraintsfor growth and the public sector is the enabling agent that removes them, ensuring that proceedsare adequately shared by targeted assistance and improved service delivery. The Systematic Country Diagnostic (SCD) is intended to assess the priorities of Mauritius to accelerate sustainable economic growth while improving the welfare of the less well off. The SCD aims to understand why income growth among the bottom 40 percent of the population has been low relative to the average income. The SCD also addresses how the rate and structure of aggregate growth can be improved to accelerate income growth among the bottom 40 percent of the population, as well as ensure that overall growth is sustainable.
This paper presents the design a set of three simple and replicable behavioral interventions, which use stickers that can be added to water bills at low cost, and test their impact on water consumption in Belen, Costa Rica, using a randomized control trial. Two of the three interventions were found to decrease water consumption significantly in the months following the intervention. A descriptive social norm intervention using neighborhood comparisons reduces consumption by between 3.7 and 5.6 percent relative to a control group, while a plan-making intervention reduces consumption by between 3.4 and 5.5 percent. While the two interventions have similar results, they are effective on different subpopulations, with the plan-making intervention being most effective for low-consumption households, while the neighborhood comparison intervention is most effective for high-consumption households. The results demonstrate that behavioral interventions, which have hitherto utilized sophisticated software to deliver customized messages, can be effectively implemented by local governments in developing countries, where technology and resource constraints render the sorts of customized messaging that has typically been used to deliver them in developed countries unfeasible. The results further confirm that raising awareness about how much water an individual consumes, and comparing this consumption level with peers, can go a long way in helping change individuals' behavior regarding the use of a finite resource such as water.
Over the past quarter century, Vietnam's agricultural sector has made enormous progress. Vietnam's performance in terms of agricultural yields, output, and exports, however, has been more impressive than its gains in efficiency, farmer welfare, and product quality. Vietnamese agriculture now sits at a turning point. The agricultural sector now faces growing domestic competition - from cities, industry, and services - for labor, land, and water. Rising labor costs are beginning to inhibit the sector's ability to compete globally as a low cost producer of bulk undifferentiated commodities. Going forward, Vietnam's agricultural sector needs to generate more from less. That is, it must generate more economic value - and farmer and consumer welfare - using less natural and human capital and less harmful intermediate inputs. The strategic shift was highlighted in the government's agricultural restructuring plan (ARP), approved by the Prime Minister in June 2014. The ARP defines sector goals in terms of the triple bottom line of economically, socially, and environmentally sustainable development. It lays out expected changes in the roles and spending patterns of the government in the sector and discusses the need to work with other stakeholders, including in the private sector. It calls for an ambitious and ongoing process of learning and experimentation, and several potential directions are offered in this report.
An die Mastschweinehaltung werden bezüglich einer umwelt- und tiergerechten Produktion hohe Anforderungen gestellt. Das zunehmend umweltbewußte Denken und die Forderung nach tiergerechten Haltungssystemen sowohl von Seiten der Öffentlichkeit als auch vom Gesetzgeber führen dazu, daß neue zukunftsorientierte Haltungssysteme geschaffen werden müssen, die einerseits ökologische und ethologische Auflagen bzw. Postulierungen erfüllen und die andererseits es den Betrieben ermöglichen, sich im europäischen Wettbewerb zu behaupten. Für eine umwelt- und tiergerechte Mastschweinehaltung gewinnen Haltungssysteme mit Einstreu an praktischer Bedeutung. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, das Tierverhalten in einem Haltungssystem mit Stroheinstreu unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von Stallklimakenndaten und Stallarbeiten zu analysieren, Wechselwirkungen zwischen dem Tierverhalten und Stallklimaparametern zu erkennen und Produktionsleistungen festzuhalten. Die Daten wurden zur kalten Jahreszeit in einem im Winter geschlossenen Tiefstreustall gewonnen. Die ethologischen Untersuchungen erfolgten mittels Videotechnik. Es wurden eine periodische Gruppenbeobachtung zu 4 Beobachtungsphasen, eine aperiodische Gruppenbeobachtung zu 2 ausgewählten Stallarbeiten (morgendliche Einstreuarbeit und Neuversorgung der Beobachtungsbucht mit einem Strohballen) und eine kontinuierliche Einzeltierbeobachtung (3 Tiere mit unterschiedlichem Gewicht) zu 2 Beobachtungsphasen, die in 4- wöchigem Abstand lagen, durchgeführt. Ziel der Gruppenbeobachtung war es, das Verhalten hinsichtlich eingenommener Körperpositionen und dieser in Bezug zur Raumstruktur festzuhalten, Ziel der Einzeltierbeobachtung war es, zusätzlich Aktivitäten und deren Dauer zu erkennen. Folgende Stallklimaparameter wurden gemessen: Stallufttemperatur im nahen Tierbereich, relative Luftfeuchte im Stall, Mistmatratzentemperaturen. Weiterhin wurde die Außenlufttemperatur aufgenommen. Die Ergebnisse können wie folgt zusammengefasst werden: • Im Tierverhalten war eine Tagesrhythmik zu erkennen: Das Ethogramm der von der Tiergruppe (42 Tiere) eingenommenen Körperpositionen zeigte einen deutlichen Wechsel zwischen den liegenden und nichtliegenden Körperpositionen. Im wesentlichen konnte nachts eine Hauptliegephase und eine kürzere vormittags registriert werden. Nachmittags war ein hoher Anteil der aufrechten und sitzenden Körperpositionen zu verzeichnen. Die ausgeprägte Tagesrhythmik läßt auf ein diesbezüglich adäquates Haltungssystem schließen. • Die Temperatur im Stall war stets höher als außen. Vom Stallinneren zur Außenwand zeigte sich ein abfallendes Temperaturprofil Das höhere Niveau der Stallinnentemperatur ergab sich vorwiegend durch die Abstrahlwärme der Tiere und der Mistmatratze. In der Mistmatratze wurde an dem Ort, an dem der Strohballen hineingesetzt wurde, ein heißer Temperaturkern ermittelt. Die relative Luftfeuchte im Stall war im Meßzeitraum Februar größtenteils über dem in der Literatur angegebenen Optimalbereich (60 bis 80 %). Besonders hoch war sie in der letzten Beobachtungsphase (85 bis 97 %). • Der Verlauf der Stallinnentemperatur zeigte ebenfalls eine Tagesrhythmik. Er wurde beeinflußt durch den Verlauf der Außentemperatur und durch die Bewegungs- und Stoffwechselaktivität der Tiere. Folgende Korrelationskoeffizienten zwischen der Stallinnentemperatur und den Körperpositionen wurden errechnet: zwischen der Temperatur und der Seitenlage ergab sich ein negativer Zusammenhang von -0,47 (signifikant, α=0,01), zwischen der Temperatur und dem Liegen gesamt (Bauchlage und Seitenlage) ebenfalls ein negativer Zusammenhang von -0,47 (signifikant, α=0,01), ein positiver Zusammenhang zeigte sich zwischen der Temperatur und der Bauchlage mit einem Korrelationskoeffizienten von +0,30 (signifikant, α=0,01) und zwischen der Temperatur und aufrechter + sitzender Körperstellung mit einem Korrelationskoeffizienten von +0,46 (signifikant, α=0,01). Die Seitenlage ist die Ruheposition mit der maximalen Entspannung, d.h. die Bewegungsaktivität der Tiere ist gering. Die Bauchlage kann neben dem Ruhen (im Sinne von ruhig liegen und schlafen) mit Bewegungsaktivitäten verbunden sein. • Während der Stallarbeiten wurden vermehrt die Körperpositionen aufrecht und sitzen eingenommen. Es zeigte sich in der Regel ein Temperaturanstieg. Obwohl alle Seitentore während der Stallarbeit "Hineinsetzen des Strohballens in die Buchten" geöffnet waren und die Außentemperatur niedriger war als die im Stall, zeigte sich im Stall ein leichter Temperaturanstieg. • Über 4 Beobachtungsphasen (eine Beobachtungsphase entspricht 24,1 Stunden; alle 12,8 Minuten wurden die Körperpositionen festgehalten) waren aus der Gruppe durchschnittlich 48,1 % der Tiere in Seitenlage, 31,4 % in Bauchlage, 15% in aufrechter und 5,5 % in sitzender Stellung. Der Literatur kann entnommen werden, daß die Tiere die Seitenlage einnehmen, sofern es warm genug ist, was bedeutet, daß ausreichend Wärme (durch die Tiere selbst und durch die mikrobiellen Abbauvorgänge in der Mistmatratze) vorhanden war. In der letzten Beobachtungsphase konnten in Verbindung mit einer hohen relativen Luftfeuchte (85 bis 97 %) signifikant (α=0,05) mehr Bauchlagen und weniger Seitenlagen beobachtet werden. Die Bauchlage wird beim Ruhen beibehalten, wenn dem Tier zu kalt oder zu warm oder aus sonstigen Gründen unwohl ist. • Gesichert war ein raumstrukturbezogenes Tierverhalten zu erkennen. Es konnten auf der Stroh-/Mistmatratze folgende Funktionsbereiche in der Bucht ausfindig gemacht werden: ein Hauptliegebereich, ein Wühlbereich (am Ort des Strohballens), ein Kotplatz. Die durchschnittliche Belegungsdichte war auf der planbefestigten Fläche am höchsten und auf dem konzentrierten Kotplatz am geringsten. Auf der planbefestigten Fläche entstand auf der linken (westlichen) Seite aufgrund der sich dort befindenden Tränken und dem Zugang zum Futterautomaten ein Ballungsraum. Die 4 Preßplätze des Futterautomaten waren im Beobachtungszeitraum weniger als 50 % pro Tag ausgelastet. • Die Ergebnisse der Einzeltierbeobachtung entsprachen den Literaturangaben bezüglich der Einnahme der Körperpositionen im Laufe des Alters: Mit dem Alter war eine Zunahme der Seitenlage, eine Abnahme der Bauchlage, eine Zunahme des Sitzens und eine Abnahme der aufrechten Körperposition zu beobachten. Mit 10,87 % von der Gesamtaktivität zeigten die Tiere ein ausgeprägtes Erkundungs-/Futtersuchverhalten (Wühlen/Scheinwühlen). Die Dauer des Wühlens nahm mit dem Alter zu, was auch andere Autoren ermittelt haben. Gewichtsabhängige Unterschiede in den Aktivitäten zwischen den 3 Tieren konnten nicht ausfindig gemacht werden. • Im Vergleich zu den Ergebnissen des LKV (Landeskuratorium der Erzeugerringe für tierische Veredelung in Bayern e. V.) für Bayern 1994/1995 (656 g tägliche Zunahmen, Futterverwertung 3,0 kg Futter/kg Zunahme, Muskelfleischanteil 58,0 %) waren die Produktionsleistungen der Tiergruppe mit 714 g täglichen Zunahmen bei einer Futterverwertung von 2,77 kg Futter/kg Zunahme gut und der erreichte Muskelfleischanteil mit 55,1 % unterdurchschnittlich. Das Haltungssystem ist in Bezug auf die Tagesrhythmik der Tiere als tiergerechtes Haltungssystem zu beurteilen. Auch nahmen die Tiere die Möglichkeit wahr, sich ausgiebig mit dem dargebotenen Stroh/Strohballen zu beschäftigen. Allerdings waren die Temperaturen auf der Mistmatratzenoberfläche, also im mikroklimatischen Bereich der Tiere, über 20 °C und damit vor allem für ältere Tiere über dem empfohlenen Temperaturbereich. Besonders unter diesem Aspekt ist zu erwähnen, daß auf der planbefestigten Fläche die höchste Belegungsdichte errechnet wurde. Es sollte daher in Betracht gezogen werden, die planbefestigte Fläche in einem geschlossenen Tiefstreustall zu vergrößern oder Schweineduschen einzusetzen, um den Tieren, und hier vor allem den älteren Tieren, die Möglichkeit zu bieten, ihre Körperwärme abzugeben. Dies ist auch hinsichtlich der vermutlich im Sommer noch höheren Temperaturen wichtig. Probleme bereitete im Winter das Lüftungssystem: die Luftfeuchtigkeit war eindeutig zu hoch. Verbesserungen sind daher erforderlich. Die Ergebnisse lassen den Schluß zu, daß auch ein Offenstallsystem möglich wäre. In weiteren Arbeiten sollten die im Winter erfolgten Untersuchungen auch im Sommer durchgeführt werden. Positiv wäre, zusätzlich Stallklimaparameter wie Luftgeschwindigkeit, Emissionen und Staubentwicklung mit zu erfassen und Wechselbeziehungen zwischen diesen und dem Tierverhalten zu untersuchen. ; Nowadays, we are accustomed to the claim that fattening pigs' farming must be based upon considered care of the animals on the one hand and of the environment on the other hand. An increasing ecological way of thinking as well as a demand for finding ways of how to keep and to care for animals as far as the public and the legislation alike are concerned, are clearing the way for the demand of new housing systems, capable of fulfilling the new ecological as well as the ethological laws and demands, in order to give farmers the possibility to survive the struggle of European competition. Housing systems where pigs are kept on litter acquire an increasing practical importance for a just ecological as well as a just ethological housing system. It was the aim of this work to analyse the behaviour of pigs kept on straw, especially taking into account climatic factors as well as stable jobs, to make note of the interchangeable reactions regarding the behaviour of the animals and the climate in the stable and to keep diary as to the well-being of the livestock on the one hand and the economic value of sold pigs on the other hand. The data were gained during the cold season in a pen within a stable permanently closed in winter and where the straw was kept and simply piled up during the period off attending (deep litter system). The ethological research was done by means of video cameras. 4 observation periods were chosen for one periodical observation of one and the same group (42 pigs), further one aperiodical observation of the group for 2 specially chosen jobs in the stable (throwing of fresh straw in the morning and providing a bale of straw for the pen chosen for observation), further a 24 hours' period observation of one animal allowing 3 animals with different weight to be observed during two periods of observation with a 4 weeks' period of interval in between. It was the aim of the observation of the chosen group of pigs to find so nothing about the attitude of the animals in view of their body positions allotted to their given place. The aim of the observation of the one animal on the other hand was to gain additionally knowledge of the pigs' activities as well as of the duration of their activities. The following climatic factors were measured: outside temperature, temperature within the stable (as close as possible to the animal), relative humidity in the stable and the temperatures of the layers of straw/dung underneath the animals. The results can be summarized as such: • There could be seen a daily rhythm in the behaviour of the animals. From the ethogram taken of the position of the bodies of the group of pigs (42 pigs) could be seen a clear change between lying down and not lying down positions. On the whole, there could be registered a main lying down period during the night and a shorter one before noon. In the afternoon, there could be noted a high percentage of standing as well as sitting positions. The existance of a consolidated rhythm during the day can be respectively seen as an adequate way of life in the stable. • The temperature in the stable was always higher than the outside temperature. From the inside of the stable to its outside wall the temperature was going down. The higher level of the temperature inside the stable was mainly achieved by the loss of body temperature of the animals and of the layers of dung and straw mixture. In the place where the bale of straw was put in, there could be measured a hot temperature nucleus inside the dung mattress. During the time of taking the measurements, in February, the relative humidity in the stable was mainly above the best measurements noted in Iiterature (60 to 80 %). Especially high it was during the last observation period (85 to 97 %). • As to the inside temperature of the stable there could be seen a certain rhythm during the day. It was influenced by the course of the outside temperature and by the activities caused by movement and metabolism. The following coefficients of correlation between the inside temperature of the stable and the positions of the bodies were calculated: between temperature and lying down on the side there was a negative relation of -0,47 (significant, α=0,01), between temperature and total lying down position (on the stomach and on the side) another negative relation of -0,47 % (significant, α=0,01); a positive relation was seen on the other hand between the temperature and the position on the stomach with a coefficient of correlation of +0,30 (significant, α=0,01) and between the temperature and a standing plus a sitting position with a coefficient of correlation of +0,47 % (significant, α=0,01). The best position of rest and therefore the best way of relaxation is lying on the side, meaning that the activity of movement of the animals is at its lowest at that time. The position on the stomach can either be seen when resting (meaning sleeping quietly) or during activities of movements. • During the time of work in the stable there could be counted more standing and sitting positions than usual. Also, there was measured a rise in temperature. Though all side doors were opened during the work in the stable (while bales of straw were put into the boxes) and though the outside temperature was lower than the temperature within the stable there was still a small rise in the temperature in the stable. • On average 48,1 % of pigs within the group of pigs were lying down on the side during the 4 periods of observation (one observation period equals 24,1 hours; every 12,8 minutes the body positions of the pigs were noted), 31,4 % of them were lying down on their stomach, 15,0 % were in a standing and 5,5 % were in a sitting position. From Iiterature can be learned, that the animals like to be on the side as long as it is warm enough for doing so, meaning that there was enough warmth caused by the animals themselves as well as caused by the warmth of the fermenting dung mattress. During the last time of observation where there was a high relative humidity (85 to 97 %) there could be counted significantly (α=0.05) more pigs lying on their stomachs and less lying on their sides. Lying on the stomach is taken place while resting, whenever the animal is too cold or too warm or whenever there is another reason for being unwell. • For sure there was to be seen an attitude of the animal which was related to the structure of the box. It provided certain places of influencing the behaviour of the animals: on the dung/straw mattress there was a place where dung was separated from the main place of resting as well as a place for digging where the bale of straw was put. The highest number of pigs were registered on the concrete floor and the lowest number of pigs were registered in the manure area. On the left side of the concrete floor there was a densely populated area aroused where both the watering place and the access to the left side of the automatic feeder were placed. During the time of observation, the feeder in the pen, providing 4 places, was visited less than 50 %. • The results of the one-pigs' watching as to its body position its age taken in course agree with Iiterature concerned: as pigs grew older, there was a steady increase in the lying down position on the side as well as in their sitting position; there was a decrease in standing up and in lying on their stomachs. With a 10.87 % digging activity in regard to total activity, pigs showed an extreme liking for digging. Accordancing to literature, the older the pigs the longer it lasted. Differences in activity because of weight could not be traced. • Productivity data showed a daily weight gain of 714 g and a food utilization of 2.77 (kg food/kg weight gain). Both were good in accordance to the results of the figures of the production areas of animal husbandry in Bavaria in 1994/1995 (656 g daily weight gain, food utilization of 3.0 kg food/kg weight gain). The amount of muscle meat of 55 % in slaughtered animals was below average (58 %). It is seen, that the housing system of the animals can be judged as a keeping system just to the animals in relation to their daily routine. Also the animals liked to make use of the possibility to occupy themselves with the supply of straw and/or straw bales. But the temperatures on the surface of the dung/straw mattress and so within the microclimate of the pigs were above 20 °C and therefore beyond the recommended best measurements for temperatures which should be around pigs, especially older pigs. Regarding this it has to be mentioned that on the surface of concrete floor the highest percentage of pigs could be calculated. Therefore it would be wise to consider either to provide a bigger area of concrete flooring in order to provide for more room for the animals to get rid of their excessive body temperatures or to give them the possibility to take a shower in order to cool down. During winter there are problems concerning the airing system: it could be seen, that humidity was without doubt too high. Hence improvements of the airing system have to be carried out. The results of this work also tolerate the idea of an open housing system. More could be done in repeating the measurements, taken in the cold season, in summer as well as in placing additional instruments of measuring climatic factors in the stable such as for air velocity, emissions and developments of dust and to make note of the interchangeable relations in between these studies related to the behaviour of pigs.
